DEFINITIONSOFMICRO,SMALLANDMEDIUMENTERPRISES微型,小型和中小型企业的定义
中小企业会计准则外文文献
中小企业会计准则外文文献Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 2009 233The application of an accounting standard for SMEs Danue Nerudová and Hana Bohuová Accounting and Tax Institute of PEF MZLU Brno Zemědělská Czech Republic E-mail: d.nerudovaseznam.cz E-mail: uchanamendelu.cz Corresponding author Abstract: Small and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union EU economy mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonisation has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonised financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs an entity’s financial posi tion performance cash flow of a wide range of users shareholders creditors employees. Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity’s ta xable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognised under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises SMEs taxable income International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS cash flow tax accounting. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Nerudová D. and Bohuová H. 2009 ‘The application of an accounting standard for SMEs’ Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 pp.233–246. Biographical notes: Danue Nerudová PhD in Finance Mendel University Brno Master in Finance Mendel University Brno is the Head of the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic. Hana Bohuová PhD in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno Master in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno is a Scientific Assistant at the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union EU member states. Based on the lateststatistics there are 25 million SMEs operating in 27 member states which representCopyright 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.234 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová99 of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EUEurostat 2003. In some industry sectors such as textiles or construction they evencreate more than 75 of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economicgrowth and employmentin the EU. Therefore they have received a great deal of attentionin the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 business economy by thenumber of persons employed is shown in Table 1.Table 1 The structure of the EU 25 business economy by the number of persons employedType of enterprise Share on total employment in Large 329Medium 208Small 165Micro 298 Source: Eurostat 2003There are 988 787 SMEs with less than 250 employees which represent 99.81 ofall the enterprises operating in the Czech market Czech Statistical Office 2003. SMEsemploy 1 961 000 people which represent a 62.21 share of the total employment in theCzech Republic. The share is even 80 higher than the other sectors of the nationaleconomy – agriculture 85 and restaurant services 89.34. For this reason SMEs alsoplay a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment butalso in the economy as a whole. The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled theEuropean Commission to commission several studies such as COM 2001582 final andCOM 2005532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’ position inthe internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprisesface while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in theform of 25 different accounting and tax systems which generate disproportionate highcompliance costs for SMEs in comparison with large enterprises is the reason whySMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal marketin comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operatemainly in the domestic national markets. It seems that in today’s globalised worlda higher involvement of SMEs in cross-border activities and its higher operation on theinternal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance whichwould remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole. The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft ED of InternationalFinancial Reporting Standards IFRS for SMEs and design some modifications of SMEfinancial reporting harmonisation. The theoretical background of the paper presents theobjectives of SME financial reporting harmonisation and the efforts of the EuropeanCommission to harmonise the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommendedtaxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementationused in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs bythe simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finallythe paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 2352 The characteristics of SMEsAt present various definitions which have been developed for application in differentcountries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnoverthe number of employees capital base profits etc. Whether an enterprise appears to belarge medium orsmall differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree ofdevelopment and the general scale of economic activity.1 According to the Organizationfor Economic Cooperation and Development OECD 2005 the characteristics ofSMEs reflect not only economic but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country.The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by theadoption of the Commission Recommendation No. 2003/361/EC. Table 2 shows thedefinition of SMEs used by the World Bank and European Commission.Table 2 The definition of SME by the World Bank and European Commission Commission RecommendationEnterprise World Bank 2003/361/ECMicro Less than ten employees assets lower Less than ten employees turnover and than USD100000 balance less than EUR2 millionSmall Less than 50 employees turnover and Less than 50 employees turnover and assets lower than USD3 million balance sheet less than EUR10 millionMedium Less than 300 employees turnover and Less than 250 employees turnover less assets lower than USD15 million than EUR50 million and balance less than EUR43 millionThere is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approachesto SMEs’ taxation and accounting. On the other hand there are available literatureon the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting andtax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishingto take part in cross-border activities in the EU. The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connectedwith the establishment of the European Economic Community EEC – the harmonisationof accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim wasto coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholdersand third parties creditors employees but also in the interest of equal competitiveconditions and equal business relations in the member states. The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplishedby the adoption of directives Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC Seventh DirectiveNo. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No. 84/253/EEC. They create the code of EUaccounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the EuropeanCommission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal systemtypified by Germany or France as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system.Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’ arrangements. The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by thefourth directive which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sizedcapital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental andAnglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable andits final form is left to national competence.236 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová Since the 1970s the International Accounting Standards Committee IASC hasplayed a veryimportant role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC wasfollowed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board IASB which wasasked to create unified International Accounting Standards IAS and later the IFRS. The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have startedmainly in 2001 when the European Commission introduced the green paper whichsurveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that timethe European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system ofdirect taxation in general without any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publicationof the abovementioned study in 2001 the European Commission suggested fourpossible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State TaxationHST – was aimed at SMEs. Under that system the companies will use for thetaxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where thecompany has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary – companies could opt to usedomestic taxation rules or not. The model does not represent harmonisation for under this system 27 differentnational taxation systems would still exist. The application of the model could alsoincrease tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profitsfrom the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared thepilot project under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries.However no member state applied to participate therefore the Commission turned itsattention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base CCCTB.At present the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft ofthe CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that themodel is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEsfor details see Nerudová 2007. At present the directives connected with accounting are undergoing the revision.The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with theinternalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS.In 2003 Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted which enables the member states whichdo not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems. The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companieslisted on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financialstatements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country.Those statements are available to creditors suppliers and the government in theircountry but they could be difficult to understand for creditors suppliers and those inother countries. The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to thenext are needed for the following reasons. Firstly financial institutions make loans acrossborders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly vendors want to evaluate thefinancial health of buzzers in other countries beforethey sell goods or services on credit.Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermoremany SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess theprospects of a viable long-term business relationship. Venture capital firms also providefunding to SMEs across borders. Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-daymanagement of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financialstatements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 237investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they haveinterests in other SMEs. Moreover global standards also improve the consistency in auditquality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand good accounting andmore disclosures add to SMEs’ burdens rather than reduce them SMEs are also oftenconcerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency. The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whosesecurities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financialstatements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different fromfull IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financialstatements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statementsof publicly traded entities users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greaterinterest in short-term cash flows liquidity balance sheet strength and interest coverage orthey may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statementof publicly traded companies. The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must be determined on thebasis of u sers’ needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes Bohuová 2007. There can befound different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory.As stated by Bezinová 2004 it is very important to consider who the users of financialstatements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standardsfor SMEs. Also Veerle 2005 and Street and Larson 2004 were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS which is applied in Malta Cyprus orCroatia mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from thefinancial statements. With quotes Bezinová 2004 the basic problem is the approachesto the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of publicinterest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financialinvestors.。
商务英语市场营销重点名词解释
Chapter 1Marketing：t he process by which companies create value for customers and build strong customer relationships in order to capture value from customers in return.Marketing myopia营销短视:the mistake of paying more attention to the specific products a company offers rather than to the benefits and experiences produced by these products.Customer-perceived value: the customer’s evaluation of the differences between all the values and all costs of a marketing offer relative to those of competing offers.Customer satisfaction: the extent to which a product perceived performance matches the customer’s expectation.Customer equity: the total combined customer lifetime values of all of a company’s all customers.Chapter 2Strategic planning: the progress of developing and maintaining a strategic fit between a organization’s goals and capabilities and its changing marketing opportunities.Mission statement: a statement of a organization’s purpose—what it wants to accomplish in the larger environmentBusiness portfolio: t he collection of businesses and products that makesup the company以下四个和Chapter 7中的内容重复Market segmentation: dividing the market into distinct groups of buyers who might have different needs, characteristics and behavior, and who might require separate products or marketing programs.Market targeting: t he progress of evaluating each segment’s marketing attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter. Positioning: arranging for a product to occupy a clear, distinctive and desirable place relative to the competing products in the minds of the target customers.Differentiation: actually differentiating the market offering to create superior customer value.Chapter 3Marketing environment: the actors and forces outside the marketing that affect marketing management’s ability to build and maintain successful relationships with target customers.Microenvironment: the actors close to the company that affect its ability to serve its customers,--the company, suppliers, market customers, marketing intermediaries, competitors and publics.Macroenvironment: the larger societal forces that affect the microenvironment---demographic, natural, economic, political, technological and cultural forces.Marketing intermediaries: the forms that help the company to promote, sell and distribute its goods to final buyers.Chapter 5Consumer buyer behavior: the buying behavior of final consumers—the individuals and householders buy goods and services for personal consumptionConsumer market: all individuals and householders who buy or acquire goods and services for personal consumption.Subculture亚文化群：a group of people with shared value systems based on the common life experiences and situations.Opinion leader: a person within reference group who, because of special skills, knowledge, or other characteristics, exerts social influence on others.Complex buying behavior:consumer buying behavior in situations characterized by high consumer involvement in a purchase and significant perceived brand differences.Habitual buying behavior:consumer buying behavior in situations characterized by low consumer involvement and few significantly perceived brand differences.Purchase decision: the buyer’s decision about which brand or purchase. Postpurchase behavior购后行为：the stage of the buyer decision process in which consumers take further action after the purchase, based on their satisfaction or dissatisfaction.Chapter 7Market segmentation：dividing the market into distinct groups of buyers, who might have different needs, characteristics or behavior, who might require separate products and marketing programs.Market targeting: the process of evaluating each segment’s attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter. Differention: actually differentiating a market offering to create superior customer valueTarget market: a set of buyers sharing common needs or characteristics that the company decides to serve.Undifferentiated (mass)marketing: a market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to ignore the market segment differences and go after the whole market with one offer.Differentiated (segmented)marketing:a market-coverage strategy in which a firm decides to target several market segments and design separate offer for each.Concentrated (niche) marketing: a market-coverage strategy in which afirm decides to go after a large share of one or a few segments or niches. Micromarketing: the practice of tailoring the products and marketing programs to the needs and wants of specific individuals and local customer groups—include individual marketing and local marketing. Competitive advantage: an advantage over competitors gained by offering greater customer value, either through lower prices or by providing more benefits that justify the high prices.Chapter 8Consumer product: a product bought by final consumer for personal consumption.Industrial product:a product bought by individuals and organizations for further processing or for use in conducting a business.Product line:a group of products that are closely related because they function in a similar manner, are sold to the customer group, are marketed through the same types of outlets, or fall within given price ranges. Product mix: the set of all product lines and items that a particular seller offers for sale.Brand equity: the differential effect that knowing the brand name has on customer response to the product or its marketing.Chapter 10Value-based pricing: setting price based on buyers’ perceptions of valuerather than on seller’ cost.Cost-based pricing: setting prices based on producing, distributing and selling the product plus a fair rate of return for effort and risk.Fixed costs : costs that do not vary with production or sales level. Variable costs: costs that directly vary with the level of production.Chapter 11Market-skimming pricing:setting a high price for a new product to skim maximum revenues layer by layer from the segments willing to pay the high price; the company makes fewer but more profitable sales. Market-penetration pricing:setting a low price for a new product to attract a larger number of buyers and a large market share.Chapter 12Value delivery network: the network made up of the company, suppliers, distributors and ultimately customers, who “partner”with each other to improve the performance of the entire system in delivering customer value.Marketing channel: a set of independent organizations that help the company make a product and service for use or consumption by the consumers or business users.Channel conflict: disagreement among marketing channel members ongoals and roles—who should do what and for what rewards.Vertical marketing system: a distribution channel structure in which the producers, wholesalers and retailers act as a unified system. One channel member owns the others, has contracts with them, or has so much power that they all cooperate.Chapter 14Promotion mix(marketing communications mix): the specific blend of promotion tools that the company uses to persuasively communicate customer value and build customer relationships.Integrated marketing communications:carefully integrating and coordinating the company’s many communications channels to deliver a clear, consistent and compelling message about the organizations and the products.Explain marketing’s role in strategic planning and how marketing works with its partners to create and deliver customer value.The major functional departments must work together to accomplish strategic objectives. Marketing plays a key role in the company’s strategic planning by providing a marketing concept philosophy and inputs regarding attractive market opportunities. Within individual businessunits, marketing designs strategies for reaching the unit’s objectives and help to carry them out profitably. Marketers alone cannot produce superior value for customers. A company’s success depends on how well each department performs its customer value-adding activities and how well the departments work together to serve customers. Marketers must practice partner relationship management. They must work closely with partners in other departments to form an effective value chain that serves the customers. And they must partner effectively with other companies in the marketing system to form a competitively superior value delivery network.Describe the elements of a customer-driven marketing strategy and mix, and the forces that influence it.Consumer value and relationships are at the centre of marketing strategy and programs. Through market segmentation, targeting, differentiation, and positioning, the company divides the market into smaller segments, selects segments it can best serve, and decides how it wants to bring value to target consumers. It then designs an integrated marketing mix to produce the response it wants in the target market. The marketing mix consists of product, price, place, and promotion decisions.Describe the environmental forces that affect the company’s ability to serve its customers’Definitions of microenvironment and macroenvironment.Describe the consumer market and construct a simple model of consumer buyer behavior.The simplest model is the stimulus-response model. According to this model, marketing stimuli and other major forces enter the consumer’s “black box” and produce certain responses. Once in the black box, these inputs produce observable buyer responses, such as product choice, brand choice, purchase timing, and purchase amount.Name the four major factors that influence consumer buyer behavior. Consumer buyer behavior is influenced by four key sets of buyer characteristics: cultural, social, personal, and psychological.Consumer buyer behavior is influenced by four major psychological factors—motivation, perception, learning, and beliefs and attitudes.?????184。
初中英语微课课件ppt课件ppt课件ppt
Oral Teaching
Introduction to Cultural Background
Combining language teaching to introduce cultural background knowledge of English speaking countries, helping students better understand the cultural connotations in English speaking and improve cross-cultural communication skills.
Oral Teaching
Speech correction
Provide pronunciation correction for students to help them master correct pronunciation skills and improve their oral clarity and fluency.
Grammar Teaching
System sorting
VS
Grammar is the backbone of English learning. Through the micro course system, grammar knowledge is organized to help students build a complete grammar system and improve their language expression ability.
Content Refinement: Micro courses are targeted at specific knowledge points or problems, with compact and prominent content that is easy for students to understand and remember.
eg_20140001v010101p
EG 201 400-1 V1.1.1 (1999-02)ETSI Guide Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) access networks;Part 1: Interworking with PSTN, N-ISDN, Internet and digital mobile networksReferenceDEG/NA-080201 (cyo90icq.PDF)Keywordsaccess, digital, internet, interworking, ISDN,mobile, network, PSTNETSIPostal addressF-06921 Sophia Antipolis Cedex - FRANCEOffice address650 Route des Lucioles - Sophia AntipolisValbonne - FRANCETel.: +33 4 92 94 42 00 Fax: +33 4 93 65 47 16Siret N° 348 623 562 00017 - NAF 742 CAssociation à but non lucratif enregistrée à laSous-Préfecture de Grasse (06) N° 7803/88Internetsecretariat@etsi.frIndividual copies of this ETSI deliverablecan be downloaded fromIf you find errors in the present document, send yourcomment to: editor@etsi.frCopyright NotificationNo part may be reproduced except as authorized by written permission. The copyright and the foregoing restriction extend to reproduction in all media.© European Telecommunications Standards Institute 1999.All rights reserved.ContentsIntellectual Property Rights (5)Foreword (5)Introduction (5)1Scope (6)2References (6)3Definitions, symbols and abbreviations (9)3.1Definitions (9)3.2Symbols (10)3.3Abbreviations (10)4Service Requirements (11)5Functional requirements (11)6Reference Configuration and Reference Points (13)6.1The HFC access network general architecture and boundaries (13)6.2Digital section for HFC access network (14)6.3General reference configuration for HFC Access Networks (15)6.3.1User Port Function (15)6.3.2Service Port Function (16)6.3.3Core Function (16)6.3.4HFC User Interface Function (16)6.3.5HFC Access Node Function (17)6.3.6HFC Transport Network Function (17)6.3.7AN System Management Function (17)6.4HFC Access Network configuration for the considered networks (17)6.5Reference Points (18)6.5.1Reference points at the user interface side (18)6.5.2Reference points at the network interface side (19)7User Interfaces (19)7.1Broadcast UNI (19)7.1.1Analogue Broadcast UNI (19)7.1.1.1Interface references (20)7.1.1.2Protocol stack reference (20)7.1.2Digital Broadcast UNI (21)7.1.2.1Interface references (21)7.1.2.2Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (21)7.2PSTN UNI (22)7.2.1Interface references (23)7.2.2User Interface functions - POTS Cable Network Termination (23)7.2.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configuration (23)7.3N-ISDN UNI (24)7.3.1Interface references (25)7.3.1.1Basic access (25)7.3.1.2Primary access (25)7.3.2User Interface functions - N-ISDN Cable Network Termination (25)7.3.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (26)7.4Internet Terminal UNI (27)7.4.1Interface references (28)7.4.2User interface functions - IP Cable Network Termination (28)7.4.2.1Definition (28)7.4.2.2Functions and Technology (28)7.4.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (29)7.5Leased Lines UNI (30)7.5.1Interface references (31)7.5.2User Interface functions - Leased Cable Network Termination (31)7.5.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (31)8Service Node Interfaces (SNI) (Access Node Interface) (32)8.1Broadcast Service (32)8.2PSTN Service specific Service node (32)8.2.1Interface references (32)8.2.2Network interface functions - PSTN Cable Line Termination (32)8.2.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (33)8.2.3.1Protocol stacks (33)8.2.3.1.1V5.1N interface (33)8.2.3.1.2V5.2N interface (33)8.2.3.2Protocol peer configurations (34)8.2.3.2.1V5.1 interface (35)8.2.3.2.2V5.2 interface (35)8.3N-ISDN Service specific Service node (36)8.3.1Interface references (36)8.3.2Network interface functions - N-ISDN Cable Line Termination (36)8.3.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (36)8.3.3.1Protocol stacks (36)8.3.3.1.1V5.1N interface (36)8.3.3.1.2V5.2N interface (37)8.3.3.2Protocol peer configurations (38)8.3.3.2.1V5.1 interface (38)8.3.3.2.2V5.2 interface (39)8.4PSTN/N-ISDN Modular Service node (40)8.4.1Interface references (40)8.4.2Network interface functions - PSTN/N-ISDN Cable Line Termination (40)8.4.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (40)8.4.3.1Protocol stacks (40)8.4.3.1.1V5.1N interface (40)8.4.3.1.2V5.2N interface (41)8.4.3.2Protocol peer configurations (42)8.4.3.2.1V5.1 interface (42)8.4.3.2.2V5.2 interface (43)8.5Internet network (44)8.5.1Interface references (44)8.5.2Network interface functions - IP Cable Line Termination (45)8.5.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference (45)8.5.3.1Protocol stacks (45)8.5.3.2Protocol peer communication (46)8.6Leased lines Specific Service network (46)8.6.1Interface references (46)8.6.2Network interface functions - Leased Line Cable Line Termination (46)8.6.3Protocol stack and peer communication stack reference configurations (46)9Internal HFC Access Network Aspects (47)9.1Interface references (47)9.2Internal HFC Access Network Structure (47)9.3HFC Access network channel structure and protocols (48)Bibliography (49)History (50)Intellectual Property RightsIPRs essential or potentially essential to the present document may have been declared to ETSI. The information pertaining to these essential IPRs, if any, is publicly available for ETSI members and non-members, and can be found in SR 000 314: "Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs); Essential, or potentially Essential, IPRs notified to ETSI in respect of ETSI standards", which is available free of charge from the ETSI Secretariat. Latest updates are available on the ETSI Web server (/ipr).Pursuant to the ETSI IPR Policy, no investigation, including IPR searches, has been carried out by ETSI. No guarantee can be given as to the existence of other IPRs not referenced in SR 000 314 (or the updates on the ETSI Web server) which are, or may be, or may become, essential to the present document.ForewordThis ETSI Guide (EG) has been produced by ETSI Technical Committee Network Aspects (NA).The present document is part 1 of a multi-part EG covering the Hybrid Fiber Coax (HFC) access networks, as identified below:Part 1:"Interworking with PSTN, N-ISDN, Internet and digital mobile networks";Part 2:"Interworking with B-ISDN Networks".IntroductionCable TV networks are more and more used for other services than just broadcast service. At the user side service terminals other than TV and radio are attached. At the terminal side, the head end needs to interwork with a number of service related networks. The present document presents a number of different interfaces at the user side and the network side and shows how the HFC access network interconnects them, both for user and signalling data.1 ScopeThe present document is focussed on the interworking between HFC networks and other networks. The different user equipment and the different user network interfaces to the access network have an influence on the interworking, and as such, are also considered.It may be the case that an independent cable operator operates an HFC access network that has no interface to a switching network at all. In this case the HFC network is maybe not regarded as an access network, but nevertheless the network may provide services to its customers beyond just Broadcast services. This case is beyond the scope of the present document, since no interworking is involved. If, on the other hand, an independent cable operator has interfaces to other switching networks, the contents of the present documents applies.The present document considers the following public telecommunication networks:- public switching telephone network;- narrowband ISDN network;- internet;- leased lines networks.Other public telecommunication networks will be considered in a later document.Looking at broadcasting, it is considered as a service rather than as a network. The interfaces for broadcast services at the HFC access network are however also considered. Analogue and digital broadcasting are handled separately.2 ReferencesThe following documents contain provisions which, through reference in this text, constitute provisions of the present document.• References are either specific (identified by date of publication, edition number, version number, etc.) or non-specific.• For a specific reference, subsequent revisions do not apply.• For a non-specific reference, the latest version applies.• A non-specific reference to an ETS shall also be taken to refer to later versions published as an EN with the same number.[1] ETR 306: "Transmission and multiplexing (TM); Access networks for residential customers".[2] ITU-T Recommendation G.960 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN basic rate access".[3] ITU-T Recommendation G.962 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN primary access at2 048 kbit/s".[4] ITU-T Recommendation G.963 (1993): "Access digital section for ISDN primary access at1 544 kbit/s".[5] ITU-T Recommendation G.964 (1994): "V-interfaces at the digital local exchange (LE) - V5.1interface (based on 2 048 kbit/s) for the support of access network (AN)".[6] ITU-T Recommendation G.965 (1995): "V-interfaces at the digital local exchange (LE) - V5.2Interface (based on 2 048 kbit/s) for the support of access network (AN)".[7] ISO/IEC 10038 (1993): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local area networks - Media access control (MAC) bridges".[8]ISO/IEC 8802-2 (1997): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local and metropolitan area networks- Specific requirements - Part 2: Logicallink control".[9]ISO/IEC 8802-3 (1997): "Information technology - Telecommunications and information exchangebetween systems - Local and metropolitan area networks - Part 3: Carrier sense multiple accesswith collision detection (CSMA/CD) access method and physical layer specifications".[10]ITU-T Recommendation G.902: "Framework Recommendation on functional access networks(AN) – Architecture and functions, access types, management and service node aspects".[11]ETR 148: "Private Telecommunication Network (PTN); Integrated services architecture for highspeed private networks".[12]ITU-T Recommendation N.51: "Definitions for application to international televisiontransmissions".[13]ITU-T Recommendation I.112: "Vocabulary of terms for ISDNs".[14]ITU-T Recommendation Q.512: "Digital exchange interfaces for subscriber access".[15]ITU-T Recommendation Q.551: "Transmission characteristics of digital exchanges".[16]ITU-T Recommendation Q.552: "Transmission characteristics at 2-wire analogue interfaces ofdigital exchanges".[17]EN 50083-1: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 1: Safetyrequirements".[18]EN 50083-2: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 2:Electromagnetic compatibility for equipment".[19]EN 50083-3: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 3: Active coaxialwideband distribution equipment".[20]EN 50083-4: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 4: Passive coaxialwideband distribution equipment".[21]EN 50083-5: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 5: Headendequipment".[22]EN 50083-6: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 6: Opticalequipment".[23]EN 50083-7: "Cabled distribution systems for television and sound signals - Part 7: Systemperformance".[24]ETS 300 429: "Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Framing structure, channel coding andmodulation for cable systems".[25]ITU-T Recommendation J.83: "Digital multiprogramme systems for television, sound and dataservices for cable distribution".[26]ITU-T Recommendation H.222.0: "Information technology - Generic coding of moving picturesand associated audio information: Systems".[27]EN 300 001: "Attachments to the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN); General technicalrequirements for equipment connected to an analogue subscriber interface in the PSTN".[28]ITU-T Recommendation I.411: "ISDN user-network interfaces - Reference configurations".[29]ITU-T Recommendation Q.921: "ISDN user-network interface - Data link layer specification".[30]ITU-T Recommendation Q.931: "ISDN user-network interface layer 3specification for basic callcontrol".[31]ITU-T Recommendation I.430: "Basic user-network interface - Layer 1 specification".[32]ITU-T Recommendation I.431: "Primary rate user-network interface - Layer 1 specification".[33]ETS 300 288: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 64 kbit/s digital unrestricted leased linewith octet integrity (D64U); Network interface presentation".[34]ETS 300 418: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 2 048 kbit/s digital unstructured andstructured leased lines (D2048U and D2048S); Network interface presentation".[35]ETS 300 448: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Ordinary quality voice bandwidth 2-wireanalogue leased line (A2O); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [36]ETS 300 449: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Special quality voice bandwidth 2-wireanalogue leased line (A2S); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [37]ETS 300 451: "Business Telecommunications (BTC); Ordinary quality voice bandwidth 4-wireanalogue leased line (A4O); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [38]ETS 300 452: "Business Telecommunications (BTC); Special quality voice bandwidth 4-wireanalogue leased line (A4S); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation". [39]ETS 300 766: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); Multiple 64 kbit/s digital unrestricted leasedlines with octet integrity presented at a structured 2 048 kbit/s interface at either or both ends(D64M); Connection characteristics and network interface presentation".[40]ETS 300 686: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s and 140 Mbit/s digital leasedlines (D34U, D34S, D140U and D140S); Network interface presentation".[41]ETS 300 687: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D34U andD34S); Connection characteristics".[42]ETS 300 688: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D140U andD140S); Connection characteristics".[43]ETS 300 689: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 34 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D34U andD34S); Terminal equipment interface".[44]ETS 300 690: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital leased lines (D140U andD140S); Terminal equipment interface".[45]TBR 25: "Business TeleCommunications (BTC); 140 Mbit/s digital unstructured and structuredleased lines (D140U and D140S); Attachment requirements for terminal equipment interface". [46]ETS 300 166: "Transmission and Multiplexing (TM); Physical and electrical characteristics ofhierarchical digital interfaces for equipment using the 2 048 kbit/s - based plesiochronous orsynchronous digital hierarchies".[47]ETS 300 167: "Transmission and Multiplexing (TM); Functional characteristics of 2 048 kbit/sinterfaces".[48]ETS 300 347: "V interfaces at the digital Local Exchange (LE); V5.2 interface for the support ofAccess Network (AN)".[49]ETS 300 324: "V interfaces at the digital Local Exchange (LE); V5.1 interface for the support ofAccess Network (AN)".[50]ITU-T Recommendation I.361: "B-ISDN ATM layer specification".[51]ITU-T Recommendation I.363: "B-ISDN ATM Adaptation Layer specification".[52]ITU-T Recommendation I.432: "B-ISDN User-Network Interface – Physical layer specification".[53]ETS 300 800: "Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB); Interaction channel for Cable TV distributionsystems (CATV)".[54]ITU-T Recommendation J.112: "Vocabulary of terms for ISDNs".[55]EN 50083-9: "Cable networks for television signals, sound and interactive services --Part 9:Interfaces for CATV/SMATV headends and similar equipment for DVB/MPEG-2 transportstreams".[56]EN 50083-8: "Cabled networks for television signals, sound signals and interactive services --Part 8: Electromagnetic compatiblity for networks".[57]EN 50083-10: "Cable networks for television signals, sound signals and interactive services --Part 10: System performance for return paths".[58]IETF RFC 894 (1984): "A standard for the transmission of IP Datagrams over Ethernet Networks".[59]IETF RFC 1042 (1988): "A standard for the Transmission of IP Datagrams over IEEE 802Networks".3Definitions, symbols and abbreviations3.1DefinitionsFor the purposes of the present document, the following definitions apply:Access Network: an implementation, comprising those entities which provide the required transport bearer capabilities for the provision of telecommunication services between a Service Node Interface and each of the associated user-network interfaces. An Access Network can be configured and managed through a Q3 interface. In principle there is no restriction on the types and the number of UNIs and SNIs which an Access Network may implement. The access network does not interpret (user) signalling.Access Node (AN): a node providing access to the public network [ETR 148].broadcast organisation: organisation which is concerned with sound and/or television broadcasting[ITU-T Recommendation N.51].broadcast network: network providing sound and/or television signals to the user, either directly to the user or via an HFC access network.CATV: used as a general term for "cable television" (historically used to indicate "Community Antenna TeleVision" - a centralized installation of television antennas that serves a community of users).downstream direction: direction from the network towards the subscriber.digital section: the whole of the means of digital transmission of a digital signal of specified rate between 2 consecutive reference points. The term should be qualified by the type of access supported, or by a prefix denoting the V interface at the digital section bounderies.Head End (HE): (definition in HFC access network context): equipment in an HFC access network, providing interfaces between the HFC Access network and one or more other networks, and providing an RF communication interface with the user interface functions.Hybrid Fiber/Coax (HFC) Access Network: a mixed fibre and coaxial network architecture using FDM transmission technology based on RF frequencies, in which fibre links are used for the main distribution path, while coaxial links are used as the final link into the users' premises.network interface functions: functions belonging to the Head End in a HFC access network.service node: a network element that provides access to various switched and/or permanent telecommunication services. In case of switched services the SN is providing access call and connection control signalling, and access connection and resource handling [ITU-T Recommendation G.902].service node interface: the interface between an Access Network and a Service Node. (ITU-T Recommendation G.902: The interface which provides customer access to a service node).telecommunication network: a set of nodes and links that provides connections between 2 or more defined ports to facilitate telecommunication between them [ITU-T Recommendation I.112].upstream direction: direction from the subscriber towards the network.User Interface Functions (UIF): functions in an access network, interacting with the user equipment, and providing a RF communication interface with the Head End it is connected to.User Network Interface (UNI): the interface at which the user equipment is connected to the network.3.2SymbolsFor the purposes of the present document, the following symbols apply:<R>C Reference point related to BroadCast service<R>I Reference point related to IP-based service<R>L Reference point related to Leased Line Service<R>N Reference point related to Narrowband ISDN service<R>T Reference point related to Telephony serviceC64User channel of 64 kbit/sD16Data channel of 16 kbit/sD64Data channel of 64 kbit/sM Reference point at a service interface residing in a networkP Reference point at a service interface residing at the border of a networkQ3Telecommunication Network Management InterfaceV5Reference point at the SNI interface of an Access NetworkZ Reference point at the UNI interface of analogue telephony3.3AbbreviationsFor the purposes of the present document, the following abbreviations apply:AN Access NetworkANI Access Network InterfaceCATV Community Antenna TeleVisionCF Core FunctionFDM Frequency Division MultiplexFE Function ElementHFC Hybrid Fiber CoaxHE Head EndLE Local ExchangePC Personal ComputerPRA Primary Rate AccessSN Service NodeSNI Service Node InterfaceSPF Service Port FunctionUIF User Interface FunctionsUPF User Port FunctionUNI User Network Interface4 Service RequirementsAn HFC Access Network may support a number of telecommunication services and telecommunication service components. The basic function of an HFC Access Network is that it uses RF frequencies for transportation of the information between the user side and the network side of the access network. As such, the information, including both signalling and user information, must be mapped in one way or another into the RF frequency spectrum and the traditionally used frequency bands for Radio and Television. In addition to the downstream traffic, some upstream traffic may be required. Depending upon the type and bandwidth of the information, different solutions may be required for different services to be supported.HFC Access Networks may support (but are not required to support) the following Telecommunication services. Supporting" means that the HFC AN does not provide the services itself, but provides the necessary channels, control, management and security functions for transporting the service information between Service Node and User equipment.- Basic service: Radio and TV distribution service.- Telephony service, its supplementary services, and all value added services such like telefax, DECT and voice data modem services.- Internet services: basic TCP/IP en UDP/IP communication and Internet services ftp, telnet, e-mail, usenet, www and gopher.- Mobile services as defined for GSM, DCS 1800 and IMT-2000.- B-ISDN services as defined in the F.700 and F.800 series.- X25 based data services (PSPDN services).The service component information types to be supported are:- Sound: voice, music, etc.;- Video: TV-programme, movie, etc.;- Data: files, static pictures, text, low speed data, high speed data, real-time data, etc.5 Functional requirementsThe fundamental principles of an access network and a HFC access network in particular are reflected by the following functional requirements:- an (HFC) AN is used in order to multiplex/demultiplex the signalling and data streams from UNIs in a cost effective manner and then to present this information stream to the SN in a manner such that the SN can determine the source or sink UNI;- concentration shall be supported across a V5reference point as an option (although it shall always be possible to guarantee bandwidth for user ports who require such a facility such as the security services);- the HFC AN does not interpret (user) signalling. Signalling for Telecommunication services should be handled as near to transparently as possible. This means that the contents of signalling messages should not be checked unless it is unavoidable;- the V5reference point shall not be limited to a single physical interface (for redundancy and to allow more user ports to be connected);- it is not a requirement for local switching to be carried out within the Access Network itself, either under SN control or under local control;- the responsibility for call control and associated connection control resides in the SN (i.e. the HFC AN may have no knowledge of ongoing services and the call state during normal operation);-tones and announcements should be generated in the service node(s) and not in the access networks themselves, except for local ringing and some kind of announcement when the user is not reachable from the service node (e.g.all access network lines busy);-selection of the service provider by the HFC AN based on user signalling information shall not be possible, because this would require SN functionality in the HFC AN.However, for ATM based access types the HFC AN shall support access to different SNs through a single UNI at the same time by using the corresponding VPs associated to these SNs via provisioning. In this case the selection of the service provider is a matter of the user terminal and does not concern the HFC AN or the SNI;-time critical management functions which require real time co-ordination between HFC AN and SN shall be performed by communication across the V5 reference point;-technology specific functions, such as control of echo cancellers which might be required in a radio based access network, shall not be supported unless they are already supported by either V5 (in the case of narrowband services) or B-ISDN (in the case of broadband services);-charging information is only provided by the SN. This information may be passed over the V5 reference point whena user requires it as part of the service to which he has subscribed and is not passed over the V5 reference point as ameans of providing information for use by the HFC AN. Also tones and announcements shall be generated in the SN and not in the HFC AN;-if multicasting is provided in the HFC AN, this shall be allowed to be performed in the SNI to UNI direction only.Otherwise multicasting is presumed to be a service provided by the SN;-the V5 reference point at the SN has a signal structure which is a multiplex of several accesses of the same or of different access types.The HFC AN may serve service specific SNs or modular SNs as defined in ITU-T Recommendation G.902.Service affecting faults in the AN need to be advised to the SN in real time.Signalling streams need to be protected.A HFC AN makes use of RF signals for user, signalling, and maintenance information in the HFC Transport Network.A HFC AN supports basically distribution (analogue and digital audio/video) services, but may be bi-directional and may support (not provide!) telephony service, IP based service, data services, video on demand services.The downstream bandwidth (towards the user) of an HFC is in principle much bigger than the upstream bandwidth.。
BIOLOGICALAGENTS-ResearchGate：生物制剂研究之门
BIOLOGICAL AGENTSJolanta Skowroń, Department of Chemical and Aerosol Hazards, Central Institute for Labour Protection – National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland.1. IntroductionBiological agents are organisms or toxins that have illness-producing effects on people, livestock, and crops. They are found in many sectors of employment. They are rarely visible and so workers are not always able to appreciate the risk they pose. Biological agents include bacteria, viruses, fungi (yeasts and moulds), parasites, other micro-organisms and their associated toxins. They have ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild, allergic reactions to serious conditions, even death. These organisms are ubiquitous in the natural environment; they are found in water, soil, plants, and animals. Because many microbes reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for survival, they are a potential danger in a wide variety of occupational settings.Whenever people are in contact with natural or organic materials such soil, clay, plant materials (hay, straw, cotton, etc.), substances of animal origin (wool, hair, etc.), food, organic dust (e.g., flour, paper dust, from animals), waste, wastewater, blood and other body fluids, they may be exposed to biological agents. Micro-organisms can enter the human body via damaged skin or mucous membranes. They can be inhaled or swallowed, leading to infections of the upper respiratory tract or the digestive system.2. DefinitionsThere are many definitions of biological agents. In European legislation (Directive2000/54/EC) biological agents are “micro-organisms (microbiological entity, cellular or non-cellular, capable of replication or transferring genetic material), including those which have been genetically modified, cell cultures (the in vitro growth of cells derived from multicellular organisms) and human endoparasites, which may be able to provoke any infections, allergy ortoxicity”. In this definition there are not any animals and plants toxins, egzoparasites, allergens or toxins produced by microorganisms (endotoxin, mycotoxin, glucans) (Dutkiewicz, Górny, 2002).According to ACGIH®(2004) “b iologically derived airborne contaminants include bioaerosols (airborne particles composed of or derived from living organisms) and volatile organic compounds that organisms release. Bioaerosols include micro-organisms (i.e., culturable, nonculturable, and dead microorganisms) and fragments, toxins, and particulate waste products from all varieties of living things”. ACGIH® has developed and separately published guidance on the assessment, control, remediation, and prevention of biologically derived contamination in indoor environments. Indoor biological contamination is defined as the presence of (a) biologically derived aerosols, gases, and vapors of a kind and concentration likely to cause disease or predispose people to disease; (b) inappropriate concentrations of outdoor bioaerosols, especially in buildings designed to prevent their entry; or (c) indoor microbial growth and remnants of biological growth that may become aerosolized and to which people may be exposed. The term biological agents refer to a substance of biological origin that is capable of producing an adverse effect, e.g., an infection or hypersensitivity, irritant, inflammatory, or other response.3. Classification of biological agentsBiological agents can cause three types of diseases: (a) infections caused by parasites, viruses or bacteria; (b) allergies initiated by exposure to mould, organic dust like flour dust and animal dander, enzymes and mites; and (c) poisoning or toxic effects.Biological agents usually are classifies into four risk categories according to their potential to cause diseases and the possibilities of prevention and treatment: group 1 – biological agents that are unlikely to cause human disease; group 2 – biological agents that can cause human disease and might be a hazard to workers but there is usually effective prophylaxis ortreatment available; group 3 – biological agents that can cause severe human disease and present a serious hazard to workers but there is usually effective prophylaxis or treatment available; group 4 – biological agents that can cause severe human disease and is a serious hazard to workers but there is no effective prophylaxis or treatment available.4. Measurement of airborne micro-organismsMeasurements could aim to locate sources emitting micro-organisms, to measure a worker’s daily or work shift exposure, to identify peaks in exposure, to test the efficiency of control measures, or to control actions taken to diminish the exposure. The following measurement options can be used to measure micro-organisms and endotoxin: (-) microbial cells by direct counting (the total number); (-) microbial cells and cell aggregates by culturing on agar media (the culturable number); (-) cellular components of micro-organisms, from viable, non-viable or disintegrated micro-organisms, e.g., constituents of cell structure which may also have inflammatory properties, such as endotoxin and glucans; (-) primary metabolites (e.g., ATP) which may serve as markers of micro-organisms or of their vital activity; (-) secondary metabolites (e.g. mycotoxins) which may be found in the micro-organisms and other particles in the aerosol. Sampling of aerosols of microbiological origin should be made in accordance with the principles of sampling to assess worker’s exposure to other substances hazardous to health. Static or personal exposure to bioaerosols can be intermittent and of short duration, and it can be related to specific work activities. The sampler used shall have known and documented sampling efficiency, e.g., capable of sampling total micro-organisms, viable micro-organisms or microbial components. The methods used for analysing the sample should be selected according to the kind of micro-organisms or microbial components (cultivation methods, microscopic methods, endotoxin – LAL method) (EN 13098).Non-viable micro-organisms are not living organisms; as such, they are not capable of reproduction. The bioaerosol is collected on a “greased” surface or a membrane filter. Themicro-organisms are then enumerated and identified using microscopy, classical microbiology, molecular biological, or immunochemical techniques. When sampling for culturable bacteria and fungi, the bioaerosol is generally collected by impaction onto the surface of a broad spectrum solid medium (agar), filtration through a membrane filter, or impingement into an isotonic liquid medium (water-based). Organisms collected by impaction onto an agar surface may be incubated for a short time, replica-plated (transferred) onto selective or differential media, and incubated at different temperatures for identification and enumeration of micro-organisms. Impingement collection fluids are plated directly on agar, serially diluted and plated, or the entire volume of fluid is filtered through a membrane filter. The membrane filter is then placed on an agar surface and all colonies may be replica-plated. Culturable micro-organisms may be identified or classified by using microscopy, classical microbiology, or molecular biology techniques such as restriction fragment length polymorphic (RFLP) analysis. Classical microbiology techniques include observation of growth characteristics; cellular or spore morphology; simple and differential staining; and biochemical, physiological, and nutritional testing for culturable bacteria. Analytical techniques which may be applied to both non-viable and viable micro-organisms, but which do not distinguish among them, include polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Such methods may be used to identify specific micro-organisms and to locate areas of contamination (Jensen, Sch afer, 1994; Skowroń, Gołofit-Szymczak, 2004).When microbial numbers have been derived from counting colonies grown on agar plates, the results shall be expressed as colony forming units per cubic metre (CFU/m3). When microbial numbers have been derived from microscoping counting, the results shall be expressed as the total number of micro-organisms per cubic metre of air sampled. Endotoxin shall be expressed as endotoxin unit per cubic metre (EU/m3) air sampled and related to the reference standard used.There are currently no occupational exposure limits for biological contaminants. The essential difference between biological agents and other hazardous substances is their ability to reproduce. A small amount of a micro-organism may grow considerably in a very short time under favourable conditions.Bioaerosols may contain different micro-organisms and/or different components from these. Micro-organisms may be classified in different taxonomic groups like Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa, algae and viruses. These may be further classified to genus or species level. Immunologic reactions, e.g., allergic and/or toxic reactions can result from exposure to micro-organisms irrespective of their viability.Exposure to biological agents very often leads to adverse health effects in susceptible individuals. Elaboration of values for biologically derived airborne contaminants seems to be necessary to prevent harmful exposure in occupational and non-occupational environments, to ensure reliability of measurement methods and proper interpretation of the results.ACGIH® (2004) actively solicits information, comments, and data in form of peer-reviewed literature on health effects associated with bioaerosol exposures in occupational and related environments that may help the Bioaerosols Committee evaluate the potential for proposing exposure guidelines for selected biologically derived airborne contaminants: Gram negative bacterial endotoxin, (1-3) beta, D-glucan.The Scandinavian CFU-oriented projects for Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL) suggest 5 ÷ 10 x 103 CFU/m3 for total micro-organisms, 1 x 103 CFU/m3 for Gram-negative bacteria and 1 ÷ 2 x 102 ng/m3 for endotoxin (Malmros, Sigsgaard, Bach, 1992). The project prepared in Poland suggests 1 x 105 CFU/m3 for total micro-organisms, 5 x 104 CFU/m3 for fungi, 2 x 104 CFU/m3 for Gram-negative bacteria and thermophilic actinomycetes, with a reduction of the values by half if the respirable fraction equals to or exceeds 50% of the total count and 2 x 102 ng/m3 for endotoxin. This project is based on the fact that at a continuous exposure tomicrobial concentrations above 105 CFU/m3, work-related respiratory disorders in workers are very common. The presence in indoor air of micro-organisms from risk groups 3 and 4, independently of the concentration, should always be inadmissible and result in prevention actions (Dutkiewicz, 1997; Górny, Dutkiewicz, 2002).5. Risk assessment and preventionEmployers have a duty to provide and maintain for employees, as far as practicable, a working environment that is safe and without risks to health. This includes providing a safe system of work, information, training, supervision, and where appropriate personal protective equipment. The employer must identify hazards in the workplace and, if practicable, eliminate these hazards. If this is not practicable, then the employer must take measures to control the hazard and reduce the risk to workers. When a work activity involves a deliberate, intentional use of biological agents, such as cultivating a micro-organism in a microbiological laboratory or using it in food production, the biological agent will be known, can be monitored more easily and measures taken to prevent exposure. When the occurrence of biological agents is an unintentional consequence of the work - for example in waste sorting or in agricultural activities - the assessment of risks that workers are exposed to will be more difficult. In any case, for some of the activities involved, information on exposures and protection measures is available.If exposure is not avoidable, it should be kept to a minimum by limiting the number of workers who are exposed, and reducing their exposure time. The control measures introduced in a workplace must be tailored to the working processes. The employer also has the responsibility to provide the workers with information and training to enable them to recognize the hazards and to follow safe working procedures.The measures which need to be taken to eliminate or reduce the risks to workers will depend on the particular biohazard, but there are a number of common actions that can beimplemented: many biological agents are communicated via air, such as exhaled bacteria or toxins of mould grains. The production of aerosols and dusts should be avoided in the manufacturing process, during cleaning and/or maintenance; good housekeeping, hygienic working procedures and use of relevant warning signs are key elements of safe and healthy working conditions; many micro-organisms have developed mechanisms to survive or resist heat, dehydration or radiation, for example, by producing spores. The workplace must develop decontamination measures for waste, equipment and clothing, and appropriate hygienic measures for workers, as well as proper instructions for safe disposal of waste, emergency procedures, and first aid. In some cases preventative measures may include vaccinations to workers most at risk.REFERENCESDirective 2000/54/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 September 2000 on the protection of workers from risk related to exposure to biological agents in the work. Official Journal of the European Communities, 17.10.2000, L 262/21-45.Dutkiewicz J.: Bacteria and fungi in organic dust as potential health hazard. Ann Agric Environ Med, 1997, 4, 11-16.Dutkiewicz J., Górny R.L.: Biological factors hazardous to human health: classification and criteria of exposure assessment. Med. Pr. 2002, 53(1), 29-39 (in Polish).EN 13098. Workplace atmosphere – Guidelines for measurement of airborne micro-organisms and endotoxin. CEN, 2000.Górny R.L., Dutkiewicz J.: Bacterial and fungal aerosols in indoor environment in Central and Eastern European countries. Ann Agric Environ Med, 2002, 9, 17-23.Jensen PA, Schafer MP. Sampling and characterization of bioaerosols. Revision of Jense PA; Lighart B., Mohr AJ, Shaffer BT (1994). Instrumentation used with microbial aerosol. IN:Lighart B., Mohr AJ (Eds.) Atmospheric microbial aerosols: theory and applications. New York: Chapman & Hall, 226-284.Malmros P., Sigsgaard T., Bach B.: Occupational health problems due to garbage sorting. Waste Manag Res, 1992, 10, 227-234.Skowroń J., Gołofit-Szymczak M.: Microbiological air pollution in the working environment –sources, types and monitoring. Bromatology and Toxicological Chemistry, 2004, 37(1), 91-98 (in Polish).TLV® and BEIs® Based on the Documentation of the Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents & Biological Exposure Indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, 2004, 181-185.。
fundamentals of microelectronics英文原版
fundamentals of microelectronics英文原版Title: Fundamentals of Microelectronics: A Comprehensive OverviewIntroduction:Microelectronics is a field that deals with the design, fabrication, and application of electronic devices and circuits on a small scale. It forms the foundation of modern technology and has revolutionized various industries. This article aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of microelectronics, covering essential concepts and principles.I. Basic Principles of Microelectronics1.1 Semiconductor Physics:- Band theory and energy levels in semiconductors- Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- Doping and carrier concentrations- P-N junctions and diodes1.2 Transistors:- Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)- Field-effect transistors (FETs)- MOSFETs and CMOS technology- Transistor operation and characteristics1.3 Integrated Circuits:- Introduction to integrated circuits (ICs)- Types of ICs: analog, digital, and mixed-signal- Fabrication processes: lithography, etching, and deposition - Packaging and testing of ICsII. Circuit Analysis and Design2.1 Circuit Analysis Techniques:- Kirchhoff's laws and network theorems- Node and mesh analysis- Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits- AC and DC analysis2.2 Amplifiers:- Amplifier fundamentals and types- Small-signal analysis- Frequency response and bandwidth- Feedback in amplifiers2.3 Digital Logic Gates:- Boolean algebra and logic gates- Combinational and sequential circuits- Flip-flops and registers- Arithmetic circuitsIII. Semiconductor Devices and Technology3.1 Diodes and Rectifiers:- Diode characteristics and applications- Rectifier circuits: half-wave and full-wave- Zener diodes and voltage regulation- Optoelectronic devices: LEDs and photodiodes3.2 Operational Amplifiers:- Ideal op-amp characteristics- Inverting and non-inverting amplifiers- Op-amp circuits: summing, integrator, and differentiator- Feedback and stability in op-amp circuits3.3 Memory Devices:- Static and dynamic random-access memory (SRAM and DRAM)- Read-only memory (ROM) and programmable logic devices (PLDs) - Flash memory and non-volatile storage- Memory hierarchy in computer systemsIV. Analog and Digital Systems4.1 Analog Circuits:- Analog signal processing and conditioning- Filters: low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass- Operational amplifier applications- Analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters4.2 Digital Systems:- Number systems: binary, decimal, and hexadecimal- Logic gates and Boolean algebra- Combinational and sequential logic- Digital system design and implementation4.3 Communication Systems:- Analog and digital modulation techniques- Transmission media: wired and wireless- Multiplexing and demultiplexing- Error detection and correctionV. Emerging Trends in Microelectronics5.1 Nanoelectronics:- Introduction to nanotechnology- Carbon nanotubes and graphene- Nanoscale devices and applications- Challenges and future prospects5.2 Internet of Things (IoT):- IoT architecture and components- Wireless sensor networks- IoT applications in healthcare, smart homes, and industry - Security and privacy concerns5.3 Artificial Intelligence (AI):- Machine learning and neural networks- AI hardware accelerators- AI applications: autonomous vehicles, robotics, and natural language processing - Ethical considerations and future developmentsConclusion:Microelectronics is a vast and dynamic field that underpins modern technology. This article has provided a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals of microelectronics, covering essential concepts such as semiconductor physics, circuit analysis and design, semiconductor devices and technology, analog and digital systems, and emerging trends. Understanding these fundamentals is crucial for anyone interested in pursuing a career or further studies in microelectronics.。
欧盟-罕见病
Orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis section provides guidance and procedural information on applyingfor orphan designation for medicines for rare diseases in the European Union (EU). It also includes information on what happens after a designation has been granted, including the incentives available for sponsors developing orphanmedicines.Orphan designationTo qualify for orphan designation, a medicine must meet a number of criteria:•it must be intended for the treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a disease that is life-threatening or chronically debilitating;•the prevalence of the condition in the EU must not be more than 5 in 10,000 or it must be unlikely that marketing of the medicine would generate sufficient returns to justify the investment needed for its development;•no satisfactory method of diagnosis, prevention or treatment of the condition concerned can be authorised, or, if such a method exists, the medicine must be of significant benefit to those affected by the condition.Applications for orphan designation are examined by the European MedicinesAgency'sCommittee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP), using the network of experts that the Committee has built up. The evaluation process takes a maximum of 90 days from validation.For information on how to apply, see how to apply for orphan designation.After orphan designationSponsors who obtain orphan designation benefit from a number of incentives,includingprotocol assistance, a type of scientific advice specific for designated orphanmedicines, and market exclusivity once the medicine is on the market. Fee reductions are also available depending on the status of the sponsor and the type of service required.When planning the development of their medicinal product, sponsors should consult the relevant scientific guidelines.Sponsors must submit an annual report to the Agency summarising the status ofdevelopment of the medicine.Applications for marketing authorisation for designated orphan medicines are assessed by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP). Sponsors also need to submit an application for maintenance of the orphan designation in order to be eligible for the 10-year market exclusivity incentive. Sponsors may also need to submit anevaluation of orphan similarity.More information•Legal background•How to apply for orphan designation•Activities after orphan designation•Guidance and formsLegal background: orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page summarises the legal background to the procedure for orphandesignation in the European Union (EU). It includes the key milestones in EU legislation adopted since the Orphan Regulation was first adopted in 1999.Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 (the Orphan Regulation)On 16 December 1999, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 (the Orphan Regulation). This was published in the Official Journal of the EuropeanCommunities on 22 January 2000.The Regulation:•lays down the EU procedure for designation of orphan medicines;•defines incentives for the development and placing onto the market of designated orphan medicines;•establishes the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP).Regulation (EC) No 847/2000On 27 April 2000, the European Commission adopted Regulation (EC) No 847/2000, which:•lays down implementing rules;•sets out definitions essential for the application of the Orphan Regulation.This Regulation entered into force on 28 April 2000. On this date, sponsors could begin to submit applications for orphan designation to the European Medicines Agency.European Commission Communication 2003/C 178/02On 29 July 2003, the European Commission adopted Communication 2003/C 178/02, which sets out the Commission's interpretation on:•matters relating to the implementation of the orphan designation;•provisions for market exclusivity.Regulation (EC) No 726/2004On 31 March 2004, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 726/2004, which provides the legal framework for the centralised authorisation and supervision of medicines for human and veterinary use and establishes the European Medicines Agency (EMA). It determines that:•all marketing authorisations for orphan medicines in the EU should follow the centralised authorisation procedure;•the CHMP can issue guidance regarding compassionate-use programmes.Regulation (EC) No 507/2006On 29 March 2006, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 507/2006, which provides the legal framework for the granting of a conditional marketingauthorisation to medicines that fall within the scope of Regulation (EC) No 726/2004. It establishes that orphan medicines can be granted a conditional marketingauthorisationwithin this legal framework.Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006On 12 December 2006, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EC) No 1901/2006 on medicinal products for paediatric use. It establishes that the usual period of market exclusivity for orphan medicines may be extended to twelve years if study results are submitted in compliance with an agreed paediatric investigation plan at the timeofmarketing authorisation.Regulation (EC) No 2049/2005On 15 December 2005, the European Commission adopted Regulation (EC) No 2049/2005 regarding the payment of fees to, and receipt of assistance from, the EMA by micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). It determines that scientific adviceandscientific services for designated orphan medicines shall be provided by the EMA to SMEs free of charge.European Commission guidelinesThe European Commission has also issued guidelines on aspects of the application of the Orphan Regulation:•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(1) and (3) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000: Assessing similarity of medicinal products versus authorised orphan medicinal products benefiting from market exclusivity and applying derogations from that market exclusivity;•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(2) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and of the Council: Review of the period ofmarket exclusivity of orphan medicinal products.How to apply for orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page provides information for sponsors on how to apply to the European Medicines Agency for orphan designation for a medicine.Notification of intention to submitSponsors should notify the EMA of their intention to submit an application as early as possible, and at the latest two months prior to the planned submission date. Thisnotification should be sent by e-mail orphandrugs@ema.europa.eu. It should include: •the name of the active substance;•the proposed orphan indication (i.e. treatment, prevention or diagnosis of a rare disease); •the name and address of the sponsor;•the planned submission date for the designation application and the proposed date for a pre-submission meeting (if required);•the unique product identifier (UPI) number. If you already have a UPI number please quote it in all your correspondence. Otherwise, the number will be assigned automatically when we receive your intent to file and communicated to you by e-mail.Presubmission meetingsThe Agency strongly encourages sponsors to request a presubmission meeting with the Agency prior to filing an application.Presubmission meetings usually take place via teleconference, unless the sponsor has a strong preference to come to the Agency in person.Where possible, sponsors should request a pre-submission meeting at least two months prior to filing. Presubmission meetings for orphan designation are free of charge.Presubmission meetings are useful since the evaluation process has a fixed duration of 90 days and cannot be lengthened to accommodate for the lack of data or other omissions in the application. Experience has shown that they have a positive impact on the success rate of the applications.Application procedureSponsors should use the forms below to apply for orphan designation:•Application form for orphan-medicinal-product designation•Common European Medicines Agency / Food and Drug Administration (FDA) application form or application form for orphan medicinal product designation•Template for sections A to E for the scientific part of the application for orphan designation •Translations required with the submission of an application for orphan medicinal product designationRefer to these documents for assistance completing these forms:•Guideline on the format and content of applications for designation as orphan medicinal products and on the transfer of designations from one sponsor to another, 27 March 2014•Points to consider on the calculation and reporting of the prevalence of a condition for orphan designation•Recommendation on elements required to support the medical plausibility and the assumption of significant benefit for an orphan designation•Data providers and sources to identify existing authorised medicinal products in the European Union and European Economic AreaIn particular, when completing section A.3.2 'Plausibility of the orphan condition; rationale for use of the medicinal product', sponsors should clearly identify studies with thesubstance in a relevant model(s) of the condition and, if possible, preliminary clinical data in patients with the condition.Each application is assigned two coordinators:•one member of the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP);•one scientific administrator from the Agency secretariat.Once the application form and sections A to E are complete, the sponsor should submit the complete application electronically to the Agency and to the assigned COMPcoordinator via Eudralink.The application should include full copies of the bibliographical references. The application form and sections A to E should be supplied in Word format (compatible with version 97-2003). References and the signed application form should be supplied as PDF files. In the application, sponsors should clearly substantiate the claims and support the statements made, with references where possible.Deadlines for submission of applications for orphan designation are availableunder submission deadlines.Applications for orphan designation are free of charge.The Agency will validate the application and will send the sponsor a validation issues letter explaining if the application is found to be invalid or incomplete. Once the validation is complete, the Agency will send a timetable for the evaluation procedure to the sponsor.The Agency advises sponsors developing advanced therapies to apply separately to the Committee for Advanced Therapies (CAT) to have their medicine classified as anadvanced-therapy medicine. For more information, see advanced-therapy medicinalproduct classification.Parallel application with international regulatorsThe Agency encourages parallel applications for orphan designation with regulatoryauthorities outside the EU.The Agency has special arrangements with regulators in the United States and Japan for this purpose:•The Agency advises sponsors to use the common orphan application form with the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to apply for orphan designation,particularly if an application has not been submitted in the United States before.•If an application has not been submitted to the Japanese authorities before, the Agency also encourages the sponsor to seek orphan designation from the Ministry for Health, Labour and Welfare (MHLW) in Japan. Under the Japanese orphan designation system, the MHLW provides consultation on orphan designations before submission, whereasmarketing-authorisation applications submitted following anorphan designation areassessed by the and the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA). TheMHLW generally seeks scientific counsel from the PMDA on theorphan designation.Evaluation of applicationsAfter submission, the two coordinators prepare a summary report on the application, which is circulated to all COMP members and discussed at the COMP's next plenarymeeting.At this stage, the COMP will either adopt a positive opinion or raise a list of questionsand invite the sponsor to an oral explanation at the next COMP plenary meeting.The COMP should adopt an opinion by day 90 of the procedure. It forwards this tothe European Commission for adoption of a decision.If the COMP's opinion is negative, the sponsor can appeal.European Commission decisionThe European Commission will issue a decision on a COMP opinion within 30 days of receipt. Following a decision:•the Agency publishes information on the orphan designation under rare disease (orphan) designations;•the European Commission enters the orphan designation into the Community register of designated orphan medicinal products.More information•Submission deadlines for orphan designations•Questions and answers: orphan-designation application•Guidance and formsActivities after orphan designation•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis section provides information on the incentives available to sponsors ofmedicines that have obtained orphan designation and the activities that take place after a designation has been granted.Sponsors who obtain orphan designation benefit from a number of orphan incentives, including protocol assistance, a type of scientific advice specific for designated orphan medicines, and market exclusivity once the medicine is on the market. Fee reductions are also available depending on the status of the sponsor and the type of service required.Sponsors must submit an annual report on development to the Agency summarising the status of development of the medicine.Applications for marketing authorisation for designated orphan medicines are assessed by the Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP). Sponsors also need to submit an application for maintenance of the orphan designation in order to be eligible for the 10-year market exclusivity incentive. For more information, see marketingauthorisation and market exclusivity.Transfers of orphan designation from one sponsor to another are possible. Transfers are free of charge.Sponsors can also request removal of an orphan designation.Sponsors of medicines with orphan designation should also remember to apply fora paediatric investigation plan, deferral or waiver once phase-I clinical studies arecomplete. For more information, see paediatric medicine development.More information•Orphan incentives•Annual report on development•Marketing authorisation and market exclusivity•Transfers of orphan designation•Removal of an orphan designationOrphans: Regulatory and procedural guidance and forms•Email•Print•Help•ShareThis page lists the guidance documents on orphan designation.Table of contents•Orphan designation•Post-designation•General•Standard operating proceduresRelated links•Guideline on the format and content of applications for designation as orphan medicinal products and on the transfer of designations from one sponsor to another •Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and the Council of 16 December 1999 on orphan products•Commission Regulation (EC) No 847/2000 of 27 April 2000 laying down the provisions for implementation of the criteria for designation of a medicinal product as an orphan medicinal product and definitions of the concepts ‘similar medicinal product’and‘clinical superiority’•Commission Communication 2003/C 178/02 of 29 July 2003 setting out the Commission's interpretation on matters relating to the implementation of the orphan designation and provisions for market exclusivity•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(1) and (3) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000: Assessing similarity of medicinal products versus authorised orphanmedicinal products benefiting from market exclusivity and applying derogations from that market exclusivity•Guideline on aspects of the application of Article 8(2) of Regulation (EC) No 141/2000 of the European Parliament and the Council: Review of the period of marketexclusivity of orphan medicinal products•Inventory of Community and national incentive measures to aid the research, marketing, development and availability of orphan medicinal products•Register of designated orphan medicinal products•The Seventh Framework Programme•Meeting dates for the Committee for Orphan Medicinal Products (COMP)•FDA - Office of Orphan Products Development•Japanese National Institute for Biomedical Innovation: Services to promote development of medicinal products for rare diseases。
Microelectronics
RDA5802ES INGLE -C HIP B ROADCAST FM R ADIO T UNER Rev.1.7–Jun.20091 General DescriptionThe RDA5802Esingle-chip broadcast decoder. The tuner support The RDA5802E can frequency band.1.1Featuresl l Ø power supplyl Ø 65 -108 MHz l Digital low-IF tunerØ Image-reject down-converter Ø High performance A/D converter Ø IF selectivity performed internally l Fully integrated digital frequency synthesizerØ Fully integrated on-chip RF and IF VCO Ø Fully integrated on-chip loop filter l Autonomous search tuning l Support 32.768KHz crystal oscillator l Digital auto gain control (AGC) l Digital adaptive noise cancellationØ Mono/stereo switch Ø Soft mutel Line-level analog output voltagel 32.768 KHz 12M,24M,13M,26M,19.2M,38.4MHzReference clockl 2-wire and 3-wire serial control bus interface l Directly support 32Ω resistance loading l Integrated LDO regulatorØ 1.8 to 5.5 V operation voltage l 4X4mm 24 pin QFN package 1.2Applicationsl Cellular handsets l MP3, MP4 playersl Portable radios ，PDAs, NotebookFigure 1-1. RDA5802E Top View2 Table of Contents1General Description (1)1.1 Features (1)1.2Applications (1)2Table of Contents (2)3Functional Description (3)3.1 FM Receiver (3)3.2 Synthesizer (3)3.3 Power Supply (3)3.4 RESET and Control Interface select (4)3.5 Control Interface (4)3.6 I2S Audio Data Interface (4)3.7 GPIO Outputs (4)4Electrical Characteristics (5)5Receiver Characteristics (6)6Serial Interface (7)6.1 Three-wire Interface Timing (7)6.2 I2C Interface Timing (8)7Register Definition (9)8 Pins Description (13)9Application Diagram (15)9.1 Audio Loading Resistance Larger than 32Ω & TCXO Application: (15)9.1.1 Bill of Materials: (15)9.2 Audio Loading Resistance Lower than 32Ω & DCXO Application: (16)9.2.1 Bill of Materials: (16)10Package Physical Dimension (17)11PCB Land Pattern (18)12Change List (21)13Notes： (21)14RDA5802E与RDA5802对比 (22)15Contact Information (23)3Functional Descriptionconverters (ADCs), an audio DSP and a high- fidelity digital-to-analog converters (DACs). The LNA has differential input ports (LNAP and LNAN) and supports any input port by set according registers bits (LNA_PORT_SEL[1:0]). It default input common mode voltage is GND. The limiter prevents overloading and limits the amount of intermodulation products created by strong adjacent channels.The quadrature mixer down converts the LNA output differential RF signal to low-IF, it also has image-reject function.The PGA amplifies the mixer output IF signal and then digitized with ADCs.3.2SynthesizerThe frequency synthesizer generates the local oscillator signal which divide to quadrature, then be used to downconvert the RF input to a constant low intermediate frequency (IF). The synthesizer reference clock is 32.768 KHz. The synthesizer frequency is defined by bits CHAN[9:0] with the range from 65MHz to 108MHz. 3.3Power SupplyThe RDA5802E integrated one LDO which supplies power to the chip. The external supplyvoltage range is 1.8-5.5 V. 3.4RESET and Control Interface selectThe RDA5802E is RESET itself When VIO is Power up. And also support soft reset by trigger 02H BIT1 from 0 to 1. The control interface is select by MODE Pin. The MODE Pin is low ,I2C Interface is select. The MODE Pin is set to VIO, SPI Interface is select. 3.5Control InterfaceThe RDA5802E supports three- wire and I 2C control interface. User could select either of them to program the chip.The three-wireinterface. It includes 4-bit high register at posedge of SCLK. (MSB is the first bit) around cycle between and data from The I 2C interface SDIO. A I 2a 7-bit chip address The ACK (or NACK) is always sent out by receiver. When in write transfer, data bytes is written out from MCU, and when in read transfer, data bytes is read out from RDA5802E. There is no visible register address in I 2C interface transfers. The I 2C interface has a fixed start register address (0x02h for write transfer and 0x0Ah for read transfer), and an internal incremental address counter. If register address meets the end of register file, 0x3Ah, register address will wrap back to 0x00h. For writetransfer, MCU programs registers from register 0x02h high byte, then register 0x02h low byte, then register 0x03h high byte, till the last register. RDA5802E always gives out ACK after every byte, and MCU gives out STOP condition when register programming is finished. For read transfer, after command byte from MCU, RDA5802E sends out register 0x0Ah high byte, then register 0x0Ah low byte, then register 0x0Bh high byte, till receives NACK from MCU. MCU gives out ACK for data bytes besides last data byte. MCU gives out NACK for last data byte, and then RDA5802E will return the bus to MCU, and MCU will give out STOP condition.Details refer to RDA5802E Programming Guide . 2is fully compliant as I 2S master and rate is 48Kbps ，also support as . with bits GPIO1[1:0], pins could be and stereo indicator with bits GPIO1[1:0], GPIO2[1:0], GPIO3[1:0]. GPIO2 could be programmed to output a low interrupt (interrupt will be generated only with interrupt enable bit STCIEN is set to high) when seek/tune process completes. GPIO3 could be programmed to output stereo indicator bit ST. Constant low, high or high-Z functionality is available regardless of the state of VA and VD supplies or the ENABLE bit.Figure 3-2. I2S Digital Audio Format4 Electrical CharacteristicsTable 4-1DC Electrical Specification (Recommended Operation Conditions):1. For Pin: SCLK, SDIO, SEN, MODETable 4-3 Power Consumption Specification(VDD = 1.8 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 ℃, unless otherwise specified)SYMBOLDESCRIPTIONCONDITIONTYP UNIT I A Analog Supply Current ENABLE=1 18 mA I D Digital Supply Current ENABLE=13mA I VIO Interface Supply Current SCLK and RCLK inactive 90 µA I APD Analog Powerdown Current ENABLE=0 2 µA I DPD Digital Powerdown Current ENABLE=0 2 µA I VIOInterface Powerdown CurrentENABLE=010µASCK5 Receiver CharacteristicsTable 5-1 Receiver Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Notes:1. F in=65 to 108MHz; F mod=1KHz; de-emphasis=75µs; MONO=1; L=R unless noted otherwise;2. ∆f=22.5KHz;3. B AF = 300Hz to 15KHz, RBW <=10Hz;4. |f2-f1|>1MHz, f0=2xf1-f2, AGC disable, F in=76 to 108MHz;5. P RF=60dB U V;6. ∆f=75KHz.7. Measured at V EMF = 1 m V, f RF = 65 to 108MHz8. At LOUT and ROUT pins6 Serial Interface6.1 Three-wire Interface TimingTable 6-1 Three-wire Interface Timing Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Figure 6-2. Three-wire Interface Read Timing Diagram6.2 I2C Interface TimingTable 6-2 I2C Interface Timing Characteristics(VDD = 2.7 to 5.5 V, T A = -25 to 85 °C, unless otherwise specified)Figure 6-3. I2C Interface Write Timing DiagramFigure 6-4. I2C Interface Read Timing Diagram7 Register Definition8 Pins DescriptionN DCCP I O 1P I O 2P I O 3Table 8-2 Internal Pin Configuration9 Application Diagram9.1 Audio Loading Resistance Larger than 32Ω & TCXO Application:Ω Resistance1—I2C,VIO—SPI);7COMPONENT VALUE DESCRIPTION SUPPLIERU1 RDA5802E Broadcast FM Radio Tuner RDAJ1 Common 32Ω Resistance HeadphoneC2 100pF Couple CAP MurataL3/C3 100nH/24pF LC Chock for LNA Input MurataC4,C5 125µF Audio AC Couple Capacitors MurataC6 24nF Power Supply Bypass Capacitor MurataF1/F2 1.5K@100MHz FM Band Ferrite Murata9.2 Audio Loading Resistance Lower than 32Ω & DCXO Application:1310 Package Physical DimensionFigure 10-1illustrates the package details for the RDA5802E. The package is lead-free and RoHS-compliant.Figure 10-2. 24-Pin 4x4 Quad Flat No-Lead (QFN)11 PCB Land PatternTable-I Classification Reflow ProfilesPackage Thickness Volume mm3<350Volume mm3≥350＜2.5mm 240 + 0/-5 o C 225 + 0/-5 o C≥2.5mm225 + 0/-5 o C225 + 0/-5 o CTable – II SnPb Eutectic Process – Package Peak Reflow Temperaturesthickness and volume. The use of convection reflow processes reduces the thermal gradients between packages. However, thermal gradients due to differences in thermal mass of SMD package may sill exist.Note 5: Components intended for use in a “lead-free” assembly process shall be evaluated using the “lead free”classification temperatures and profiles defined in Table-I II III whether or not lead free.RoHS CompliantThe product does not contain lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), and are therefore considered RoHS compliant.ESD SensitivityIntegrated circuits are ESD sensitive and can be damaged by static electricity. Proper ESD techniques should be used when handling these devices.12 Change ListREV DATE AUTHER CHANGE DESCRIPTION V1.0 2009-03-03 ChunZhao Original Draft.13 Notes：1: 通过硬件电路设置芯片工作总线控制模式，详细电路如下图：14 RDA5802E与RDA5802对比1、5802E的0x0Ch＝5803、0x0Dh＝5804，可以通过读这两个寄存器的缺省值来区别5800、5802和5802E;2、FM天线尽量用第4脚（LNAP），不要用第2脚（LNAN）。
货币资金管理外文翻译
摘要For the majority of small and medium-sized enterprises, the currency capital is an important material guarantee of the normal operation of the enterprise, it is also a powerful weapon to small and medium-sized enterprises to participate in market competition. And is directly related to the lifeline of enterprise development and future trend. Usually, the small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital have common characteristics of high mobility, application wide, so, it is very difficult for implementation. Many small and medium-sized enterprises are out of control in the internal fund management, thus causes the enterprise monetary fund was wantonly occupy, misappropriate, embezzle or even individual, and it Cause very serious consequences . According to the current monetary funds management in small and medium sized enterprises and put forward some countermeasures.关键字The small and medium-sized enterprise；currency capital management; present situation; solutions--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------In the current market economy, about the management of small and medium enterprises internal monetary system has be imperative, it not only embodies the development trend of market competition, it is an important way to realize the modernization of the management of small and medium enterprises. At the same time, as an important part of the small and medium-sized enterprise assets, enterprise currency capital also plays an important role in the accounting process. Visible, strengthen the internal management of currency capital, small and medium-sized enterprises for long-term development of enterprises will have a positive significance for the promotion. Funds from the small and medium-sized enterprises of our country monetary management during the recent years, is gradually emerged some problems, the enterprises realize the legitimate and reasonable expenses, capital recovery of safety and the prevention of enterprise personal corruption, it will lead to negative effect. Therefore, the small and medium-sized enterprise must start from the assurance assets safety point of view, to take appropriate measures to control its currency problems in management process, and meet the needs of its production and operation. 一the problems of small and medium sized enterprises about the currency capital managementAs an important content of modern enterprise management, about the small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital management is always a difficult problem. Many enterprises in the implementation of management programes and did not form a reasonable management frame, the control environment is extremely unfavorable. Due to our country small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund management chaotic basic reason, in addition to the model management and control the unreasonable, the lack of effective management pattern constraint is one of the important reasons. Many problems of small and medium-sized enterprise currency capital management emerged in, can be summarized as follows:--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------(1)small and medium-sized enterprise management mode of family contributed to the confusion in managementMany of our country's small and medium-sized enterprise business model is to mainly rely on the family, the family or the family most family members to promote the development of enterprises. In the course of time, this kind of production mode of operation has become the small and medium-sized enterprise's foundation of survival, this also led to business ownership being mostly controlled by family members. The existence of such a situation, the SMEs owners will choose you can trust people to serve management enterprise monetary fund positions, or even directly control the main economic lifeline of the enterprise. In this case, about the management of monetary funds, appear extremely easily confused or fraud and other undesirable phenomena, the monetary fund relevant approval to implement the system in place, the flow of funds is unknown.(2) Accounting responsibilities are not clear, and lack effective institutional checkThe scale of the small and medium-sized enterprises tend to be relatively small, business variety clutter, related system of accounting is also very difficult to put in place a real. For enterprises operating cost considerations, in financial, accounting, cashier for monetary fund management positions on many bosses tend to arrange for a person to do, both accounting and cashier, one usually wears different hats, the monetary fund management is effective control is obviously difficult to balance. Even some practitioners not from the professional accounting college graduation, for business knowledge only know fur, their management concept is not clear, coupled with the lack of effective management system to control and supervision on it, It is often to see the mixed, malfeasance and other phenomena, embezzled privately or embezzlement problems have also occurred, seriously hindered the development of small and medium sized enterprises.(3) Many accounting professional practitioners lack the necessary occupation accomplishment--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------In the "appoint people by favouritism" wrong idea guidance, the overall quality of many small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund management is very limited. By its own identity advantages to play favouritism and commit irregularities behavior is very common. There are also some enterprises accounting practitioners is left, for their own responsibilities lack of understanding and thinking effectively, the actual work is performed according to framework, flexibility and variability which is difficult to reflect the accounting work. In such an environment, less receipt, hide the actual amount of funds, alter the capital amount phenomenon occurred frequently, management functions weakened quickly.(4) the enterprise monetary fund import record lacks integritySmall and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund import and the actual business activities are inseparable, it not only help enterprises to buy raw materials necessary for the production process, but also provides the necessary material foundation for the introduction of the future talents, is an important way to ensure enterprise revenue. In the operation process of small and medium-sized enterprises, is a lot of money by the way of cooperation, also is the payment we usually say, for processing enterprises, this part of the liquidity should keep a record, for future reference. However, the reality is many specialized personnel inadvertent or intentional omission records of these funds, to achieve its purpose. The results do not only enable enterprises suffered some economic losses, more make the enterprise lost the corporate image and corporate reputation in the market, hindering the normal development of enterprises. (5)The small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate is not highThe small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate is handled by the internal audit department, audit department must finance income to the enterprise each quarter to make a general budget, and planning well in each of the use of funds, and on the specific amount to make clear the expected. This requires the enterprise has the perfect monetary fund budget system. However, many small and medium-sized enterprises in the form of the establishment of the capital budget --------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------system, but in the actual operation of the process is not used in accordance with the established rules and regulations to implement monetary funds, which caused the currency rate declined greatly, affect the normal production and operation o f enterprises.2Analysis of monetary funds management in small and medium sized enterprisesMany problems exist in the management of monetary funds in the current process of small and medium-sized enterprises, enterprises must proceed from the internal management and control of their own, to perfect the capital control system itself, to establish the internal management and control system to its actual development, so as to promote the enterprise of the normal and orderly development. The concrete implementation measures can be analyzed from the following aspects:2.1 To strengthen the guidance and training of occupation quality of employees Starting from the basic quality of their own employees, regardless of is the senior management personnel of the enterprise or the ordinary workers, must be approved by the occupation training process strictly, timing in enterprise internal training course, understanding from the thought to the significance of the establishment of enterprise currency fund management and control system. In the guidance and training of scientific and rational, promote enterprise staff's professional ability and the occupation quality significantly improved, so as to better into the post construction. This makes the enterprise monetary fund rate is greatly increased, the economic benefits of the enterprise will significantly enhance.2.2 Clear job responsibilities, avoid by all means "one person much hillock"--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------phenomenonThe difference in enterprises and personnel arrangement enterprises a nd large enterprises is small and medium enterprises for deployment of personnel relatively limited, and sometimes there will be a person at the same time as accounting, auditing and cashier multiple position. This "one person much hillock" phenomenon is bound to lead to the monetary funds of enterprises of great confusion. Clear enterprise employee responsibilities from duties, to avoid the "one person much hillock" phenomenon, so that it not only improves the utilization of small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund rate, but also to strengthen the management and control of each post, personnel staff duties, to the greatest degree to improve staff quality of work and efficiency.2.3 For small and medium-sized enterprises, cash and marketable securities shall be classified managementAbout the company in cash and marketable securities management should be a reasonable classification, effectively ensure the safety and integrity of the monetary fund management. The enterprise cash should not exceed the approved limits, otherwise should be deposited into the bank deposit. For the unauthorized take out cash and the cash behavior should identify the reasons, for the relevant personnel involved shall be given disciplinary action, and in accordance with the relevant laws and regulations strictly law to send punishment. Cash box passwords and keys must be handed in by enterprise operator safekeeping, not to others. Securities management should also be timely record, and placed in a safe place for storage. The sma ll and medium-sized enterprise cash and marketable securities, money is the lifeblood of business development, we must be strict management and control.2.4 Take the small and medium-sized enterprise monetary fund utilization rate Rate and the enterprise monetary fund budget system using small and medium enterprise monetary fund is closely related to the. The first half of the second half of the stage of enterprises must be monetary fund uses status to a reasonable and --------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------effective budget, the specific direction and in accordance with the established rules and regulations to the allocation of funds, to practice their jobs. The use of capital budget system is not only effective control of the enterprise monetary fund the actual use conditions, more greatly enhance the overall utilization of monetary funds, and indirectly promote the market competitiveness of enterprises to improve. In addition, utilization rate of increase is the effective realization of the scientific enterprise resource allocation, from the practical interests of the enterprise, to solve the control problem in fund management and use.--------------------------精品文档，可以编辑修改，等待你的下载，管理，教育文档----------------------。
小学英语微课设计教案(通用)
Application of Gamification Teaching Method
Vocabulary relay: Using fruit related vocabulary as the relay content to stimulate students' interest in memorizing vocabulary.
02
Teaching content and methods
Key vocabulary and sentence structures
Key vocabulary
Fruit related vocabulary such as apple, banana, orange, pear, and watermelon; I like, I don't like, Do you like? Sentence patterns that express preferences.
Show the key sentence structures of this lesson through situational dialogues, role-playing, and other methods, guiding students to imitate and practice.
Strong interactivity
Interacting with students through Q&A, discussion, and other methods to improve learning effectiveness.
Diversified presentation
Combining various media forms such as images, animations, and audio to vividly and interestingly present teaching content.
RCEP区域自贸区协议全文第1章_英文版
CHAPTER 1INITIAL PROVISIONS AND GENERAL DEFINITIONSArticle 1.1: Establishment of the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership as a Free Trade AreaThe Parties, consistent with Article XXIV of GATT 1994 and Article V of GATS, hereby establish the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership as a free trade area in accordance with the provisions of this Agreement.Article 1.2: General DefinitionsFor the purposes of this Agreement, unless otherwise provided in this Agreement:(a)AD Agreement means the Agreement on Implementationof Article VI of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade1994 in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(b) Agreement means the Regional ComprehensiveEconomic Partnership Agreement;(c) Agreement on Agriculture means the Agreement onAgriculture in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(d) Customs Valuation Agreement means the Agreement onImplementation of Article VII of the General Agreement onTariffs and Trade 1994in Annex 1A to the WTOAgreement;(e)days means calendar days, including weekends andholidays;(f) existing means in effect on the date of entry into force ofthis Agreement;(g)GATS means the General Agreement on Trade in Servicesin Annex 1B to the WTO Agreement;(h)GATT 1994 means the General Agreement on Tariffs andTrade 1994 in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(i) GPA means the Agreement on Government Procurementin Annex 4 to the WTO Agreement;(j) Harmonized System or HS means the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System, including itsGeneral Rules of Interpretation, Section Notes, ChapterNotes, and Subheading Notes, as adopted andadministered by the World Customs Organization, set outin the Annex to the International Convention on theHarmonized Commodity Description and Coding Systemdone at Brussels on 14 June 1983, as may be amended,adopted and implemented by the Parties in their respectivelaws;(k) IMF means the International Monetary Fund;(l) IMF Articles of Agreement means the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund adopted atBretton Woods on 22 July 1944;(m) Import Licensing Agreement means the Agreement on Import Licensing Procedures in Annex 1A to the WTOAgreement;(n)juridical person means any entity constituted or organised under applicable law, whether or not for profit,and whether privately-owned or governmentally-owned,including any corporation, trust, partnership, joint venture,sole proprietorship, association, or similar organisation; (o)Least Developed Country means any country designated as such by the United Nations and which has not obtainedgraduation from the least developed country category; (p)Least Developed Country Party means any Party that isa Least Developed Country;(q)measure means any measure by a Party, whether in the form of a law, regulation, rule, procedure, decision,administrative action, or any other form;(r) Party means any State or separate customs territory for which this Agreement is in force;(s) perishable goods means goods that rapidly decay due to their natural characteristics, in particular in the absence ofappropriate storage conditions;(t)person means a natural person or a juridical person; (u)personal information means any information, including data, about an identified or identifiable individual;(v)Preshipment Inspection Agreement means the Agreement on Preshipment Inspection in Annex 1A to theWTO Agreement;(w)RCEP means the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership;(x)RCEP Joint Committee means the RCEP Joint Committee established pursuant to Article 18.2(Establishment of the RCEP Joint Committee);(y) Safeguards Agreement means the Agreement on Safeguards in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(z) SCM Agreement means the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures in Annex 1A to the WTOAgreement;(aa) small and medium enterprise means any small and medium enterprise, including any micro enterprise, andmay be further defined, where applicable, in accordancewith the respective laws, regulations, or national policies ofeach Party;(bb)SPS Agreement means the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures in Annex 1A to theWTO Agreement;(cc)TBT Agreement means the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement; (dd)trade administration documents means forms issued or controlled by a Party which must be completed by or for animporter or exporter in relation to the import or export ofgoods;(ee) Trade Facilitation Agreement means the Agreement on Trade Facilitation in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(ff)TRIPS Agreement means the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights in Annex1C to the WTO Agreement;(gg) Understanding on the Balance-of-Payments Provisions means the Understanding on the Balance-of-Payments Provisions of the General Agreement on Tariffsand Trade1994 in Annex 1A to the WTO Agreement;(hh)WTO means the World Trade Organization; and(ii)WTO Agreement means the Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization done atMarrakesh on 15 April 1994.Article 1.3: ObjectivesThe objectives of this Agreement are to:(a) establish a modern, comprehensive, high-quality, andmutually beneficial economic partnership framework tofacilitate the expansion of regional trade and investmentand contribute to global economic growth anddevelopment, taking into account the stage of developmentand economic needs of the Parties especially of LeastDeveloped Country Parties;(b) progressively liberalise and facilitate trade in goods amongthe Parties through, inter alia, progressive elimination oftariff and non-tariff barriers on substantially all trade ingoods among the Parties;(c) progressively liberalise trade in services among the Partieswith substantial sectoral coverage to achieve substantialelimination of restrictions and discriminatory measures withrespect to trade in services among the Parties; and(d) create a liberal, facilitative, and competitive investmentenvironment in the region, that will enhance investmentopportunities and the promotion, protection, facilitation,and liberalisation of investment among the Parties.。
高二英语词汇词根词缀单选题30题
高二英语词汇词根词缀单选题30题1.The biology class is studying the structure of cells. The word “microscope” contains the prefix “micro-” which means _____.A.smallrgeC.manyD.few答案解析：A。
“micro-”这个前缀的意思是“小的”，“microscope”是显微镜，显微镜是用来观察微小物体的，所以“micro-”表示“small”小的。
2.In chemistry class, we learned about different elements. The word “monoxide” contains the prefix “mono-” which means _____.A.oneB.twoC.threeD.four答案解析：A。
“mono-”这个前缀表示“单一的”，“monoxide”是一氧化碳，“mono-”在这里表示“one”一个。
3.During the history lesson, we talked about ancient civilizations. The word “archaeology” contains the prefix “archaeo-” which means _____.A.oldB.newC.beautifulD.ugly答案解析：A。
“archaeo-”这个前缀表示“古代的”，“archaeology”是考古学，考古学是研究古代文明的学科，所以“archaeo-”表示“old”古老的。
4.In physics class, we studied the laws of motion. The word “velocity” contains the suffix “-ity” which means _____.A.stateB.actionC.qualityD.person答案解析：C。
火星医疗-J3 护理椅座-产品说明书
o o ST:ZIP:( )Fax:( )ST:ZIP:oo ( )Fax:( )Note: PLA size has been optimized based upon anthropometric studies relative to cushion width.Note: Optimal PLA sizing can help provide lower Ischial pressures, improved stability and comfort for the user.PLA INSERTFactory Filled (FF) Fluid PadField Variable (FV) Fluid Pad Note: Field Variable comes standard with the following supplement pads:PLA A = 2-Medium PLA B = 2-Large PLA C = 2-XlargeFF or FVSTEP 4Factory FilledField VariableSelectedComponent Select Part # Up-Charge o FF NC oFV $22For additional information, please refer to the J3 Cushion Quick Reference Guide. Part # 111903.Confirm Via:Fax EmailShip To Phone:The HCPCS CODES herein are based on PDAC verification or interpretation of Medicare definitions and guidelines. Non-Medicare payers may accept alternative HCPCS CODES , includingmisc. codes to ensure access for their enrollees. The use of HCPCS CODES does not ensure coverage or payment.JAY J3 CushionTo order a J3 Cushion, a J3 SMART Part Number must be built. Follow the steps below to build your own unique Smart Part #.ExampleSelected ComponentJ3 CUSHION BASESelect Part # Charge Dealer Contact:Ship To:Dealer Address:Attention:Dealer City:Address:Dealer Phone:Address:Confirmation Email:Ship To City:JAY ®J3 CushionE2622 / E2623 / E2624 / E2625February 2023Mark For:Submitting for:Quote OrderDate:PO#:Dealer Acct #:Dealer:ADDITIONAL SHIPPING INFORMATIONNot shown but available through Sun Parts Online:"Pelvic Obliquity Pads" - example part # J3CDCOLNC Move PLA location. PLA Size remains the same. Available to move up to 4" forward, 1" left or right in 1" increments NC Front of PLA is additionally cutaway to decrease the slope angle from the PLA to the femoral support area NC Note: Multiple combinations of these MODS are possible. Common example is Femoral Transition and Scrotal. Please contact customer service for combinations Note: If there is a modification that is not listed above, contact customer service and we will do our best to accommodate your needs.NOTESPOSITIONING COMPONENTS(If applicable)Note: Please contact customer service to discuss your modification options. Some MODS may prevent the use of the reducer rings and/or positioning piecesUp-ChargeJ3 SMART PART #J3CStep 1Step 2Step 3Step 4Step 5Step 6STEP 4 (Continued from page 1)Air Insert - SingleAir Insert - DualSelected Move PLA Location Femoral Relief Trochanteric Relief Scrotal Relief Leg Trough CutaHCPCSa HCPCSo J3CS1212AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1212 o J3CS2120AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1214AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1214 o J3CS2120BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1412AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1412 o J3CS2120CFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1414AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1414o J3CS2121AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1416AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1416 o J3CS2121BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 oJ3CS1418AFFS E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1418 oJ3CS2121CFFS E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1515AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1515 o J3CS2122AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1516AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1516 o J3CS2122BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1517AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1517 o J3CS2122CFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1615AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS1615BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS2218AFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218BFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218CFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1617AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219AFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1617BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219BFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2219CFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2220AFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220BFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220CFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1715AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221AFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1715BFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221BFFSE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716AFFSE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o 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o J3CS2320BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2320CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2321AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 oJ3CS1917AFFM E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 oJ3CS2322AFFM E2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1917BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 o J3CS2322BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2322CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2418AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS2016AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016CFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2018AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018CFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2020AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020CFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2118AFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422AFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118CFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 oJ3CS2119AFFM E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 oJ3CS2424AFFM E2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119BFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424BFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119CFFME2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424CFFME2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 $685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$68522" & Greater in Width$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$685$685$685o J3CS1412AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1412 o J3CS2120CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1414AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1414 o J3CS2121AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1416AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1416 o J3CS2121BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 oJ3CS1418AFFI E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1418 oJ3CS2121CFFI E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1515AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1515 o J3CS2122AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1516AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1516 o J3CS2122BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1517AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1517 o J3CS2122CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1615AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS1615BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS2218AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1617AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1617BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2219CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2220AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1715AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1715BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2221CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2222AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 oJ3CS1717AFFI E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 oJ3CS2222BFFI E2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1717BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 o J3CS2222CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1718AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1718BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2318CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2319AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1818AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1818BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2320CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2321AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 oJ3CS1917AFFI E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 oJ3CS2322AFFI E2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1917BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 o J3CS2322BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2322CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2418AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS2016AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2018AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2020AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2118AFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422AFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 oJ3CS2119AFFI E2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 oJ3CS2424AFFI E2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119BFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424BFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119CFFIE2622 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424CFFIE2623 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 $685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$685$68522" & Greater in Width$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$794$685$685$685$685$685$685aHCPCSa HCPCSo J3CS1212AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1212 o J3CS2120AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1214AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1214 o J3CS2120BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1412AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1412 o J3CS2120CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1414AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1414 o J3CS2121AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1416AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1416 o J3CS2121BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 oJ3CS1418AFFSP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1418 oJ3CS2121CFFSP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1515AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1515 o J3CS2122AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1516AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1516 o J3CS2122BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1517AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1517 o J3CS2122CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1615AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS1615BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1615 o J3CS2218AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1617AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1617BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2219CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2220AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1715AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1715BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2221CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2222AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 oJ3CS1717AFFSP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 oJ3CS2222BFFSP E2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1717BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 o J3CS2222CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1718AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1718BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2318CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2319AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1818AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1818BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2320CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2321AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 oJ3CS1917AFFSP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 oJ3CS2322AFFSP E2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1917BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 o J3CS2322BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2322CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2418AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS1920BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1920 o J3CS2418CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2418 o J3CS2016AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2016CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2016 o J3CS2419CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2419 o J3CS2018AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2018CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2018 o J3CS2420CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2420 o J3CS2020AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2020CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2020 o J3CS2421CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2421 o J3CS2118AFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422AFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 o J3CS2118CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2118 o J3CS2422CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2422 oJ3CS2119AFFSP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 oJ3CS2424AFFSP E2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119BFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424BFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 o J3CS2119CFFSPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2119 o J3CS2424CFFSPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2424 $707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$707$707$707$707$707$70722" & Greater in Width$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816$707$816Option #DefinitionPriceOption #Definition Price$707$707$707$707$707$707$707$707$707$707$707$707JAY J3 Cushion Standard w/ Factory Filled Fluid Insert and Stretch Cover and Positioningo J3CS1412AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1412 o J3CS2120CFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2120 o J3CS1414AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1414 o J3CS2121AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1416AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1416 o J3CS2121BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 oJ3CS1418AFFMP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1418 oJ3CS2121CFFMP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2121 o J3CS1515AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1515 o J3CS2122AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1516AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1516 o J3CS2122BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1517AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1517 o J3CS2122CFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 2122 o J3CS1645AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1645 o J3CS1645BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1645 o J3CS2218AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1616BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1616 o J3CS2218CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2218 o J3CS1617AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1617BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1617 o J3CS2219BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2219CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2219 o J3CS1618BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1618 o J3CS2220AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1620BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1620 o J3CS2220CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2220 o J3CS1715AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1715BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1715 o J3CS2221BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2221CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2221 o J3CS1716BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1716 o J3CS2222AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 oJ3CS1717AFFMP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 oJ3CS2222BFFMP E2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1717BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1717 o J3CS2222CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2222 o J3CS1718AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1718BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1718 o J3CS2318BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2318CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2318 o J3CS1816BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1816 o J3CS2319AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1817BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1817 o J3CS2319CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2319 o J3CS1818AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1818BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1818 o J3CS2320BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2320CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2320 o J3CS1820BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1820 o J3CS2321AFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 o J3CS1916BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1916 o J3CS2321CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2321 oJ3CS1917AFFMP E2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 oJ3CS2322AFFMP E2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1917BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1917 o J3CS2322BFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918AFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o J3CS2322CFFMPE2625 JAY J3 CUSHION 2322 o J3CS1918BFFMPE2624 JAY J3 CUSHION 1918 o 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3GPP 5G基站(BS)R16版本一致性测试英文原版(3GPP TS 38.141-1)
4.2.2
BS type 1-H.................................................................................................................................................. 26
4.3
Base station classes............................................................................................................................................27
1 Scope.......................................................................................................................................................13
All rights reserved. UMTS™ is a Trade Mark of ETSI registered for the benefit of its members 3GPP™ is a Trade Mark of ETSI registered for the benefit of its Members and of the 3GPP Organizational Partners LTE™ is a Trade Mark of ETSI registered for the benefit of its Members and of the 3GPP Organizational Partners GSM® and the GSM logo are registered and owned by the GSM Association
Entrepreneurship
They have important social responsibilities:
• • • • •
Average annual growth in small business employment has been rising
since the 1980s
• annual average growth rate was 3.3% between 1989/90 to 1999/2000
Total all industries
70.9
1122.0
178.3
3259.1
6.6
100.0
5.6
100.0
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Major small business sectors in the economy
Industry Sector SMEs „000s Employees „000s all firms % employees %
Manufacturing
Construction Wholesale trade Retail trade Accommodation café, restaurants Transport and storage Communication Services Finance and insurance
people
© 2012 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Small--Medium-And-Micro
Small，Medium And Micro<a rel=’nofollow' onclick="doyoo。
util。
openChat(）;return false;”href="#"〉An ew enterprise category―micro enterprises―has been added to smalland medium-sized enterprises（SMEs)。
On July 4 the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology（MIIT）, the National Bureau of Statistics(NBS)，the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC）and the Ministry of Finance （MOF) jointly released new provisions on the division of SMEs。
The new standards incorporated enterprises in the real estate，lease and business service，information transmission as well as software and information technology service industries into the scope of SMEs. As it stands, SMEs have business dealings in almost all of China’s major industries.According to the MIIT, formulating new division standards for SMEs aims at facilitating research and the implementation of supporting policies for SMEs，strengthening differentiated guidance and promoting SME development。
06.04 Membrane filters
Membrane filtersmolecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adapted for the dairy industry. DefinitionsDefinitions of some frequently used expressions :Feed=the solution to be concentrated or fractionated. Flux=the rate of extraction of permeate measured inlitres per square meter of membrane surface areaper hour (l/m2/h)Membrane fouling=deposition and accumulation of feedcomponents on the membrane surface and/orwithin the pores of the membrane. Causes anirreversible flux decline during processing Permeate=the filtrate, the liquid passing through themembraneRetentate=the concentrate, the retained liquid Concentration factor=the volume reduction achieved byconcentration, i.e. the ratio of initial volume offeed to the final volume of concentrate/retentate Diafiltration=a design to obtain better purification. Water isadded to the feed during membrane filtrationwith the purpose to wash out low molecfular feedcomponents which will pass through themembranes, basically lactose and minerals. Membrane technologyIn the dairy industry, membrane technology is principally associated with •Reverse Osmosis (RO)– concentration of solutions by removal of water•Nanofiltration (NF)– concentration of organic components by removal of part of monovalent ions like sodium and chlorine (partial demineralisation)•Ultrafiltration (UF)– concentration of large and macro molecules, for example proteins •Microfiltration (MF)– removal of bacteria, separation of macro moleculesThe spectrum of application of membrane separation processes in the dairy industry is shown in Figure 6.4.1.All the above techniques feature pressure driven membrane filtration processes, in which the feed solution is forced through the membrane under pressure. The membranes are categorised by their NaCl retention (RO and NF) molecular weight cut-off (NF and UF), or nominal pore-size(MF). The cut-off is, supposedly the molecular weight of the smallest molecule that will not pass through the membrane. However, owing to various interactions, a membrane cannot be selected purely on the basis ofFig. 6.4.1 Spectrum of application of membrane separation processes in the dairy industry.The basic difference between conventional filtration and cross-flowmembrane filtration is illustrated in Figure 6.4.2.Several differences can be noted between conventional and membranefiltration.•Conventional filters are thick with open structures.Filter material is typically paper.Gravity is the main force affecting particle separation. Pressure may beapplied only to accelerate the process. The flow of feed is perpendicularto the filter medium, and filtration can be conducted in open systems.•Membrane filters are thin and of fairly controlled pore size.Filter material is polymers and ceramics, nowadays more rarely celluloseacetate.In membrane filtration, the use of a pressure difference across themembrane, a trans membrane pressure, TMP , is essential as driving forcefor separation and in cross-flow or tangential membrane filtration a flowdesign is followed. The feed solution runs parallel to the membrane surfaceFig. 6.4.2 Basic differences between conventional dead-end filtration and cross-flow membrane filtration.Feed flowand the permeate flows perpendicular to the membrane surface. The filtration must be carried out in a closed system.Principles of membrane separation The membrane separation techniques utilised in the dairy industry serve different purposes:RO–used for dehydration of whey, UF permeate and condensate.NF–used when partial desalination of whey, UF permeate orretentate is required.UF–typically used for concentration of milk proteins in milk and whey and for protein standardisation of milk intended for cheese, yoghurtand some other products. It is also used for clarification of fruit-and berry-juices.MF–basically used for reduction of bacteria in skim milk, whey and brine, but also for defatting whey intended for whey proteinconcentrate (WPC) and for protein fractionation.The general flow patterns of the various membrane separation systems are illustrated in Figure 6.4.3.Principles of membranefiltration.-3-2-11Reverse Osmosis (RO)MembraneNanofiltration (NF)Ultrafiltration (UF)Microfiltration (MF)Bacteria, fatProteinsLactoseMinerals (salts)WaterRetentateFiltration modulesThe filtration modules used may be of different configurations.Design Typical applicationPlate and frame UF , RO Tubular, based on polymers UF , RO Tubular, based on ceramics MF , UF Spiral-wound RO, NF , UF Hollow-fibre UF Plate and frame designThese systems consist of membranes sandwiched between membranesupport plates, which are arranged in stacks, similar to ordinary plate heatexchangers. The feed material is forced through very narrow channels thatmay be configured for parallel flow or as a combination of parallel and serialchannels. A typical design is shown in Figure 6.4.4.A module is usually divided into sections, in each of which the flow bet-ween pairs of membranes is in parallel. The sections are separated by aspecial membrane support plate in which one hole is closed with a stopdisc to reverse the direction of flow, giving serial flow between successivesections. Modules are available in various sizes.Membrane material: typical polymers.Tubular design – polymersThe system made by Paterson and Candy International Ltd, PCI, is anceramic membranes is steadily gainingThe filter element (Figure 6.4.6) is a ceramic filterThe thin walls of the channels are made of fine-grainedceramic and constitute the membrane. The support material is coarse-The filter elements (1, 7, 19 or 37 in6.4.7 shows a module with 19 filterelements, one of which is exposed tothe left of the module. For industrialpurposes, two modules are puttogether in series, forming a filterloop together with one retentatecirculation pump and one permeate circulation pump (Figure 6.4.10).Depending on the required Fig. 6.4.4 Example of a plate and frame system (DDS) for UF .collectorFig. 6.4.10 An industrial membrane filter loop consists of:–two filter modules connected in series –one retentate circulation pump –one permeate circulation pumpFig 6.4.9 Pressure drop at the Uniform Transmembrane Pressure system.Fig 6.4.8 Pressure drop during conventionalcross-flow microfiltration.capacity, a number of filter loops can be installed in parallel.The feed is pumped into the modules from below at a high flow rate. Thehigh flow rate causes a high pressure drop along the membrane elementswhich leads to an uneven transmembrane pressure (TMP), the TMP beinghigher at the inlet than at the outlet. The very high TMP at the inlet quicklycauses clogging of the membrane. This phenomenon is illustrated in Figure6.4.8, which shows conventional cross-flow microfiltration. Experienceshows that a low transmembrane pressure gives much better performance,but in conventional cross-flow microfiltration, a low transmembranepressure occurs only at the outlet, i.e. on a very small part of the membrane area.A unique Uniform Transmembrane Pressure (UTP) system has beenintroduced to achieve optimum conditions on the entire area. The patented system, illustrated in Figure 6.4.9, involves high-velocity permeatecirculation concurrently with the retentate creating a pressure drop on thepermeate side which is equal to the pressure drop on the retentate side.This gives a uniform TMP over the whole of the membrane area, withoptimum utilisation of the membrane.The latter system is possible because the space between the elementsinside the module, i.e. on the permeate side, is normally empty, but in theUTP version, it is filled with plastic grains. The pressure drop on thepermeate side is regulated by the permeate pump and is constant duringoperation of the plant.Today membrane elements of special design which have this so calledUTP system built-in in their structure are available. When using this type ofmembranes there is no need for a circulation on the permeate side. TheseSpiral-wound designAs the spiral-wound design differs from the othermembrane filtration designs used in the dairyindustry, it calls for a somewhat more detailedexplanation.A spiral-wound element contains one or morelayers of membrane separated by a porousthe permeate channel spacer passing through the membrane to flow freely. Thetwo layers of membrane with the permeate channel Bar Bar Pressure profilesBar BarPressure profiles spiral-wound filter design.elements to prevent the velocity of treated fluid from causing the layers to slip.Several elements – normally three – can be connected in series inside the same stainless steel tube as shown in Figure 6.4.13.Membrane and permeate spacer material: polymer.Hollow-fibre designHollow-fibre modules are cartridges which contain bundles of 45 to over 3000 hollow-fibre elements per cartridge. The fibres are oriented in parallel;all are potted in a resin at their ends and enclosed in the permeatecollecting tube of epoxy.Circulation of retentate Backflush with permeate Cleaning solution ProductFig. 6.4.14 UF cartridge during filtration(A), backflushing (B) and cleaning (C).Fig.6.4.13 Spiral-wound module assembly. Either or both of the pairs of connecting branches (X and Y) can be used for stackable housing, specially used in UF con-cepts.The membrane has an inner diameter ranging from 0,5 to 2,7 mm, and the active membrane surface is on the inside of the hollow fibre. Theoutside of the hollow-fibre wall, unlike the inner wall, has a rough structure and acts as a supporting structure for the membrane. The feed stream flows through the inside of these fibres, and the permeate is collected outside and removed at the top of the tube.A special feature of this design is its backflushing capability, which is utilised in cleaning and with permeate recirculated through the outer per-meate connection to remove product deposits on the membrane surface.Various modes of operation of a hollow-fibre module are illustrated in Figure6.4.14.Membrane material: polymers.Separation limits for membranes The separation limit for a membrane is determined by the lowest molecular weight that can be separated. Themembrane can have a definite or a diffuse separation limit,as illustrated in Figure 6.4.15 for two UF membranes. The same phenomena occur in other types of membrane separators, but the slope of the curves may be different.Membranes with a definite separation limit separateeverything with a definitely lower molecular weight, whilemembranes with a diffuse limit let some material with ahigher molecular weight through and stop some with a lower molecular weight.The separation accuracy of a membrane is determinedby pore size and pore size distribution. Because it is not possible to carry out an exact fractionation according to molecular mass or molecular diameter, the cutoff is more or less diffuse.The definition that the molecular weight determines the separation limit should be taken with some reservations, as the shape of the separated particles also has an influence. A spherical particle is easier to separate than a chain-shaped particle. In addition comes the build-up of a "secondarymembrane" by macromolecules, e.g. proteins, which may constitute the membrane that really determines the molecular cutoff value.Material transport through the membraneSeparation capacity depends on a number of factors:•Membrane resistance, which is characteristic for each membrane and is determined by– the thickness of the membrane– the surface porosity– the pore diameter•Transport resistance, i.e. the concentration polarisation and fouling effects are phenomenon which occurs at the surface or in the porous structure of the membranes as filtration proceeds.The formation of a layer which increase the resistance can be explained as follows:•Large molecules (i.e. protein and fat) are transported by convection to the membrane at right angles to the direction of flow. Due to theretention the concentration of particles will increase at the membrane surface.•This concentration gradient produces a back diffusion in the opposite direction, back to the bulk.•Parallel to the membrane, the proteins present in the layer close to the membrane surface move at velocities which vary according to theincrease in axial flow rate.0R e j e c t i o n C o e f f i c i e n tMolecular weight Fig. 6.4.15 Typical rejection characteris-tics of ultrafiltration membranes showing ideal, sharp and diffuse molecular weight cutoffs.•The fouling effect is not uniformly distributed along the membrane, especially when the pressure drop gives different transmembranepressures (TMP) along the membrane surface. The upstream end of the membrane is therefore clogged first. The fouling graduallyspreads over the whole surface, reducing capacity and eventuallymaking it necessary to stop and clean the plant.•The main effect of fouling is that the removal of permeate decreases as filtration proceeds.•The fouling effect can be reduced in certain concepts by using backflush, reverse flow or UTP (possible when ceramic membranes are used).Pressure conditionsPressure is the driving force of filtration, and an important distinction must be made between:1The hydraulic pressure drop along the module P = P1- P2.The higher the velocity through the module the higher the value of P. A higher velocity results in a higher shear at the membrane surface and a lower polarisation effect. However, there are constraints such as theresistance to pressure of the membrane and the price of pumps capable of delivering both high flows and high pressure.2The transmembrane pressure (TMP) is the pressure drop between the retentate and the permeate sides of the membrane at a particular point along the membrane. The main criterion of the efficiency of a membrane system is expressed as the flux – the flow per membranes area andhour, l/m2/h, and is a function of TMP.The TMP, i.e. the force which pushes the permeate through the membrane, is greatest at the inlet and lowest at the discharge end of the module. Since the decrease in TMP is linear, an average TMP is given by:Fig. 6.4.16Hydraulic (A) and transmembrane (B) pressure drops over a membranePP31P PP1A B0barP1= inlet pressure feedP2= outlet pressure concentrate P3= outlet pressure permeate Pressure profilesThe hydraulic pressure drop over the membrane (A) and the transmembrane pressure profile (B) are illustrated in Figure 6.4.16.Principles of plant designsThe operation of membrane filtration plants dependsbasically on the pressure generated by the pumps used.The following guides should be taken into consideration:1The capacity of the pump(s) should match the requiredvary widely according to module design and size.2The pump(s) should be insensitive to changes in theviscosity of the processed stream up to the viscosity3The pump(s) must satisfy the sanitary standards fordairy equipment.Pumps of several types are used, including centrifugalpumps and positive displacement pumps. Sanitary cen-trifugal pumps are normally used as feed and circulationpumps, but sanitary positive displacement pumps areoccasionally used as high-pressure feed and circulationpumps for high-viscosity liquids, e.g. in the final stages ofultrafiltration of acidified milk.Membrane separation plants can be used for bothbatch and continuous production. The feed solution mustnot contain coarse particles , which can damage the verythin filtration layer/active layer. A fine-meshed strainer istherefore often integrated into the feed system.Batch productionPlants for batch production (Figure 6.4.17) are used mainlyfor filtration of small volumes of product, for example inlaboratories and experimental plants. A certain amount ofthe product to be treated is kept in a buffer tank. Theproduct is circulated through the membrane separator untilthe required concentration is obtained.Continuous productionSchematic designs of the membrane filtration plants re-ferred to are collected in Figures 6.4.18. and 6.4.19. Theplants illustrated in Figure 6.4.18 represent spiral-woundconcepts for RO, NF and UF applications, with polymermembranes of different pore sizes, while Figure 6.4.19shows a MF plant with ceramic membranes.As the RO membranes are much tighter than those of the two other systems, a higher inlet pressure is required for production. This is main-Fig. 6.4.17 Batch membrane filtration plant Feed product Concentration loop Permeate Cooling medium 1Product tank 2Feed pump 3Circulation pump 4Strainer 5Membrane module 6CoolerRO concept NF concept UF concept Fig. 6.4.18 Design principles for different filter loops.1Membrane 2Cooler3StrainerRetentatePermeate Fig. 6.4.191MF membrane cartridge2Circulation pump for retentate Fig. 6.4.20tained by three sanitary centrifugal feed pumps in series and one sanitary centrifugal circulation pump.The other two filtration plants, NF and UF , have more open membranes and can therefore manage with two feed pumps and one feed pump respectively.As was mentioned earlier, the MF concept is based on two filter modules operated in series in a filter loop system which also contains one centrifugal pump for circulation of the retentate and one for circulation of the permeate.The feed solution may be supplied from a separation plant with a system for constant pressure at the outlet, or from a balance tank equipped with a pump and a system for capacity regulation.Processing temperature in membranefiltration applicationsIn most cases, the processing temperature is about 50 °C for dairy applications. Filtration plants are normally supplemented with a simple cooling system integrated into the internal circulation loop to compensate for the slight rise in temperature that occurs during operation and to maintain a constant processing temperature.。
Bank Size and Small- and Medium-sized Enterprise
Bank Size and Small-and Medium-sized Enterprise(SME)Lending:Evidence from ChinaYAN SHEN,MINGGAO SHEN *Peking University,PR ChinaZHONG XUFinance and Banking Research Institute,People’s Bank of China,PR ChinaandYING BAI *Hong Kong University of Science and Technology,PR ChinaSummary.—Using panel data collected in 2005,we evaluate how bank size,discretion over credit,incentive schemes,competition,and the institutional environment affect lending to small-and medium-sized enterprises in China.We deal with the endogeneity problem using instrumental variables,and a reduced-form approach is also applied to allow for weak instruments in estimation.We find that total bank asset is an insignificant factor for banks’decision on small-and medium-enterprise (SME)lending,but more local lending authority,more competition,carefully designed incentive schemes,and stronger law enforcement encourage commercial banks to lend to SMEs.Ó2009Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved.Key words —SME lending,bank size,loan approval rights,reduced-form approach,soft information1.INTRODUCTIONThe discrepancy between China’s economic structure and financial structure is best manifested by the mismatch between the contribution of small-and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)to economic growth and the amount of credit they have obtained from formal financial institutions.Since China launched its economic reform in 1978,its economy has switched into the fast lane of economic growth.China had achieved 9.75%annual GDP growth during 1979–2007,making it one of the fastest growing economies in the world by any standard.SMEs have played an active role in economic growth.Accord-ing to the National Bureau of Statistics,99.6%of enterprises in China are SMEs at the end of 2005.These enterprises account for 59%of GDP,60%of total sales,48.2%of taxes,and about 75%of employment in urban areas.SMEs’participation in international trade and outward investment is also very signifi-cant,representing 68.85%of the total import and export values and about 80%of outward investment.In contrast to its contribution to the economy,the difficulty of SMEs to obtain external financing from formal financial institutions is widely recognized.Lin (2007)documented that no more than 0.5million of over 40million SMEs could ob-tain bank loans in 2006.In other words,over 98%of SMEs have no access to formal financing.The World Bank Invest-ment Climate Survey for China also indicates that SMEs in China are facing greater credit constraints and have more lim-ited access to bank loans than in other Asian countries.According to this survey,SMEs in China obtain only 12%of their capital from bank loans,while their peers obtain 21%in Malaysia and 24%in Indonesia.The survey also shows that ‘‘the lack of formal finance among small firms becomes starkly worse as firm size decreases.Firms with at least 100employees finance 27%of their capital through bank loans,compared to 39%in India.Firms with between 20and 100employees finance 13%of their capital through bank loans,compared to 38%in India.Firms with fewer than 20employ-ees finance only 2.3%of their capital,on average,through bank loans,compared to 29%in India.”(Dollar,2003,p.41).Lacking appropriate financing channels has become the main hurdle for the development of SMEs.Lin (2007)argues that as SMEs are often labor-intensive enterprises,their ability to ab-sorb labor costs are reduced when they face credit constraints.Many Chinese economists have therefore encouraged the estab-lishment of small-and medium-sized banks to deal with the dif-ficulty of accessing bank credit for SMEs (Guo &Liu,2002,in Chinese;Li,2002,in Chinese;Lin &Li,2001,in Chinese;Wang &Zhang,2003,in Chinese;Zhang,2000,2002,in Chinese ).These proposals are based on the idea that small-and med-ium-sized banks have comparative advantage in lending to SMEs because they tend to interact much more personally with their borrowers (e.g.,Berger,Miller,Petersen,Rajan,&Stein,2002)and are able to utilize more soft information (Petersen,2004)to address problems such as informational opaqueness,moral hazard,and adverse selection (e.g.,Stiglitz &Weiss,1981).Regardless of size,however,banks in China may lack the incentive to identify the most profitable SMEs because of the following reasons:Not all banks in China are solely profit-maximizing financial institutions so determining the most profitable SMEs may not suit the best interest of bank governors.*We would like to thank Professor Yao Yang,Professor Linda Y.Yueh,and three anonymous referees for very helpful comments.All remaining errors are ours.This research is a part of the research project ‘‘Formal Finance,Informal Finance,FDI and Economic Growth,”Core Projects for Social Sciences,No.05JJD790071,Ministry of Education,2006–07.Final revision accepted:July 7,2008.World Development Vol.37,No.4,pp.800–811,2009Ó2009Elsevier Ltd.All rights reserved0305-750X/$-see front matter/locate/worlddevdoi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.07.014800Even if local branch managers are able to distinguish credit-worthy SMEs,they may not do so because they do not have full control over lending.Bank managers may not have the incentives to work hard because better quality does not necessarily mean bet-ter benefits to them.Factors outside offinancial institutions,like bank com-petition,government influences,and law enforcement,can either encourage or discourage banks’lending to SMEs.These factors raise policy concerns about the effect of estab-lishing small-and medium-sized banks on the supply of credit to SMEs.Existing literature has intensively studied the relationship between bank size and loans to SMEs,but it provides little information on the overall impact of the above factors.This paper therefore makes two important contributions to the lit-erature.First,we use a unique data set to see how the factors identified in the existing literature and those unique to China affect lending to SMEs in China.These panel data were col-lected by us from a retrospective survey that covers79counties in12provinces in2005.They include information on banks’governance structure,deposit,and loan policy,incentive scheme,and banks’balance sheet from2001to2004.One par-ticular strength of these data is detailed information are col-lected on loans.The questionnaire surveys banks’loan policy,loan approval rights,loan structure,their subjective evaluation of government influences and law enforcement, and basic information about their customers.These institu-tional-level data are then combined with county-level statistics to construct thefinal panel data.The second contribution is we provide a careful treatment of the endogeneity problem caused by the influence of SME lending share on the explana-tory variables in this study.We propose instruments for our main endogenous variable and further use the reduced-form approach to provide consistent inferences even if the instru-ment is weak.Wefind that the bank size alone is not an impor-tant factor in determining SME lending.The factors affecting the bank manager’s incentives,like the linkage of wage with loan quality,tend to have a significant impact on SME loans. Competition and institutional arrangements can also signifi-cantly affect loan decisions to SMEs.Section2reviews the empirical literature that has examined the relationship between bank size and SME lending,and pro-vides our main hypothesis on the role of banks in lending to SMEs in China.Section3gives some background information about China’s banking system,describes the data set,and gives our methodology for testing the hypotheses.Section4 presents our study’s empirical results,and Section5concludes our work.2.THE LITERATURE AND THE MAIN HYPOTHESES Lending to small business can be difficult tofinancial institu-tions because of informational opaqueness,moral hazard,and adverse selection problems(e.g.,Stiglitz&Weiss,1981).Berger and Udell(2002)categorized small business lending byfinan-cial intermediaries into four main distinct technologies-finan-cial statement lending,asset-based lending,credit scoring, and relationship lending.Thefirst three technologies are usu-ally referred to as transaction-based lending,which are based more on‘‘hard”information than on‘‘soft”information gath-ered over the course of a relationship with the borrower.Hard information is always recorded as numbers,while soft informa-tion is often communicated in text.This difference means that hard information can be collected,stored,and transmitted with relatively low cost.In addition,from the collection method point of view,those persons collecting and using hard informa-tion are often different,while soft information is often collected and evaluated by the same person(Petersen,2004).Many empirical studies support the‘‘small bank advantage”hypothesis with regard to banks’decisions onfinancing small businesses.Berger and Udell(1995,1996),Peek and Rosen-gren(1998),and Strahan and Weston(1996)found that small banks tend to invest a much higher share of their assets in small business loans.Berger,Saunders,Scalise,and Udell (1998),and Peek and Rosengren(1998)studied size changes due to mergers and acquisitions(M&A)and found that bank M&A reduce small business lending.Cole,Goldberg,and White(1999)studied the lending behavior of large banks to small business and found that large banks approve their small business loans based more onfinancial ratios and less on the existence of prior relationships as compared with small banks, and tend to favor transactions-based lending.However,other studies suggest that bank size does not nec-essarily need to decrease small business lending.For example, Strahan and Weston(1998)examined the effects of bank M&A on small business lending,and found that the M&A between small banks increased lending to small enterprises.Even though China has not experienced M&A,a similar phenome-non is the reduction of local branches during the covered sam-ple period;hence,the bank size of local branches may not have a definite impact on small business lending.Berger,Rosen,and Udell(2001)studied the relationship between lending to SMEs and banks’share of the local loan market.They found that the share of small business lending is roughly in proportion to small banks’loan market share.Such phenomenon motivates us to study small business lending in China from the perspec-tive of competition in terms of loan market structure.A study that is of particular relevance to China is that of Ber-ger and DeYoung(2001).They found that it is difficult for bank holding companies to control the efficiency of small banks located at a significant distance from their headquarters. This is consistent with the possibility that relationship lending may be difficult to operate from afar.As China’sfinancial sys-tem is dominated by four main state-owned banks and the headquarters are quite far from county-level local banks,the efficiency of small banks in making small business loans needs careful investigation.In addition to physical distance,other measures of distance can be hierarchical levels of the banks, and the loan approval rights that the local branches possess. If there are more layers between the headquarters and the local branches,relationship lending will be more difficult.On the other hand,if the local bank has100%self-loan approval right, its physical distance from its headquarters and the bank hierar-chical level are less important.China’sfinancial system pro-vides enough variation in loan approval rights to study its impact on small business lending.Berger,Klapper,and Udell(2001)also raised the distressed-bank barriers hypothesis.That is,banks infinancial distress are less likely to lend to small businesses.Such negative effect will be exemplified iffinancial distress is directly linked to the income of loan managers because the risks of these loans can-not be easily verified.Researchers also tested whether tougher supervisory standards in examining bank portfolios will de-crease relationship lending.While conclusions were mixed, they generally found that tougher standards decrease small business lending.Whether such an observation applies to China,however,remains an open question.The literature has emphasized small banks’advantage in accessing soft information and assumes that banks will fullyBANK SIZE AND SMALL-AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISE(SME)LENDING:EVIDENCE FROM CHINA801utilize such information,if acquired.This is a reasonable assumption for purely profit-maximizingfinancial institutions. If the only goal of the bank is to maximize profits,it will pro-vide local loan managers enough incentives to collect and use soft information.The China experience can provide a new per-spective because local branches in China are often not purely profit-maximizingfinancial institutions if the goals of the headquarters are not purely profit-maximization.Further the local government may influence loan decision making.The de-gree of law enforcement can be another important factor be-cause weak law enforcement means higher default risk to enterprises.Therefore,whether local branches can access soft information is one thing,and whether local banks are willing to fully utilize such information is another.In this paper,we aim to study how bank size in conventional measurement,soft information importance,competition and institutional arrangements affects SME lending in China.Fol-lowing the literature we measure the bank size by total bank assets,and ourfirst hypothesis is if bank size reflects the bank’s ability to collect soft information,smaller bank size is not a necessary condition for greater SME lending in China. As not allfinancial institutions are purely profit-maximizing institutions,the local branches’attitude toward soft informa-tion may depend on how much authority they have over funds,the incentive structure,competition and institutional arrangements.Our paper makes the following contribution to the literature.We are studying the relationship between bank size and SME lending under the context that the banks may not be purely profit-maximizationfinancial institutions. In particular,our data provide the upper branches’weight on profit in performance evaluation to allow for the possibility that local branches are partly profit-maximizing institutions. The second contribution is we study under what conditions soft information can lead to more SME lending.Wefind that when local branches have more authority over funds,when lo-cal bank governor’s wage is linked with loan quality,and when banks are pushed to control cost,they have more incentive to use soft information.Further,we closely study how competi-tion and institutional arrangements affect SME lending.3.BACKGROUND,DATA,AND METHODOLOGY In this section,wefirst provide background information about the Chinesefinancial system in Section(a),and then present the data set in Section(b).Variable definitions and summary statistics are presented in Section(c),and equations for hypothesis testing are discussed in Section(d).(a)Background information about the Chinesefinancial system China started to reform itsfinancial system in1978right after the implementation of the‘‘Open and Reform”policy. In February1979,the central government decided to re-establish the Agricultural Bank of China(ABC)to promote the development of Agriculture.In March1979,the Bank of China(BOC)and the China Construction Bank(CCB) were founded.In September1983,the central government decided that the People’s Bank of China would be the central bank,and established the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China(ICBC)to process industrial and commercial loans and savings in urban areas.The establishment of share-hold-ing commercial banks started in the mid-1980s,and by1992, there were12share-holding commercial banks in China. Starting from1992,city cooperatives were combined with city cooperative banks into city commercial banks.China’s currentfinancial system is mainly composed of four state-owned banks,12share-holding commercial banks,city com-mercial banks,and over2,000county-level rural credit coop-eratives(RCCs).Even though the source of externalfinancing of China’s non-financialfirms had changed dramatically in the past30years, indirectfinancing throughfinancial intermediaries dominates directfinancing in China.In2002,the relative shares offinanc-ing from bank loans,treasury bonds,corporation bonds,and equity were80.2%,14.4%,1.4%,and4%,respectively.In indi-rectfinancing,loans from state-owned banks are the main source of enterprisefinancing in China.Although the loans granted by state-owned banks had been continuously declining since1978,they still accounted for70%of the loan market in 2002.RCCs are an indispensable part of China’sfinancial system. By the end of2005,RCCs have collectively become the fourth largest deposit institution in China(after ICBC,ABC,and CCB),taking about11%of the country’s loan market and 87%of agricultural loans.Unlike otherfinancial institutions, county-level RCCs have very high loan approval rights and are directly responsible to the People’s Bank of China.How such difference will affect their lending behavior will be studied in later sections.(b)The dataThe data were collected from the Financial Ecological Envi-ronment Survey conducted by the authors in2005.It is a retro-spective survey with most of the variables covering the period 2001–04in which some of the variables can be dated back to 1996.The survey covers12provinces selected on the basis of economic development and geographical location:Zhejiang, Jiangsu,Fujian,and Shandong were selected to represent prov-inces in the more developed eastern coastal regions;Hubei,Ji-lin,and Jiangxi provinces were selected to represent the central regions;and Sichuan,Chongqing,Guizhou,Shaanxi,and Ningxia were chosen for the western regions.The geographical locations of these provinces are shown in Figure1.We tried to employ a properly representative sampling strat-egy.Each selected province was classified into high-income, middle-income,and low-income county-level districts.Two to three county-level districts were then randomly drawn from each province within each income stratum.All county-level financial institutions were then surveyed in each sampled county-level district.The distinction between county-level dis-tricts and counties is important for the justification of the rep-resentativeness of the data.In China,county-level districts include counties,districts that are named as cities but are de facto counties(county-level city),and districts in urban areas. If this survey were done only on counties in rural areas,the data may suffer from selection bias.This is because some banks could be excluded from the survey if we focused only on rural areas,and the behavior of these banks may be system-atically different from those doing business in both areas.We use the standard county codes provided by the National Bu-reau of Statistics to define counties as rural counties,and county-level city and urban districts as urban counties.This gives42rural counties and37urban counties in our sample. As our data cover both rural areas and urban areas,it greatly reduces the possibility of selection bias.Table1presents the sample distribution of the363financial institutions.Based on coverage,the ABC is represented in77 of the79counties,followed by RCCs(73),and then the other three state-owned banks in the order of CCBs(69),ICBC(64), and BOC(57).Also sharing the markets are19other share-802WORLD DEVELOPMENTholding commercial banks such as Shanghai Pudong Develop-ment Bank and China Merchant Bank.We further check the representativeness of the data by inves-tigating whether deposit and loan market shares are similar to the statistics at the country level or at the provincial-level.Ta-ble 2compares the loan and deposit market shares of our data in 2001–04to the corresponding provincial-level data reported by Park and Sehrt (2001).Columns (1)and (6)present provin-cial averages,and columns (2)–(5),(7)–(10)are calculated based on our data.We use Park and Sehrt’s calculation for 1997market shares because we do not have better data with similar definitions.This table shows that overall,the marketshares between provincial-and county-level data are similar.On the other hand,our data appear to give more weight to rural areas because ABCs and RCCs have stronger presence in both loan and deposit markets at the county-level,while ICBC and CCBs shares are more concentrated at the provin-cial-level.However,this finding is consistent with the fact that large enterprises are often at cities and provinces.(c)Variable definitions and summary statisticsWe focus on studying the factors determining banks’loans to SMEs,which is measured by the percent of loans toSMEsFigure 1.The distribution of sampled provinces.Table 1.Distribution of financial institutions (county branches)in the sampleCountyABC ICBC CCB BOC Share holding banksRCC Zhejiang 9888858Jiangsu 6666516Fujian 7767625Shandong 6555526Hubei 10106108010Jilin 6769626Jiangxi 6665606Sichuan 6643226Chongqing 8866636Guizhou 6643006Shaanxi 6654416Ningxia 3223112Total79776469571973BANK SIZE AND SMALL-AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISE (SME)LENDING:EVIDENCE FROM CHINA 803over the total enterprise loan outstanding.According to the National Bureau of Statistics,if an enterprise has less than 0.4billion total assets and less than 0.3billion sales,then it be-longs to the category of SMEs.Figure 2presents the average of the proportion of loans to SMEs for the six banks over 1996–2004.This figure shows that these banks have different time trends over SME pared with 1996,the pro-portions of loans to SMEs had increased in 2004for ABC and RCCs,but they had decreased for ICBC,BOC,and share-holding B’s lending to SMEs stayed at approxi-mately the same level.Share-holding banks also had the larg-est variance in lending to SMEs over the years.Following the literature,we use total assets to define bank size.Figure 3presents the mean of total assets for each type of financial institutions during 2000–04.Based on this stan-dard,RCCs were the largest bank,followed by the four state-owned banks,and then the share-holding banks.The interpretation of bank size needs caution because besides RCCs,the banks we studied here are county-level branches of countrywide banks.The common practice in the literature is to use bank-level data instead of branch-level data.This is usually accomplished through aggregating branches to get the aggregate bank size.However,this is not appropriate to the Chinese scenario because the Chinese financial system has too few banks compared with developed countries.For example,there are over 1,000banks in the United States (Classsens &Laveven,2004).In China,however,only 16banks (four state-owned banks and 12share-holding banks)remain in this sample if all the branches are added up.Such aggregation eliminates many interesting variations across branches.Another reason is that there exists heterogeneity across branches even within the same big bank.This is because in different regions,the influences from local governments and law enforcement on local branches can be different,so that each branch acts somewhat independently from other branches and the headquarters.Therefore we choose to inves-tigate bank size at the county-level branches.Before considering other factors,we first check the correla-tion patterns between bank size and SME lending.From Table 3,we have not observed a clear connection between bank size and share of loans to small businesses.In Table 3,each kind of banks is classified as small,medium,or large based on its total assets.ABC and RCCs tend to lend more as bank size grows,while other banks,such as ICBC,BOC,and CCB decreaseTable 2.Market structures at the provincial-level and the county-levelYear Provincial loan shareCounty-level loan marketshare Provincial deposit shareCounty-level deposit marketshare 1997200120022003200419972001200220032004(1)(2)(3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10)State-owned commercial banks 6557.756.754.952.66260.159.958.456.6ABC 1426.525.824.222.71323.623.723.223.0ICBC 2817.216.315.514.62616.816.215.214.6BOC 7 5.3 5.8 6.5 6.277.87.98.17.7CCB168.68.78.69.11512.012.111.911.1Share holding banks 8 1.4 1.5 1.9 2.14 1.7 1.8 1.8 2.1RCCs1324.426.027.731.81024.223.624.224.7Other financial institutions 1110.59.59.89.91212.814.014.816.0Note :Columns (1)and (6)present the provincial averages calculated in the work of Park and Sehrt (2001)and columns (2)–(5),(7)–(10)are calculated based on our data.804WORLD DEVELOPMENTlending to small enterprises when the size changes from small to medium.To induce small banks’lending to SMEs,banks need to be able to both collect and utilize soft information.We use two variables to measure local branches’ability of accessing soft information.Thefirst is a dummy for whether the bank gov-ernor is a local resident.Local residents may have more soft information than those appointed by upper-level banks from other regions.The second variable is the bankers’perception of soft information.This is approximated through the reasons they decline loan applications.The questionnaire gives the four main reasons of loan refusals because of enterprise qual-ity:(1)the credit rating is too low so the enterprise is not a qualified applicant,(2)the enterprise does not have enough collateral,(3)the targeted project is too risky,and(4)the enterprise can shirk from the loans.Each bank is then asked to rate the importance of these reasons for declining enterprise loan applications,with one as the most important and seven as the least important.We construct one variable measuring the importance of soft information by adding up the answers of the above four variables.The lesser the value,the less impor-tant is the soft information for the bank’s loan decision mak-ing.Whether a small bank can fully utilize the acquired soft information depends on how the incentive schemes are de-signed.Thefirst issue branches may consider is how much credit they can grant.If a local branch has very limited control over credit,it tends to have little interest in using soft informa-tion because such information will not lead to much more loans.We define loan approval rights as‘‘the share of loans that can be approved by the branches,”an indicator of the de-gree of loan decision autonomy for county-level banks.Figure 4compares the average loan approval rights of branch banks. The average loan approval right varies from less than20%for CCB to over90%for RCCs.RCCs have the highest loan ap-proval rights mainly due to their different governance struc-tures from otherfinancial institutions.The variations in loan approval rights are large enough for evaluating their impact on SME lending even if RCCs were excluded.The second issue is how bank governors are evaluated,espe-cially on how important is branch profitability in the eyes of the upper branch.Loan managers may have more incentives to collect soft information if the resulting profits can have a more positive impact on their personal career development.In the questionnaire,each governor was asked about the weight that the upper branch has given for profits.More weight on profits implies that their profit-making abilities are assigned more weights when their performances are eva-luated.Given that all non-missing observations for profit weight are positive numbers,profit-maximization will at least be part of operating goals.Therefore,we further control the factors that can directly affect profits.From the revenue side, we consider the impact of bank competition.When the degree of competition increases,it is likely that banks are forced to find potentially the most profitable enterprises while undertak-ing certain degrees of risk.In other words,competition can improve the extension of credit to SMEs,ceteris paribus.We use the bank’s loan market share to control the degree of com-petition.To maximize profit,banks need to control cost.We then use the average cost of deposits to describe banks’cost in acquiring funds.In addition to branch profit considerations,the attitudes of loan managers toward using soft information are also closely related to how their earnings were determined.When earnings are linked to loan quality,bank managers will have a person-ally vested interest in using soft information.Hence,small banks’comparative advantage in collecting soft information will start to lead to greater SME lending.In this paper,we use the dummy variable‘‘linkage of wage with loan quality”as control for such impact.We expect that ceteris paribus, branches that link wage with loan quality tend to lend more to SMEs.If the bank managers’earnings link with loan qual-ity,they will not only have the ability but also the incentives to utilize more soft information to precisely evaluate the quality of loan.The extra information that small-and medium-sized banks have enabled them to lend more to SMEs that are often rationed out by large banks due to information asymmetry. To fully understand thefinancial institutions’lending behav-ior toward SMEs,we need to consider institutional arrange-ments,which have received academic attention in the recent years.Hasan,Wachtel,and Zhou(2009)found that the legal-ization of the market economy(the number of lawyers per 10,000people)and the liberalization of political institutions (the extent to which non-communist parties participate in the People’s Congresses)can be employed to explain provincial GDP growth rate.We control government influence and theTable3.The average share of loan to small-and medium-sized enterprises,by branch size aSmall branch Medium branch Large branch ABC80.2683.0487.45(28.68)(29.00)(21.05) ICBC86.9576.1960.20(24.64)(28.12)(32.56) CCB79.8573.8170.19(31.73)(27.88)(31.39) BOC78.4571.1466.52(31.77)(34.44)(34.17) Share holding banks76.5466.4163.94(28.36)(33.45)(22.42) RCCs67.8670.3782.26(39.79)(39.54)(27.19) Standard deviations are in parentheses.a Branches are divided into three quantiles based on their asset size.The branches with asset size in the lowest one third quantile are named small branches,and those in the highest one third quantile are named large branches.BANK SIZE AND SMALL-AND MEDIUM-SIZED ENTERPRISE(SME)LENDING:EVIDENCE FROM CHINA805。
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(I) DEFINITIONS OF MICRO, SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES
(As per Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Act, 2006)
In accordance with the provisions of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006, the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
(MSMEs) are classified into manufacturing enterprises and service enterprises:
(A)Manufacturing Enterprises:The enterprises engaged in the
manufacture or production of goods. The manufacturing Enterprises are
defined in terms of investment in Plant & Machinery.
(B)Service Enterprises:The enterprises engaged in providing or
rendering of services and are defined in terms of investment in equipment.
(A) Manufacturing Enterprises (Ceiling on investment in Plant & machinery)
(i)Micro Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in Plant & Machinery does
not exceed `25 lakhs
(ii)Small Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in Plant & Machinery is more
than `25lakhs but does not exceed `5
crores
(iii)Medium Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in Plant & Machinery is more
than `5 crores but does not exceed
`10crores
(B)Service Enterprises (Ceiling on investment in Equipment)
(i)Micro Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in equipment does not
exceed ` 10 lakhs
(ii)Small Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in equipment is more than
`10 lakhs but does not exceed `2 crores (iii)Medium Manufacturing Enterprises The investment in equipment is more than
`2 crores but does not exceed ` 5 crores
(II) Procedure followed in decision making process for the issue of EM Part I(Provisional Registration)and EM Part II(Permanent
Registration) for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) & Large Scale Unit.
(i) Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises(MSMEs)
(a) For starting MSMEs Green & Orange Categories as identified by the Department of Science Technology & Environment (DSTE), entrepreneurs have to first apply with the prescribed form to the Director of
Industries & Commerce, Puducherry / Branch Office at Karaikal and Sub-offices at Mahe and Yanam, depending on the proposed location of the units
for the issue of EM Part I (Provisional Registration).
(b) In case of industries identified as Red Category by DSTE, at the first instance, the entrepreneurs will have to get clearance from Pondicherry Pollution Control Committee (PPCC) by applying with the prescribed form through Director of Industries & Commerce and then to apply for the issue of EM Part I.
(c) After obtaining EM Part I the entrepreneurs have to apply with the
prescribed Common Application form for the requisite industrial clearances /
permissions / NOC from the line departments through Industrial Guidance Bureau (IGB) functioning in District Industries Centre
(d) After installing machinery the entrepreneurs have to get Running
License from the concerned Municipalities / Commune Panchayats, License
from Inspector of Factories & Boilers and Consent form PPCC before commencement of regular production.
(e) After the commencement of regular production the entrepreneurs
have to apply for the issue of EM Part II (Permanent Registration) with the
Director of Industries & Commerce.。