Modern Buildings and Structural Materials翻译
中西方建筑文化差异中英文版
The first difference is that the architectures in Greek are perceptual and perfectly seek for plastic arts and formal beauty. However, the Chinese architecture is greatly influenced by ethic thoughts. The second difference is on history and culture between Chinese and western architecture is the spirit of democracy in the west and autocratic and hierarchical thinking in China. The third difference is the mysterious religious content of the western architecture and harmonic realism in China. The westerners believe in god and have a kind of extraordinary devotion to religion. However, the Chinese people believe that their fates will be in their own hands.
多立克柱式是古典建筑的三种柱式中出 现最早的一种（公元前7世纪），（另外 2种柱式是爱奥尼柱式和科林斯柱式）， 它们都源于古希腊。 特点是比较粗大雄 壮，没有柱础，柱身有20条凹槽，柱头 没有装饰，多立克柱又被称为男性柱。 来显示刚劲和力量。 最早的高度与直径之比为6：1，后来改 至7：1。著名的雅典卫城（Athen Acropolis）的帕提农神庙（Parthenon） 即采用的是多立克柱式。
2.structural materials
The availability of suitable structural materials is one of the principal limitations on the accomplishment of an experienced structural engineer. Early builders depended almost exclusively on wood, stone, brick, and concrete. Although iron had been used by humans at least since the building of the Egyptian pyramids, use of it as a structural material was limited because of the difficulties of smelting it in large quantities. With the industrial revolution, however, came both the need for iron as a structural material and the capability of smelting it in quantity.建筑材料的应用适当有效的建筑材料是限制富有经验的结构工程师成就的主要原因之一。
早期的建筑者几乎都只使用木材，石头，砖块和混凝土。
尽管铸铁在修建埃及的金字塔中已被人们使用, 但是把它作为建筑材料却由于大量熔炼它比较困难而被限制。
籍由产业革命，然而，受到把铸铁作为建筑材料和在大量融炼它的能力的两者对其双重需要的影响。
John Smeaton, an English civil engineer, was the first to use cast iron extensively as a structural material in the mid-eighteenth century. After 1841, malleable iron was developed as a more reliable material and was widely used. Whereas malleable iron was superior to cast iron, there were still too many structural failures and there was a need for a more reliable material. Steel was the answer to this demand. The invention of the Bessemer converter in 1856 and the subsequent development of the Siemens-Martin open-hearth process for making steel made it possible to produce structural steel at competitive prices and triggered the tremendous developments and accomplishments in the use of structural steel over the next hundred years.John Smeaton，一个英国土木工程师, 在十八的世纪中时，是第一广泛地使用铸铁作为建筑材料的。
建筑结构设计及材料中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structure in Design of ArchitectureAnd Structural MaterialWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic,preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic considerations .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic ofhis or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift to approximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasiswill be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specificform of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile forcewhich, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond─ the force that unites them─ that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting.A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel materialbetween them under high heat.Priestess’s concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other (and more common) method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.Progressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.建筑中的结构设计及建筑材料建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
土木工程专业英语课后题答案汇编
英译汉Lesson One Sandcrete is a yellow-white building material made from Portland cement and sand in a ratio of circa 1:8.It is the main building material for walls of single-storey buildings (such as houses and schools)in countries such as Ghana and Nigeria. Measured strengths fo commercially available Sandcrete blocks in Nigeria were found to be between 0.5 and 1 N/mm2,which is well below the 3.5 N/mm2that is legally required there. This may be due to the need of the manufacturers to keep the price low,and since the main cost-factor is the Portland cement, they reduce that, which results in a block that starts behaving more like loose sand.翻译：sandcrete是黄白色建筑材料制成的波特兰水泥和沙子的比例大约1:8.it是主要的建筑墙体材料的单层建筑（如房屋和学校）在加纳和尼日利亚等国家。
测量优势的商用sandcrete块在尼日利亚被发现之间的0.5和1牛顿/毫米，这是远远低于3.5牛顿/毫米，是法律所要求的有。
这可能是由于需要的厂家保持价格低，因为主要cost-factor是波特兰水泥，他们减少，从而在一块，开始表现得更像松砂。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。
八年级英语建筑术语单选题50题
八年级英语建筑术语单选题50题1. We build houses with bricks and _____.A.woodsB.watersC.windsD.wolves答案：A。
本题考查常见建筑材料的词汇。
选项B“waters”是“水”，不是建筑材料；选项C“winds”是“风”，也不是建筑材料；选项D“wolves”是“狼”，与建筑材料无关。
而选项A“woods”表示“木材”，是常见的建筑材料之一。
2. Cement is very important in building. It can make bricks stick together _____.A.stronglyB.weaklyC.quicklyD.slowly答案：A。
本题考查副词的用法。
在建筑中，水泥能让砖块牢固地粘在一起，所以用“strongly”表示“强有力地”。
选项B“weakly”是“虚弱地”，不符合语境；选项C“quickly”是“快速地”，主要强调速度，与让砖块粘在一起的状态不符；选项D“slowly”是“缓慢地”，也不符合水泥让砖块粘在一起的特点。
3. Steel is a kind of strong building material. It can bear a lot of _____.A.weightB.heightC.lengthD.width答案：A。
本题考查与建筑材料相关的名词。
钢是一种坚固的建筑材料，能承受很多重量。
选项B“height”是“高度”；选项C“length”是“长度”；选项D“width”是“宽度”，都与钢的特性不符。
只有选项A“weight”表示“重量”，符合题意。
4. Glass is used in buildings for windows and doors. It lets _____ in.A.waterB.airC.lightD.sand答案：C。
本题考查玻璃在建筑中的作用。
英语作文中的常见建筑单词
英语作文中的常见建筑单词{z}Title: Common Architectural Words in English EssaysIntroduction:When writing essays in English, it is important to have a rich vocabulary to effectively describe architectural elements and structures.In this document, we will explore some common architectural words that can be used in English essays.1.Building Materials:- Concrete: A strong and durable material commonly used in construction.- Brick: A rectangular block of clay or other materials, commonly used in building walls.- Steel: A strong and flexible material, often used in the construction of skyscrapers and bridges.- Glass: A transparent material used in windows and facades, allowing natural light to enter the building.2.Structural Elements:- Foundation: The base of a building, providing support and stability.- Wall: A vertical structure that divides or encloses space within a building.- Floor: The flat surface on which people walk, located below the ceiling and above the foundation.- Roof: The covering of a building, protecting it from weather elements.3.architectural Features:- Arch: A curved structure that spans a space and transfers weight to the supports at each end.- Column: A vertical support, often made of wood or metal, that provides structural support.- Beam: A horizontal structural element that supports weight, often made of wood or metal.- Dome: A circular or oval structure with a rounded top, often found in religious buildings.4.Spaces and Rooms:- Hall: A large, open space within a building, often used for gatherings or events.- Room: A enclosed space within a building, used for various purposes such as living, working, or sleeping.- Lobby: An entrance area of a building, often featuring a reception desk or seating area.- Atrium: A large, open central space in a building, often featuring a skylight or glass roof.5.Architectural Styles:- Gothic: A style of architecture characterized by pointed arches,ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses.- Renaissance: A style of architecture that emerged during the Renaissance period, characterized by symmetry, proportion, and classical elements.- Modern: A style of architecture that emerged in the 20th century, characterized by simplicity, functionality, and the use of new materials and technologies.Conclusion:In conclusion, having a diverse vocabulary of architectural terms is essential when writing essays in English.By utilizing the common architectural words mentioned in this document, students can effectively describe and discuss various elements and styles of architecture.。
建筑工程专业英语unit3
defined range of loading. If the loading is increased above
the range, two types of behavior can occur: brittle and plastic．
In the former, the material will break suddenly. In the latter, the material begins to flow at a certain load (yield strength), ultimately leading to fracture．As examples, steel exhibits plastic behavior, and stone is brittle．The ultimate strength of a material is measured by the stress at which failure (fracture) occurs.
It can be formed by rolling into various structural shapes such as I- beams, plates, and sheets; it also can be cast into complex shapes; and it is also produced in the form of wire strands and ropes for use cables in suspension bridges ands suspended roofs, as elevator ropes, and as wires for prestressed concrete.
土木工程专业英语
土木工程专业英语1Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used to construct buildings. 建筑材料是用于建造目的的任何材料，许多自然形成的物质，如粘土、砂子、木材、岩石，甚至树枝和树叶都已用来建造房屋。
Apartfrom naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in use, some more and some less synthetic[1]. 除天然材料之外，人们还采用许多人造材料，它们或多或少地都是人工合成的。
The manufacture of building materials is anestablished industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific speciality trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. This reference deals withhabitats and structures including homes.建材生产已经是许多国家的固有产业，这些人工材料通常都按特定工种分类，如木工、管道工、屋面和隔热保温工程。
此处涉及到的是用于居住和结构(包括住家)的建筑材料。
A brick is a block made of kiln-fired material, usually clay or shale, but also may be of lower quality mud, etc. 砖是一种窖中烧制的块材，通常由粘土或页岩，甚至低级泥土等制成。
土木专业英语英文课程PPT课件
14. grain[grein] n.谷物, 谷类, 谷粒, 细粒, 颗粒，纹理，粒面 15. silicon [`silikәn] n.[化] 硅，硅元素 16. Manganese [`mæŋgəni:z]n.<化>锰 (元素符号为Mn) Magnesium[mæ `ni:zjәm]n.镁(元素符号为Mg) Calcium[`kæ lsiәm]n.钙 17. seashell [`si:ʃel]n.海贝壳海贝，贝壳 18. negligible[`neglidӡәbl] adj.可以忽略的, 不予重视的，微不足道的 19. synthetic [sin`Ѳetic] adj.合成的, 人造的, 综合的 20. resin [`rezin] n.树脂,胶质,人造树脂 vt. 涂树脂于 21.thermosetting [ֽΘә:mәu`setiŋ]adj.热硬化性的,热凝性的,热固性的
lju:] n.场所`]In lieu of =instead of
lieu
透露 ,告知 ,传授 ,)指抽象事物(in)+part vt.给予.=im(v.前缀，←（im`pɑ:t]] ）Im2part
Lesson 18 Building Materials P158
NEW WORDS AND PHRASES 1.elasticity [ilæ s'tisiti] n. 弹性，弹力，弹性力学 2.stiffness ['stifnis] n.坚硬, 硬度 劲度，刚度 3.secular ['sekjulә] adj.长期的, 世俗的，现世的，非宗教的 4.temple ['templ] n. 坦普尔(姓氏) 庙，寺，神殿，教堂 5.pyramid [`pirәmid]n.金字塔,叠罗汉金字塔,四面体(角锥、棱椎),
玻璃分类（Glassclassification）
玻璃分类（Glass classification）Glass classificationGlass is made of quartz sand, soda ash, feldspar and limestone as the main raw material, by melting, molding, cooling and solidification of non crystalline inorganic materials. It has the transparency of general materials, and has excellent mechanical and thermal properties. Moreover, with the development of modern architecture, it is developing toward multi-functional direction. The deep processing products of glass can control light, regulate temperature, prevent noise and improve architectural art and decoration. Glass is no longer just lighting material, but also a kind of structural material and decorative material of modern architecture.Flat glassFlat glass refers to flat glass products without other processing, also known as white glass or net glass. According to the production method, it can be divided into ordinary flat glass and float glass. Flat glass is a glass building in the largest production capacity, the use of a most, mainly used for doors and windows, lighting up (visible light transmittance of 85%90%), enclosure, thermal insulation and sound insulation effect is further processed into other glass original film technology.Flat glass can be divided into window and decorative glass according to its use. According to the national standard "ordinary flat glass" (GB4871 - 1995) and "float glass" (GB11614 - 89) provisions, glass according to its thickness canbe divided into the following specifications:Ordinary flat glass produced by drawing method: 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm four categories.Float glass: 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 8mm10mm, 12mm seven categories.The length and width ratio of glass produced by drawing method shall not be greater than 2.5, of which 2 and 3mm thick glass shall not be smaller than 400mm * 300mm, and 4, 5 and 6mm thick glass shall not be less than 600mm * 400mm. Float glass size is generally not less than 1000mm * 1200mm, 5 and 6mm, maximum up to 3000mm * 4000mm.According to the national standard, we get rid of A Piao Ping Yin and persimmon include terpene copy value bite crab que A * u paddle expansion intervals around two Nobel, bad governance around the pan around the coffee ring or cast Ding 8 case A * "burn treatment, with two Nobel around the Pan Jin fine brown ring plated bald he fired M 1 million Suo Ding Fei A very resistant.3% alkyne bad trade?.Ordinary flat glass is measured in standard box, actual box and weight box. The thickness of 2mm flat glass is 1 TEU per 10m. For other thickness standard flat glass, standard box conversion is necessary. The actual box is the unit used to transport piecework. The thickness of the glass is different, and the packing capacity of each case is different. The actual box can be obtained by multiplying the square number of the same thickness multiplied by the thickness coefficient. The weightbox refers to the thickness of the 2mm plate glass, the weight of each standard box, other thick aromatic glass can be replaced by a certain coefficient.The use of flat glass has two aspects: 3 to 5mm flat glass is generally used directly for doors and windows lighting, 8 ~ 12mm of flat glass can be used for partition. Another important use is the original sheet of glass, such as toughened, laminated, coated, hollow, etc..Two. Safety glassSafe glass is a kind of glass with high mechanical strength and strong impact resistance compared with ordinary glass. The main varieties of tempered glass, toughened glass, laminated glass and titanium glass. When the safety glass is crushed, the fragments can not hurt people, and simultaneously, the utility model has the functions of theft prevention and fire protection. According to the original glass used in production, the safety glass has certain decorative effect.(1) toughened glassToughened glass is also called toughened glass. It uses physical or chemical methods to form a compressive stress layer on the surface of glass. The glass itself has a higher compressive strength and will not cause damage. When the glass is subjected to external force, the pressure layer may be part of the tensile stress offset, avoid broken glass, although tempered glass is in large internal stress state, but the glass without internal defects, not made in damage, so as to improvethe strength of the glass.Tempered glass is the two processing product of flat glass. The processing of toughened glass can be divided into physical toughening method and chemical toughening method.Physical toughened glass is also called tempered tempered glass. It is the ordinary flat glass in heating furnace heated to the softening temperature close to the glass (600 DEG C), the internal stress of the self deformation is eliminated, and then removed from the glass furnace, with long nozzle high pressure cold air blowing glass on both sides, the rapid and uniform cooling to room temperature, well tempered glass can be made. This kind of glass in the internal tension, external compressive stress state, once the local damage occurs, the stress release, the glass is broken into small pieces, these small pieces no sharp edges, not easy to hurt.Chemically toughened glass is used to improve the strength of the glass by changing the chemical composition of the surface of the glass, which is usually tempered by ion exchange. The method is to dip silicate glass containing alkali ions into a molten lithium (Li +) salt,The glass surface Na + or K + ion exchange with Li +, Li + ion exchange layer formed on the surface, because the expansion coefficient of less than Na Li + + and K + ions, resulting in the shrinkage and the inner smaller shrinkage during cooling, when cooling to room temperature, the glass is also in the inner layer the tension, outer compression state, the effect is similar to physical tempered glass.Toughened glass with high strength, the compressive strength can exceed 125MPa, than ordinary glass is 4 ~ 5 times; the impact strength is also very high, measured by steel ball, 0.8kg ball from 1.2m height, the glass can be kept intact.Toughened glass is much more elastic than ordinary glass, a piece of 1200mm * 350mm * 6mm toughened glass, the stress can occur after the bending deflection of 100mm, when the external force is withdrawn, still can restore the normal glass bending deformation of only a few mm.Good thermal stability, in cold and hot, not easy to crack is another characteristic of toughened glass. This is because the compressive stress of tempered glass can offset the tensile stress caused by rapid quenching and hot pressing. Toughened glass with thermal shock resistance, the maximum safe working temperature is 288 degrees Celsius, and can withstand the change of temperature difference of 204 degrees centigrade.Because toughened glass has better mechanical performance and thermal stability, it has been widely used in construction engineering, transportation and other fields. Flat tempered glass is often used as window, partition wall, curtain wall, window, furniture and so on. Curved glass is often used in automobiles, trains and airplanes.Use should pay attention to is not tempered glass cutting, grinding, edge angle cannot impact extrusion, need to put forward specific design drawings into processing customized according to the size specifications available or selected. Fora large area of the glass to be controlled in tempering, semi tempered glass, the stress is not too large, in order to avoid the wind load caused by vibration and explosion.According to the glass used in different pieces, can be made into ordinary tempered glass, heat absorbing tempered glass, colored tempered glass, toughened insulating glass, etc..(two), wired glassWired glass also called shatterproof glass or glass steel wire. It is produced by rolling method, that is, in the molten state of glass, the preheated steel wire or steel wire net is pressed into the middle of the glass, and is annealed and cut. Wired glass surface can be embossed or polished, color can be made of transparent colorless or colored.The characteristics of wire glass is safety and good fire proofing. The skeleton wire glass wire, not only improves the strength of the glass, and when the temperature change and impact or damage, nor avoid flying debris, debris damage to people. In case of fire, when the flame extension, heating wire glass burst, because the metal wire mesh, glass can remain fixed, isolated from the flame, it is also known as the fireproof glass.According to the provisions of the national industry standard JC433-91, wired glass thickness is divided into: 6, 7, 10mm, the size is generally not less than 600mm * 400mm * 1200mm, no more than 2000mm.At present, China's production of wire glass is divided into wired and wired patterned glass polished glass two. Wired glass can be used for building doors and windows, skylights, anti lighting roof, balcony and other parts.(three) laminated glassLaminated glass is a composite glass product made of two layers or more pieces of glass, which is made of PVB (polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl butyral) resin film and is heated or pressed to form a flat surface or curved surface. The original pieces used for laminated glass can be ordinary flat glass, float glass, toughened glass, stained glass, endothermic glass or heat reflecting glass, etc..Laminated glass has 2, 3, 5, 7 layers, up to 9 layers, two layers of laminated glass, the thickness of the original are commonly used (mm): 2 + 3, 3 + 3, 3 + 5, etc.. The structure of the laminated glass is shown in figure 8-1.Laminated glass has good transparency and shock resistance several times higher than ordinary flat glass. It can be made into bulletproof glass by multi-layer ordinary glass or tempered glass. Because of the adhesion of the PVB film, the glass won't fly in the air even when it is broken. Laminated glass also has durability, heat resistance, moisture resistance and other properties by using different primary glass.Laminated glass is of high safety and is generally used as a building for high buildings, doors and windows, skylights andshops, banks, jewelry windows, partitions and so on.(four) titanium glassTitanium glass also never broken foil glass armor. The utility model relates to a novel glass which is made of titanium gold foil film sticking on any kind of glass substrate and combined into a whole. Titanium glass has high crushing resistance, high thermal protection and UV protection. Different substrate glass and different titanium gold foil film can be combined into different color, different properties, different specifications of titanium glass. Common colors of titanium glass are: colorless, transparent, brown, brown, reflective, copper, reflective, etc..Three. Energy-saving glassThe application of traditional glass in the building is the main lighting, with the increase of the size of the windows of buildings, people insulation requirements for windows and doors also improved, energy-saving decorative glass is able to meet this requirement, energy saving and decorative glass in one. Energy-saving decorative glass usually has a pleasing appearance of color, but also has the special ability of reflection and transmission of light and heat absorption, exterior window, glass curtain wall building, can play a significant energy saving effect, which has been widely used in various high buildings. Commonly used energy-saving decorative glass on the building are endothermic glass, heat reflective glass and insulating glass.(I) heat absorbing glassHeat absorbing glass is a kind of flat glass which can absorb large amount of infrared radiation energy and keep high transmittance of visible light. There are two methods of producing heat absorbing glass: one is adding a certain amount of the ordinary sodium calcium silicate glass raw materials in the absorbing performance of the colorant; another is plated with one layer or multi layers of metal or metal oxide film on the surface of plate glass made of spray.Heat absorbing glass has gray, Tan, blue, green, bronze, bronze, pink and gold. At present our country mainly produces the first three colors of endothermic glass. There are four thicknesses, 2, 5, 3 and 6mm. Heat absorbing glass can be further processed into polished, tempered, laminated or insulating glass.Compared with ordinary flat glass, endothermic glass has the following characteristics:The absorption of solar radiation. Such as 6mm thick transparent float glass, in the sun light, the total heat through 84%, while under the same conditions, the total heat through the heat absorbing glass is 60%. Endothermic glass has different color and thickness, and the absorption of solar radiation heat is also different.The absorption of solar visible light, weaken the intensity of sunlight, the anti glare effect.3 has a certain degree of transparency, and can absorb theultraviolet ray.As a result of these characteristics, heat absorbing glass has been widely used in building doors and windows, exterior walls, as well as vehicles, ships, windshield, etc., play a role in heat insulation, anti glare, lighting and decoration.(two) heat reflecting glass;Heat reflective glass is flat glass has high heat reflection ability and good transparency, it is by pyrolysis method, vacuum evaporation method, cathode sputtering, on the surface of glass coated with gold, silver, copper, aluminum, chromium, nickel and iron and other metal or metal oxide film, or electricity float plasma exchange method to metal ion exchange glass surface ions and the formation of the original heat reflective film. Heat reflective glass or mirror glass, gold, brown, gray, purple, brown, bronze and blue colors etc..The heat reflective heat reflective glass is high, such as total reflection heat 6mm thick float glass is only 16%, under the same conditions, the total reflection heat absorbing glass is 40%, and the heat reflective glass can be as high as 61%, and used it into hollow glass or laminated glass, to increase its insulation performance. Effect of heat reflective glass, metal plating film and unidirectional transmissive, during the day to see the outdoor scenes in indoor and outdoor, indoor scene can not see.。
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计
外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。
Generally。
a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。
while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。
While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。
medium-。
or high-rise buildings。
the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。
walls。
XXX。
XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。
One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。
XXX。
braced frames。
or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。
施工方案_英文(3篇)
第1篇1. IntroductionThis construction project proposal aims to provide a comprehensive plan for the construction of a new office building in the city center. The project is expected to be completed within 18 months, with a total budget of $5 million. The following sections will outline the project scope, design, schedule, cost estimation, and risk management plan.2. Project Scope2.1 Project DescriptionThe project involves the construction of a new office building, which will be a seven-story structure with a total area of 30,000 square meters. The building will accommodate approximately 500 employees and will include the following facilities:- Reception area- Conference rooms- Office spaces- Restrooms- Breakout areas- Parking facilities2.2 Project Objectives- To construct a modern, sustainable office building that meets the needs of the company and its employees.- To ensure the safety and well-being of all workers on the construction site.- To complete the project within the specified budget and time frame.3. Design3.1 Architectural DesignThe architectural design of the building will be modern and functional, with a focus on sustainability and energy efficiency. The exterior of the building will be made of glass and steel, providing a sleek and contemporary look. The interior design will be spacious and comfortable, with natural lighting and ventilation to promote a healthy work environment.3.2 Structural DesignThe structural design of the building will be based on the latest engineering principles and will ensure the safety and stability of the structure. The building will be constructed using a reinforced concrete frame, with steel columns and beams to support the weight of the floors and roof. The foundation will be designed to withstand the seismic activity in the area.3.3 Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) DesignThe MEP design will ensure that the building is equipped with the necessary systems for heating, ventilation, air conditioning, lighting, and power. The building will be equipped with a state-of-the-art energy management system to optimize energy consumption and reduce costs.4. Schedule4.1 Project PhasesThe project will be divided into the following phases:- Phase 1: Site preparation and foundation construction- Phase 2: Construction of the building structure- Phase 3: Installation of MEP systems- Phase 4: Finishing works and commissioning4.2 Project DurationThe total duration of the project is 18 months, with the following breakdown:- Phase 1: 3 months- Phase 2: 6 months- Phase 3: 3 months- Phase 4: 6 months5. Cost Estimation5.1 Direct CostsThe direct costs of the project include the following:- Labor: $2 million- Materials: $1.5 million- Equipment: $500,000- Contingency: $500,0005.2 Indirect CostsThe indirect costs of the project include the following:- Insurance: $200,000- Permits and fees: $100,000- Contingency: $200,0005.3 Total Project CostThe total project cost is $5 million, which includes both direct and indirect costs.6. Risk Management Plan6.1 Identification of RisksThe following risks have been identified for the project:- Construction delays- Material shortages- Labor disputes- Weather conditions- Design changes6.2 Risk Mitigation StrategiesTo mitigate the identified risks, the following strategies will be implemented:- Regular monitoring of the construction schedule to identify and address potential delays.- Maintaining a sufficient inventory of materials to avoid material shortages.- Establishing clear communication channels between the contractor and the labor force to prevent disputes.- Implementing a contingency plan to address weather-related delays.- Conducting regular design reviews to minimize the need for design changes.7. ConclusionThis construction project proposal outlines the scope, design, schedule, cost estimation, and risk management plan for the construction of a new office building. The project is expected to be completed within 18 months and will provide a modern, sustainable work environment for the company and its employees. By following the outlined plan and implementing the risk management strategies, the project is expected to be completed on time and within budget.第2篇1. IntroductionThis construction project proposal aims to provide a comprehensive plan for the construction of a new office building in the city center. The project will be carried out by XYZ Construction Company, which has extensive experience in the construction industry. This proposaloutlines the project objectives, scope, methodology, schedule, and budget.2. Project ObjectivesThe primary objective of this project is to construct a new office building that meets the requirements of the client, providing a modern, functional, and aesthetically pleasing workspace. The following specific objectives are set:- To ensure the project is completed within the agreed timeframe.- To adhere to the specified budget and quality standards.- To minimize disruptions to the client's business during construction.- To maintain a safe and healthy work environment for all stakeholders.3. Project ScopeThe project scope includes the following:- Design and construction of a new office building with a total area of 10,000 square meters.- Construction of parking facilities for 200 vehicles.- Installation of all necessary mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.- Landscape design and implementation.4. MethodologyThe construction methodology will be based on the following principles:- Phased construction to minimize disruption to the client's business.- Use of modern construction techniques and materials to ensure quality and efficiency.- Regular communication with the client and stakeholders to ensure their satisfaction and address any concerns promptly.5. Project ScheduleThe project schedule is divided into several phases:- Phase 1: Design and approval (3 months)- Phase 2: Construction of foundation and superstructure (12 months)- Phase 3: Installation of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems (6 months)- Phase 4: Landscape design and implementation (3 months)- Phase 5: Final touches and handover (2 months)The total duration of the project is 26 months.6. BudgetThe estimated budget for the project is as follows:- Design and approval: $500,000- Construction of foundation and superstructure: $5,000,000- Installation of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems:$2,000,000- Landscape design and implementation: $500,000- Contingency: $1,000,000Total estimated budget: $9,500,0007. Quality ControlTo ensure the quality of the construction, XYZ Construction Company will implement the following quality control measures:- Regular site inspections by a qualified project manager and engineer.- Third-party quality assurance inspections at critical stages of the project.- Use of high-quality materials and equipment.- Compliance with local building codes and standards.8. Safety and HealthXYZ Construction Company is committed to providing a safe and healthy work environment for all stakeholders. The following safety and health measures will be implemented:- Compliance with all relevant local and national safety regulations.- Provision of safety training for all workers.- Regular safety audits and risk assessments.- Implementation of emergency response plans.9. CommunicationRegular communication with the client and stakeholders will be maintained throughout the project. The following communication channels will be used:- Project meetings: Held bi-weekly to discuss progress, address concerns, and make decisions.- Progress reports: Sent weekly to provide an overview of the project's status.- Email and phone calls: Used for daily communication and quick responses to inquiries.10. ConclusionThis construction project proposal outlines the plan for theconstruction of a new office building in the city center. XYZ Construction Company is confident in its ability to deliver a high-quality, on-time, and within-budget project. By following the proposed methodology, schedule, and budget, we are committed to achieving the project objectives and ensuring the satisfaction of our client and stakeholders.第3篇Project Title: Residential Complex DevelopmentClient: XYZ Real Estate DevelopersLocation: City Center, Metropolitan CityProject Duration: 24 Months1. IntroductionThis document outlines the construction project proposal for the development of a residential complex in the city center of Metropolitan City. The project aims to provide high-quality residential units that cater to the diverse needs of the urban population. The proposal includes a detailed description of the project scope, design, methodology, timeline, and cost estimation.2. Project ScopeThe residential complex will consist of the following components:- Residential Buildings: Eight residential buildings, each with 12 floors, totaling 96 units.- Parking Facilities: A parking structure with 200 parking spaces for residents and visitors.- Common Areas: Clubhouse, swimming pool, gymnasium, children's play area, and landscaped gardens.- Supporting Infrastructure: Electrical, plumbing, and HVAC systems, along with fire safety and security measures.3. Design and ArchitectureThe architectural design of the residential complex will be modern and contemporary, with a focus on sustainability and energy efficiency. The buildings will feature:- Energy-Efficient Design: High-performance glass facades, solar panels, and green roofs to reduce energy consumption.- Spacious Living Spaces: Open floor plans with large windows to maximize natural light and ventilation.- Quality Finishes: Premium materials and finishes for durability and aesthetic appeal.- Accessibility: Elevators and ramps for disabled access, along with ample storage spaces.4. Construction MethodologyThe construction methodology will follow a phased approach to ensure efficient progress and minimize disruption. The following steps will be implemented:4.1. Pre-construction Phase- Site Survey and Analysis: Conduct a thorough site survey to assesssoil conditions, topography, and existing utilities.- Design Approval: Finalize the architectural and engineering designs with the client and relevant authorities.- Contractor Selection: Shortlist and select qualified contractors for various construction activities.- Material Procurement: Source high-quality construction materials from reputable suppliers.4.2. Site Preparation Phase- Clearing and Grading: Clear the site of debris and vegetation, and grade the land to create a level surface.- Utility Connections: Establish connections for water, electricity, and gas supply.- Temporary Infrastructure: Set up temporary construction facilities, such as fencing, lighting, and access roads.4.3. Construction Phase- Foundations: Construct the foundations using reinforced concrete to ensure stability and durability.- Structural Framing: Erect the steel and concrete frames for the buildings.- Building Envelope: Install the facades, roof, and windows.- Interior Finishing: Complete the interior finishes, including walls, floors, and ceilings.- Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP): Install HVAC, electrical, and plumbing systems.- Landscaping: Develop the common areas, including gardens, swimming pool, and playgrounds.4.4. Post-construction Phase- Quality Assurance: Conduct inspections and tests to ensure compliance with design specifications and quality standards.- Final Handover: Complete all construction activities and hand over the residential complex to the client.- Maintenance and Support: Provide ongoing maintenance and support services for the first year post-handover.5. Project TimelineThe project is scheduled to be completed in 24 months, with thefollowing milestones:- Month 1-3: Pre-construction phase (site survey, design approval, contractor selection, material procurement).- Month 4-12: Site preparation phase (clearing, grading, utility connections, temporary infrastructure).- Month 13-24: Construction phase (foundations, structural framing, building envelope, interior finishing, MEP, landscaping).- Month 25-26: Post-construction phase (quality assurance, final handover, maintenance and support).6. Cost EstimationThe estimated cost of the project is as follows:- Land Acquisition: $5,000,000- Architectural and Engineering Fees: $1,200,000- Construction Costs: $30,000,000- Material Costs: $5,000,000- Contingency and Contingency: $2,000,000- Total Cost: $53,200,0007. ConclusionThis construction project proposal outlines the detailed plan for the development of a residential complex in the city center of Metropolitan City. The project aims to deliver high-quality, energy-efficient, and sustainable residential units that meet the needs of the urban population. By following a phased construction methodology and adhering to stringent quality standards, the project is expected to be completed successfully within the specified timeline and budget.We look forward to the opportunity to work with XYZ Real Estate Developers and contribute to the successful completion of this prestigious project.。
construction and building materials格式要求 -回复
construction and building materials格式要求-回复Constructions and Building Materials: A Comprehensive Guide Introduction:Construction and building materials play a pivotal role in constructing safe and sustainable buildings. In this article, we will explore the various aspects of construction and building materials, including their types, uses, and importance in the industry.I. Definition and Importance of Construction and Building MaterialsConstruction and building materials refer to any substance used for constructing or renovating buildings and infrastructure. These materials are crucial for the construction industry as they provide the necessary strength, stability, and durability to withstand various loads and environmental conditions.II. Types of Construction and Building Materials1. Traditional Materialsa. Timber: Timber has been used for construction for centuries due to its availability, versatility, and thermal insulation properties. It is often used for structural elements, such as beams and columns.b. Bricks and Blocks: Bricks and blocks made of clay orcement are commonly used for building walls, flooring, and foundations. They provide excellent thermal insulation and fire resistance.c. Stone: Natural stones like granite, marble, and limestone are used for cladding, flooring, and decorative purposes due to their durability and aesthetic appeal.d. Concrete: Concrete is made by mixing cement, sand, aggregate, and water. It is widely used in construction due to its high compressive strength and durability.2. Modern and Composite Materialsa. Steel: Steel is a versatile construction material known for its strength, flexibility, and low maintenance. It is often used for structural frames, reinforcing bars, and cladding.b. Glass: Glass is used extensively in modern architecture for windows, facades, and partitions. It allows natural light penetration and enhances the overall aesthetics.c. Composite Materials: Composite materials, such asfiber-reinforced polymers (FRP), are gaining popularity in construction due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and thermal insulation properties.III. Uses of Construction and Building Materials1. Structural ElementsConstruction and building materials are used to create structural elements like beams, columns, slabs, and walls that provide support and stability to the structure.2. Finishing and Aesthetic EnhancementsMaterials like tiles, paints, wallpapers, and decorative stones are used for finishing touches to enhance the overall aesthetics of a building.3. Insulation and SoundproofingInsulation materials, such as foam boards, mineral wool, and fiberglass, are used to control temperature, prevent heat loss, and reduce sound transmission.IV. Factors Influencing Material Selection1. Cost: The budget allocated for a project strongly impacts the selection of construction and building materials.2. Durability: Materials with long lifespans are preferred to ensure the longevity of the structure.3. Sustainability: Choosing eco-friendly materials reduces the environmental impact of construction projects.4. Functionality: Materials should be selected based on their intended use and specific requirements of the project, such as fire resistance, moisture resistance, and load-bearing capacity.V. ConclusionIn conclusion, construction and building materials are an essential component of any construction project. It is crucial to carefully select materials considering factors like cost, durability, sustainability, and functionality. By choosing the right materials, we can ensure the construction of safe, sustainable, and aesthetically pleasing buildings that withstand the test of time.。
Unit 3 Structural Materials
UNIT 3Structural MaterialsThe principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry---brick，stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tarlike substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called pozzolana,made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon, had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile strength; that is, it does not lose its strength when it is under a calculated degree of tension, a force which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further increased the strength of steel and eliminated some of its problems, such as fatigue, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a powder.It is mixed at ornear the construction site with sand, aggregate ( small stones, crushed rock, or gravel), and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile;it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop .Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond ---the force that unites them--- that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction,the opposite of acid.The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory building, and it became much simpler to build fireresistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame,the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel or concrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations.Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A rivet is a bolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, the joining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat. Prestressed concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to prestress concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods.When the rods are run through the channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other( and more common) method, the prestressed steel rods are placed in the lower part of a form that corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Prestressed concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is so economical,it is a highly desirable material.Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.The current tendency is to develop lighter materials. Aluminum, for example,weighs much less than steel but has many of the same properties. Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few buildings. Lightweight concretes, another example, are now rapidly developing throughout the world. They are used for their thermal insulation. The three types are illustrated below:(a) Concretes made with lightweight aggregates;(b) Aerated concretes(US gas concretes) foamed by whisking or by some chemical process during casting;(c) No-fines concretes.All three types are used for their insulating properties, mainly in housing, where they give high comfort in cold climates and a low cost of cooling in hot climates. In housing, the relative weakness of lightweight concrete walls is unimportant, but it matters in roof slabs, floor slabs and beams.In some locations, some lightweight aggregates cost little more than the best dense aggregates and a large number of floor slabs have therefore been built of lightweight aggregate concrete purely for its weight saving, with no thought of its insulation value. The lightweight aggregate reduces the floor dead load by about 20 percent resulting in considerable savings in the floor steel in every floor and the roof, as well as in the column steel and (less) in the foundations. One London contractor prefers to use lightweight aggregate because it gives him the same weight reduction in the floor slab as the use of hollow tiles, with simpler organization and therefore higher speed and profit. The insulation value of the lightweight aggregate is only important in the roof insulation, which is greatly improved.。
06269-工程应用英语(已做)
课程代码： 06269工程应用英语课程自学辅导材料●配套教材：《专业英语》●主编：李嘉●出版社：人民交通●版次：2012年版●适应层次：本科内部教学使用目录第一部分自学指导第1章：土木工程的基本知识 (1)第2章：公路与交通工程 (2)第二部分复习思考题一．单选题 (3)二．填空题 (15)三．阅读理解题 (17)四．英译汉题 (32)五．汉译英题 (38)第三部分参考答案一．单选题 (41)二．填空题 (41)三．阅读理解题 (41)四．英译汉题 (42)五．汉译英题 (46)第一部分自学指导第1章：土木工程的基本知识一．主要内容1．土木工程中的职业2．现代建筑和结构材料3．公路测量4．预应力混凝土5. 结构设计原理6. 土木工程合同二．重点1．土木工程中的职业（Careers in Civil Engineering）2．现代建筑和结构材料 (Modern Buildings and Structural Materials)3．公路测量 (Highway Survey)4．预应力混凝土 (Prestressed Concrete)5. 结构设计原理（Philosophy of Structural Design）6. 土木工程合同 (Civil Engineering Contracts)三．难点1．课文翻译。
2．单词记忆。
第2章：公路与交通工程一．主要内容1．交通运输系统2．公路定线3．线形设计4．立交与互通式立交5. 路面6. 沥青面层7. 公路排水8. 高速公路9. 公路施工二．重点1．交通运输系统 (Transportation System)2．公路定线 (Highway Location)3．线形设计 (Design of the Alignment)4．立交与互通式立交 (Grade separations and Interchanges)5. 路面 (Pavement)6. 沥青面层 (Bituminous Surface Courses)7. 公路排水 (Highway Drainage)8. 高速公路（Freeways）9. 公路施工 (Highway Construction)三．难点1．课文翻译。
土木工程专业英语试题
《土木工程专业英语》课程试题学生姓名：刘文奇学号： 2015610263原文：Modern Buildings and Structural MaterialsMany great buildings built in earlier ages are still in existence and in use. Among them are the Pantheon and the Colosseum in Rome, Hagia Sophia in Istanbul; the Gothic churches of France and England, and the Renaissance cathedrals, with their great domes, like the Duomo in Florence and St. Peter’s in Rome.They are massive structures with thick stone walls that counteract the thrust of their great weight. Thrust is the pressure exerted by each part of a structure on its other parts.These great buildings were not the product of knowledge of mathematics and physics. They were constructed instead on the basis of experience and observation, often as the result of trial and error. One of the reasons they have survived is because of the great strength that was built into them-strength greater than necessary in most cases. But the engineers of earlier times also had their failure. In Rome, for example, most of the people lived in insulae, great tenement blocks that were often ten stories high. Many of them were poorly constructed and sometimes collapsed with considerable loss of life.Today, however, the engineer has the advantage not only of empirical information, but also of scientific data that permit him to make careful calculations in advance. When a modern engineer plans a structure, he takes into account the total weight of all its component materials. This is known as the dead load, which is the weight of the structure itself. He must also consider the live load, the weight of all the people, cars, furniture, machines, and so on that the structure will support when it is in use. In structures such as bridges that will handle fast automobile traffic, he must consider the impact, the force at which the live load will be exerted on the structure. He must also determine the safety factor, that is, an additional capability to make the structure stronger than the combination of the three other factors.The modern engineer must also understand the different stresses to which the materials in a structure are subject. These include the opposite forces of compression and tension. In compression the material is pressed or pushed together; in tension the material is pulled apart or stretched, like a rubber band. In addition to tension and compression, another force is at work, namely shear, which we defined as the tendency of a material to fracturealong the lines of stress. The shear might occur in a vertical plane, but it also might run along the horizontal axis of the beam, the neutral plane, where there is neither tension nor compression.Altogether, three forces can act on a structure: vertical-those that act up or down; horizontal-those that act sideways; and those that act upon it with a rotating or turning motion. Forces that act at an angle are a combination of horizontal and vertical forces. Since the structures d esigned by civil engineers are intended to be stationary or stable, these forces must be kept in balance. The vertical forces, for example, must be equal to each other. If a beam supports a load above, the beam itself must have sufficient strength to counterbalance that weight. The horizontal forces must also equal each other so that there is not too much thrust either to the right or to the left. And forces that might pull the structure around must he countered with forces that pull in the opposite direction.One of the most spectacular engineering failures of modern times, the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in 1940, was the result of not considering the last of these factors carefully enough. When strong gusts of wind, up to sixty-five kilometers an hour, struck the bridge during a storm, they set up waves along the roadway of the bridge and also a lateral motion that caused the roadway to fall. Fortunately, engineers learn from mistakes, so it is now common practice to test scale models of bridges in wind tunnels for aerodynamic resistance.The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar-like substance or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romans sometimes used iron rods or clamps to strengthen their buildings. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called pozzolana, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon, had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile strength; that is, it does not lose its strength when it is under a calculated degree of tension, a force which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further increased the strength of steel and eliminated some ofits problems, such as fatigue, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a powder. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate (small stones, crushed rock, or gravel), and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other.They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond-the force that unites them-that the steel cannot slip within the concrete. Still anotheradvantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.Prestressed concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rods are bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strength. They are then used to prestress concrete, usually by pretensioning or posttensioning method. Prestressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed.The current tendency is to develop lighter materials. Aluminum, for example, weighs much less than steel but has many of the same properties. Aluminum beams have already been used for bridge construction and for the framework of a few buildings.Attempts are also being made to produce concrete with more strength and durability, and with a lighter weight. One system that helps cut concrete weight to some extent uses polymers, which are long chainlike compounds used in plastics, as part of the mixture.译文：现代建筑和结构材料许多早期伟大建筑依然沿用至今。
土木工程专业英语词汇
1. 4 parts of gravel四份砾石2. a 28-day curing period28天养护期3. a batch of concrete 一个批量混凝土4. a high-cost material成本要高很多5. a minimum amount of reinforcement最少数量的钢筋6. a moderate amount of concrete cover厚度适当的混凝土保护层7. a moderate amount of cracking 适度开裂8. a plastic mass 可塑性物质9. a sack of cement一袋水泥10.abutment桥台11.acceptable value要求的范围内12.accidental action 偶然作用13.act jointly 共同工作14.action作用15.Additional features 其它特性16.additional stresses 附加应力17.after it has been placed使混凝土灌注之后18.air jack compressor气压千斤顶压缩机19.allowable value of crack width裂缝宽度容许值20.an excessive amount of water 过量的水21.an excessive number of voids过多的孔隙22.anisotropic 各向异性的23.appearance外观24.appraisal预测25.approach引道26.apron裙板27.Arch Bridge 拱桥28.Arch bridge拱桥29.are counteracted to a desired degree抵消到所要求的水平30.are located close to the tension face配置在靠近受拉面处31.As a general rule按常规32.as the concrete sets随着混凝土的硬化33.at high temperatures在高温时34.At one time the instructions for preparinga batch of concrete 有一个时期备混凝土配料的规定35.Axial force轴力36.axisymmetric 轴对称的37.bare steel bars 裸露的钢筋38.Base plate底盘39.bearing支座40.bend steels弯起筋41.Bending moment弯矩42.bending rigidity弯曲刚度43.Between and 两者之间44.bolt 闩住45.Bow string girder弓弦梁46.brake force汽车制动力47.bridge abutment桥台48.buoyancy of water水浮力49.by volume 按体积50.Cable-stayed Bridge 斜拉桥51.can be minimized or even avoidedentirely减至最小甚至完全消除52.Cantilever beam悬臂梁53.cantilever悬臂54.Cast-in-place现浇55.catenary length悬链线长56.catenary悬链线57.centrifugal force 离心力58.characteristic value of an action 作用标准值59.clearance净空60.cm centimeter 厘米61.coarse aggregate粗骨料pression members受压构件pression压力pressive strength抗压强度pressive strength抗压强度66.confidence level /reliability 可靠度67.consequent weight savings重量减轻68.consolidometer 固结仪69.constitutive model本构模型70.construction documents design施工图设计71.Continuous beam 连续梁72.corresponding maintenance costsminimizing腐蚀问题及相关的维护费用降至最低73.corrosion resistance 抗腐蚀性74.crack 开裂75.cracking and deflection 开裂和挠度76.cracking and other undesirable effects 开裂和其它不利影响77.crack裂缝78.creep徐变79.cross-sectional dimensions 截面尺寸80.crystallizes结晶81.cumulative 累积的82.curvature曲率83.curvature曲率84.cushion cap 承台85.cycle track自行车道86.Data logger数据记录器87.dead load 恒荷载88.dead load/ dead weight自重89.deck桥面90.decreases sizably 大幅度下降91.Deflection and crack control对裂缝和挠度的控制92.deflection挠度93.Degree of reliability 可靠度94.design limit load设计极限荷载95.design reference period 设计基准期96.design value of a load荷载设计值97.design value of an action作用设计值98.design value 设计值99.design value设计值100.deterioration劣化101.deviator 偏差，偏量102.diagonal tension斜向受拉103.diameter 直径104.disposed配有105.dissipation 消散106.disturbed 被扰动的107.dm decimeter 分米108.Drainage boundary透水边界109.ductility延性110.durability耐久性111.during freezing weather 在冰冻天气里112.dynamic 动力的113.efficient use of high strength steel 有效地利用高强钢筋114.elastic modulus弹性模量115.elasticity弹性116.elevation 高程117.empirical 经验的118.equivalent load等效荷载119.equivalent 等价的120.Erect架设121.evaporate from the concrete 从混凝土中挥发出去122.even fail 甚至破坏123.Even if no such necessity exists即使不存在这种必要性124.exceed超过125.excellent corrosion protection优良的防腐蚀保护层126.extends扩展127.external 外部的128.extremely important 极为重要的129.Fabricated simply-supported beam bridge装配式简支梁桥130.far beyond 远远超过131.filled with moisture充满水分132.final design strength 最终强度133.fine aggregate细骨料134.finite element analysis有限元分析135.finite element method有限元法136.fire resistance 抗火性能137.fit 安装138.flange 凸缘139.Flexible cables柔性主缆140.flexural rigidity of section截面弯曲刚度141.Flexural rigidity抗弯刚度142.flexural stiffness of members构件的弯曲刚度143.for a quarter of a century and longer二十几年甚至更长的时间里144.For most effective reinforcing action使配筋最有效地发挥作用145.forestall different thermal deformations 避免热变形差值146.foundation 基础147.Frequent value of an action作用频遇值148.friction coefficient 摩擦系数149.frost damage冰冻破坏150.functionally or visually unacceptable不符合功能要求和视觉要求151.further aggravated 进一步增大152.generation and dissipation 生成与消散153.girder section主梁截面154.girder主梁155.Gorge峡谷156.gradually通过逐渐157.gravity standard value重力标准值158.handrail护栏159.hardened concrete硬化混凝土160.harden硬化161.heating, electrical ducts, plumbing risers 供热、供电和排水立管162.High Reliability高可靠度163.high strength material高强度材料164.high thermal conductivity 热传导系数高165.high-rise pile cap高桩承台166.hydrate水化167.ignore entirely 完全忽视了168.in any particular mix 任何一种特定的配比169.in conjunction with 并结合170.in conjunction with 以及171.In practice在实践中172.In theory从理论上说173.inclined tension stresses斜向拉应力174.increment 增量175.innovative new structural forms新型的结构形式176.innumerable voids无数孔隙177.Internal 内部的178.is first mixed 最初被搅拌时179.is further limited 进一步限制180.is proportional to 成正比181.is undesirable excessive cracking 不希望发生过宽的裂缝182.it may be visually offensive并在感观上使人难以接受183.K-consolidation isotropic 各向同性的rgely overcome 大大克服teral direction 侧向186.leak badly严重渗漏187.limited to the outer layer of concrete混凝土的外层188.Linear variable differential transformer（LVDT）线性可变差动变压器（位移传感器）189.load on foundations基础上的荷载190.longitudinal reinforcement纵筋191.longitudinal纵向192.low pile cap低桩承台193.lower-floor columns 下部楼层柱194.magnitude and distribution大小和分布195.maintenance维修养护196.make use of 利用197.masonry砌体198.maximum amount 最大量199.mechanics of materials材料力学200.minimum steel ratio最小配筋率201.minute, interlocked crystals微小晶体交错的固体材料202.mm millimeter 毫米203.Modern structural engineering 现代结构工程204.moment of inertia惯性矩205.Monitor 监控206.mount安装在…上207.much longer spans than previouslythought possible跨度远远超出了原先的想象208.multiplied by the number of stories逐层累积209.Multi-span continuous beam bridge多跨连续梁桥210.multistory buildings多层建筑211.multistory buildings多层建筑212.nonlinearity非线性213.normally consolidated正常固结214.optimal structure design结构优化设计215.optimization最优化216.ordinary loads and spans常规跨度和荷载217.ordinary reinforcing steels 普通钢筋218.orthotropic正交的219.orthotropic正交异性的220.Oscillation振动221.over 30℃比方说在30℃以上222.overall improvement 整体上改善223.overconsolidated超固结224.Partially drained部分排水225.particularly important 尤为重要226.partition隔断227.Passage通道228.pedestrian load人群荷载229.pedestrians行人230.permanent action 永久作用231.Pier桥墩232.pile cap桩承台233.Pipeline管线234.piston活塞235.plane cross-section assumption平截面假定236.plastic hinge塑性铰237.plasticity塑性238.Plate Mechanics板壳力学239.Pore pressure transducer孔压传感器240.porous stone 透水石241.portal frame门架刚架桥242.Portland ceme硅酸盐水泥243.Post-cyclic循环后244.precast预制245.predesign preliminary design初步设计246.premature failure 过早破坏247.Pressure chamber压力室248.prestressed concrete structures 预应力混凝土结构249.Prestressed concrete预应力混凝土250.prestressing steel预应力钢筋251.principal determinant 主要决定因素252.principal tensile stress主拉应力253.prior to casting of the concrete在浇筑混凝土之前254.prolonged fire exposure长期暴露在火焰下255.quasi-permanent value of an action作用准永久值256.radial 径向的257.radius 半径258.range of application 应用范围259.reduces or eliminates 降低或消除260.reduction减少261.refined analysis精确的分析262.Reinforced concrete structure 钢筋混凝土结构263.reinforcement ratio配筋率264.relative movements 相对滑移265.reliability可靠度266.representative value of an action作用代表值267.resisting external loads承受外部荷载268.resist抵抗269.retaining wall挡墙270.Rigid Frame Bridge271.Rigid frame bridge刚构桥272.rigid gel硬质凝胶273.roller转轴274.safeguard以保证275.safety factor安全系数276.satisfactory joint performance很好地共同工作277.service loads使用荷载278.serviceability limit state正常使用极限状态279.sets into a rigid mass凝结成硬块280.shear force in the beam梁内剪力281.Shear force剪力282.shrinkage收缩283.shrinkage收缩284.Shuttering模板285.side span /middle span边、中跨径286.Significant savings 显著的节省效果287.Simply-supported beam简支梁288.Slab bridge板桥289.sleeve 套管290.slender members 细长构件291.small accidental bending moments偶然出现的小弯矩292.smear 涂抹293.some porosity 若干孔隙294.special precautions 专门的预防措施295.stainless steel 不锈钢296.standard value标准值297.static 静力的298.steel and concrete deform together钢筋和混凝土的变形要一致299.Stiffening trusses加劲桁架300.stiffness ratio刚度比301.stirrup steels 箍筋302.strain control method应变控制法303.strands, wires, or bars钢绞线、钢丝或钢筋304.stress concentration应力集中305.stress control method应力控制法306.Stress-strain relationship应力-应变关系307.structural mechanics结构力学308.subsoil地基309.sufficient thermal insulation 充分的温度绝缘310.sufficient water 足够的水311.sufficiently close 相当接近312.sufficiently strong bond 足够强的粘结力313.superimposed load附加荷载314.support支座315.surface moisture表面含水量316.Suspension Bridge 悬索桥317.Suspension bridge悬索桥318.T-beam T梁319.technical design技术设计320.tensile strength抗拉强度321.Tensile strength抗拉强度322.tension拉力323.That is即324.The cement paste 水泥浆325.the concrete is to be poured混凝土浇注326.the embedded reinforcement埋置在其内的钢筋327.the loads on the structure结构上作用的荷载328.The maximum size 最大尺寸329.The outside air temperature 室外气温330.the proportion of water 水的比例331.The ratio of water to cement 水与水泥的比332.the surrounding molecules of water周围的水分子333.the width of the forms模板的宽度334.theoretical 理论的335.there are limitations to this development这种发展受到了限制336.thermal expansion coefficients 热膨胀系数337.three-dimensional三维的338.tie beam系梁339.tied-arch bridge系杆拱桥340.too stiff to be worked硬得无法施工341.total design load总设计荷载中342.tower塔343.trigger导致344.truck loading汽车荷载345.Truss桁架346.typical pattern 典型模式347.ultimate limit states承载能力极限状态348.ultimate load design 极限荷载设计349.ultimate load极限荷载350.under exceptional conditions 在特殊情况下351.under the combined effects of serviceload and prestressing force在使用荷载和预应力的联合作用下352.undesirable characteristics of ordinaryreinforced concrete 普通钢筋混凝土的这些不足353.undesirable tensile stresses不利的拉应力354.undisturbed 未被扰动的355.uniform beam 等截面梁356.Uniform 相同的357.unprotected steel 无防护层钢筋358.unreinforced member不加钢筋的混凝土构件359.Unreliability不可靠度eful strength可以利用的强度361.variable action 可变作用362.versus 与…相对363.viaduct pier高架桥桥墩364.wallop冲击力365.well井366.width and number of cracks裂缝宽度和数量367.wing wall翼墙368.with its strength in tension a low andunreliable value其抗拉强度低且不稳定369.with little effort不太费力地370.with the passing of time 随着时间的推移371.workable mixture和易性好的配料372.yield strength屈服强度373.yield surface本构模型屈服面摘要：实验室研究旨在探讨软压实粘性土受到重复加载的反应。
施工方法说明书英语作文
施工方法说明书英语作文Here is an essay on construction methods, written in English with more than 1000 words as requested, without a title and without any extra punctuation marks in the body of the text.Construction is a complex process that involves various techniques and methods to ensure the successful completion of a project. Whether it's a residential building, a commercial structure, or a large-scale infrastructure development, the choice of construction methods plays a crucial role in determining the efficiency, safety, and overall quality of the final product. In this essay, we will explore the different construction methods commonly used in the industry and their respective advantages and disadvantages.One of the most widely used construction methods is the traditional brick and mortar approach. This method involves the use of bricks, cement, and other masonry materials to build the structure's walls, foundations, and other load-bearing components. The advantage of this method is its durability and long-lasting nature, as brick and mortar structures are known for their strength and resistance to weathering and natural disasters. Additionally, this method allows for a high degree of customization, enabling architects and designers tocreate unique and visually appealing structures. However, the traditional brick and mortar method can be labor-intensive and time-consuming, often requiring skilled masons and a significant amount of on-site work.Another popular construction method is the use of concrete. Concrete is a versatile material that can be used for a variety of applications, including foundations, walls, floors, and even structural components. The advantages of concrete construction include its strength, durability, and ability to be molded into complex shapes. Concrete also offers excellent insulation properties, which can help improve the energy efficiency of a building. However, the use of concrete can be more expensive than other construction methods, and it requires specialized equipment and expertise for proper installation and curing.In recent years, the construction industry has seen a growing trend towards the use of prefabricated and modular building systems. These methods involve the construction of building components, such as walls, floors, and roofs, in a controlled factory environment, and then transporting and assembling them on-site. The advantages of prefabricated and modular construction include faster construction times, improved quality control, and reduced on-site waste. Additionally, these methods can be more cost-effective, as they often require less labor and can be more efficient in terms ofmaterial usage. However, the flexibility and customization options may be more limited compared to traditional construction methods.Another construction method that has gained traction in recent years is the use of steel framing. Steel framing systems are known for their strength, durability, and versatility, making them a popular choice for commercial and industrial buildings. Steel frames can be easily customized to suit the specific requirements of a project and can be erected more quickly than traditional wood-framed structures. Additionally, steel framing is often considered more environmentally friendly, as it can be easily recycled at the end of a building's lifespan. However, the initial cost of steel framing can be higher than other construction methods, and it may require specialized expertise for proper installation.In addition to the construction methods mentioned above, there are several other techniques and approaches that are used in the industry. For example, the use of sustainable and eco-friendly materials, such as bamboo, straw, and recycled plastics, is becoming increasingly popular as the construction industry strives to reduce its environmental impact. Similarly, the integration of smart technologies, such as building automation systems and energy-efficient appliances, is becoming more common in modern construction projects.Regardless of the construction method chosen, it is essential to ensure that the project is executed in a safe and efficient manner. This may involve the use of specialized equipment, the implementation of rigorous safety protocols, and the employment of skilled and experienced workers. Additionally, effective project management and coordination between various stakeholders, such as architects, engineers, and contractors, are crucial to the success of any construction project.In conclusion, the choice of construction method is a critical decision that can have a significant impact on the overall success of a project. By understanding the advantages and disadvantages of different construction techniques, construction professionals can make informed decisions that optimize the efficiency, safety, and quality of their projects. As the construction industry continues to evolve, it is likely that we will see the emergence of new and innovative construction methods that further enhance the industry's capabilities and contribute to the development of more sustainable and resilient built environments.。
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Modern Buildings and Structural Materials 许多伟大的建筑很早就修建了现在仍然还存在并在使用中。
在他们之中就包括希腊的帕提侬神庙和罗马的角斗场，伊斯坦布尔的圣索非亚教堂; 法国和英国哥特式教会, 和有着宏伟圆顶的文艺复兴时期大教堂,如佛罗伦萨的中央寺院和罗马的圣彼得大教堂。
他们是使用厚重石头墙体来抵消他们巨大自重的巨型结构。
轴向压力来自于结构的其它部份对其的传导。
这些伟大的建筑不是数学和物理知识的产物。
而是根据经验和观察建造的, 经常是不断摸索的产物。
他们依然存在的原因之一是由于被修建得能承受很大的力量---在许多情况下大于他们需要的力量。
但更早的时期的工程师也有过失败。
例如,在罗马, 大多数人民居住在公寓里, 大的经济公寓经常有十层楼高。
许多修建得很拙劣且不时倒塌，造成了了相当大的财产或生命损失。
然而，今天工程师不仅有经验信息的优势，而且还有科学数据，允许他在事先进行仔细的计算。
当现代工程师设计一个结构时，他要考虑所有组成材料的总重量。
这就是所说的恒载，他是结构自身的重量，他还必须考虑活载，即所有人群、汽车, 家具, 机器, 等等结构在使用中需要承受的荷载。
结构，比如桥梁将要承受高速的汽车通行（行使），它必须考虑冲力力，这个力是活载作用在结构上的。
他还必须确定安全因素，也即是，额外的承载能力以确保结构的强度大于这三个其他因素的组合作用。
现代工程师还要知道结构中材料承受的不同的力。
这些力包括压力和拉力这对互反的力。
受压时，材料受到挤压或是被推倒一起；受拉时，材料被撕开或是被拉长，就像一根橡皮圈。
除了拉力和压力以外，还有另一种力作用于结构上，也就是剪力，我们定义使材料趋于沿着力的作用线断裂的力为剪力。
剪力可能在垂直面作用，但是也有可能沿着梁的水平轴，既不受拉也不受压的中性轴作用。
总之，这三个力会作用在结构上：竖直的---那些向上或向下作用的力；水平的—那些向一侧作用的力；以及那些使旋转或转动的作用力。
以一个角度作用的力是水平力和竖向力的合力。
因为由土木工程师设计的结构要固定或者稳定，这些力必须保持平衡。
例如，竖向力必须相互平衡。
如果一片梁要支撑作用在其上的荷载，梁自身必须要有足够的强度来平衡这个重量。
水平力也必须相互平衡以使得没有向左或向右的太大推力。
以及那些可能使结构转动的力必须和相反方向转动的力相平衡。
现代最为轰动一时的工程事故之一：1940年的Tacoma Narrows大桥，就是因为对这些因素的最后一个因素：扭转考虑的不够仔细而导致的结果。
当时在一次暴风雨中，时速达到65公里每小时的强阵风冲击着大桥，他们把大桥沿行车道吹成波浪形加上横向扭动导致大桥的行车道落水。
幸运的是，工程师从错误中吸取教训，因此现在通常要在风洞试验室中进行桥梁的缩尺模型试验以确定其空气动力阻力。
早期主要的建筑材料是木材和砌石砖，石头或是瓦片以及类似这类的材料。
用砂浆或是沥青，一种类似焦油的物质或是其他粘合剂将各层结合在一起。
希腊人和罗马人有时使用铁杆或是夹子来加强他们的建筑。
例如，希腊帕提农神庙的立柱，为了插铁棒在立柱中钻孔，这些铁棒现在已经锈蚀了。
罗马人也使用称为火山灰的天然水泥，从火山灰中制成，当在水中时就会变得和石头一样硬。
钢材和水泥，这两种最为重要的现代建筑材料，是在十九世纪发明的。
钢材，主要是铁合金和少量的碳，在那时要通过费力的过程才能提炼出来，这限制它只能用于一些特殊用途比如剑刃上。
1856年在贝色麦法发明以后，才能以低价得到大量的钢材。
钢材极大的优点是它的抗拉强度，也就是当在计算等级的拉力作用下，它不会
丧失其强度，这个力，正如我们所见，可以撕开很多材料。
新的合金可以增强钢材的强度并且消除它的一些问题，比如疲劳问题，钢材在应力持续不断的变化作用下所导致的强度减弱。
称为硅酸盐水泥的现代水泥，在1824年发明。
它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，它们加热后碾(碎)成为粉末。
它可以在施工场地或靠近施工场地的地方和沙子，骨料（小石子，碎石或砾石）以及水混合制成混凝土。
成分的不同比例可以制造出不同强度和重量的混凝土。
混凝土非常通用，它可以灌注，泵送甚至喷洒成各种形状。
并且鉴于钢材有很大的抗拉强度，混凝土有很大的抗压强度。
因而，这两种物质可以相互补足。
他们还可以以另一种方式相互补充：他们有几乎相同的压缩和膨胀率。
因此，他们可以在既受压又受拉的情况下共同工作。
在混凝土梁或受拉的结构，钢筋嵌入混凝土中形成钢筋混凝土。
混凝土和钢筋还能形成如此强的粘结-这个粘合他们的力—使得钢筋在混凝土中不会滑移。
还有另外一个好处就是钢在混凝土中不会生锈。
酸腐蚀钢材，而与酸相反，混凝土存在碱性化学反应。
预应力混凝土是钢筋混凝土的改良形式。
钢筋弯成一定形状（弯成形）给他们必要的抗拉强度等级。
然后，通常通过先张法或者后张法，他们给混凝土施加预应力。
预应力混凝土使得发展非常规形状的建筑成为可能，比如一些现代体育场，有很大的不被任何支柱阻断的空间。
这种相对新的结构方法的使用在不断的发展。
目前的趋势是发展更轻的材料。
例如，铝，比钢轻很多但是与钢有很多同样的性能。
铝梁已经在桥梁结构以及一些框架建筑中使用。
人们还尝试制造出强度更高耐久性更好的混凝土同时重量更轻(高性能混凝土)。
一个帮助在一定程度上减少混凝土重量系统是使用高分子材料作为混合料的一部分，这些材料具有用于塑料中的链状化合物。