Socialinguistics_Dodie
topic 2 sociolinguistics and its research methods(1)
the Sociology of Language: is trying to discover how social structure can be better understood through the study of language, e.g., how certain linguistic features serve to characterize particular social arrangements.
3. Adolescence: the models are now other adolescents, but the foundations of language have already been laid --- for most people it is too late to learn a new language or dialect perfectly. 4. Adulthood: the models are other adults, with current adolescents as a potential source of inspiration (or offence).
2.4 Sociolinguistic phenomena
1. An imaginary world --- an ideal one
society: clearly defined boundary language: everybody speaks the same language What would be the consequences?
2. the sociolinguistic development of
the child (p.14)
超全sociolinguistics
Chapter 8: SociolinguisticsLearning objectives●I. Sociolinguistics●II. Language variation●III. Language and gender●IV. Language and class●⏹Throughout the 20th century, a great deal of efforts has been taken to treat theinquiry of linguistics as a Monistic or Autonomous Pursuit of an independent science.⏹The resurrection of a Dualistic View of linguistic inquiry, came into being in the1960s, along with the development of sociolinguistics as an opposition to the dominant theory of Chomskyan linguistics.I. Sociolinguistics⏹Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation❑between language and society,❑between the uses of language and the social structures in which the language users liveTwo perspectives⏹Micro-studies:❑To look at society from the point of view of an individual member within it, or a worm’s-eye view of language in use.⏹Macro-studies:❑To look at society as a whole and consider how language functions in it and how it reflects the social differentiations, a bird’s eye view of the languageused in society.⏹Sociolinguistics is interested in how social factors influence the structure and use oflanguage.⏹Potential influencing social factors?❑class, gender, age, ethnic group, educational background, occupation, religion, etc.❑Comment on: You are what you say. (Lakoff 1991).⏹II. Language varieties⏹The key issue in sociolinguistics study is variation.❑ 1. Standard language❑ 2. Dialect❑ 3. Register❑ 4. Pidgin and Creole❑ 5. Lingua Franca❑ 6. Slang, jargon, and argot1. Standard language⏹George Bernard Shaw, Pygmalion⏹ A particular variety of a language is better than any other.⏹This dominant, or prestigious variety is often called standard variety orstandard language/dialect⏹Quote: A language is a dialect with an army and navy.⏹Question: what is the definition of the standard language in China?⏹普通话的定义：❑以北京语音为标准音, 以北方话为基础方言, 以典范的现代白话文著作为语法规范的现代汉民族共同语。
SociolinguisticsTheEssentialReadings社会语言学经典选读
.sg/Electronic Journal of Foreign Language T eaching2005, V ol. 2, No. 2, pp. 74-78© Centre for Language StudiesNational University of SingaporeReview of “Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings”《社会语言学：经典选读》评介Title Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings 《社会语言学：经典选读》Editors Christina Bratt Paulston & G. Richard TuckerY ear of Publication 2003ISBN 0-631-22717-2No. of Pages xviii+502pPlace of Publication OxfordPublisher BlackwellReviewed by Jingquan Li《社会语言学：经典选读》（Sociolinguistics: The Essential Readings）由美国匹兹堡大学荣誉退休语言学教授Christina Bratt Paulston和美国卡内基美隆大学应用语言学教授、现代语言系主任G. Richard Tucker编写并作序，汇集28位社会语言学家影响深远的研究成果而成。
对于对社会语言学感兴趣的学生和老师来说，这是一个非常优秀的最新入门读本，由11个部分组成，共收录29篇论文，多数是再版，每个部分的首篇论文都是该子域的经典之作，接下来的论文大部分年代较近，是过去近50年社会语言学研究者的力作，其中一些专门为这个读本而作。
编者认为，每个部分都代表了社会语言学研究的一个主要领域。
每个部分都包括编者的导言，在导言末尾还列出了推荐阅读的文献目录；每个部分由1篇到6篇社会语言学特定领域经典研究论文组成；每个部分完结时还专辟一页空间，列出一些讨论题和活动实例。
Sociolinguistics
1.Definition: Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline oguage in social contexts. 2. Two concerns: 1) the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communities including regional, ethnic and social groups. 2) impact of extralinguistic factors on language use, such as age, gender, profession, and social status. 3. Five sections
1. Two definitions: 1) A speech community: a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language. 2) A social group: besides regionally, a social group may distinguish
Contents: 1. Speech community 2. Speech variety 3. Regional variation 4. Social variation 5. Stylistic variation 6. Idiolectal variation
Speech community
3. Language variation → → → → 1. Education varieties 4. Social dialect → →Age varieties 2. 3. Gender varieties 5. Ethnic dialect 4. Register varieties
新编简明语言学作业以及答案
1 Which of the following modes of study emphasizes the correct and standard usage of language选择一项：a. synchronicb. prescriptivec. diachronicd. descriptive正确答案是：prescriptive2 Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This feature is called_________,选择一项：a. cultural transmissionb. flexibilityc. displacementd. duality题目3An important difference between traditional grammarians and modern linguists in their study of language is that the former tended to over-emphasize the written form of language and encourage people to imitate the "best authors" for language usage.选择一项：对错题目4General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.选择一项：对错正确的答案是“对”。
\题目5Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.选择一项：a. senseb. objectsc. ideasd. sounds题目6正确获得分中的分标记题目题干The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s____.答案：反馈g正确答案是：syntax题目7正确获得分中的分标记题目题干According to Chomsky, ________ is the ideal user's internalized knowledge of his language.选择一项：a. competenceb. parolec. performanced. langue反馈你的回答正确正确答案是：competence题目8正确获得分中的分标记题目题干Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.选择一项：对错反馈Tg正确的答案是“对”。
sociolinguistics
3.2 The Study Scopes of Sociolinguistics
社会语言学的研究范围：一般而言，包括以下几个方面: 1）一个国家或地区的语言状况如双言制（diglossia） 、双语、多语或多方言状况； 2）各种语言变体包括地域方言和社会方言（social dialect或sociolect）、标准语和土语（vernacular） 、正式语体（formal style）和非正式语体（informal style）等构造特点及其社会功能； 3）交谈情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人 际关系的相互作用； 4）社会以及不同的集团对各种语言或语言变体的评价 和态度以及由此产生的社会效应； 5）由于社会的、文化的、经济的、政治的种种原因以 及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律，等等。
empirical investigation.
It is related to methodology and contents of social sciences.
2. DEVELOPMENT AND MAIN REPRESENTATIVES
ORIGINS: Saussure’s & Chomsky’s concepts PROMINENT FIGURES: William Labov & Peter Trudgill
(3). It also studies the influence of the essence and differentiations of society on language (e.g. How to distinguish a person‟s status in his social class by groups, religion, gender, educational level, age, ethnic origin, etc. which he belongs to.) On the whole, sociolinguistics, drawing upon the theories and methods of different aspects of social sciences( such as sociology, anthropology, ethnography, psychology, geography, history, etc.), studies and researches language, and its social essence and differentiations, as well as its social factors.
高级英语写作2020尔雅答案
第一章节测验1【单选题】Baseball was invented as an urban game in order for owners to make money, players to become arrogant, and spectators to drink overpriced beer. The tone of the sentence is _____ ____. 答案：humorous•A、objective•B、nostalgic•C、humorous•D、bitter2【单选题】The Puritans came to the new land for religious freedom, ye t they allowed little freedom to their followers. Anne Hutch inson was banished from the colony for preaching that salvat ion can come through good works. The tone of the sentence is _________. 答案：ironic•A、ironic•B、sentimental•C、optimistic•D、friendly3【单选题】When I study now, I’m in a lab with 50 noisy computers. What happened to the quiet chair in a corner with a table for your books, papers, and pencils? The tone of the sent ence is _________. 答案：nostalgic•A、objective•B、nostalgic•C、bitter•D、critical4【单选题】If given the funding, scientists could trace most aggressive behavior of crime and violence to either too much testoste rone or low blood sugar. The tone of the sentence is _____ ____. 答案：objective•A、objective•B、sentimental•C、subjective•D、joyful5【单选题】Editorials in newspapers are written mainly to __________. 答案：argue a point•A、argue a point•B、entertain readers•C、provide information•D、tell a story6【单选题】Samuel Slater opened a new factory in Rhode Island in 1790 and employed seven boys and two girls between the ages of seven and twelve. The primary purpose of this sentence is to __________. 答案：inform readers•A、persuade readers•B、inform readers•C、to entertain readers•D、describe a place7【单选题】The CIA was engaged in (covert) activities in South America that were not made public. The word in the paranthesis me ans _____. 答案：hidden•A、foreign•B、dishonest•C、dangerous•D、hidden8【单选题】The meeting was brief, and the message was (concise) and to the point. The word in the paranthesis means _________. 答案：short•A、laborious•B、lengthy•C、short•D、important9【单选题】If we have to have a pet around the house, get one that is (docile) and easy to manage. The word in the paranthesis means_________. 答案：gentle•A、gentle•B、short•C、sick•D、young10【单选题】He talked so loudly that it became the (dominant) characteri stic of his personality, the one you remembered. The word i n the paranthesis means _________. 答案：outstanding•A、outstanding•B、laudable•C、negative•D、diminished11【单选题】The student was accused of (plagiarism) because the term pap er contained the exact words of an author without giving a reference. The word in the paranthesis means__________. 答案：stealing words•A、stealing words•B、false handwriting•C、counterfeiting•D、sin12【判断题】Much of our lives, in fact, is spent filling out surveys, taking tests, and being interviewed. This statement is a fac t. 答案：错误13【判断题】Alder, too, believed that early childhood experiences shaped the human personality, but he emphasized the social nature o f the child’s urges. This statement is an opinion. 答案：错误14【判断题】When you use annotations to clarify, you can underline key statements, number supporting arguments, define unusual words, and paraphrasing difficult passages. 答案：正确15【判断题】In the margin of a book you explicitly state the ideas onl y indirectly suggested by the text. This is annotation to e valuate. 答案：错误16【判断题】If the meaning of words or structure is unclear, a well-pla ced question mark will remind you of what is puzzling. 答案：正确17【判断题】Feel free to express your bold or unusual opinions with any type of phrase, mark, or sign that conveys your attitude. In this case, you are using the annotations to evaluate.答案：正确18【判断题】Through annotations to clarify, you may recognize your reacti ons and express them in writing. 答案：错误19【判断题】A reading journal is a diary of your thought processes. 答案：正确20【判断题】The reading journal provides the space for more extended ide as-and particularly for ideas not tied to a particular passa ge of the original. 答案：正确21【判断题】You should avoid shifting the topic, contradicting yourself, or losing sense in your journal. 答案：错误22【判断题】Like any type of writing, your reading journal needs to be convincing. 答案：错误23【判断题】Unlike marginal comments, what you write in the journal is often decided by your teacher. 答案：错误24【判断题】One technique for developing the habit of keeping a journal is freewriting. 答案：正确25【判断题】Outlining is a form of note-taking that gives a quick displ ay of key issues and essential supporting details. 答案：正确26【判断题】The outline forces you to sort out significant details and decide on levels of importance. 答案：正确27【判断题】When taking notes in outline form, record as many details a s you can. 答案：错误28【判断题】Always remember you are outlining to save time for later st udy and review. 答案：正确第二章节测验1【单选题】Which of the following sentences makes the best main idea?答案：B•A、Walking for twenty minutes a day three times a week strengt hens the heart.•B、Swimming utilizes all the muscles of the body and improves lung capacity.•C、Exercise is important.•D、Exercise can contribute to a healthier heart and stronger lu ngs.2【单选题】Which of the following sentences makes the best main idea?答案：D•A、As a college student there are many appealing coursesof study from which to choose.•B、Computer science programs are increasingly popular.•C、Child care and teaching appeal to a large number of students.•D、Many high school students attend college.3【单选题】Which of the following sentences makes the best main idea?答案：For many of us, our relationship with our parents is unquestionably our greatest cause of stress.•A、Some of us suffer great stress over our relationships.•B、Much of our adult lives is spent trying to come to terms with one of our parents.•C、Many people seek therapy to cope with parental relationships.•D、For many of us, our relationship with our parents isunquestionably our greatest cause of stress.4【单选题】People are increasingly concerned about food safety, and matt ers such as food-borne illnesses, environmental contaminations, natural toxicants in foods, pesticides, and food additives. Moving the food from the field to processors, stores, and onto your table requires a vast network. Public agencies m onitor this huge network. Which of the following is the bes t topic for the passage? 答案：food safety•A、food safety•B、public agencies•C、food-borne illnesses•D、pesticides5【单选题】Health is a cultural concept that is defined differently in different cultures. The prevailing definition of health has evolved from the “absence of illness”to the broader ter m, wellness, with its definition as “a life-style that emph asizes such health- promoting behaviors as eating a healthful diet, avoiding harmful substances, enjoying regular exercise, and cultivating self-esteem.”Which of the following is be st topic for this passage? 答案：definition of health•A、cultural concepts•B、definition of health•C、cultivating self-esteem•D、eating a healthful diet6【单选题】Sociolinguistics is concerned with the ethnography of speaking , that is, with cultural and subcultural patterns of speech variation in different social contexts. The sociolinguist mi ght ask, for example, what kinds of things one talks aboutin casual conversations with a stranger. A foreigner may k now English vocabulary and grammar well but may not know th at one typically chats with a stranger about the weather or where one comes from, and not about what one ate that da y or how much money one earns. A foreigner may be familiar with much of the culture of a North American city, but i f that person divulges the real state of his or her health and feelings to the first person who says, “How are you?”he or she has much to learn about “small talk”in No rth American English. Similarly, North Americans tend to get confused in societies where greetings are quite different f rom ours. People in some other societies may ask a greeting , “Where are you going?”or “What are you cooking?”Som e Americans may think such questions are rude; others may t ry to answer in excruciating detail, not realizing that only vague answers are expected, just as we don’t really expec t a detailed answer when we ask people “How are you?”--Judith Resnick & Lanny Lester, Text & Thought, pp. 194-195 Which of the following is the best summary for this passa ge? 答案：Sociolinguists are interested in how speech is used in different cultures and different social contexts, such as in making small talk and greeting people.•A、A foreigner may be familiar with the English languagebut not with the appropriate topics for making small talk.•B、North Americans may not respond appropriately to greetings in other societies.•C、Conversation differs around the world.•D、Sociolinguists are interested in how speech is used in different cultures and different social contexts, suchas in making small talk and greeting people.7【单选题】Paraphrase Nine out of ten doctors responding to a survey s aid they recommend our product to their patients if they re commend anything. Which of the following best explains the m eaning of the original sentence? 答案：If they recommend anything, nine out of ten doctors responding to a survey recommend the product.•A、Nine out of ten doctors recommend the product.•B、Of the doctors who responded to a survey, nine out of ten doctors recommend the product.•C、If they recommend anything, nine out of ten doctors responding to a survey recommend the product.•D、Most doctors recommend the product.8【单选题】Paraphrase This organization may succeed marvelously at whatit wants to do, but what it wants to do may not be all that important. Which of the following best explains the mea ning of the original sentence? 答案：Although the organization may reach its goals, the goals might not be important.•A、Although the organization may reach its goals, the goals might not be important.•B、The organization is marvelous.•C、What the organization wants is marvelous.•D、The organization does not have a clear goal.9【单选题】Paraphrase This book contains a totally new outlook that com bines the wisdom of the past with scientific knowledge to s olve the problems of the present. Which of the following be st explains the meaning of the original sentence? 答案：In this book, current knowledge and past wisdom are combined to solve current problems.•A、Problems of the past and present are solved in this book.•B、In this book, current knowledge and past wisdom are combined to solve current problems.•C、Only by using knowledge of the past and present can we solve problems.•D、None of today’s problems can be solved without scientific knowledge.10【单选题】Paraphrase It would be difficult to overpraise this book. Wh ich of the following best explains the meaning of the origi nal sentence? 答案：This book deserves much praise.•A、This is a difficult book.•B、It is difficult not to overpraise this book.•C、This book deserves much praise.•D、It is difficult to praise this book.11【单选题】Paraphrase When there is an absence of reliable information about drugs, the risks involved in using them are greatly i ncreased. Which of the following best explains the meaning o f the original sentence? 答案：Using drugs is more dangerous when we don’t know what effects and danger are involved.•A、There is no reliable information about drugs.•B、There are no risks involved in using drugs if we have reliable information about them.•C、The risks involved in using drugs have increased. •D、Using drugs is more dangerous when we don’t know what effects and danger are involved.。
Sociolinguistics
引言
社会语言学是一门年轻的学科，从确立 至今只有 40年左右的历史，但却因其独 特的学科性质和极强的发展能力而备受 关注。 社会语言学的确立以1964年在美国召开 的第9届国际语言学大会为标志。
历史背景
考察语言问题需结合社会因素的思想在 中西学术史中早已有之。 但直到18、19世纪、语言的社会性质才 真正引起人们的重视。有关语言和社会 关系的论述开始出现在一些著名学者的 文章、著作中。
主要流派
社会方言学（social dialectology） 语言社会学（sociology of language） 交际民族志学（ethnopology of communication） 语言社会心理学（social psychology of language） 互动社会语言学（interactional sociolinguistics）
而且成为许多大学语言学系的专业课程， 得到了学术界的普遍承认。
历史背景
就连当初把社会语言学研究比喻为采集蝴蝶标 本的工作，认为其重要性无法同理论语言学相 提并论的乔姆斯基，最后也改变了看法，声称 从不怀疑社会语言学研究在语言科学中的合法 地位。 当代社会语言学的应用研究在法律、广告、诊 断、教育等领域内广泛开展，已经成为社会文 化的有机组成部分之一，引起了越来越多的关 注。
主要流派
互动社会语言学（interactional sociolinguistics）
曾被译为“交际社会语言学”或“相互交往社 会语言学” 会话过程绝不是一个简单的罗列词语的过程。 研究语言和非语言知识在会话过程中的作用以 及说话人的社会文化背景如何跟这些知识相互 影响。
大学英语语言学期末考试名词解释和论述答案
名词解释petence and Performance:The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N.Chomsky in the late1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.(American linguist N.Chomsky in the late1950’s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.According to Chomsky,performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect,his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress,embarrassment,etc..Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence,which is systematic,not the performance,which is too haphazard.)2.Sociolinguistics:is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society,between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.(It is a field of study that assumes that human society is made up of many related patterns and behaviors,some of which are linguistic.)nguage Acquisition:refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue,i.e.how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.(Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans.In general,language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language,that is,the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.)4.the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis:The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf(and also a belief held by some scholars).It states that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language.(2)The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis consists of two parts,i.e.linguistic determinism and relativism.Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language.Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought,i.e.the notion of linguistic determinism.Because languages differ in many ways,Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience theworld differently,i.e.relative to their linguistic background,hence the notion of linguistic relativism.5.Phrase structure rule:The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule,such as:NP→(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.those people,the fish on the plate,pretty girls.VP→(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.always play games,finish assignments.AP→(Deg)+A+(PP)……very handsome,very pessimistic,familiar with,very close toPP→(Deg)+P+(NP)……on the shelf,in the boat,quite near the station.The boy liked the dog.(The combinational pattern in a linear formula may be called a phrase structural rule,or rewrite rule[重写规则].)6.Arbitrariness:The form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.The link between them is a matter of convention.(It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.For instance,there is no necessary relationship between the word dog and the animal it refers to.The fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages and that the same sound may be used to refer to different objects is another good example.Although language is arbitrary by nature,it is not entirely arbitrary.Some words,such as the words created in the imitation of sounds by sounds are motivated in a certain degree.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.)7.narrow transcription:transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.(The narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.)8.Second Language Acquisition:Second Language Acquisition(SLA)refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.(SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner's interim knowledge of the target language,known as interlingua.This is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.Specifically, interlanguage consists of a series of interlocking and approximate linguistic systems in-between and yet distinct from the learner's native and target languages.It represents the learner’s transitional competence moving along a learning continuum stretching from one’s LI competence to the target language competence.As a type of linguistic system in its own right,interlanguage is a product of L2training,mother tongue interference,overgeneralization of the target language rules,and communicative strategies of the learner.If learners were provided sufficient and the right kind of language exposure and opportunities to interact with language input,their interlanguage would develop gradually in the direction of the target language competence.)9.sense and reference:Sense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense—is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form;it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference—what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.10.Interlanguage:Learns put their first language back to the whole picture and studied its role from a cognitive perspective.In this sense,native language functions as a kind of“input from inside,”therefore transfer is not transfer,but a kind of mental process.(SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprisesthe learner’s interim knowledge of the target language,known asinterlanguage.)nguage Acquisition Device:The Language Acquisition Device(LAD)is a hypothetical brain mechanism that Noam Chomsky postulated to explain human acquisition of the syntactic structure of language.This mechanism endows children with the capacity to derive the syntactic structure and rules of their native language rapidly and accurately from the impoverished input provided by adult language users.The device is comprised of a finite set of dimensions along which languages vary,which are set at different levels for different languages on the basis of language exposure.The LAD reflects Chomsky's underlying assumption that many aspects of language are universal(common to all languages and cultures)and constrained by innate core knowledge about language called Universal Grammar.This theoretical account of syntax acquisition contrasts sharply with the views of B.F.Skinner,Jean Piaget,and other cognitive and social-learning theorists who emphasize the role of experience and general knowledge and abilities in language acquisition.??????(LAD,that is Language Acquisition Device,is posited by Chomsky in the1960s as a device effectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.)12.Cooperative Principle:According to Grice,in making conversation,there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe.It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.使你所说的话，在其所发生的阶段，符合你所参与的交谈的公认目标或方向。
Sociolinguistics
Speech variety
言语变体 Any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. For example, a girl’s way of speaking to her boyfriend is definitely of different styles from the way she speaks to her linguistic professor.
Sociolinguistics
Brief intriduction and applications
What is Sociolinguistics?
DEFINITION： Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society. The study of language in relation to social factors. For
• Micro-sociolinguistics
Looking at society from the point of view of an individual member within it.
Concepts in sociolinguistics
Speech community
言语社团
For general linguistics, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety a language. e.g. a village, a region, a nation, etc.
现代语言学第八章 社会语言学
意或无意选择符合他们社会身 dialect社会方言
• 社会方言(social dialect 或sociolect)指社会中属 于同一阶级、阶层、或社会群体所使用的语言 变体。社会方言通行于有着相同社会背景的群 体之中。社会群体的多样化决定了社会方言的 多样化。 Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes. The speakers of a social dialect usually share a similar social background.
现代语言学
第八章 社会语言学 Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics
What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社会语言学？
• Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline亚学科 of linguistics that studies language in social contexts. • 社会语言学(sociolinguistics)是一门语言学的分支 学科，把语言置于社会环境中来研究语言。 • 社会是怎样给人分组的？Social group（贴标签）
受过相同教育的人往往使用相同的被称之为教 育变体的社会方言。例如，具有高等学历的学 生与早期辍学的学生相比，他们的语言形式更 加书面化。
•
年龄变体
• The way language is used correlates with一一对应 the age of individual speakers. The importance of age as a social factor in language variation is strikingly demonstrated显著 的呈现 by children’s language as it develops with age. While some differences in pronunciation发音 are found to correlate with different generation of speakers, the most striking differences are lexical词汇的.
社会语言学Sociolinguistics(5)
Accommodation and audience design
Audience design: adjusting one‟s speech to be similar to that of a real or imagined listener. When people talk to each other, their speech often becomes more similar. In other words each person‟s speech converges towards the speech of the person they are talking to. This process is called speech accommodation.
3.4.2 Polyglossia
Diglossic situations involve two contrasting varieties, H and L. Sometimes, however, a more sophisticated concept is needed to describe the functional distribution of different varieties in a community. People like Kalala in Bukavu, for instance, use many different codes for different purposes. The term polyglossia has been used for situations like this where a community regularly uses more than two languages.
社会语言学
游汝杰、邹嘉彦 指出社会语言学（Sociolinguistics）学科名称是由社会学（Sociology）和语言学（Linguistics）复合而成，内容包括两个方面，一是Social Linguistics，基本涵义是：从语言的社会属性出发，用社会学的方法研究语言，从社会的角度解释语言变体和语言演变。二是Sociology of Language，基本涵义是：从语言变体和语言演变的事实，来解释相关的社会现象及其演变和发展的过程。 从研究方向来界定社会语言学，简而言之，前者是从社会研究语言，后者是从语言研究社会。
祝畹瑾
祝畹瑾 她将研究内容细分为五个方面：（1）一个国家或地区的语言状况，和按照各种属性划分的言语共同体使用语言的状况和特征；（2）各种语言变体的构造特点及其社会功能；（3）交谈的情景与选择语码之间的关系以及语码选择与人际关系的相互作用；（4）社会以及不同的集团对各种语言变体的评价和态度以及由此产生的社会效应；（5）由于社会的、文化的、经济的政治的种种原因以及语言接触所引起的语言变化的方式和规律等。 她的界定主要是关注言语共同体、语言变体、语码转换、社会与变体的联系这几个方面。
Sociolinguistics is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society,including the social functions of language and the social characteristics of its users.Sociolinguistics is the studyguage varieties,the characteristics of their functions,and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speechIseeks to discover the societal rules and norms that explain and constrain language behaviour and the behaviour toward language in speech also seeks to determine the symbolic value of language varieties for their speakers.That language varieties come to have symbolic or symptomatic value,in and of themselves,is an inevitable consequence of their functional differentiation.(Reproduction of this article without written permission is strictly prohibited.contact me via email if you want to copy this eassay: This essay is taken from"Linguistics.A Course Book" Editor in chief:胡壮麟Subeditor:姜望琪 资料来源：《语言学教程》 主编：胡壮麟 副主编：姜望琪)
语言学讲义 考研 7 Sociolinguistics
• J. R. Firth (1890-1960): theory of the context of situation
1. The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities. 2. The relevant objects. 3. The effects of the verbal action.
• The social environment can also be reflected in language, and can often have an effect on the structure and the vocabulary.
– For example, a society's kinship system is generally reflected in its kinship vocabulary.
6
• Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context. • Bronislaw Malinowski (18841942):
1.The meaning of a word greatly depends upon its occurrence in a given context. nguage functions as a link in human activity, a mode of action.
11
• Linguistic evidence of cultural differences
– Terms of address
英语语言学名词解释之欧阳道创编
Chapter 12 : Language AndBrain1. neurolinguistics: It is the study of relationship between brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.2. psycholinguistics: the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processes of language acqisition, comprehension and production.3. brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive and perceptive functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain.4. dichotic listening: A technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization of cognitive function.5. right ear advantage: The phenomenon that the right ear shows an advantage for the perception of linguistic signals id known as the right ear advantage.6. split brain studies: The experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing the corpus callosum on cognition are called as split brain studies.7. aphasia: It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions caused by a tumor, an accident and so on.8. non-fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called non-fluent aphasia.9. fluent aphasia: Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results in a type of aphasia called fluent aphasia.10. Acquired dyslexia: Damage in and around the angular gyrus of the parietal lobe often causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.11. phonological dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems to have lost the ability to use spelling-to-sound rules.12. surface dyslexia: it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unable to recognize words as whole but must process all words through a set of spelling-to-sound rules.13. spoonerism: a slip of tongue in which the position of sounds, syllables, or words is reversed, for example, Let’s have chish and fips instend of Let’s have fish and chips.14. priming: the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string of letters is a word or not, they are presented with an activated word.15. frequency effect: Subjects take less time to make judgement on frequently used words than to judge less commonly used words . This phenomenon is called frequency effect.16. lexical decision: an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letter is a word or not at a certain time.17. the priming experiment: An experiment that let subjects judge whether a string of letters is a word or not after showed with a stimulus word, called prime.18. priming effect: Since the mental representation is activated through the prime, when the target is presented, response time is shorter that it otherwise would have been. This is called the priming effect. (06F)19. bottom-up processing: an approach that makes use principally of information which is already present in the data.20. top-down processing: an approach that makes use of previous knowledge and experience of the readers in analyzing and processing information which is received. 21. garden path sentences: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence.22. slip of the tongue: mistakes in speech which provide psycholinguistic evidence for the way we formulate words and phrases.Chapter 11 : Second Language Acquisition1. second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.2. target language: The language to be acquired by the second language learner.3. second language: A second language is a language which is not a native language in a country but which is widely used as a medium of communication and which is usually used alongside another language or languages.4. foreign language: A foreign language is a language which is taught as a school subject but which is not used as a medium of instruction in schools nor as a language of communication within a country.5. interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process oflearning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions.6. fossilization: In second or foreign language learning, there is a process which sometimes occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.7. contrastive analysis: a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.8. contrastive analysis hypothesis: A hypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.9. positive transfer: It refers to the transfer that occur when both the native language and the target language have the same form, thus making learning easier. (06F)10. negative transfer: the mistaken transfer of features of one’s native language into a second language.11. error analysis: the study and analysis of errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common difficulties in language learning.12. interlingual error: errors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical etc.13. intralingual error: Errors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language. The typical examples are overgeneralization and cross-association.14. overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable.15. cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association.16. error: the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the rules of that target language.17. mistake: mistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible, suggest failure in performance.18. input: language which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.19. intake: the input which is actually helpful for the learner.20. Input Hypothesis: A hypothesis proposed by Krashen , which states that in second language learning, it’s necessary for the learner to understand input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught directly.21. acquisition: Acquisition is a process similar to the way children acquire their first language. It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learners are hardly aware of their learning but they are using language to communicate. It is also called implicit learning, informal learning or natural learning.22. learning: learning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.23. comprehensible input: Input language which contains linguistic items that are slightly beyond the learner’s present linguistic competence. (06F)24. language aptitude: the natural ability to learn a language, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.25. motivation:motivation is defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive.26. instrumental motivation: the motivation that people learn a foreign language for instrumental goals such as passing exams, or furthering a career etc. (06C)27. integrative motivation: the drive that people learn a foreign language because of the wish to identify with the target culture. (06C/ 05)28. resultative motivation: the drive that learners learn a second language for external purposes. (06F)29. intrinsic motivation: the drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment or pleasure from learning. 30. learning strategies:learning strategies are learners’ conscious goal-oriented and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency.31. cognitive strategies: strategies involved in analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what has been learned. (07C/ 06F)32. metacognitive strategies: the techniques in planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.33. affect/ social strategies: the strategies dealing with the ways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native or non-native.Chapter 10: Language Acquisition1. language acquisition:It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community.2. language acquisition device (LAD): A hypothetical innate mechanism every normal human child is believed to be born with, which allow them to acquire language. (03)3. Universal Grammar: A theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.4. motherese: A special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow rate of speed, high pitch, rich intonation, shorter and simpler sentence structures etc.----又叫child directed speech，caretaker talk.(05)5. Critical Period Hypothesis: The hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formal instruction successfully and effortlessly. (07C/ 06F/ 04)6. under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation.7. over-extension: Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children.8. telegraphic speech:Children’s early multiword speech that contains content words and lacks function words and inflectional morphemes.9. content word: Words referring to things, quality, state or action, which have lexical meaning used alone.10. function word: Words with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationships in and between sentences.11. taboo: Words known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons of religion, politeness etc. (07C)12. atypical development: Some acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the same rules of language development due to trauma or injury.Chapter 9: Language And Culture1. culture : The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of human community.2. discourse community : It refers to the common ways that members of some social group use language to meet their needs.3. acculturation : A process in which changes on the language, culture and system of values of a group happenthrough interaction with another group with a different language, culture and a system of values.4. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis : The interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.5. linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structure of their native language-----又叫Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. (06C)6. linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines the way in which we view and think about the world around us. (06C)7. denotative meaning: It refers to the literal meaning, which can be found in a dictionary.8. connotative meaning: The association of a word, apart from its primary meaning.9. iconic meaning: The image of a word invoked to people.10. metaphors: A figure of speech, in which no function words like like, as are used. Something is described by stating another thing with which it can be compared.11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g. powder room for toilet.12. cultural overlap:The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being13. cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion. (05/03) 14. cultural imperialism: The situation of increasing cultural diffusion all over the world.(06C)15. linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language. (06C)16. linguistic nationalism: In order to protect the purity of their language, some countries have adopted special language policy. It is called linguistic nationalism.17. intercultural communication: It is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols are distinct enough to alter the communication event.18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national or official language(s), ways of spreading the use of a language, spelling reforms, the addition of new words to the language, and other language problems.Chapter 8: Language And Society1. sociolinguistics: The subfield of linguistics that study language variation and language use in social contexts.2. speech community: A group of people who form a community and share at least one speech variety as well as similar linguistic norms. (05)3. speech varieties: It refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.4. regional dialect: A variety of language used by people living in the same geographical region.5. sociolect: A variety of language used by people, who belong to a particular social class.6. registers : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.7. idiolect :A person’s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regarding regional, social, gender and age variations. (04)8. linguistic reportoire : The totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual constitutes his linguistic repertoire.9. register theory : A theory proposed by American linguist Halliday, who believed that three social variables determine the register, namely, field of discourse, tenor of discourse and mode of discourse.10. field of discourse : the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior..11. tenor of discourse: It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other.12. mode of discourse: It refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how communication is carried out.13. standard dialect: A superposed variety of language ofa community or nation, usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.14. formality: It refers to the degree of formality in different occasions and reflects the relationship and conversations. According to Martin Joos, there are five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, formal and frozen.15. Pidgin: A blending of several language, developing as a contact language of people, who speak different languages, try to communication with one another on a regular basis. 16. Creole : A pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers used in this daily life.17. bilingualism : The use of two different languages side by side with each having a different role to play, and language switching occurs when the situation changes.(07C) 18. diaglossia : A sociolinguistic situation in which two different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each having a definite role to play.19. Lingua Franca : A variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people, who speak different native languages or dialects20. code-switching: the movement back and forth between two languages or dialects within the same sentence or1. historical linguistics: A subfield of linguistics that study language change.2. coinage: A new word can be coined to fit some purpose.(03)3. blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.4. clipping: Clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases.5. borrowing: When different culture come into contact, words are often borrowed from one language to another. It is also called load words.6. back formation: New words may be coined from already existing words by subtracting an affix mistakenly thought to be part of the old word. Such words are called back-formation.7. functional shift: Words may shift from one part of speech to another without the addition of affixes.8. acronyms: Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.9. protolanguage: The original form of a language family, which has ceased to exist.10. Language family: A group of historically related languages that have developed from a common ancestral language.Chapter 6: Pragmatics1. pragmatics: The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.2. context: The general knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. (05)3. sentence meaning: The meaning of a self-contained unit with abstract and de-contextualized features.4. utterance meaning: The meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance in a particular context. (03)5. utterance: expression produced in a particular context with a particular intention.6. Speech Act Theory: The theory proposed by John Austin and deepened by Searle, which believes that we are performing actions when we are speaking. (05)7. constatives: Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. (06F)8. performatives:Performatives are sentences that don’t state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.9. locutionary act: The act of conveying literal meaning by virtue of syntax, lexicon and phonology.10. illocutionary act:The act of expressing the speaker’s intention and performed in saying something. (06F)11. perlocutionary act: The act resulting from saying something and the consequence or the change brought about by the utterance.12. representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true.13. directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something.14. commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action.15. expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.16. declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something.17. cooperative Principle: The principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.18. conversational implicature:The use of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation.19. formality: formality refers to the degree of how formal the words are used to express the same purpose. Martin Joos proposed five stages of formality, namely, intimate, casual, consultative, cold, and frozen. (06F)Chapter 5: Semantics1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. Itis the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.6. dialectal synonyms: synonyms that are used in different regional dialects.7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they go together with.9. polysemy : The same word has more than one meaning.(05/03)10. homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.(04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. 14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.21. entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other.E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows. e.g. Some tea has already been taken is a presupposition of Take some more tea.23. componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as[+human] [+male] [-adult].24. predication analysis: a way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentence meaning.25. predication: In the framework of predication analysis, the basic units is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.26. predicate: A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.27. argument: An argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) ina sentence.28. selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.29. semantic features: The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. (04)30. presequence: The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action. (05)Chapter 4: Syntax1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. 13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.15. subcategorization:The information about a word’s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization. (07C)16. complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause. 20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.24. deep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.25. surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.2. open class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.3. closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.9. free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.。
Sociolinguistics_1_Introduction
Sociolinguistics 1 Introduction1 BackgroundThree Views of Language1）Language as Grammar (Chomsky):Three sub-systemsPhonologicalLexical: morphology; words and morphemesSyntactic: syntax2)Language as communication:The Interaction of PeopleWhat do you communicate? Ideas? Emotions? Intentions?How do you communicate?3) Language as thing:•Language as an element in social constructs.•Language planning, code switching, dialect debates, national identity, ethnicity2 What is sociolinguistics?1) Definition: Sociolinguistics is the study of language(s) in relation tosociety. (i.e.,the structure of language: words, sounds, constructions, relations vs. i.e. the structure of society: people, groups, relations)２）Relations between language and society (p79)1.Social structure may influence or determine linguistic structureand/or behavior;2.Linguistic structure/behavior influences or determines socialstructure (Whorfian hypothesis);3. Language and society affect each other;4. No relationship at all between language and culture;３) Broad/narrow conceptions of sociolinguistics (Spolsky, 2000: PP5-7) Broad: Macrolinguistics – social emphasis (sociology of language) ♦Social functions of language (national identity, power and solidarity)♦Political policy (urbanization, minority group issues, education,language policies)♦Devising of writing systems♦Language use in the constitution of individual identity (dialect show where a person comes and register reveals what hedoes)♦How conversational patterns signify community membership (e.g., black English, deletion of BE)Narrow: microlinguistics –language emphasis:variation at some level of the grammar (sociolinguistics): e.g.,1) Regional difference:行动电话(台湾)--移动电话(大陆说法)便当(台湾)--盒饭(大陆用语)公德心(台湾)--精神文明(大陆用语)超音波(台湾)--超声波(大陆用语)撞球(台湾)--台球(大陆用语)2)GreetingEnglish: Hi, how are you? How do you do? Morning? Good Morning?Chinese: 你好？吃饭了吗？最近好吗？你死哪去呢？３) Naming in English（Title + Given name + Family name）Who am I? (Richard Hudson)Professor HudsonDr R A HudsonRichard HudsonHudsonHudson, RichardDickDadPossible combinations:T G F Professor Richard HudsonT F Professor HudsonG F Richard/Dick HudsonG Richard/DickT Doctor ok for some titlesF Hudson NB: old-fashioned!Not: T F Professor Dick ungrammatical!!Consider the Solidarity and PowerTo superior stranger: TF (Mr Smith)To subordinate relative: G (John) Father to sonTo superior relative: T (Dad) son to fatherTo equal acquaintance: G (colleagues)To superior acquaintance: ? (clerk vs. boss)（Question: Any difficulty in addressing a person?）Addressing term of the first pronoun in Chinese “我”西周汉语的语料中,有"我、余(予)、朕、印、吾"，我，咱、俺（在先秦时代，“朕”是第一人称代词。
社会语言学Sociolinguistics(7)
Isogloss and Dialect boundary Isogloss: a line drawn on a map to show the geographical boundaries of the distribution of a particular linguistic feature. Dialect boundary: several isoglosses coincide on the dialect atlas.
Sociolinguistics(7)
Instructor: Hua Xianfa
Chapter V Language and Geography
5.1 Regional Variation Language varies in a number of ways. One way of characterizing certain variations is to say that speakers of a particular language sometimes speak different dialects of that language. As discussed before, dialect is hard to define, but has to be used in studies of regional variation.
Linguistic features of Lingua Franca
a)borrowing words; b)variation in sound system; c)reduced grammar. Social factors have helped the growth and spread of lingua francas.
社会语言学理论指导下的英语语言学习
社会语言学理论指导下的英语语言学习摘要：社会语言学是一门从社会的视角出发研究语言的学科。
在社会语言学理论指导下，英语语言学习者可以更好地了解英语文化、明确学习目的、开拓学习思路，实现用英语沟通的学习目标。
关键词：社会语言学理论文化学习网络语言社会语言学（Sociolinguistics ）是美国语言学家哈佛·丘里（H.Currie ）在1952年发表的论文《社会语言学的设计：语言和社会阶层的关系》（ A Projection of Sociolinguistics：the Relationship of Speech to Social Status）中最先提出的。
之后，在1964年5月，美国召开首届社会语言学大会，会议论文集《社会语言学》在次年的出版标志着社会语言学的诞生。
社会语言学是研究语言与社会多方面关系的学科，它从不同社会科学（诸如社会学、人类学、民族学、心理学、地理学、历史学等）的角度去考察语言，探讨语言与社会的相互关系，突出交际能力，研究各种语言变异，揭示语言使用与文化因素之间的交互作用。
社会语言学理论研究同英语语言学习之间有着紧密的联系。
杨永林指出：首先，从理论借鉴角度看，美国社会语言学家Dell Hymes的交际教学法、拉波夫所首创的社会语言学变体理论等都为外语学习提供了借鉴；其次，Preston的《社会语言学与二语习得》、Wolfson的《多维视野：社会语言学与英语教学》等多部专著的出版充分证明了英语学习者必须考虑社会语言学这一影响语言学习的重要因素，必须充分运用社会语言学的理论、方法指导英语语言学习，才能起到事半功倍的效果。
一、社会语言学相对论理论指导学习范畴19世纪英国人类学家Edward Tylor在《原始文化》一书中指出，所谓文化乃是包括语言、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习俗以及包括作为社会成员的个人而获得的其他任何能力、习惯在内的一种综合体。
无论哪一个国家或民族的文化，都具有相对于其他国家或民族不同的一些特征，也就是说文化的价值观、准则和信仰等必须为一个群体、一个社会的人们共同接受和遵循，即具有共享性，才能成为文化。
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Social factors, e.g. social backgrounds, influence their linguistic forms. Grammatical level E.g. I did it yesterday. I done it yesterday. Phonetic level E.g. [n] Accent E.g. RP
Language and Gender (1)
Gender differences in language
phonetic level intonation lexicon grammatical level (language structure) more status-conscious more ‗correct‘, more polite
Cause asymmetrical situation, resulting in some arguments.
(You Just Don’t Understand by D. Tannen, 1990.)
Language and Gender (4)
Sexism in language: prejudice against women
Regional dialect
Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region (e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Reasons Geographical barriers (major) Loyalty to one‘s native speech Physical and psychological resistance to change Trend Less stable than before E.g. Young people are less likely to speak their local dialect all the time and are more likely to be influenced by the language spoken in town and on radio and TV.
Chapter 8
Language and society
LOGO
Things we’ll cover today
Definition
Varieties of language Pidgin and Creole Bilingualism and Diglossia
Speech community and speech variety
Speech community- the social group that is singled ---out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community. Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.
Language and Gender (3)
Conclusion:
Women: “Rapport talk” (“trouble talk”)—recount their trouble, and expect sympathy, understanding, affirmation, but not a solution. Men: “Report talk” (“solution talk”)—exhibiting knowledge and skill, holding center stage thus storytelling, joking, or imparting information.
Varieties of language
Dialectal varieties Register Degree of formality >>
Dialectal vxism in language (Examples)
Settlers moved west taking their wives and children with them. Alternatives: Use "families" for "wives and children" Farmers found their drought conditions difficult, and so did their wives. Alternatives: Use "spouses" for "wives" It has been falsely said that the Greeks mistreated their wives. Alternatives: Use "Greek males" <<
Varieties of language
No
two speakers speak exactly the same way. No one speaks exactly the same way every single time. People have different ways to express the same thing.
Male terms precede female terms
E.g. man and woman; his or her; boys and girls
Male terms used to refer to people in general Feminine words formed from masculine words Negative meaning in feminine words
Male terms --- people in general
Sexist language excludes women or renders them invisible. The use of the generic masculine subsuming all humanity in the terms man, father, brother, master. E.g. mankind – human race; forefather – ancestor chairman – chairperson; man-made – artificial E.g. Each student should bring his notebook to class every day.
The relatedness between language and society
There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. 1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting) 2. The use of language is in part determined by the user‘s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)
3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (―snow‖ for Eskimo) 4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social (the postvocalic [r] ).
Men: focus on “status” ( so “independence”, the key) Although different norms, neither is wrong or worse, or etc. But, it means women and men often talk at cross-purposes (without realizing it). 话不投机
Exercise The function of the sentence ‗A nice day, isn‘t it?‘ is _____. A. informative B. phatic C. directive D. performative
Language and Gender (2)
Different norms for the conversational styles: Women: focus on “connection” (solidarity), so