自考英语词汇学复习大纲自己整理

11 C h a p t e r 1 B a s i c C o n c e p t s 基本概念 1.1 the definition of a word
（he definition of a word comprises the following points: (1) a minimal free form of a language; (2) a sound unity; (3) a unit of meaning; (4) a form that can function alone in a sentence. A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.）
1.2 sound and meaning ：symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary and conventional. A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the
word just automatically suggest the animal in question.
1.3 sound and form ：
1.4 vocabulary 1.5 classification of words 词汇分类 basic word stock 基本词汇 nonbasic vocabulary 非基本词汇 by use frequency 按使用频率分： basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary 基本词汇和非基本词汇 by notion 按概念分： content words and functional words 实义词和功能词 by origin 按起源分： native words and borrowed words 本地词和外来词 all national character 全民性 stability 稳定性 productivity 多产性 p ol ysemy 一词多义 collocability 搭配性 terminology 术语 jargon 行话 slang 俚语 argon 黑话 dialectal words 方言词 archaism 古语词 neologism 新词 neutral in style 文体上中性
frequent in use 使用频繁
native words
本地词
borrowed words
外来词
denizens 同化词
aliens 异形词
translation-loans 译借词
semantic-loans 借义词
1. No enough letters: alphabet from latin
2. Pronunciation changed more rapidly
3. Early scribes: change spelling for easier recognition
4. Borrowing: different rules of pronunciation and spelling obvious characteristics 明显的特点
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C h a p t e r 2
D e v e l o p m e n t
It is assumed that the world has approximately 3, 000 (some put it 5, 000 ) languages, which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities in their basic word stock and grammar. 2.1 Indo-European 印欧语
Eastern set ： 东部诸语族： Western set ： 西部诸语族： Balto-Slavic 波罗的海-斯拉夫语 Indo-Iranian 印度-伊朗语 Armenian 亚美尼亚语 Albanian 阿尔巴尼亚语 Celtic 凯尔特语 Italic 意大利语
Hellenic 希腊语 ——Greek
Germanic 日耳曼语
Persian 波斯语 Bengali 孟加拉国语 Hindi 印地语 Romany 普吉赛语 Prussian 普鲁士语
Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Slovenian 斯洛文尼亚语 Russian 俄语 Portuguese 葡萄牙语 Spanish 西班牙语 French 法语 Italian 意大利语 Roumanian 罗马尼亚语
Scottish 苏格兰语 Irish 爱尔兰语 Welsh 威尔士语 Breton 布里多尼语 Latin 拉丁语言
2.2 Historical review
历史概述
2.3 Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary
Norwegian 挪威语
Icelandic 冰岛语
Danish 丹麦语
Swedish 瑞典语
German 德语
Dutch 荷兰语
Flemish 佛兰德语
English 英语
Scandinavian languages
斯堪的纳维亚语
50000-60000 words 5万~6万间词汇
Highly inflected 高度转折
complex endings 复杂的结尾
vowel changes 元音变化
French words 法语词汇
leveled endings 水平结尾
Early Modern English (1500-1700)
早期现代英语
Late Modern English (1700-up to the present)
晚期现代英语
Borrow 借词
new words 新词
no endings 无结尾
from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language。

从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言。

the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ％）
现代科学和技术的迅猛发展（45 ％）
social, economic and political changes（11 ％）
社会，经济和政治的变化（11 ％）
the influence of other cultures and languages（24 ％）
其它文化和语言的影响（24 ％）
Old English (450--1150) ——Anglo-Saxon
古英语盎格鲁-撒克逊语
Middle English (1150-1500)
中古英语
Modern English (1500-up to now)
现代英语
three main sources
三种主要来源
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2.4 Modes of Vocabulary Development
C h a p t e r 3 W o r d F o r m a t i o n
3.1 Morphemes 词素
Definition: These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes. In other words, the morpheme is "the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words".词素是“构词中最小功能单位”。

3.2 Allomorphs 语素变体
Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs. 'They are actual spoken , minimal carriers of meaning'. The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone. 词素是一个音素发音的语素。

词素是真正能发音的最小的意义载体。

morpheme 3.3 Types of Morphemes
Creation 创词 —— formation of new words, most important
semantic change 旧词新义 —— old form with new meaning, new usages
borrowing 借词 —— vital role
monomorphemic words ：can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. 单语素词 在句子中独立起作用 allomorphs ：the alternative morphs of the same morpheme 词素变体 可替换语素（音标）的相同词素 free morpheme —— free root 自由语素 自由词根 bound morpheme 粘着语素 bound root ：fundamental meaning 粘着词根 基本意义 affix 词缀（附加物） attach, modify 附着，修饰 Inflectional affix —— attached to the end of words 附在词尾
曲折词缀 Grammatical relationships 文法关系
derivational affix
派生词缀
prefix
前缀
Suffix
后缀
Independent 独立
free grammatical units 自由的语法单位 complete meanings 完整的意义
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3.4 Root and Stem
The affixation and compounding involve different word-forming elements
词缀法和混合涉及不同的词语构成因素
C h a p t e r 4 W o r d -f o r m a t i o n
Word formation 构词的方式
4.1 Affixation 词缀法 falls into two subclasses （子类）:
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation , for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives .
词缀法可定义为通过给词干加结构词词缀或派生词缀构成新词的一种构词方法。

用这种方法构成的词叫派生构词。

因为通过这种方式创造的新词是从旧词派生而来。

通过这种方式造出的词叫做“派生词”。

affix 词缀 root or stem 词根或词干 affixation (30%-40%) 词缀法（ 30 ％ -40 ％ ） compounding (28%-30%) 复合法（ 28 ％ -30 ％ ） conversion (26%) 转化法（ 26 ％ ） shortening (8%-10%) 缩略法 （ 8 ％ -10 ％ ） blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼缀法和其他方法（ 1 ％-5% ） clipping 删节 acronymy 首字母缩略法 prefixation 前缀法 —— before the word, modify the meaning 前置，改词意 suffixation 后缀法 —— after the word, change word class 后置，改词性 Negative prefixes 否定前缀
Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀
Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀
Prefixes of degree or size 程度大小前缀
Prefixes of orientation and attitude 倾向态度前缀 Locative prefixes 方位前缀
Prefixes of time and order 时间顺序前缀
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4.1.1 Prefixation 前缀法
we shall classify prefixes on a semantic basis into nine groups
我们可以在语义基础上将前缀分为九类
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前缀法是在词干上加上前缀构词的一种方法，前缀一般不改变词干的词类，只对词干的意义进行修饰。

4.1.2 Suffixation
后缀法
Noun suffixes
名词后缀
Adjective suffixes
形容词后缀
Adverb suffixes: -ly,-ward (s),-wise
副词后缀
1)Denominal nouns 名词派生来的名词
2)Deverbal nouns 动词派生来的名词
3)De-adjective nouns :-ity,-ness
由形容词转化为名词
4)Noun and adjective suffixes :-ese,-an,-ist
名词和形容词后缀
a. Concrete 具体名词–eer,-er,-ess,-ette,-ter
b. Abstract 抽象名词–age,-dom,-ery(-ry),-hood,-ing,-ism,-ship
a. The following suffixes combine with verb stems to create largely
nouns denoting people, -ant，-ee，-ent，-er（-or）
下面这组后缀加在动词词干上构成新词，主要表示人，。

b. Suffixes of this group added to verb stems to produce largely
abstract nouns, denoting action, result, process, state, etc：-al，-age，
-ance，-ation(-ition,-tion,-sion,-ion)，-ence，-ing，-ment
下面这组后缀加在动词词干上，主要构成抽象名词，表示动作、
结果、过程、状态等。

1)Denominal suffixes：-ed,-ful,-ish,-less,-like,-ly,-y
名词派生的后缀（加名词后）
2)Deverbal suffixes:-able（-ible），-ive（-ative，-sive）
动词派生的后缀（加动词后）
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem .Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of stems. In other words, they mainly change the word class.
后缀法是在词干加上后缀来构成新词。

不像主要改变词干意义的前缀，后缀的只有很小语义作用，其主要功能是改变词干的语法功能。

换句话说，他们主要是改变词性。

4.2 Compounding 复合法
Compounding, also called composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.
复合法，同样也被称作合成法,是指由两个或者更多的词干相结合而构成的新词，此种方式形成的词被称为复合词。

所以，复合词是“由多于一个以上的词干组成的，同时具有一个词的语法功能和意义功能的词汇单位”。

4.2.1 Characteristics of Compounds 复合词的特征Compounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects: 复合词和自由词组不同于三个方面1).Phonetic features 语音特点——first element stress 第一个构词成分重音
2).Semantic features 语义特点——unity, as one word 统一性，如同个单词
3).Grammatical features 语法特点——single grammatical role 独立的语法作用
Noun compounds 名词性复合词
Adjective compounds 形容词性复合词
Verb compounds 动词复合词
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4.4.2 Formation of Compounds 复合词的形成
4.3 Conversion 转化法
Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in
function, this process is also known as functional shift. Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational process whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class, without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation. 转类法是将一种词类转化为另一种词类构成新词的方法。

这些词在语法意义上是新词。

既然这些词在形态结 构上不便，只在功能上有变化，这一转类过
程也叫做功能转换。

一般认为，转类法是单词不添加词缀而直接 转化为一个新词的派生构词的过程。

这一过程由于不加词缀，所以又称零派生。

conversion 反转
backformation -er, -ing, -ion 逆序法
1.Conversion to noun 转化为名词
2. Conversion to verbs
转化为动词
3.Miscellaneous conversion
混合反转 1) Verb to noun 动词转名词
2) Adjective to noun 形容词转名词
(1) State (of mind or sensation) 状态（心理或感觉） (2) Event or activity 事件或行动
(3) Result of the action 行动的结果 (4) Doer of the action 行动的发出者
(5) Tool or instrument to do the action with 行动的工具
(6) Place of the action 行动的地点
(1) Words fully converted 完全转化的词 (2) Words partially converted 部分转化的词 (3) Miscellaneous conversion 多种转化 (1) To put in or on N 放入名词
(2) To give N or to provide with N 提供名词 (3) To remove N from 从……消除名词 (4) To do with N 用名词做……
(5) To be or act as N 象名词一样起作用 (6) To make or change into N 变成名词 (7)
To send or go by N 用名词送去
（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant 清辅音变浊辅音
（2）Initial to end stress 字首重音变字尾重音
▪ Phrasal verbs to nouns: Keep original order Invert the verb and particle: p+v 动词短语转名词：保持原有顺序， 动词小品词出现反转
1）Noun to verb
名词变动词
2）Adjective to verb 形容词变动词 1. head + tail 头＋尾 2. head + head 头＋头
3. head + word 头＋整词
4. word + tail 整词＋尾
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4.4 blending 拼缀法，混合词 blends fall into four major groups:
Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends or pormanteau words. 拼缀法是通过合并两个词的某些部分或一个词与另外一个词的另一部分相加起来构成新词。

以此种方式构成的词被称作为拼缀词或拼级词。

4.5 Clipping 截短法，删减法
There are four common types of clipping:
Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping. 另一个常见的构词法时将原词的一部分截去，只用剩下来的一部分构成新词，这种方法叫截短法。

4.6 Acronym 首字母缩词法
4.7 Back-formation 逆构法
Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. Words created through back-formation are mostly verbs. 逆构法被认为是后缀法的相反过
1. Front clipping 前删
2. Back clipping 后删
3. Front and back clipping 前后删
4. Phrase clipping 删短语 Initialisms 首字母缩略词
Acronyms 首字母拼音词 1. Letters represent full words
字母代表所有词 2. Letters represent constituents in a compound or just parts of a word 字母代表复合词或者只是一个词的几部分
Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. 一个字母一个字母念。

Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.
首字母拼音词是由字母组合在一起作为一个标准单词拼音的词。

Abstract nouns 抽象名词
Human nouns 人类名词 Compound nouns and others 复合名词和其他 Adjectives 形容词
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程。

由逆构法生成的词多半是动词。

Formation of new words by removing the supposed suffixes Style: informal 非正式 通过消除假想的后缀的方法来构词的方式
4.8 words from proper nouns 专有名词转化而来的词
Style: vivid, impressive, thought-provoking 生动，印象深刻，发人深省的
▪ 定义模式：it’s the formation of new words by doing …(doing 是主要动词，可替换为add, cut, join/combine, change) ▪ 分类：
1)词的自身长度变化(变形)：加减法
加：affixation ，减：clipping, back-formation
2)词间组合：整体组合：compound; 部分组合：blending; 字母组合：acronymy
3)词的自身变化:变性:conversion; 变态/变位:words from proper names (普通化/特殊变为普通)
C h a p t e r 5 W o r d M e a n i n g 词义 5.1 Meanings of meaning names of people 人名
names of places 地名 names of books 书名 trade names 商业名称
Reference 参照 Concept 概念
Sense 语感
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Words are but symbols, many of which have meaning only when they have acquired reference. Reference is the relationship between language and the world. 词只是符号，许多词只有获得参照后才有意义。

参照是语言与周围世界的关系。

Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical. They are both related directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories. 意义与概念有紧密的联系，但并不等同。

他们都直接与参照相关，都是词的概念，但属于不同的范畴。

Generally speaking, the meaning of ‘meaning’ is perhaps what is termed ‘sense’. Unlike reference, ‘sense’ den otes the relationships inside the language. Every word that-has meaning has sense (not every word has reference) 一般来说，‘意义'的意义也许就是“语感” 。

不像参照，“语感”表示的是语言内部的关系。

有意义的每个词都有语感，但并不是每个词都有参照物。

5.2 Motivation 动机 Motivation accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning. 动机是语言符号和它意义之间的关系。

5.3 Types of Meaning 意义的类型
Word-meaning is not monogeneous but a composite consisting of different parts. These are known in familiar terms as different types of meaning. 词义并非是成分单一的，而是由不同部分组合的复合物。

这些在熟悉的术语中通常称作不同类型的意义。

Onomatopoeic Motivation 象声动机 ：sounds suggest meanings, imitating natural sounds or noises 声音暗指意义，模仿自然的声音 Morphological Motivation 形态动机 ：the meanings are the sum total of the morphemes combined 组合词素的综合 Semantic Motivation 语义动机 Etymological Motivation 词源动机 ：the meanings often relate to the origin 与来源有关
the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word 词的概念所指的精神联系 the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense 文字语义和寓意间的联系 Grammatical Meaning 语法意义 Lexical Meaning 词法的意义 1. Connotative meaning 内涵意义 2. Stylistic meaning 文体意义 3. Affective meaning 情感意义 4. Collocative meaning 搭配意义 appreciative 褒义 pejorative 贬义
Conceptual Meaning 概念意义 Associative Meaning 联系意义
C h a p t e r6S e n s e R e l a t i o n s a n d S e m a n t i c F i e l d语义关系和语义场
sense relations
语义关系
6.1 Polysemy 歧义
Definition:the words with more than one senses or which can be used to express more meanings 一词多义。

6.1.1Two approches to Polysemy:
歧义的两个角度
6.1.2Two Processes of Development:
发展的两个过程diachronic approach. 历时的角度: growth and development 成长和发展
primary meaning 基本义----derived meaning 派生义synchronic approach. 共时的角度: coexistence 共存
central meaning 中心义----sencondary meaning 次要义
(secondary ----sometimes dominant 有时占优势)
polysemy 歧义
homonymy 同音异义
synonymy 同义
antonymy 反义
hyponymy 上下位关系
radiation辐射型: center, every direction like rays;
independent; back to central meaning. e.g: neck (多个意思同时并存)
concatenation连锁型: move away from first sense by shifts;
no connection with original meaning; Later meaning is related to preceding one.
eg. : treacle, candidate （剩下一个意思）
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6.2 homonymy 同音异义
Definition: words have different meanings but identical sounds or spelling 声音拼写相同意义不同。

6.2.1 Types of Homonyms 同音异义的种类
6.2.2 Origins of Homonyms ：changes in sound and spelling; Borrowing; Shortening 同音异义的起源 声音和拼写的变化，借词，缩短 6.2.3 Differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemants
同音异义词和歧义词的区别
6.2.4 Rhetoric Features of Homonyms ：create puns for desired effect --- humour, sarcasm, ridicule 同音异义词的修饰特点 为预期的效果制造双关语——幽默，讽刺，嘲笑
6.3 Synonymy 同义词
Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词
Homographs: identical spelling 同形异音异义词 Homophones: identical sound---most common 同音异形异义词 Perfect homonyms: identical sounds and spelling 完全同形同音异义词
Homographs: identical spelling 同形异音异义词 Homophones: identical sound---most common 同音异形异义词
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6.3.1 Definition of Synonyms 同义词定义
Synonyms can be defined as word different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. 同义词可定义为在读音和拼写上不同但在意义却很相似或完全一样的词。

6.3.2 Types of Synonyms 同义词的类型
6.3.3 Sources of Synonyms 同义词的来源
6.3.4 Discrimination of Synonyms
同义词的辨别
6.4 Antonymy 反义词
6.4.1Types of Antonyms
反义词的类型
6.4.2 Some of the Characteristics of Antonyms
反义词的一些特征
Absolute synonyms 绝对同义词
Relative synonyms 相对同义词 Borrowing 借词
Dialects and regional English 方言和区域词
Figurative and euphemistic use of words 比喻词和委婉语 Coincidence with idiomatic expressions 与习语的巧合
1. Difference in denotation 指示义不同
2. Difference in connotation 隐含义不同
3. Difference in application 应用不同
1. Contradictory terms 矛盾词语
2. Contrary terms 对立词语
3. Relative terms 关联词语 Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition. 反义词在意义对立的基础上分类。

A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym..多义词可以拥有一个以上反义词 Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 反义词的语义内涵相互区别。

Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.
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6.4.3 The Use of Antonyms 反义词的使用
6.5 Hyponymy 上下位关系 Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word.
上下义关系涉及语义包容的关系。

也就是说，一个更具体的词的意义被包含在另外一个更一般的的词的意义之中。

6.6 Semantic Field 语义场
Definiton: word store is composed around a number of meaning areas. 围绕着一定数量的意义区域构成。

Function: words in each field define one another. 每个语义场中的词语义关联和定义其他的。

C h a p t e r 7 C h a n g e s i n W o r d M e a n i n g 词义的变化
7.1Types of Changes 变化类型
7.2 Causes of Changes 变化原因 7.2.1 Extra-linguistic Factors 语言以外的因素
7.2.2 Linguistic Factors 语言因素：shortend phrase; borrowings; competition of native words; analogy
To define the meaning 定义词义
To express economically the opposite of a particular thought 简练地表达某一特定思想的对立面 To for antithesis form antithesis to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together
将对立的思想拼合在一起来形成对偶
To serve stylistic purpose 去达到风格的目的
superordinate terms 上位关系 subordinate terms 下位关系
extension 延展
narrowing 缩小 degradation 降级
elevation 升级
transfer 转移 1. Historical reason 历史原因
2. Class reason 阶级原因
3. Psychological reason 心理原因
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短语，借词，本地词竞争，类推
C h a p t e r 8 M e a n i n g & C o n t e x t 意义和背景 8.1 Types of Context 背景类型
8.1.1Extra-linguistic Context —— non-linguistic situation, cultural background
非语言背景 非语言状况，文化背景
8.1.2 Linguistic Context
8.2 The Role of Context 背景的功能
8.2.1 Elimination of Ambiguity 歧义的消除
8.2.2 Indication of Referents 指代物的说明 8.2.3 Provision of Clues for Inferring Word-meaning 推导词义的线索供应
C h a p t e r 9 E n g l i s h I d i o m s 英语习语
Idiom —idioms consist of set phrases and short sentences ， which are peculiar to the language in question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Strictly speaking ， idioms are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meanings of individual elements. In a broad sense ，idioms may include colloquialisms ，catchphrases ， slang expressions ，proverbs ，etc.习语由固定的短语和短句组成，它们是所涉及的语言所独有的，而且带有本族的文化和观念。

严格来讲，习语是不能从其个体成分的文字意思立即理解其意义的，从广义上讲，习语可以包括口语词、时髦词、俚语、谚语等。

1. Lexical context 词法背景
2. Grammatical context 句法背景 Definition 定义
Explanation 解释
Example 例子 Synonymy 同义
Antonymy 反义 Hyponymy 上下位关系 Relevant details 相关的细节 Word structure 词语结构
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9.1 Characteristics of Idioms 习语的特点 9.1.1 Semantic Unity 语义的整体性 9.1.2 Structural Stability 结构稳定性
9.2 Classification of Idioms
The standard of Classification of idioms is The criterion of ’grammatical function’. 习语的分类标准是语法功能的标准
1. The constituents of idioms cannot be replaced. The structure is fixed. 首先，习语的组成部分成分不可替换。

2. The word order cannot be inverted or changed.习语的语序不能倒装或改变。

3. The constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to ，not even an article. 习语的组成成分不能删除或增加。

4. Many idioms are grammatically unanalysable.很多习语在语法上是不可分析的。

5. the idomaticity of idioms is gradable and may best be thought in terms of scale.习语的习语性是分等级的，而且可能最好从等级上来研究。

6. The fixity of idioms depends on the idiomaticity. The more idiomatic the idioms ，the more fixed the structure.习语的稳定性在于其习语性程度。

Idioms nominal in nature （名词性习语） Idioms adjective in nature （形容词性习语） Idioms verbal in nature （动词性习语） Idioms adverbial in nature
（副词性习语） Sentence Idioms （句式习语） Phrasal verbs 短语动词 Verb phrases 动词短语 Stylistic Features 语体色彩 Rhetorical features 修辞特征 Colloquialisms 口语词 Slang 俚语 Literary expressions 书面表达式 Phonetic manipulation 语音运用 Lexical manipulation 词汇运用 Figures of speech 修辞手法
Alliteration 头韵（法） Rhyme 韵脚 Reiteration 重复（同义的重复） Repetition 重复 Juxtaposition （of antonyms ）邻接（反义词）
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9.3 Use of Idioms 习语的使用
C h a p t e r 10 E n g l i s h
D i c t i o n a r y 英语词典
10.1 Types of Dictionaries 字典的种类
Simile 明喻
Metaphor 「n.暗语，隐喻」 Metonymy 「n.借代」
Synecdoche 「n.借代，提喻法」 Personification （拟人） Euphemism （委婉语）
Replacement 替换
Addition or deletion 增词或减词 Position-shifting 移位 Shorting 缩略法 Dismembering 肢解
Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries 单语和双语词典
Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries 语言和百科全书词典 Unabridged, Desk and Pocket 未删节版，案头和口袋词典 Specialized Dictionaries 特殊词典
Unabridged dictionaries
未删节词典 Desk dictionaries 案头词典 Pocket dictionaries 口袋词典 Choice of Dictionaries 词典的选择
Content of the Dictionary 词典的内容
Monolingual or bilingual 单语或双语 General or specialized
普通或特殊
British or American 英式或美式
Early or late 早期或最新
Spelling 拼写
Pronunciation 发音
Definition 定义
Usage 用法
Grammar 语法
Usage notes and language notes 使用信息和语言信息
Etymological information 词源信息
10.2 Use of Dictionaries 词典的使用
10.3 Three Good General Dictionaries 三种最好的普通词典
10.3.1 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) New Edition (1987)
朗曼当代词典新版（1987）
10.3.2Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (CCELD) (1987)
柯林斯合作英语词典
10.3.3 A Chinese-English Dictionary (Revised Edition) (CED) (1995)
汉英词典（修订版）ced1995
Spelling 拼写
Pronunciation 发音
Definition 定义
Usage 用法
Clear grammar codes 清晰的语法代码Usage notes 使用注解
Language notes 语言注解
Definition 定义
Extra column 额外栏
Usage examples 使用范例
1919。