语言学简明教程Chapter_5

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新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of h islanguage.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学简明教程

• 重要名词概念
语言说话交际工具思维社会社会现象
第一单元语言的社会功能
• 学习目标
弄清楚语言和说话的关系认识语言是一种特殊的社会现象领会语言是人类最重要的交际工具认识语言是人类思维的工具弄清楚语言和思维的关系理解语言具有民族性，而思维能力是全人类共同的
第二单元语言是符号系统
• 学习目标
认识社会发展促进语言发展；了解语言要素的相互制约的关系对语言发展的影响；认识语言发展的特点。了解语言分化的原因；认识社会方言及其形成原因；认识地域方言及其划分；了解语言的谱系分类。认识语言是随着社会的统一而统一的理论；认识共同语及其在现代社会生活中的重要性；了解共同语的规范和汉语规范化问题。
第七单元语言随着社会的发展而发展
• 学习内容提要
语言是不断地发展变化地，社会发展是语言发展的根本原因，语言中各个要素相互制约，其中某种要素的变化也会影响语言的变化；语言的发展变化具有渐进性和不平衡性的特点；语言随着社会发展而分化、统一，亲属语言、方言、共同语的形成与社会的发展密切相关。
第四单元语法
• 学习内容提要
讲授语法结构的基本规律，包括构成语法的单位－－句子、词组、词、语素，以及语素和词组合成更大语法单位的类型，语法结构的层次性与递归性特点，语法的聚合规则，句子的变换、语言结构的类型和普遍特征。
• 教学目的要求
认识语法的结构单位，掌握语法的组合规则和聚合规则的基本精神；能运用已学的语法理论分析和阐释常见的语法现象，如语法结构的层次关系、语法意义与语法形式、语法手段与语法范畴、句子的多义与同义、句式的变换等；认识不同语言语法结构的特点。
• 学习内容提要
教授语音的物理属性、胜利属性，语音单位的分类及发音原理，音位的划分原理，音位的组合和音节，以及记录语音的符号－－国际音标。

新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学

Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。

二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning意义研究的不同观点5.2.1 The naming theory命名论(by希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论: Words are just names or labels for things.词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。

Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory局限性:1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only.这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object: eg. jump, quickly, pretty, and, in, hearted, think, hard, slowly…)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world: ghost, gragon, unicorn麒麟. 有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。

3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。

语言学教案Chapter 5 Meaning

Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”5.2 The referential theory5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential analysis5.5. Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theory5.5.2 Logical semanticsSemantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.5.1 Meanings of “meaning”Ogden & Richards: 16 major categories of meaning, with 22 sub-categories Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards. 1923. The Meaning of Meaning[M]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Leech: 7 types of meaningLeech, G. 1981[1974]. Semantics: The study of Meaning [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.●Conceptual meaning (概念意义): similar to reference (指称)●Connotative meaning (内涵意义): some additional, especially emotive meaning.E.g. c.f. politician & statesmanNote: Connotation and denotation in philosophyCONNOTATION (内涵)DENOTATION (外延)E.g. human●Thematic meaning (主题意义)Question: How to explain the meaning of a word in the conceptual meaning?E.g. DESK1) to point to a desk directly2) to describe it as “a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes.3) to paraphrase it as “a desk is a kind of table, which has drawers”4) to give the Chinese equivalent 书桌5.2 The referential theoryProblems:The concrete thing pointed at differs from the abstract concept behind the thing.The object pointed at does not directly correspond to the concept.CONCEPTSemantic triangleconceptword thingC.f. Sense & reference1) Sense: the abstract properties of an entity——concept ——connotation Reference: the concrete entities having these entities ——denotation2) Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.E.g. grammatical words like but, if, and5.3 Sense relations●Sense●ReferenceThree kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation, and inclusiveness relation5.3.1 SynonymySYNONYMY: the sameness relation●Stylistic differenceE.g. Little Tom ___________ a toy bear. c.f. buy & purchase●Connotative difference.E.g. “I’m thrifty. You are economical. And he is stingy.”●Dialectical differenceE.g. c.f. autumn & fall5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy: the oppositeness relation(1) Gradable antonymyE.g. good: bad, long: short, big: smallgradable---comparative and superlative degree; lexicalizationE.g. good & badgraded against different norms---no absolute criterionE.g. c.f. a big car & a small planeone member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term E.g. How old are you?C.f. Unmarked & marked●Unmarked: the term is more often used●Marked: the term is less used, odd, or unusual(2) Complementary antonymyE.g alive:dead, male:femaleNOTE 1: Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.NOTE 2: No comparative or superlative degrees are allowed.E.g. alive, dead, 半死不活*John is more dead than Mary.C.f. John is more mad than stupid.C.f. Gradable and complementary1. The difference between the gradable and the complementary is somewhat similar tothat between the contrary and the contradictory.In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if it is impossible for both to true, or false.E.g. The coffee is hot.The coffee is cold.A proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, orfalse.E.g. This is a male cat.This is a female cat.a b a bgradable complementary2. The norm in complementary is absolute.E.g. male & female3. There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.E.g. Is it a boy or a girl?*How male is it?Exception: true & false (Pp 167)(3) Converse antonymyE.g. buy: sell, lend: borrowX buys something from Y. == Y sells something to X.RELATIONAL OPPOSITES5.3.3 HyponymyHYPONYMYSUPERORDINATEHYPONYMSCO-HYPONYMSflowerrose peony jasmine chrysanthemum tulip violet carnationAUTO-HYPONMYlivingplant animalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant …5.4 Componential analysisSEMANTIC FEATURES/SEMANTIC COMPONENTS: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. (Pp 170)E.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALEwoman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALEYOUNG: ～ADULTFEMALE: ～MALEE.g. father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)mother = PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x)son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)die = BECOME (x, (～ALIVE(x)))kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))➢Synonyms: words or expressions with the same semantic componentsE.g. bachelor, unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, UNMARRIED➢Antonyms: words with contrasting semantic componentsE.g. cold & hot, give & take➢Hyponyms: words which have all the semantic components of anotherE.g. boy & girl are hyponyms of childSense relations between sentences:E.g.1.a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die.b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.c. * John murdered Bill without intending to.EntailmentE.g. a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.Difficulties1) Polysemous words will have different sets of semantic components.2) The difference between the semantic components differs.C.f. MALE and FEMALE (absolute) & ADULT and YOUNG (relative)boy and man (clear-cut)& girl and woman (vague)3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Question: How to express the semantic features?METALANGUAGE (原语言): a language used for talking about another language 5.5. Sentence meaning1) The sentence meaning is not merely a sum of word meaning, and it is related to word order.E.g. a. The man chased the dog.b. The dog chased the man.2) Sentences have thematic meaning.E.g. a. I’ve already seen that film.b. That film I’ve already seen.3) The sentence meaning is connected with its syntactic structure.E.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.5.5.1 An integrated theoryPrinciple of COMPOSITIONALITYsystematic informationgrammatical classificationdictionary idiosyncratic information Semantic theory semantic informationprojection rules●Dictionary: to provide the grammatical classification and semantic information ofwords➢Grammatical classificationGrammatical markers/syntactic markersSystematic information✧Systemic part —Semantic markers: (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal)✧Idiosyncratic information —Distinguishers(辨义成分)E.g. bachelora. [who has never married];b. [young knights serving under the standard of another knight];c. [who has the first or lowest academic degree];d. [young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time].●Projection rules: responsible for combining the meanings of words togetherSNP VPDet N V NPthe man hits Det Nthe Adj Ncolorful ballSelection restrictionsProblems1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.E.g. (Young)2. The collocation of words may not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.E.g. a. He said hello to the nurse and she greeted back.b. My cousin is a male nurse.c. ? My cousin is a female nurse.3. The use of semantic markers like (Human), (Male) and (Adult), is elements of an artificial meta-language.5.5.2 Logical semanticssentence meaningPREPOSITIONAL LOGIC(命题逻辑)/ PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS(命题演算)/ SENTENTIAL CALCULUS(句子演算):proposition≈sentence meaningTruth value: truth or falsePredicate logic (Pp 180)p (simple proposition)one-place connective: negation ～or ﹁two-place connective: conjunction &disjunction ∨implicationequivalence ≡orConnective conjunction: similar to the English “and”Connective disjunction: similar to the English “or”Connective implication/conditional implication: corresponds to the English “if…then”Connective equivalence/bicond itional: corresponds to “iff…then”C.f. Antonyms & “not”●With complementary antonyms, the denial of one is the assertion of the other.●With gradable, that is not necessarily the case.E.g. John isn’t old.John is old.C.f. Conjunction & “and”●ConjunctionE.g. He missed the train and arrived late.●“And”E.g. He arrived late and missed the train.*He missed the train and arrived late.C.f. Implication & “if…then”●ImplicationE.g. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English.If snow is white, grass is green.E.g. If snow is black, grass is green.●“If…then”E.g.? If snow is white, grass is green.*If snow is black, grass is green.In sum, propositional logic, concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.E.g. All men are rational.Socrates is a man.Therefore, Socrates is rational.PREDICATE LOGIC/PREDICATE CALCCULUS studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Question: How to analyze Socrates is a man?Argument (主目): a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being madePredicate (谓词): a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred toSocrates is the argument, and man is the predicate.Token: M(s)Note: A simple proposition is seen as a function (函数) of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.M(s) =1, M(c) =0E.g. John loves Mary.L (j, m)John gave Mary a book. G (j, m, b)kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))C (x, (B (y, (～A (y)))))All men are rational.1. All is the universal quantifier and symbolized by an upturned A—∀in logic.2. The argument men does not refer to any particular entity, which is known as avariable and symbolized as x, y.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x))“For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.”Some men are clever.Some is the existential quantifier and symbolized by a reversed E—∃Notation: ∃x (M(x) & C(x))C.f. Universal quantifier & existential quantifier1.Quantifiers2.Implication connectiveE.g.All men are rational.There is no man who is not rational.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x)) ≡～∃x(M(x) & ～R(x))(1) ∀x(P(x))≡～∃x(～P(x))～∀x (P(x))≡∃x (～P(x))∃x (P(x)) ≡～∀x (～P(x))～∃x (P(x)) ≡∀x (～P(x))(2) ∀x(M(x) R(x))M(s)∴R(s)(3) ∀x(M(x)) R(x))R(s)∴R(s)(4) ∃x (M(x) & C(x))M(s)∴C(s)。

Chapter_5 语言学

Chapter 5 Meaning(semantics)Semantics•Definition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.•Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.5.1 The meaning of “meaning”•C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.•John means to write.•A green light means to go.•Health means everything.•His look was full of meaning.•What is the meaning of life?•What does …capitalist‟ mean to you?•What does …cornea‟ me an?•The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.•Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:–Conceptual meaning → Denotation–Connotative meaning → Connotation–Social meaning–Affective meaning–Reflected meaning–Collocative meaning–Thematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaning•Also called …denotative‟ or …cognitive‟ meaning.–Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.–Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaning•What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.•Involving the …real world‟ experience one associates with an expres sion when one uses or hears it. •Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Step motherDenotation & Connotation•Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in real world. •Connotation:the properties of the entity a word connote, it‟s a term in contrast with denotation.•E.g.1 words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings:politician (derogatory) statesman ( favorable)•E.g. 2•color words Denotation Connotationwhite the color of white purityred the color of red passion, blood, happynessblue the color of blue sadnessMr. Smith is a white man. He was looking rather green the other day. He has been feeling blue today. When I saw him, he was in brown mood. I hope he‟ll soon be in the pink again. (3) Social meaning•What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.–Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.–Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.–Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Such as:•abode: poetic•home: general•steed: poetic•horse: general•nag: slang•gee-gee: baby language(4) Affective meaning•Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. Such as–Y ou‟re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!–I‟m terribly sorry to interru pt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. or–Will you belt up.…Colorful‟ meaningCommendatory•tough-minded•resolute, firm•shrewd•childlike•wiseman•man of usual talent•stout, solid, plum•slender, slimDerogatory•ruthless•obstinate•sly, crafty•childish•wiseguy•freak•fleshy, fat, tubby•lean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy(5) Reflected meaning•What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Such as, When you hear …click the mouse twice‟, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.•Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaning•The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.–pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.–handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaning•What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis. Such as,–Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.–The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.–They stopped at the end of the corridor.–At the end of the corridor, they stopped.5.2 The Referential Theory•Referential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.•Leech‟s conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): the concrete entities having those properties.Concept: the abstract thing which has no existence in the material word and can only be sensed in our mind.•Note: every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. Eg. “but ” “if” “God” “dragon”… So we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.•Words→Concepts →Things: Ogden & Richards in The Meaning of Meaning5.3 Sense Relations•Synonymy(sameness relation)•Antonymy(oppositeness relation)•Hyponymy(inclusiveness relation)5.3.1 Synonymy•buy/purchase•thrifty/economical/stingy•autumn/fall•flat/apartment•tube/underground5.3.2 Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy•good ----------------------- bad•long ----------------------- short•big ----------------------- small–Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.–Can have comparative forms.–Can be asked with how.•NOTE:•1) They are gradable, the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other.good – bad (so-so, average, etc.)hot – cold (warm, cool, etc.)•2)they are graded against different norms.a big car < a small car•3) one member of the pair (usually the higher grade) serves as the cover terms.how old are you? (both old and young)length, depth, width, etc.(2) Complementary antonymyNot A = B; not B= A•alive : dead•male : female•present : absent•innocent : guilty•complementary gradable(3) Converse antonymy•buy : sell•lend : borrow•give : receive•parent : child•husband : wife5.3.3 Hyponymy•Inclusiveness•A is included in / a kind of B.•Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flower–Superordinate: the more general term–Hyponym: the more specific term–Co-hyponyms: members of the same classAnimalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant ...Animal : auto-hyponym 自动下义词（是其本身的下义词）•Note:•A superordinate may be missing. Eg.“Color” is not the superordinate of “green, white, red, yellow…”“Beard, moustuch, whisker” have no superordinate.b. Hyponyms may be missing. E.g.uncle, rice in English in contrast to chinese 叔叔，伯伯，舅舅，稻，谷，米，饭5.4. Componential Analysis•The modern approach to the study of meaning, using semantic feature or semantic component to analyze the meaning of words.•E.g.–boy [HUMAN, YOUNG, MALE]–girl [HUMAN, YOUNG, FEMALE]–man [HUMAN, ADULT, MALE]–woman [HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALE]ADULT→ [+ADULT]YOUNG→ [-ADULT]FEMALE→ [-MALE]–boy [-ADULT, +MALE]–girl [-ADULT, -MALE]–man [+ADULT, +MALE]–woman [+ADULT, -MALE]Note:•a. Two words or expressions which have the same semantic components will be synonymous. E.g.Bachelor & unmarried man: [+adult, +male,+ unmarried]•b. Words which have a contrasting components are antonyms. E.g.Man & woman; boy & girl•c. words which have all the semantic components of another are hyponyms. E.g.Boy, girl → child : [+human, -adult]This componential analysis also explains the sense relations of sentences.•1. The following sentences are self-contradicted sentences as the words or expressions have contradictory semantic components.a. John killed Bill, but Bill did not die.b. John murdered Bill without intending to.•2. Entailment: the truth of the second sentence necessarily follows from the truth of the first while the falsity of the second follows from the falsity of the first. E.g.a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.a. John is a bachelor.b. John is unmarried.(Because (a) sentences contain words which have all the semantic components of a word in (b).)5.5 Sentence Meaning•The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.•The cat is chasing the mouse.•The mouse is chasing the cat.•I have read that book.•That book I have read.•T he daughter of Queen Elizabeth‟s son is the son of Queen Elizabeth‟s daughter.。

语言学简明教程Chapter 5

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Examples:
1) I hurried home. ( a sentence, also a clause, a simple sentence) 2) John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history. coordinating conjunction (coordinate sentence/compound sentence) 3) Because I was late, they went without me. subordinator subordinate clause (从属句) main clause(独立句,主句)
S NP Det A N boy V kicked VP NP Det the N ball.
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Time for Break
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5.3 Clause Types
Seven Clause Patterns in English
SV SVC SVA SVO SVOO SVOC SVOA
They are singing. The job is difficult. He was in the car. Lily is playing chess. I will send you the plan. The boss considers his secretary excellent. I put the plate away.
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complex sentence
Syntax (句法)
—a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences. ( More: ….is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the study of grammar, which includes all areas of language aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are constructed. )

新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter5-sema

antonymy
"up" and "down", "hot" and "cold".
examples
understanding antonyms helps to express contrasts and nuances more accurately.
importance
antonymy
examples
"John opened the door." (John 是动作 "open" 的发起者)
Agency example
Agency
Suffering from trouble
表示遭受某种困难或不幸，通常由动词或动词短语表示。
Suffering from trouble example
"The company is suffering from financial trouble." (公司正在遭受财务困难)
Types of semantic fields
The Application of Semantic Field Theory
Lexicography: Semantic field theory can be used in lexicography to organize and categorize words in dictionaries and thesauri based on their semantic relationships.
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02
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Point to the matter
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CHAPTER
Semantic implication and presupposition

新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学

Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学一、定义1. semantics语义学: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。

3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such as joy and impulse. 有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse刺激，这样的抽象概念。

新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics

指称意指语言形式在现实的物质世界中所指的事物; 它涉及的是语言成分和非语言的经验世界之间的关系.
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Note:
Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations; on the other hand, there are also occasions, when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. the morning star and the evening star,
用符号或单词表示物体是通过言语者思维中单词的形式与概念联系起来实现的。从这个观点看，概念就是单词的意义。
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Contextualism (语境论)
Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context — elements closely linked with language behavior.
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Naming theory (Plato)命名论
Words are names or labels for things.
词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。
Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only.
2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix…

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language as the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languagesthat can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett toshow that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech is more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：V oicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：V owels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language ––the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答：A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments arecalled the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g.discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying”a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordancewith the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements ofa verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence. （划底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences. （划底线的为关系从句）a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative ofthis approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.。

语言学Chapter 5 Meaning (revised)

Q3: Types of meaning
3.1 Sense & reference 涵义和指称、系统意义和外指意义 Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. It’s abstract and de-contextualized.

பைடு நூலகம்

The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of a little over a hundred years. 1894 it was introduced in a paper entitled “Reflected meanings:a point in semantics” 1897 Breal first used it as the science of meaning. 1900 its English version came out 1980s semantics began to be introduced into China One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.

简明语言学教程5

Semantics1 What is semantics P68/622 Some views concerning the study of meaning1) The Referential Theory / The Naming Theory P68/62According to this theory, the meaning of a word or expression is the thing it refers to or stands for in the outside world, since words or expressions are used to refer to or name things.(既然词语是用来指称事物，为事物命名的，那么词语的意义就是它所指称的对象)指称理论的核心是一个词语的意义就是它所指向的客观世界的事物，所以“李白”和“天安门”指向特定的人和物，而“演员”和“电冰箱”则指向一类人和物；“红色”“圆形”那样的词语则指向一个或类物体的性质。

意义---所指weakpoints:a) Sometimes meaning is not equal to reference, e.gMorning star----Evening starb) The meanings of many words or expressions have no reference in the world.fairy, ghost, World War Three王母娘娘（无所指）2) The conceptual theory P68/63According to this theory, there is no direct association between words and the things in the real world (a linguistic form and what it refers to). Their association is realized by means of ―concept‖. In other words, the meaning of a word is the image/concept which is created by the word in the speaker’s or hearer’s mind. (词语的意义是词语在说话人和听话人头脑中所产生的形象或概念)Weakpoints:a) It is too concrete to regard meanings as images, for the same word may create different images, e.gHe scratched his head. He is the head of the college.b) Some words, especially functional words, such as if, or, so, do not create images in people’s mind, but they do have meanings, e.g. if, the3) contextualismP694) BehaviorismP70-713. Sense and Reference P71-72 / 65-66Sense and reference are the two terms we often come across in the study of meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense refers to the inherent meaning of the ling form. It is the collection of all the features of the ling form. It is abstract and de-contextualized. For example, the word ―desk‖ is defined as ― a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes‖. This meaning is called the sense of the word ―desk‖.Reference means what a ling form refers to in the real , physical world; it deals with the relationship ling element and the non-ling world of experience. For example, if we say ―The desk is broken‖, we must be talking about a certain desk existing in the situation. The word ―desk‖refers to a desk known to both the speaker and hearer. This is the reference of the word ―desk‖.Sense relates to the complex system of relationship that holds between the linguistic elements themselves, and it is concerned only with intra- linguistic relations. While reference is the relationship between the words and the object, action or properties that the words stand for in the objective world. It deals with the extra- linguistic relationships between words and the world they describe.Obviously, ling forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations, e.g.a) I was once bitten by a dog.b) Mind you. There is a dog behind you.On the other hand, there are also occasions when ling forms with the same reference might diff in sense, e.g.Morning star---evening star (Venus金星)“他打我女儿我就打他老婆”Aristotle was the teacher of Alexander. (sense and reference)4. Major sense relations4.1 Synonymya kind of semantic relation in which two or more words are exactly the same in essential meaning. In other words, synonyms share a likeness in denotative meaning as well as in part of speech (e.g. end and final are not synonyms).1) Dialectal synonymshop---store; film—movie post—mail洗澡---冲凉；公鸡/母鸡（普通话）---鸡公/鸡婆（湖南话）2) stylistic synonymsemployer—boss; investigate—look into; difficult---hard食盐----氯化钠故乡----家乡（语体）3) in emotive or affective meaningslim----skinny; stateman--politician技巧----伎俩团结----勾结4) collocational synonymsA big mistake * a large mistakeMany—much交换（意见/礼物）---- 交流（思想/文化）5) semantically different synonyms4.2 polysemya word has more than one meanings or a set of different meanings4.3. HomonymyThree kinds of homonyms:perfect homonymswords identical in sound and spelling but diff in meaning,You have to lie down ----put oneself in a resting positionDon’t lie, tell me the truth. ----make a statement one knows to be untrueStill water runs deep. (not moving)Do you still have her phone number?(up to this particular point of toime)homophoneswords identical in sound but diff in spelling and meaningson—sun ensure---insure flower—flour night—knight right--writehomographswords identical in spelling but diff in sound and meaning.Lead----guide by going in the frontLead ----a kind of metal which can be easily melted4.4. hyponymyAnimal↙↘Livestock wildlife↙↓↓↘↙↓↓↘Cat dog pig cow wolf tiger lion leopard4.5. Antonymy1) gradable antonymsThey are words opposite in meaning and they represent two polarities between which there is a continuum. For example, beautiful and ugly are gradable antonyms, in that we can insert adjectives like charmoing, pretty, good-looking,, homely, plain between them along the continuum.beautiful—charming—pretty—good-looking—homely—plain--uglyhot—warm—tepid(温)—lukewarm（微温）—cool—coldrich—well-to-do—moderately wealthy—comfortably off—hard up—poorThe gradable antonyms have three characteristics:a) they can be used in comparative and superlative degree(faster, fastest)b) they can be modified by adverbs of degree, very, fairly, quite, rather, etc;c) they can follow how in questions (How large is the room?)2) complementary antonymsThey are words whose crucial semantic features are mutually exclusive, or opposite to each other. The positive of one implies the negative of the other. There is no intermediate ground between the two . e.g. dead—alive, male—female.John neither passed nor failed in the exam.The weather is neither hot nor cold.This kind of antonym can not be modified b y adverbs of degree, ―very‖ (very dead, very male). And they do not have comparative or superlative degree forms either. Besides, they cannot appear in questions beginning with how.A man cannot be neither alive nor dead. The Chinese ―半死不活‖ can only be use d for someone who is still alive.John is more dead than Peter.He is more dead than alive= It is more correct to say he is dead than to say he is alive.(supporting evidence) He is more mad than stupid.3) converse antonymyThey are words whose crucial semantic features display a reciprocal relationship. Onemember of the pair presupposes the other.buy---sell husband—wife above—belowX buys something from Y---Y sells something to XX is the husband of Y---Y is the wife of XThis type of antonyms is typically seen in reciprocal social relation(相互社会角色),kinship relation, temporal and spatial relationship.5. Sense relations between sentences1) synonymousHe is too young to go to school.He is so young that he can not go to schoolHe is not old enough to go to school2) inconsistent3) entailment(a) John is a bachelor. (b) John is a man.4) contradictionMy unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.That bachelor is pregnant.The spinster’s child is a cat.5) anomalousShe murdered her husband by accident.The dog kicked the bucket.This program is for the oper-lover who don’t like opera.Mr.White gave birth to a child6. Analysis of meaning P79 / 726.1. Componential analysisComponential analysis – a way to analyze lexical meaningProposed by structural semanticists, this approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the word ―man‖ is analyzed as consisting of semantic features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE. One advantage is to show how the words are related in meaning. It is senseless to analyze the meaning of every word by dividing it into its meaning components.6.2 Predication analysis P80 / 73a way to analyze sentence meaning1）The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components.2）There are two aspects in sentence meaning: grammatical meaning(grammaticality, grammatical well-formedness) and semantic meaning(governed by selectional restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others).Proposed by British G. Leech, the basic unit in semantic analysis of a sentence is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of argument(s)(论元) (logical participant and generally identical with the nominal element) and predicate (谓语) (something that is said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments). Grammatical form of a sentence does not affect its semantic predication.Predicate is the main element.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, predications may be classified into: two-place predication (containing two arguments), one-place argument (one) and no-place argument (no argument).Exercise:T/F1.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense.2. The contextualist view of meaning holds that meaning should be studied in terms of the situational context and linguistic context.3.Of the views concerning the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.4.The conceptualist view of meaning holds that there is no direct link between a symbol and reference, i.e. between language and thought.5. If a word has sense, it must have reference.6. In semantics，word sets like male/female，married/single，alive/dead，etc. ，can be taken as examples of complementarity.7.There are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects.8. Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze sentence meaning.9. All the grammatically well-formed sentences are not necessarily semantically well-formed.10. When the lexeme X contains the semantic components occurring in the meaning of the lexemeY, then X is the superordinate of Y.11. ―He saw a child‖ entails ―He saw a girl‖.12. Some words are always superordinates while some others are always hyponyms.13. Entailment is a semantic relation of inclusion; thus the statement ―He is married‖entails―He has a wi fe.‖14. Pairs of antonyms such as dead and alive, man and woman are called complementary antonyms because the denial of one member of a pair results in the assertion of the other.15.An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true.16. The superordinate term is more inclusive in meaning than its hyponyms.17. Componential analysis is based on the belief that the meaning of a word cannot be dissected into components, called semantic feature.18.One merit of componential analysis is that by specifying the semantic features of certain words, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.19. Two sentences using the same words may mean quite diffeerently.20. Conceptualists maintain that there is no direct link between linguistic form and what it refersto. This view can be seen by the Semantic triangle.Multiple Choice1. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word ______.A. is interprepreted through the mediation of conceptB. is related to the thing it refers toC. is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakersD. is the image it is represented in the mind2. When the truth of sentence (a) quarantees the truth of sentence (b), and the falsity of sentence (b) quarantees the falsity of sentence (a), we can say that ______.A. sentence (a) presupposes sentence (b)B. sentence (a) entails sentence (b)C. sentence (a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D. sentence (a) contradicts sentence (b)3. ―John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die‖ is a(n) ______.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction4. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called ______.A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. antonymyD. homonymy5. The naming theory was proposed by ______.A. the Greek scholar PlatoB.C.K. Ogden and I.A. RichardsC. the British linguist J. FirthD. the American linguist L. Bloomfield6.Predication analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentence7. The classic semantic triangle reflects the ______A. naming theoryB. conceptual viewC. contextualismD. behaviourist theory8. The sentence ―John gave Mary a present‖ contains ______arguments.A. noB. oneC. twoD. three9. The meaning relationship between the two words ― couch‖ and ―table‖ is ____.A. synonymyB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. co-hyponym10. The pair of words ―lend‖ and ―borrow‖ are _______.A) gradable opposites B) relational oppositesC) synonyms D) co-hyponyms11. ―Words are names or labels for things.‖ This view is called ______ in semantic theory.A) mentalism B) conceptualism C) naming theory D) contextualism12._______ are written identically but sound differently.A) Homographs B) Homophones C) Homonyms D) Synonyms13.Two words that are opposite in meaning are called ______.A) synonyms B) homonyms C) antonyms D) homophones14. ______ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.A) Sence B) Reference C) Symbol D) Thought15. ―I bought some roses‖ __________ ―I bought some flowers‖.A) entails B) presupposesC) is inconsistent with D) is synonymous with16.Which of the following two-term sets show the feature of complementarity?A) single/married B) lend/borrow C) hot/cold D) old/young17 ―Can I borrow your bike?‖ ____ ―You have a bike.‖A)is synonymous with B )is inconsistent withC) entails D) presupposes18. The semantic features of word ―girl‖ can be expressed as ______.A) +ANIMTE, -HUMAN, +ADULT, +MALEB) +ANIMATE, +HUMAN, -ADULT, +MALEC) +ANIMATE, +HUMAN, +ADULT, -MALED)+ANIMATE, +HUMAN, -ADULT, -MALE19.The semantic components of the word ―gentleman‖ can be expressed as __.A. [+animate], [+male], [+human], [-adult]B. [+animate], [+male], [+human], [+adult]C. [+animate], [-male], [+human], [-adult]D. [+animate], [-male], [+human], [+adult]20.If two lexical items consist of the same components, they are ____ .A) synonymous B) homonymousC) hyponymous D) antonymous21. What is the meaning relationship between the two words ―flower/rose‖?A) Homonymy B) Synonymy C) Polysemy D) Hyponymy22. When a word is_____, the same form will stand in different sense relationships with different words.A) hyponymous B) polysemousC)antonymous D) synonymous23. What is the meaning relationship between the two words ―vegetable/tomato‖?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy24. Which of the following is not true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis26. ―alive‖ and ―dead‖ are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense28. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the sameform.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy29. The words ¨sand, hair, rice, mud, wine〃may be characterized in the lexicon with the semantic feature ofa) [+count] b) [-count] c) [+animate] d) [-animate]30.The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________(A) converseness(B) relational opposites(C) complementarity (D) gradable opposites31."This orphan has no father" is a case of ________(A) inconsistency (B) presupposition(C)semantic anomaly (D) tautology32. In the study of meaning, ______ holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.A) naming theory B) conceptualistC) contextualist D) behaviourist33. Synonyms are classified into several kinds. The kind to whi ch ―girl‖ and ―lass‖ belong is called______ synonyms.A. stylisticB. dialectalC. emotiveD. collocational34. The words ―baggage‖ and ―luggage‖ are ______.A. dialectal synonymsB. synonyms differing in emotive meaningC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synonyms differing in styles35. The words ―kid, child, offspring‖ are examples of ______.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. emotive synonymsD.collocational synonyms36. The theory of semantic triangle is proposed by ______.A. G. LeechB. ChomskyC. BloomfieldD. Ogden and Richard37. The relationship between ―plant‖ and ―tree‖ is known as ______.A. entailmentB. hyponymyC. homonymyD. synonymy38. The relationship between ―begin‖ and ―commence‖ is ______.A. dialectal synonymsB. stylistic synonymsC. collocational synonymsD. semantically different synonyms39. The noun ―tear‖ and the verb ―tear‖ are ______.A. homophonesB. homographsC. polysemic wordD. complete homonyms17. ―John hit Peter‖ and ―Peter was hit by John‖ are of the same ______.A. propositionB. sentenceC. UtteranceD. Truth40. The sense relation between the following two sentences is ______.X: John has given up smoking.Y: John used to smoke.A. X entails YB. X presupposes Y41. Which of the following pairs of words can be categorized as collocational synonyms?A. touch—flashlightB. pretty—handsomeC. amaze—astoundD. luggage—baggage42. The following pairs all belong to ―reversal antonyms‖ except ______.A. push—pullB. buy—sellC. employer—empolyeeD. pass—fail43. What is the sentential relation between ―He likes skating.‖ And ―He likes sports‖?A. PresuppositionB. EntailmentC. ContradictionD. HyponymyQuestions and answers1. What is sense and what is reference? How are they related?Sense and reference are two terms in the study of meaning. (1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning that dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (2) Obviously, linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. On the other hand, there are less frequent occasions when linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense, e.g. ―morning star‖ and ―evening star‖.2. How many semantic relations are there among sentences? Give examples.3.What are the semantic relations recognized in the study of lexical meaning? Use examples to show them.4 In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?Componential analysis is a way propsed by the structural semantics to analyze word meaning. It is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. And the analysis of phonemes also believes that a phoneme can be analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.5 What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless?Grammaticality refers to sa sentence’s grammatical well-formedness and is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. If a sentence is grammatically perfect, yet it voilates selectional restrictions, i.e. constrains on what lexical items can go with others, and it then becomes grammatically meaningless.6. Try to analyze the following sentences in terms of predication analysis:1)The man sell ice-cream.Two-place predication consisting of two arguments: MAN and ICE-CREAM, and the predicate (SELL)2)Is the baby sleeping?One-place predication: BABY (SLEEP)3)It is snowing.No-place predication: (SNOW)4)The tree grows well.One-place predication: TREE (GROW)7 Study the following pairs of words. What is the basic lexical relation between these pairs of words?(1) shallow—deep (2) mature—ripe(3) suite—sweet (4) table—furniture(5)single—married (6) move—run(7) roof—room (8)sew—sow(9) beef—meat (10) sensation--passion8 State the principal reason why “man” and “boy” are not considered to be synonyms?The reason could be seen from the semantic components they include respectively. Man: +HUMAN. +MALE, + Adult; while boy: +HUMAN, +MALE, --Adult. Since they do not have the same semantic components, they are not considered to be synonyms.9 Point out which sense relation between the following sentencesa)Mohan has a brother.b)Mohan’s parents had more than one child.c)Mohan exists.d) Mohan has a male siblingThe relatioship between a) and b) is one of entailment.The relationship between a) and c) is one of Presupposition.The relationship between a) and d) is one of assertion/paraphrase10 Identify the predication in the following sentencesHis car is next to my car. (Two-place predication)He is singing. (One-place predication)It is raining. (No-place predication)11.Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meaningsof all its components?12 For each of the following words, identify what kind of antonym is involved (gradable, complementary, converse)north/south vacant/occupied literate/illiterateabove/below doctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughter left/rightfar/near dark/bright ugly/beautifulgood/bad expensive/cheap parent/offspringfalse/true lessor/lessee pass/failhot/cold legal/illegal larger/smallerfast/slow asleep/awake husband/wifeabsent/present up/down fair/unfairmoving/stationary aunt/uncle possible/impossibleblack/white agree/disagree beneficial/harmfulfar/near polite/rude13. Identify the relations between the following pairs of sentences or the constituents of the same sentence.1) He likes swimming.He likes sports.2) He speaks English.He speaks a foreign language3) This animal is a vegetable (contradiction)4) A. John is the parent of James.B. James is the child of John.(A is synonymous with B)5) A. Lily is standing with a piece of newspaper in her hand.B. Lily has a piece of newspaper.(A presupposes B)6) A. Mary boiled an egg.B. Mary cooked an egg.(A entails B)7) A. Peter is under the table.B. The table is under Peter.(inconsistency)8) A. John is fatter than Michael and Michael is fatter than Jim.B. John is fatter than Jim.(A entails B))9) The stone has a good idea. (anomaly)10) A. When did he stop beating his wife.B. He beat his wife(A presupposes B))11) Carl was a bachelor all his life.Carl never married all his life. (paraphrase)12) This is my first visit to China.I have been to China before. (inconsistency)13) Ted bought two magazines.Ted bought two things (entailment)14) He has three girls.He is a father. (presupposition)15) He has no sisterHis younger sister is beautiful.16) Jane had another date with John.Jane has had one date wuith John before. (presupposition)17) My sister will soon be divorced.----My sister is a married woman.18) John is the parent of James.----James is the child of John.19) The bachelor is unmarried.20) I saw Timothy at the anniversary party----It was Timothy that I saw at the anniversary party. (paraphrase)11。

新编简明英语语言学教程

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of h is language. 6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining ofhuman language that distinguish it from anypoperties of humananimal system of communication.Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性文化传递Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.二、知识点二、知识点nguage is not an isolated phenomenon, it‘s a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.语言不是一种孤立的现象，而是人类在一定的社会环境下进行的一种社会活动。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版练习题参考答案Chapter 1 Introduction1. How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.答：Linguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, the linguists has to collect and observe language facts first, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. The hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation, that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2. What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?答：The major branches of linguistics are:(1) phonetics: it studies the sounds used in linguistic communication;(2) phonology: it studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication;(3) morphology: it studies the way in which linguistic symbols representing sounds are arranged and combined to form words;(4) syntax: it studies the rules which govern how words are combined to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages;(5) semantics: it studies meaning conveyed by language;(6) pragmatics: it studies the meaning in the context of language use.3. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?答：The general approach thus traditionally formed to the study of language over the years is roughly referred to as “traditional grammar.”Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in several basic ways.Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modem linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word, partly because of its permanence.Then, modem linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.4. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?答：In modem linguistics, a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because people believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.5. For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing? 答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. Modem linguistics regards the spoken language a s the natural or the primary medium of human language for some obvious reasons. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speechis prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its usersto record speech when the need arises. Even in today's world there are still many languagesthat can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. And also, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. For modern linguists, spoken language reveals many true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. Thus their data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regard as authentic.6. How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?答：Saussure's distinction and Chomsky's are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and tohim competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7. What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?答：First of all, language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for.Third, language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound. Fourth, language is human-specific, i. e., it is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess.8. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett toshow that it is essentially different from animal communication system?答：The main features of human language are termed design features. They include:1) ArbitrarinessLanguage is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.2) ProductivityLanguage is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.3) DualityLanguage consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what “displacement”means.5) Cultural transmissionWhile human capacity for language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not geneticallytransmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.9. What are the major functions of language? Think of your own examples for illustration. 答：Three main functions are often recognized of language: the descriptive function, the expressive function, and the social function.The descriptive function is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified. For example: “China is a large country with a long history.”The expressive function supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values. For example: “I will never go window-shopping with her.”The social function serves to establish and maintain social relations between people. . For example: “We are your firm supporters.”Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. What are the two major media of linguistic communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?答：Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication.Of the two media of language, speech i s more primary than writing, for reasons, please refer to the answer to the fifth problem in the last chapter.2. What is voicing and how is it caused?答：Voicing is a quality of speech sounds and a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English. It is caused by the vibration of the vocal cords.3. Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ?答：The transcription with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter, i.e. the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called narrow transcription. This is the transcription needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sounds [l] in the four words leaf [li:f], feel [fi:l], build [bild], and health [helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l] in all these four sound combinations differs slightly. The [l] in [li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called a dear [l], and no diacritic is needed to indicate it; the [1] in [fi:l] and [bild], occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and in narrow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sound [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ].Another example is the consonant [p]. We all know that [p] is pronounced differently in the two words pit and spit. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broad transcription, but in narrow transcription, a small raised “h”is used to show aspiration, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4. How are the English consonants classified?答：English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5. What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?答：Vowels may be distinguished as front, central, and back according to which part of the tongue is held highest. To further distinguish members of each group, we need to apply another criterion, i.e. the openness of the mouth. Accordingly, we classify the vowels into four groups: close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, and open vowels. A third criterion that is often used in the classification of vowels is the shape of the lips. In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unfounded vowels, i. e., without rounding the lips, and all the back vowels, with the exception of [a:], are rounded. It should be noted that some front vowels can be pronounced with rounded lips.6. A. Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1) voiced palatal affricate2) voiceless labiodental fricative3) voiced alveolar stop4) front, close, short5) back, semi-open, long6) voiceless bilabial stopB. Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:1) [ t ] 2) [ l ] 3) [?] 4) [w] 5) [?] 6) [?]答：A. (1) [?] (2) [ f ] (3) [d ] (4) [ ? ] (5) [ ?:] (6) [p]B. (1) voiceless alveolar stop (2) voiced alveolar liquid(3) voiceless palatal affricate (4) voiced bilabial glide(5) back, close, short (6) front, open7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think willbe more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?–答：(1) Both phonology and phonetics are concerned with the same aspect of language –the speech sounds. But while both are related to the study of sounds,, they differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.(2) A phonologist will be more interested in it. Because one of the tasks of the phonologists is to find out rule that governs the distribution of [l] and [?], [ph] and [p].8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?答： A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments arecalled the allophones of that phoneme. For example, the phoneme /l/ in English can be realized as dark [?], clear [l], etc. which are allophones of the phoneme /l/.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule. 答：Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.There are many such sequential rules in English. For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. Assimilation of neighbouring sounds is, for the most part, caused by articulatory or physiological processes. When we speak, we tend to increase the ease of articulation. This “sloppy”tendency may become regularized as rules of language.We all know that nasalization is not a phonological feature in English, i.e., it does not distinguish meaning. But this does not mean that vowels in English are never nasalized in actual pronunciation; in fact they are nasalized in certain phonetic contexts. For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].The assimilation rule also accounts for the varying pronunciation of the alveolar nasal [n] in some sound combinations. The rule is that within a word, the nasal [n] assumes the same place of articulation as the consonant that follows it. We know that in English the prefix in- can be added to ma adjective to make the meaning of the word negative, e.g.discreet –indiscreet, correct –incorrect. But the [n] sound in the prefix in- is not always pronounced as an alveolar nasal. It is so in the word indiscreet because the consonant that follows it, i.e. [d], is an alveolar stop, but the [n] sound in the word incorrect is actually pronounced as a velar nasal, i.e. [?]; this is because the consonant that follows it is [k], which is a velar stop. So we can see that while pronouncing the sound [n], we are “copying” a feature of the consonant that follows it.Deletion rule tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. We have noticed that in the pronunciation of such words as sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter g. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented by the letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Given the rule, the phonemic representation of the stems in sign –signature, resign –resignation, phlegm –phlegmatic, paradigm –paradigmatic will include the phoneme /g/, which will be deleted according to the regular rule if no suffix is added.10. What are suprasegmental f eatures? How do the major suprasegmental f eatures of English function in conveying meaning?答：The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, intonation, and tone. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence s tress. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun, to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.Intonation plays an important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. microfile e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + file b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.”translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”.(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry”asexual, “without sex or sexorgans”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”.(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1) the third person singular(2) the past tense(3) the present perfect(4) the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(略)6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)Chapter 4 Syntax1. What is syntax?Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement o f elements (i.e. specifiers, heads, and complements) that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.The phrase structural rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP can be written as follows:NP →(Det) N (PP) ...VP →(Qual) V (NP) ...AP →(Deg) A (PP) ...PP →(Deg) P (NP) ...The general phrasal structural rule ( X stands for the head N, V, A or P):The XP rule: XP →(specifier) X (complement)3. What is category? How to determine a word's category?Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions ina particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.To determine a word's category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution. A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.4. What is coordinate structure and what properties does it have?The structure formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction is called coordinate structures.Conjunction exhibits four important properties:1) There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2) A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3) Coordinated categories must be of the same type.4) The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what role does each element play?A phrase usually contains the following elements: head, specifier and complement. Sometimes it also contains another kind of element termed modifier.The role of each elementHead:Head is the word around which a phrase is formed.Specifier:Specifier has both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, it helps to make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, it typically marks a phrase boundary. Complement:Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head.Modifier:Modifiers specify optionally expressible properties of the heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordancewith the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences. a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.Det A N V P Det N Advb) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.Det N Adv V P Det Nc) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the schools.Det A N Aux V Det N P Det Nd) This cloth feels quite soft.Det N V Deg A（以下8-12题只作初步的的成分划分，未画树形图, 仅供参考）8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsXP(AP) →head (rich) A + complement (in minerals) PPb) often read detective storiesXP(VP) →specifier (often) Qual + head (read) V + complement (detective stories) NPc) the argument against the proposalsXP(NP) →specifier (the) Det + head (argument) N + complement (against the proposals) PPd) already above the windowXP(VP) →specifier (already) Deg + head (above) P + complement (the window) NP9. The following sentences c ontain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, f irst identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.（划底线的为动词的修饰语，斜体的为名词的修饰语）a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences a ll contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences. （划底线的为并列的范畴）a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of（划a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.底线的为补语从句）a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry believes the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.12. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and（划底线的为关系从句）the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was excellent.b) Herbert bought a house that she lovedc) The girl whom he adores majors in linguistics.13. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure of each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow? (surface structure)you would come tomorrow (deep structure)b) What did Helen bring to the party? (surface structure)Helen brought what to the party (deep structure)c) Who broke the window? (surface structure)who broke the window (deep structure)Chapter 5 Semantics1. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?答：(1) The naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.(2) The conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times. This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i. e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.(3) The contextualist view held that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ––elements closely linked with language behaviour. The representative ofthis approach was J.R. Firth, famous British linguist.“situation(4) Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as thein which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.2. What are the major types of synonyms in English?答：The major types of synonyms are dialectal synonyms, stylistic synonyms, emotive or evaluative synonyms, collocational synonyms, and semantically different synonyms.Examples（略）3. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.答：(1) Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms (2) While different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. There are many polysemic words in English, The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.(3) Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. Hyponymy is a relation of inclusion; in terms of meaning, the superordinate includes all its hyponyms.。

新编简明英语语言学教程ch5PPT课件

The contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context arc recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.
The inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; It’s abstract and de-contextualized. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intralinguistic relations.
Jill
Jack
S_________r--------s_________R
When Jill sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical Stimulus, ….
5.3 Lexical meaning
5.3.1 Sense and reference Sense
i. Dialectal synonyms — synonyms used in different regional dialects
British English autumn lift luggage lorry petrol flat windscreen torch

新编简明英语语言学教程ch5

by WU Gengtang 广东技术师范学院 2011年 Copy Left
Synonymy
the sameness or close similarity of meaning
i. Dialectal synonyms — synonyms used in different regional dialects
a view of the nature of the meaning and reference of proper names generally attributed to Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. The theory consists essentially in the idea that the meanings (semantic contents) of names are identical to the descriptions associated with them by speakers, while their referents are determined to be the objects that satisfy these descriptions.
② Complementary antonymy
It is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the assertion of one means the denial of the other.
by WU Gengtang 广东技术师范学院 2011年 Copy Left

《简明语言学教程》课件第五章语义学

thought/concept/image
symbolizes
symbol (word)
refers to
referent (object)
stands for
airplane
Traditional Approach to meaning (3): Context theory and behaviorism
• Who: Geoffrey Leech • When: Semantics: The Study of Meaning
(1974, 1981) – Conceptual meaning – Connotative meaning – Social meaning – Affective meaning – Reflected meaning – Collocative meaning – Thematic meaning (概念意义) （内涵意义）（社会意义）（情感意义）（反映意义）（搭配意义）（主题意义）
• The linguistic approach is broader in
scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
•
Read the following paragraph and make a judgment!
On Watching TV
Watching TV is beneficial for young children. TV program is very rich. They can watch cartoon. They can watch music program. They can watch drama. Of course they can watch football match. So you see TV program enrich their life.

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3
5.2 Word Classes and Word Order ①The boy kicked the ball angrily.
② Boy the ball kicked angrily. ③ The girl caught the ball angrily. ④ The flower smiles happily.
Chapter 5 Grammar: Clause
5.1 Introduction Clause (小句/子句)
—a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contain a subject and a finite verb. A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence and often functions as a noun, adjective or adverb.
4
Positional relation or word order
refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language. If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of language, the sentence will be ungrammatical or nonsensical.
(coordinate sentence/compound sentence)
3) Because I was late, they went without me.
subordinator subordinate clause (从属句) main clause(独立句,主句)
complex sentence
6
X’ Theory (X-bar Theory)
A girl with brown hair X ’’ P (Specifier) X’ X’ X (complement)
X ’’ P (Phrase level) X’
Specifier
( the)
X (head) complement
Which are correct and which are not, and why? Determiner + noun + verb + determiner+ noun + adv The dog ate the bone noisily. The boy kicked the ball angrily.
(The tall boy has kicked the ball with his right foot angrily. )
Relation of substitutability
refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in the same sentence structures.
a
girl
with brown hair 7
Specifiers
---- Semantically, specifiers make more precise the meaning of the head; syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary. Specifiers can be determiners as in NP, qualifiers as in VP and degree words as in AP.
Syntactic category(句法范畴）:
a category of words having the same grammatical properties Phrase: expansion of words.
E.g. the new book; run fast “ head words”
2
Syntax (句法)
—a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
( More: ….is the study of the structure of phrases, clauses and especially sentences. It is considered as a subset in the study of grammar, which includes all areas of language aspects including phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Syntax studies how phrases and clauses are constructed. )
1
Examples:
1) I hurried home.
( a sentence, also a clause, a simple sentence)
2) John likes linguistics, but Mary is interested in history.
coordinating conjunction
Clause (go to the book)
5
The XP rule
XP
Specifier
X
ComplLeabharlann mentHead(Phrase elements)
Note: The phrase structure rules can be summed up as XP rule shown in the diagram, in which X stands for N, V, A or P, which refer to nouns, verbs, adjectives and prepositions.

语言学简明教程Chapter_5

新编简明英语语言学教程

语言学简明教程

新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学

语言学教案Chapter 5 Meaning

Chapter_5 语言学

语言学简明教程Chapter 5

新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter5-sema

新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学

新编简明英语语言学教程05Chapter-5-semantics

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

语言学Chapter 5 Meaning (revised)

简明语言学教程5

新编简明英语语言学教程

新编简明英语语言学教程笔记

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后练习题答案

新编简明英语语言学教程ch5PPT课件

新编简明英语语言学教程ch5

《简明语言学教程》 课件第五章 语义学

《简明语言学教程》课件第五章语义学