会计学专业外文翻译
会计外文翻译
Master's thesis, University of LondonInformation technology and accounting management with the use is the relevant value of information analysis and use, and various factors of production based on the value creation of corporate accounting and management contributions to the study of accounting will be the main content. No use of information technology, there is any enterprise information and accounting information to promote the implementation of value chain management will lose technical support, there is no theory of innovation value chain management, accounting, and information technology development, there is no power. In this paper, the meaning of information to start, leads to the meaning of accounting information, accounting information describes the development process, the second part of the analysis of the status quo of accounting information, analysis of its use in theproblems, the third part of the proposed accounting information on the implementation of the strategic analysis.Keywords: accounting, information technology strategyI. Introduction(A) BackgroundThe development of accounting information in China has gone through more than 20 years, accounting information theory and practical application of talent, the accounting information system software has gradually matured, and, and theproduction, supply and marketing, human resources management, cost control and other aspects of the formation of an integrated management information system software. But the company found accounting information in the status of the development of enterprises is extremely uneven, a lot of strength and standardized management of large enterprises have been using the integrated accounting information system "ERP" is the management software, and the introduction of new ideas with the value of the supply chain management chain management system, and also the majority of the total business is still in the initial stage of the use of computerized accounting, or even manually. Enterprise management is still in the coexistence of traditional and modern, our corporate accounting information so early, the senior co-existence of the phenomenon will not surprise. Accounting information must be improved to facilitate the management of change. The essence of the value chain to value chain to implement the core business processes node changes, if companies choose the value chain as the core business process change, business management will enable a major step forward, it promotes corporate accounting development of information technology.(B) SignificanceWhile accounting information in China's time is not long, its nature and content to be further studied, but it is undeniable, with the advent of the information society, accounting, information technology will be an irresistible inevitable trend of the accounting information The current accounting both in theory and in practice will have a huge impact.First, to achieve after the accounting information, accounting information system will truly become a business management information system, a subsystem. The business enterprise is able to automatically capture the enterprise's internal and external information related to accounting, and together with the company's internal accounting information system for real-time processing. Accounting from the limitations of traditional accounting afterwards freed, and thus play a greater management control of accounting functions, business and information so that users can readily use the corporate accounting information to the business of the future financial situation to make a reasonable forecast, management and development of enterprises to make the right decisions. Second, the accounting assumptions, in particular, is no longer the traditional accounting entity with real money and plant business, it will include some of the online virtual companies and network companies,which for the common goal, in short time together, when the completion of specificgoals will soon dissolve, and its continuing operations, accounting, staging and monetary measures the basic premise of all will be affected. Implementation of accounting information, the enterprise network and external networks to achieve the Internet, users of accounting information can always obtain the relevant accounting information. Comprehensive application of information technology has greatly improved the timeliness of the information, the predictive value of information and feedback is also greatly enhance the value of information flow is also much faster, can contribute positively to the improvement of economic management. Other accounting information systems through direct access to relevant data and analysis, reducing theman-made fraud, thus greatly improving the reliability of accounting information and the quality of information.Third, today's accounting software processes basically simulate manual accounting processes and design. Implementation of accounting information, the accounting system is no longer isolated, but with a real-time processing, highly automated system, which with other business systems and external connections, you can directly read data from other systems, and a series of processing, processing, storage and transmission. Accounting reports can also be used for real-time electronic means associated newspaper report, the user can always obtain useful accounting information for decision-making, improve efficiency, promote economic development.21st century will be an information-oriented society, today's society is the "knowledge economy" era forward, In today's competitive environment, the accounting officer must not only well versed in the basic principles of accounting, computerized accounting techniques to master , but also learn some sense of organization, behavioral factors, decision-making process and communication technology and other aspects of the basic theory. Accounting information representsnew accounting ideas and concepts, the traditional accounting theory and modern information technology, network technology, a combination of product development is the inevitable trend of modern accounting. It must seize opportunities, meet challenges, and strive to promote the development of China's accounting information.II An overview of the accounting information(A) the meaning of informationBegan in the 1940s wave of information technology, beginning aroused great attention in all aspects, from the 1960s, scholars began to have "information" and "information society" and so on. 1963 Japanese scholars Tidal plum out in its "Information Industry science" for the first time that "information technology" concept. As information technology there is not long, the actual development and very rapid development of information society itself changes, the understanding of information technology are not the same. For example, "information is the communication of modern, computer and rationalize the general term", "information is computerized, modern communication and network technology", "information is e-commerce" and "information is computerized," " information is information technology and information industry in the economic and social development andplay a leading role in increasing the process ", and so on. Information technologyrevolution and the industrial revolution is the result of information from the three aspects, namely, the digitization of information, information networks, information and intelligent. "Digital information is the basis of information, the information network is the basic characteristics of information technology, information, and information technology is the development of intelligent features."(B) The information content of accountingThe concept of accounting information in 2000, the Shenzhen Municipal Finance Bureau and the Shenzhen Kingdee Software Technology Co., Ltd in Shenzhen's "new situation, management accounting software market, Information Theory Symposiumaccounting expert forum" on the make is the accounting computerized product development to a new stage. Theoretical understanding of information technology sector have different views, such as technical concept, the process concept, elements and outlook, and thus the concept of accounting information will have a different set, HU Ran star of accounting information as defined by the use of more the status quo. "Accounting information is based on the system in the enterprise of science, management science, application of modern information technology, integration of enterprise business processes and accounting processes, the establishment of accounting information systems; full development and use of accounting information resources, timely and accurate to the enterprise internal and external users of accounting information to provide useful support to strengthen the role of accounting to reflect and monitor the overall process. "As can be seen from this statement, the accounting information is the process of concept, it conveys such meanings: First, the means of access to information networks, communications and databases; Second, business processes and accounting processes to be re- whole, to better reflect the timeliness of information provided; third-to-business cash flow, physical flow and information flow throughout theimplementation of real-time control; Fourth, the spatial extent of the accounting information to expand information coverage, including information and currency non-monetary information internal information and external information, and so on. Professor Yang Zhou Nan the study of accounting information has its own unique, she will be introduced to the theory of value chain management accounting information in the field, made a "value chain management, accounting, information technology," the new concept, and that the "value chain management accounting information is the value chain to achieve important environmental accounting management and technology base. " And discussed the value chain management accounting information in the target location, technology platform, business process management models, standards, audit system, and in ten areas of change. Expand the meaning of accounting information.(C) The development of accounting information1 era of computerized accountingFunding from the Ministry of Finance in 1978, Chinches First Automobile Works began a pilot computerized accounting, accounting information in China's development has gone through more than 20 years, in its early stage of developmentthat the era of computerized accounting, computer applications accounting in the accounting field to produce a major change, the accounting staff work from reimbursement heavy afterwards freed, so that participants are management accounting staff time, improve the quality of accounting information and timeliness of the initial training of accounting software boom market, develop a group of composite talent, creating a number of accounting software company, to the standardization of computerized accounting, commercial, universal, professional development, and for corporate information and provide a good experience, and promote enterprise management software development. But the rapid development of modern information technology on the traditional computerized accounting system had a tremendousimpact on the theoretical basis of accounting, the timeliness of accounting reports and other challenges. Xiao ravioli the traditional computerized accounting of the main problems are summarized as follows: "First, the traditional manual accounting, computerized accounting simulation only, although the financial accounting software to improve the efficiency and quality of accounting information, but accounting processing procedures and methods are basically just a set of procedures to move the hand up the computer; Second, the traditional accounting information system is the internal information 'islands' in the computerized implementation, financial data and business can not be shared, resulting in confined to the financial sector financial software to use, and internal business units are not well connected. other departments can not directly access to financial data; Third, the traditional accounting information system and outside the enterprise information system isolation and all business transactions or to open by hand, according to the paper documents the first, and then entered into the computer; Fourth, the traditional accounting information system lags behind the development of modern information technology now INTERNET-INTRANET technology has reached the stage that we can not imagine, if we are still deal with isolated cases of the PC, then the business of managementdecision-making, budgeting, investment and production decisions will be errors due to insufficient amount of information; the fifth, only in the most traditional computerized accounting electronic data processing stage. China's implementation of accounting computing of the unit, most just use computerized accounting basic accounting, and a large number of financial management and financial analysis, is still a manual process; the sixth, in place of traditional computerized software development, function is not fully, to use the resulting inconvenient. "(2) Accounting information ageWhen the network technology and the maturity of domestic accounting software, financial, and timely exchange of business data has a technical support, and therefore the accounting information age has arrived. 2000, accounting information theorists first proposed the term is, and has been widely recognized. This reference is to the service management functions of accounting on the present and future information environment into account, is changing attitudes, is to seek greater development. Accounting information on the target even pay attention to accounting in business management on the central role; more dependent on the technology of modern network technology; focus on the functional areas of management accountinginformation and decision analysis; status in the system as a management systemintegral part; in the information transmission on the basis of authorization to acquire or output the information in the internal and external systems.Time accounting information more open and diversity. Openness is the high degree of sharing of accounting information resources, large amounts of data information between the departments within the enterprise, between enterprises within the group and between groups and external corporate unlimited or limited authorization of information exchange. Diversity performance of accounting information is no longer a single financial account table data, but also a lot of non-monetary forms of information; is no longer the only direct data or after a simplesummary of the data, but also includes many qualitative and quantitative analysis after can respond to different information needs of those recycling information; not only by Rose-year tradition of staging statistics accounting information, more of a point in time information, that is its real-time.Third, the use of accounting information Analysis(A) the status of the use of accounting informationImplementation of information technology in business process, the software provider to the enterprise managers have always praised their own software in the technical structure and how the information model is refined, is how the demand for enterprise management, and that enterprises should make what change in order to play the software management functions. But it did, most did not use information technology for the enterprise software providers to create the initial promised value. Even companies and managers think that the use of information systems management in the past rigid, not as labor management more convenient and flexible. This information management system is a failure of management systems; it is only concerned about the use of technology, while ignoring the way people access to information and requirements. U.S. information technology specialist Thomas. H •Davenport claims, in order to change the unsatisfactory status of information technology, must be people-oriented principle. Effective information management must first focus on how people think about the application of information, rather than how to use the machine. In people-oriented information management strategy, the reality of diversity to be concerned about the information; to emphasize the effective use of information and wide sharing; to make information technology solutions to solve current practical problems; to allow for different interpretations of the same message; to that enterprises to obtain the desired effect is considered the ultimate success; to specific problems to establish the appropriate structure; to promote and strengthen the method by adjusting the behavior of members of the organization; to the user's need to design their own applications. Body belongs to large enterprises, has been large-scale enterprise management, and financial strength. Before the introduction of the enterprise, there are three companies will have to implement ERP management system, and is part of the implementation of these enterprises are large-scale department stores and supermarket chains. Both with 16 companies have at least one financial software business management software companies, one of the six companies of the business management software such as inventory managementsoftware and financial software to achieve the integration, these companies are outside the supermarket. Local department stores and supermarket chains do little to achieve integration.Large supermarket chains in spite of the ERP management system, but and foreign retail giants such as Wal-Mart, Carrefour, B & Q, in comparison, China's domestic retail business of information technology still in its infancy. For example, Wal-Mart is the first use of computers to track inventory in retail enterprises (1969), is the earliest use of bar code (1980), the use of EDI with suppliers for better coordination (1985), launch its own communication satellite (1986) and use the wireless scanning guns (late 1980s) of retail companies. Now, Wal-Mart is the world'smost spare no effort to implement RFID Technology Company. Our domestic retail enterprises and applications providers are basically in a bystander.(B) The use of accounting information the problems1 lack of capital investmentAccording to the survey, not the type of business is accounting information in capital investment are also significant differences, in general, in terms of information technology also significantly less capital investment. Some small retail businesses, especially those franchise retail stores, its turnover of 100 million or less, the profit of 10 million or less. These companies invest in information technology capital is almost zero. For example, there is a franchise of computer accessories supplies store, operated by no less than one thousand kinds of varieties of goods, commodities Invoicing also only manual bookkeeping, the occurrence of errors is often a matter, but in a short time do not want to invest in this area. Manager believes that the purchase of small Invoicing software is several thousand to more than a million, do not necessarily apply to buy back their own and do not find someone to develop such talent. This situation represents the general attitude of some small businesses. Some of the economic benefits of better information technology in the retail business is also aserious shortage of capital investment. Local department store is a large-scale, high-profile retailer, sales of 4 billion last year, more than 300 million annual profit. This year is expected to increase by 1 million sales. So far the company has a network version of the UF of a financial accounting software and a software company developing your inventory management software, for a total capital of less than 30 million, if $ 1 million plus investment in hardware terms, the company's information construction accounts for the year total investment capital ratio of .325% of sales. According to statistics, the total number of enterprises in China accounted for 99.6% of the 40 million SMEs, of which 74% of enterprise information into sales revenue accounted for less than 1%, usually abroad, 2% -3%. Defined in accordance with the latest standards for SMEs to divide, retail enterprises with annual sales of more than 150 million people or more than 500 the number of workers should belong to large-scale retail enterprises. In other words, the department stores are large retail companies, invested in information technology should be more than 1% of the funds, but the fact is much lower than the ratio. From the survey found the same with the size of the retail mall business investment in information technology is basically the same proportion.(2) For their own interests and resist cooperation with upstream and downstreambusinessesSome retailers believe that if the composition of upstream and downstream enterprises and their value chain, then this value chain to increase the total value is given, other means to make their own alliance to get more companies will get less. Therefore, the value chain between the various value chains Alliance is a competitive relationship. In such a concept under the guidance of the retail business is often not the whole value chain from the perspective of value-added, but rather in order to pursue their own interests at the expense of maximizing the interests of the entire value chain. Therefore, in the retail business and corporate transactions in theupstream, suppliers repeatedly lower prices, even the ones who enjoy the suppliers as their main source of profit; the supplier is to conceal their true costs, even as the retail price increases in disguise counterattack. The two sides are not creating value chain from the overall effectiveness of view, but to build their own profit loss in the value chain based on the Alliance. This is clearly not the goal of value chain management. Retailers should change their ideas, we must seek to maximize their own interests into the overall interests of the pursuit of maximizing the value chain, and clear corporate profits should manage to get through the value chain, value chain, rather than from the body to acquire Alliance.Other retailers do not want their business data, or other important sales information and customer information available to the supplier, even if the enterprise also needs to control access rights, let alone to disclose outside the enterprise. This deep-rooted tradition of understanding between suppliers and retailers so that the lack of a good spirit of cooperation. The basic goal of value chain management is the management process by improving the transparency of the entire value chain to improve the efficiency of resource allocation and profit levels, sharing of information resources. This will not only make the core of the value chain within the enterpriseand value chain alliances between enterprises can receive timely, flexible and actionable information resources to enable them to fully grasp the value chain cooperation between the Alliance information, market information, other business decision-making information, but also enables the company starting from the global value chain to arrange production and services.Management rather than the promoterLearned in the survey had had some local retailers, accounting information for what is not understood, was 67.19% in visitors who do not know what is accounting information, never heard of value chain management, the company has implemented a complete information technology solutions tend to say, very often referred to our information management staff to answer. Managers of these companies as the information because of competitive pressures is a helpless and passive choice, their knowledge of information technology know much, but not condescending and general staff to receive formal training, and such of the lack of knowledge of information technology initiative to accept the manager's attitude will inevitably lead to the loss of authority in this regard, they naturally will not be a promoter of information technology, and will be the task entrusted to the information management staff.Regardless of the information management company executives in the company'sposition that tall, and its authority is inferior to general manager, when stakeholders hinder the process of information, the information management staff had no ability to advance the information technology revolution. In addition, information management staffs are often professional and technical personnel, their lack of business knowledge and management capabilities, enterprise information process will be based more on business instead of computer hardware and software technical problems. In this case, information management will become powerless. If you rely on information technology to promote information management, failure becomes inevitable.Positioned correctly in the accounting functions of informationOne view is that the accounting functions will be limited to record a variety of business information behind them, while in charge of foreign tax returns and financial statements submitted to the traditional. Hold this view tend to be small retail business managers. They see the accounting for tax accounting and treasury accounting, they need to get that information from the accounting major is the number of day and monthly cash flow to pay the tax number. For the case of commodity stocks more business managers to ask, but regardless of the amount of inventory accounting and inventory carrying costs. This is because much small retail business to avoid taxes from the perspective of the book to create a false inventory, accounting, accounts payable data is the tax department. Based on this purpose, the managers of these enterprises will not consider business management systems and financial accounting system for data sharing. Learned from the survey 62.5% of the enterprises is not the business management software and financial accounting software and docking. Managers first consider the purchase of inventory management system is more than the amount due to the types of products, often caused by hand-billing and out of the workload and error rate increased only alternative. In the early stages of business development, accounting information for managers attitude and understanding of theaccounting function to reduce the tax burden may have a role, but this effect is not really benefit from the long-term stable development of enterprises to consider, once the risk of tax laws increased, the negative effect caused by low-would offset the tax benefits.Accounting, information technology implementation strategy analysis(A) Strategic and tactical implementation services for enterpriseFirm's strategic goal is to guide the development of accounting information based strategy; it must be its direction. In the absence of this direction, it will not clear the company's future direction, it is impossible to the accounting information to provide a clear strategic goal orientation, so the implementation of accounting information in the development of strategy must first clear the overall development strategy. Such enterprises to implement low-cost competitive strategy in the case of the accounting information of the implementation strategy will have a significant impact. The purpose of this strategy is to provide quality low cost products, and use price advantage over competitors. The accounting information in order to meet the strategic needs to be broken down by value chain analysis of cost control point, the development of procurement, production process, the operational procedures,marketing and other aspects of cost control standards, the design of cost control pointof cost information collection, transmission, aggregation, evaluation methods, to establish the accounting staff in the cost assessment in the central position, the establishment of cost control, reward and punishment system, and so on.(B) The implementation of management concepts update strategyManagers and internal employees know a lot of information technology is superficial, is generally believed that is a documentation of business processes and translate into something the computer can use to help companies accelerate the transmission of information; solutions manual has been the basis of the business can not solve management problems, but did not think for management improvement.Managers tend to think only of the benefits of information into management, but has not been established to promote information technology and management thinking in need of change, not concerned about the information technology business processes are likely to face adjustment and the adjustment of rules. Managers must also recognize that while changes in the general population and also including employees, their thoughts must also go to follow the changes in business, change from passive acceptance to active acceptance. Thus thinking of updating educational enterprise information has become an indispensable step in the process. Haier's Zhang proposed a "re-process reengineering first person who first recycling recycling concept." In order to promote the implementation of information technology in the process change, reversing the employees, especially the concept of corporate management, Zhang himself as a teacher, teaching stage process reengineering to promote the guiding ideology, and the formation of discussion of the program to verify in practice. Total number of trained close to 20,000.Some people think that advanced management information system implies a system of advanced management concepts, this argument has some truth, but the use of advanced information systems and management concepts to improve the。
英文文献翻译—中英对照(财会专业)
A V AT Revenue Simulation Model for Tax ReformIn Developing CountriesGlenn P .Jenkins[Abstract]: In this paper, we develop a model to simulate policies and revenues for a value added tax (V AT) system in countries that have an indirect tax system containing sales, excise taxes, and tariffs. An application of the model is carried out for Nepal, which has recently introduced the V AT to replace its sales tax system and rationalize its excise and tariff systems. The study shows that, in a developing country, tax policies that might seem very realistic and politically noncontroversial are likely to yield a very narrow tax base. If a government of a developing country wants to rely more on the V AT over time, it must move aggressively to broaden the base and enhance compliance.[Key words]: V AT revenue, Tax reform, model, NepalⅠ. INTRODUCTIONImport tariffs and excise taxes often constitute the most important revenue sources in developing countries. Because of growing concerns in recent years about economic efficiency and tax simplicity in a competitive and integrated world economy, many countries are lowering trade taxes and replacing distorted excise taxes with consumption-type V AT. With respect to the latter, one of the most important questions is the revenue potential of alternative designs of this new tax as governments attempt to replace or enhance the level of revenues generated by their current tax system.The potential revenue which can be raised from the V AT depends on a number of factors, such as how broad the tax base will be and the extent to which businesses will comply with the tax. This issue has not been widely discussed in the public finance literature. The main purpose of this paper is to provide an analytical framework which can be used to estimate the potential tax base and associated revenues for a V AT in a typical developing country. The model developed for this purpose should be detailed enough to facilitate the estimation of the potentialrevenues for alternative tax options. Such a model can then be used to assist decision makers in setting their tax policies. To illustrate, the model is applied to the economy of Nepal. We chose Nepal because it is typical of many developing countries, having very limited statistical data and moving from a highly distorted indirect tax system to a V AT.Ⅱ. ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO THE ESTIMATION OF A V AT BASEThe potential tax revenue of a V AT is greatly dependent on the number and level of tax rates, the scope of the tax base, and the degree of tax compliance. The proposed V AT is assumed to be a multistage consumption tax based on the destination principle, similar to a European-style V AT. The tax is applied to the sales of goods and services at all stages of the production and distribution chain. At each stage, vendors are able to claim tax credits to recover the tax they paid on their business inputs. As a result, the tax system is in effect applying the tax only to the value added by each vendor. Since the only tax that does not get refunded is the tax imposed on final consumption, the tax is equivalent to the retail sales tax on final consumption. While imposing a tax at a destination principle, imports are taxed in the same way as domestically produced goods, and exports are not subject to tax. Therefore, the tax essentially applies to goods and services consumed domestically.A common feature of the tax base in most V AT countries is to not tax a number of important goods or services because of political and socioeconomic considerations, technical difficulties, or administrative complexity. These goods and services generally fall into two major categories, zero-rated and tax exempt. For zero-rated commodities, the V AT is not levied on the selling price of these items. The vendor, however, receives full credit for the V AT paid on inputs used in production. If zero-rated sales occur at an intermediate stage, purchasers would not have a credit to deduct against any subsequent tax due. This would, in fact, provide a cash flow cost and benefit to the vendor and purchaser, respectively. The net revenue implications for the government would nevertheless be nil. By comparison, if zero-rated sales occur at the retail stage, it would effectively remove all the tax burden from consumers and the government would lose all the tax revenue from the sales of these goods and services.For conceptual and technical difficulties, countries employing a V AT generally exempt the domestic sales of financial intermediation and insurance services. For administrative and compliance simplicity, most V AT countries also exempt small businesses from the tax. When these goods and services are exempted, the V AT is not applied to these sales. Unlike zero-rated goods and services, vendors of exempt products are not eligible to receive any credit for the taxes paid on the inputs used to produce that good or service. The denial of input tax credits increases the production cost for the vendor, although the value added of the vendor escapes tax.Like zero-rated sales, tax exemption can occur at either an intermediate or the retail stage. Consider the tax exemption at the retail stage where goods are sold directly to consumers. Only the value added at the retail stage will not be subject to tax. In contrast, if tax exempt sales operate at the intermediate stages of the production-distribution chain, sales by the subsequent businesses acquiring the goods are effectively overtaxed to the extent that the inputs prior the exempt stage are not creditable. As a result, the tax base is not reduced, but is augmented by the cascading effect.The government could ultimately collect a greater amount of tax revenue than it would otherwise.Multiple tax rates are a common feature of some V AT systems in the developing countries. It is not uncommon to observe that a lower rate is applied to goods or services which are regarded as the necessities of life. At the same time, there are luxury goods which may be subjected to a higher rate of V AT or alternatively, a non-increditable excise tax.Three alternative approaches can be used to estimate the tax base and associated revenues, for which input-output tables, national accounts and family expenditure survey data are often required. The first approach is simply to construct an aggregate tax base. It begins with the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the economy, which is the sum of the value added in the domestic production of all goods and services. Because we are considering a destination principle V AT, we need to subtract exports and add imports to the GDP. For a consumption type V AT, the base is also reduced by the gross capital formation of the private sector. The base is further reduced by zero-rated or exempted consumption expenditures. Since vendors of exempted goods and services are unable to claim any credits for taxes paid on the inputs acquired to produce that good or service, the tax base will have to be upward adjusted. The second approach computes the base by summing the value added of each industrial sector in the economy. The base has to beadjusted for the fact that the V AT is a destination type tax and, as such, would tax imports on entry into the country and zero-rate exports. Further adjustments would have to be made for changes in inventories and for commodities which are either zero-rated or exempted. Making these adjustments by sector is usually difficult since the values of exports and imports are not readily available on an industry basis. Although an aggregate adjustment for the whole economy may be possible, detailed information by sector would be lost. The third approach is to estimate the value of goods and services purchased by consumers which would automatically capture the destination principle of the V AT since it excludes exports while imports are included. The V AT base by commodity can then be calculated using the commodity sales values at the final consumer level. The approach would also facilitate an analysis of incidence or price impact of the V AT on consumers, issues which are usually important in the political debate over sales tax reform.Ⅲ. GENERAL METHODOLOGY FOR ESTIMATING THE V AT BASEThis section explores the detailed methodology of the third approach described above. This approach depends heavily upon input-output tables. Input-output models are static in nature and, as such, do not allow for behavioral responses to policy changes. Thus, the V AT base estimation discussed in this paper does not take into account behavioral responses due to the replacement of the current sales tax system with the V AT.As was mentioned earlier, the V AT base can be estimated using the final expenditures made by various economic entities. Construction of the base can, therefore, begin with the data for domestic expenditures contained in the final demand matrix of the I-O tables. The final demand matrix generally contains a transaction matrix of a number of commodities by a number of final demand categories. The final demand categories may include many categories under each of the headings such as personal consumption, government expenditures, investment, imports, and exports. Personal consumption refers to those individuals/households or entities who acquire goods and services for their own consumption and who do not produce supplies of a commercial nature. Government expenditures include the current and capital spending by all levels ofgovernment. This would be treated in a fashion similar to personal consumption under a V AT system except that the V AT paid by the same level of government sector will not necessarily increase net government collections. Investment, however, is excluded from the base calculation since the V AT allows for an input tax credit for any business purchases including capital investment. Exports are also excluded because of the destination type V AT. Imports are ignored because purchases made by other final demand categories are inclusive of imports.The starting point in calculating the V AT base is with the amount of personal and government expenditures. This amount is equivalent to the total expenditures shown in the I-O tables. Adjustments must however, be made for several factors in order to arrive at the V AT base. What follows is a description of the relevant deductions and adjustments.Calculation of the current sales taxesSuppose that a country has a manufacturer sales tax system and the government proposes to replace it with a V AT. The gross expenditures contained in the I-O tables, expressed at purchasers' price, include the current sales taxes to be replaced. These taxes are imposed on the manufacturer's sale price of goods produced in the country and on the duty paid value of imported goods. Wholesale and retail trade margins are excluded from the tax base. Usually, these sales taxes apply also to a range of intermediate inputs and capital goods used in the production and distribution of goods and services.In order to remove the current sales taxes paid directly by personal and government sectors from each category of expenditures, one has to first construct the current sales tax base. This is accomplished by removing the retail and wholesale trade margins from purchasers' expenditures on each good or service, inclusive of sales tax.The expected current sales tax revenue from each commodity, say, the ith commodity( Ri), can be calculated by multiplying the derived tax base by the applicable tax rate and by the taxable proportion:where is the sales tax-inclusive base of the ith commodity, is the taxable proportion of theith commodity, and is the sales tax rate of the ith commodity. The magnitude of the taxableproportions depends upon the proportion of the legally taxable sales to the total sales of the items contained in each commodity category.A further calculation must be made for the hidden (or indirect) sales taxes embedded in personal and government expenditures. This represents the sales taxes which are levied on business inputs. These inputs are used in turn to produce goods and services which are ultimately sold to final consumers and governments. If sales taxes are assumed to be fully shifted forward, the taxes will be transformed into a higher price of the final goods and services. The I-O tables can be used to measure the indirect sales tax content in the goods and services purchased by final consumers and governments.The total of the above expected direct and indirect sales tax revenues over all commodities and all entities usually is not the same as the actual tax collections. This is a result of a number of factors, such as bad debt allowances, tax free allowances for small importation, tax evasion, small suppliers exemption. After adjusting for the factors which are known, the expected tax revenues are made equal to the actual tax collections by applying a calculated compliance rate. This rate is simply the ratio of the actual revenue to the expected revenue. Of course, the compliance rate may vary by commodity, depending upon market conditions and other factors.Introduction of the value-added taxThe potential revenue of the V AT extended to the retail level can be calculated by summing domestic personal and government expenditures at retail prices. This does not include expenditures made by businesses since the taxes paid on business purchases are creditable. Thus, the starting point for calculating the V AT base is with the value of all goods and services (shown in the I-O tables) purchased by personal and government sectors, net of all current sales taxes.This is the total potential tax base, which is then multiplied by the taxable proportions for each corresponding commodity in order to arrive at the V AT base. At this point, the taxable proportions are determined by the tax policies and laws under consideration. For example, the proposed V AT may zero-rate or exempt certain goods or services. In such cases, the full value of zero-rated or exempted goods and services purchased by individuals or governments has to be removed from the potential base. For exempt items, however, taxes paid on business inputs used to produce the exempt goods or services are not creditable. Therefore, an additional adjustment to the tax base is needed to account for the extent to which the vendors cannot claim input tax credit for taxes paid on business expenditures. In summary, the total potential V AT base can beexpressed as follows:Where is the percentage wholesale margin for the ith commodity, is the percentage retail margin for the ith commodity, is the total business inputs used in the production of the jthexempt sector under the proposed V AT, is the ratio of taxable inputs to the total inputs usedin the production of the jth exempt sector under the proposed V AT, and Bi ,ai and pi are defined as eqn..Special attention should be paid to long-term residential rent paid by tenants to landlords and imputed rent arising from the consumption flow by owner-occupied housing, which is normally presented as part of personal expenditures in the I-O tables or national accounts. This rent is often tax exempt and should be excluded from the tax base in order to avoid double taxation, since as an alternative, the V AT is sometimes levied on the purchase price of newly constructed dwellings. A portion of gross cash rent and imputed rent, however, would still be subject to V AT as a result of taxable expenditures made for repairs, property insurance, and certain utilities. It should be noted that the value of land is excluded in both the I-O tables and national accounts because it does not represent value added. For our purpose, the value of land is usually included as part of the purchase price of a new home. Thus, when new houses are taxable under the V AT, the personal expenditures must be adjusted upward to account for the full price of new homes. Some adjustments must be also made to gross expenditures in the government sector. For the most part, the production from this sector is usually exempt under a V AT and the associated value added would not attract the tax. On the other hand, the intermediate inputs used to produce government goods and services are usually taxable and, as a consequence, remain in the tax base of the government sector.Finally, to arrive at a benchmark estimate of revenue yield, the tax base for each commodity item is then multiplied by the compliance ratio under the current sales tax system. This adjustment implies that the compliance rate for each commodity under the proposed V AT would not be different from that being subject to the current system. The compliance rate may be adjusted upward however if one believes that the V AT system would enhance taxpayercompliance, or if the government can increase the level of administrative enforcement. On the contrary, the compliance rate may be adjusted downward if tax evasion is expected to spread with the introduction of a V AT. The total expected V AT revenues for the economy will then be equal to the summation of all adjusted tax bases across goods and services purchased by both the personal and government sectors, times the proposed V AT rates.Accrual versus actual revenue collectionsThe model developed so far provides an annual estimate of the V AT paid by final consumers and governments. These estimates are presented on an accrual basis rather than the actual revenues received by the government due to the payment lags built into the V AT system. For example, the V AT may be designed to provide a great deal of flexibility in filing requirements, depending on the size of the business. For large firms, filing may be required on a monthly basis. For smaller firms, filing may be allowed on a quarterly or annual return. Certain types of businesses such as exporters are likely to choose to file their returns on a monthly basis in order to claim input tax credits earlier. Furthermore, all taxpayers are likely to have until the end of the month following the reporting period to file their returns.From a government’s perspective, it is necessary to transform the V AT estimates from an accrual to a collection basis. One can first segregate the above annual estimate of the V AT base into the individual ``value-added'' components for primary producers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and other service sectors. Each of these components is then converted to a monthly basis using sales and other relevant data. For example, the retail component is distributed to each month based on monthly retail sales data. This should reflect the seasonal patterns in production and distribution channels. The appropriate collection lags should also be incorporated for each type of tax filer. The resulting revenues can then be transformed to a collection basis. This consideration will be particularly important when the V AT is first introduced into a country.Ⅳ. AN APPLICATION TO A CASE FOR NEPALThe current sales tax collected in Nepal in fiscal year 1994-95 was about 6,032 million rupees which accounts for approximately one-third of the total tax revenues. It is the single mostimportant revenue source. Like many other countries, the sales tax is imposed on the manufacturer's sale price of goods produced for domestic consumption, and on the duty paid value of imported goods. As a result, the tax applies to a range of inter-mediate inputs and capital goods used in the production and distribution channels. This tax has become not only administratively complex, but also economically inefficient. The Minister of State for Finance in Nepal announced in the July 1993 budget that the government would focus on gradually transforming the sales tax into a value-added tax. Since then, subsequent governments have had to make a series of tax policies and set tax rates in order to ensure the new sales tax system is fair, simple, efficient and produces revenue in a stable fashion.In the July 1993 budget, it was announced that the number of sales tax rates would be reduced from five to two rates, 10% and 20%. The same tax rates are applied equally to domestically produced goods and to imports in order to streamline the sales tax operation. In addition, there has been a substantial amount of government revenues collected from a number of selective excises on cigarettes, liquor, beer, soft drinks, edible oils, cement and so on. The main objective of this section is to apply the above model to the estimation of potential revenues for a V AT to be implemented in Nepal.Preparation of the basic dataThe data are quite limited in Nepal. In order to present the most up-to-date economic structure for the country, we developed a complete set of data for the FY 1994-95 since this is the latest year that data are available on the expenditure side from national accounts in Nepal.The data are arranged into three major categories-personal, business, and government. First, the detailed personal expenditure data are only available from a Household Budget Survey for 1985. These data also are separated into urban and rural for each class of commodity expenditure. Due to their different expenditure patterns and the recent massive migration from rural to urban areas, the current detailed household expenditures by commodities for the country as a whole are constructed by increasing the proportion of the total national household expenditures made in urban areas from 7% in 1985 to 12% in 1994. Using the FY 1994-95 aggregate private consumption shown in national accounts as a control total, the detailed personal expenditures by commodities are estimated.Second, the information concerning business expenditures on capital investment and intermediate inputs is very limited. The national accounts only provide an aggregate figure on private capital formation which can be further separated into machinery and equipment and construction. Using import information, the totals for machinery and equipment are further allocated among tractors, motor vehicles and parts, aircraft, telecommunications, medical equipment, and other machinery equipment. This is done in anticipation that certain goods or sectors are likely to be either zero-rated or exempted under the proposed V AT. The split between residential and nonresidential construction is also important because of their differences in the composition of mixed construction materials. For nonresidential construction, about one-third is sponsored by international organizations and is classified as expenditures of the government sector. For each construction category, detailed requirements of construction materials, labor cost, as well as profits and contract tax are provided by the Nepal Engineers' Association. In addition, the detailed intermediate inputs demanded by each of the industrial sectors are developed using the 1987 I-O tables.Third, government expenditures are separated into Regular and Development Expenditures. The latter are mostly funded by international organizations such as the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and bilateral donors which do not pay tariffs or other commodity taxes on their purchases. Each of the Regular and Development Expenditures can be further broken down into current and capital expenditures by commodity items or economic functions.After the basic detailed expenditures data for FY 1994-95 are constructed, the wholesale and retail margins for each commodity are removed from purchasers' expenditures on each good or service derived above .This would form the manufacturers' or importers' sales totals, inclusive of taxes, by commodity and by entity. The expected sales tax revenue for each commodity can then be calculated based on eqn (1).Simulation of the V AT revenuesThe proposed V AT will be imposed on goods and services consumed in the Kingdom of Nepal except for those specified in Schedules 1 and 2 of the V AT Act. The V AT Act will replace the Sales Tax Act, Hotel Act, Contract Tax Act, and Entertainment Act. This implies that, for revenue-neutral, at least a total of 6,857 million rupees should have been generated in FY 1994-95 if the proposed V AT was implemented.The following basic tax policies are incorporated in the model simulations for illustrative purposes:(ⅰ) impose a single rate of V AT which is extended to the retail level under the destination principle. Most personal and government expenditures are taxed, including government expenditures financed through international organizations.(ⅱ) zero-rate exported goods and services.(ⅲ)exempt unprocessed food, drug and medical services, books and newspapers, water and transportation services.(ⅳ) exempt newly constructed dwellings, residential rents, and financial services.(ⅴ) adjust the excise levies on alcoholic beverages and tobacco products to maintain their current consumer prices.Before turning to the empirical results, it is useful to recall the equivalency of the V AT to that of retail sales tax levied on the final selling price of all goods and services.The data on the latter were derived earlier in the form of gross expenditures by commodities under the personal, business, and government category. These gross expenditures represent the sum of all the expenditures on the various commodities and primary inputs contained in each category. Adjustments must be made for factors such as removal of the current sales taxes, zero-rated and exempt goods and services, and realistic tax compliance by taxpayers in order to arrive at the V AT base and the associated revenues.First, the above gross expenditures by commodities and by entities contain the amounts of the current sales taxes, directly paid by individuals and by governments, which must be deducted in calculating the V AT base. Since sales taxes are assumed to be fully shifted forward to final consumers, a further deduction must be made for the indirect sales taxes embedded in the price of personal and government expenditures. One can observe from Columns (2) and (3) of Table 1 that more than half of the current sales taxes are imposed on intermediate inputs and capital goods in Nepal. These input taxes are now embodied in the form of higher prices of goods and services sold to final consumers and governments.Second, the excise tax on alcoholic beverages and tobacco products are adjusted upward in order to maintain the same level of retail prices for consumers. The excise adjustment (DE) must equal the diff erence between the manufacturers’ sales prices of the excisable good under the newversus the current sales tax systems. That is:where is the single V AT rate, is the V AT compliance rate, is the current sales tax rateof the ith excisable good, and is the compliance rate of the current sales tax systems. is defined as eqn. (1), namely, the current sales tax-inclusive base of the ith excisable good. Hence, the adjustments shown in Column (5) of Table 1 refer to the case if the V AT rate is set at 12% and the tax compliance remains the same as the current tax system.Third, the full value of zero-rated goods or services purchased by final consumers and governments must be removed from gross expenditures. The simulation will only apply to exports, not to the goods and services paid for with foreign exchange but consumeddomestically.Fourth, for exempt goods and services that operate at the retail stage, the V AT is not levied on their selling prices nor are vendors entitled to the input tax credit. As a result, the associated input taxes that are not creditable form part of the V AT base. It should be noted that while not only unprocessed basic groceries but also basic agricultural inputs such as fertilizer seeds and pesticides are exempt. Another interesting case in Nepal is the practical difficulty of imposing a V AT on newly constructed houses because no such market prevails. New houses are normally self-constructed with assistance from relatives or friends. Therefore, new houses are treated as tax exempt and the purchases of construction materials are made subject to tax the business inputs associated with the denied input tax credits are all shown by sector in the second panel of Table 1 to form part of the V AT in Nepal.Fifth, the government is treated in the same fashion as final consumers. In other words, expenditures incurred by the government are taxed.Each of these tax policy measures presented in the V AT Act might appear reasonable and politically prudent, in the context of the economy of Nepal. But the results in Column (7) of Table 1 show that the V AT base, with the current tax compliance, has been reduced to approximately 20% gross domestic expenditure. It is also unrealistic to expect a substantial increase in compliance of the tax in a near term. If significant additional revenues are to be collected, tougher tax policies to broaden the tax base will have to be implemented. Because the share of the formal economy is relatively small in such a developing country, the potential tax base for a V AT is rather narrow. Hence, substantial political will is needed in developing countries to impose taxes on goods and services that might be exempted due to political or social considerations in developed countries.A V AT generally requires a higher level of administrative expenditures than a single stage sales tax system because of the greater number of taxpayers and the initial start up costs. This will reduce the net collection of tax revenues. There is a question of whether the V AT would lead to either greater tax enforcement or greater revenue leakage. One can argue that invoices issued by vendor registrants are proof of tax paid and, thus, constitute the basis for input tax credit claims by purchaser registrants. The invoice system may be considered by some economists or tax practitioners as a mechanism that provides an audit trail and an incentive to record。
会计英文文献及翻译
IMPLEMENTING ENVIRONMENTAL COSTACCOUNTING IN SMALL AND MEDIUM-SIZEDCOMPANIES1．ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN SMESSince its inception some 30 years ago, Environmental Cost Accounting (ECA) has reached a stage of development where individual ECA systems are separated from the core accounting system based an assessment of environmental costs with (see Fichter et al., 1997, Letmathe and Wagner , 2002).As environmental costs are commonly assessed as overhead costs, neither the older concepts of full costs accounting nor the relatively recent one of direct costing appear to represent an appropriate basis for the implementation of ECA. Similar to developments in conventional accounting, the theoretical and conceptual sphere of ECA has focused on process-based accounting since the 1990s (see Hallay and Pfriem, 1992, Fischer and Blasius, 1995, BMU/UBA, 1996, Heller et al., 1995, Letmathe, 1998, Spengler and H.hre, 1998).Taking available concepts of ECA into consideration, process-based concepts seem the best option regarding the establishment of ECA (see Heupel and Wendisch , 2002). These concepts, however, have to be continuously revised to ensure that they work well when applied in small and medium-sized companies.Based on the framework for Environmental Management Accounting presented in Burritt et al. (2002), our concept of ECA focuses on two main groups of environmentally related impacts. These are environmentally induced financial effects and company-related effects on environmental systems (see Burritt and Schaltegger, 2000, p.58). Each of these impacts relate to specific categories of financial and environmental information. The environmentally induced financial effects are represented by monetary environmental information and the effects on environmental systems are represented by physical environmental information. Conventional accounting deals with both – monetary as well as physical units – but does not focus on environmental impact as such. To arrive at a practical solution to the implementation of E CA in a company’s existing accounting system, and to comply with the problem of distinguishing between monetary and physical aspects, an integrated concept is required. As physical information is often the basis for the monetary information (e.g. kilograms of a raw material are the basis for the monetary valuation of raw material consumption), the integration of this information into the accounting system database is essential. From there, the generation of physical environmental and monetary (environmental) information would in many cases be feasible. For many companies, the priority would be monetary (environmental) information for use in for instance decisions regarding resource consumptions and investments. The use of ECA in small andmedium-sized enterprises (SME) is still relatively rare, so practical examples available in the literature are few and far between. One problem is that the definitions of SMEs vary between countries (see Kosmider, 1993 and Reinemann, 1999). In our work the criteria shown in Table 1 are used to describe small and medium-sized enterprises.Table 1. Criteria of small and medium-sized enterprisesNumber of employees TurnoverUp to 500employees Turnover up to EUR 50mManagement Organization- Owner-cum-entrepreneur -Divisional organization is rare- Varies from a patriarchal management -Short flow of information style in traditional companies and teamwork -Strong personal commitmentin start-up companies -Instruction and controlling with- Top-down planning in old companies direct personal contact- Delegation is rare- Low level of formality- High flexibilityFinance Personnel- family company -easy to survey number of employees- limited possibilities of financing -wide expertise-high satisfaction of employeesSupply chain Innovation-closely involved in local -high potential of innovationeconomic cycles in special fields- intense relationship with customersand suppliersKeeping these characteristics in mind, the chosen ECA approach should be easy to apply, should facilitate the handling of complex structures and at the same time be suited to the special needs of SMEs.Despite their size SMEs are increasingly implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems like SAP R/3, Oracle and Peoplesoft. ERP systems support business processes across organizational, temporal and geographical boundaries using one integrated database. The primary use of ERP systems is for planning and controlling production and administration processes of an enterprise. In SMEs however, they are often individually designed and thus not standardized making the integration of for instance software that supports ECA implementation problematic. Examples could be tools like the “eco-efficiency” approach of IMU (2003) or Umberto (2003) because these solutions work with the database of more comprehensive software solutions like SAP, Oracle, Navision or others. Umberto software for example (see Umberto, 2003) would require large investments and great background knowledge of ECA – which is not available in most SMEs.The ECA approach suggested in this chapter is based on an integrative solution –meaning that an individually developed database is used, and the ECA solution adopted draws on the existing cost accounting procedures in the company. In contrast to other ECA approaches, the aim was to create an accounting system that enables the companies to individually obtain the relevant cost information. The aim of the research was thus to find out what cost information is relevant for the company’s decision on environmental issues and how to obtain it.2．METHOD FOR IMPLEMENTING ECASetting up an ECA system requires a systematic procedure. The project thus developed a method for implementing ECA in the companies that participated in the project; this is shown in Figure 1. During the implementation of the project it proved convenient to form a core team assigned with corresponding tasks drawing on employees in various departments. Such a team should consist of one or two persons from the production department as well as two from accounting and corporate environmental issues, if available. Depending on the stage of the project and kind of inquiry being considered, additional corporate members may be added to the project team to respond to issues such as IT, logistics, warehousing etc.Phase 1: Production Process VisualizationAt the beginning, the project team must be briefed thoroughly on the current corporate situation and on the accounting situation. To this end, the existing corporate accounting structure and the related corporate information transfer should be analyzed thoroughly. Following the concept of an input/output analysis, how materials find their ways into and out of the company is assessed. The next step is to present the flow of material and goods discovered and assessed in a flow model. To ensure the completeness and integrity of such a systematic analysis, any input and output is to be taken into consideration. Only a detailed analysis of material and energy flows from the point they enter the company until they leave it as products, waste, waste water or emissions enables the company to detect cost-saving potentials that at later stages of the project may involve more efficient material use, advanced process reliability and overview, improved capacity loads, reduced waste disposal costs, better transparency of costs and more reliable assessment of legal issues. As a first approach, simplified corporate flow models, standardizedstand-alone models for supplier(s), warehouse and isolated production segments were established and only combined after completion. With such standard elements and prototypes defined, a company can readily develop an integrated flow model with production process(es), production lines or a production process as a whole. From the view of later adoption of the existing corporate accounting to ECA, such visualization helps detect, determine, assess and then separate primary from secondary processes. Phase 2: Modification of AccountingIn addition to the visualization of material and energy flows, modeling principal and peripheral corporate processes helps prevent problems involving too high shares of overhead costs on the net product result. The flow model allows processes to be determined directly or at least partially identified as cost drivers. This allows identifying and separating repetitive processing activity with comparably few options from those with more likely ones for potential improvement.By focusing on principal issues of corporate cost priorities and on those costs that have been assessed and assigned to their causes least appropriately so far, corporate procedures such as preparing bids, setting up production machinery, ordering (raw) material and related process parameters such as order positions, setting up cycles of machinery, and order items can be defined accurately. Putting several partial processes with their isolated costs into context allows principal processes to emerge; these form the basis of process-oriented accounting. Ultimately, the cost drivers of the processes assessed are the actual reference points for assigning and accounting overhead costs. The percentage surcharges on costs such as labor costs are replaced by process parameters measuring efficiency (see Foster and Gupta, 1990).Some corporate processes such as management, controlling and personnel remain inadequately assessed with cost drivers assigned to product-related cost accounting. Therefore, costs of the processes mentioned, irrelevant to the measure of production activity, have to be assessed and surcharged with a conventional percentage.At manufacturing companies participating in the project,computer-integrated manufacturing systems allow a more flexible and scope-oriented production (eco-monies of scope), whereas before only homogenous quantities (of products) could be produced under reasonable economic conditions (economies of scale). ECA inevitably prevents effects of allocation, complexity and digression and becomes a valuable controlling instrument where classical/conventional accounting arrangements systematically fail to facilitate proper decisions. Thus, individually adopted process-based accounting produces potentially valuable information for any kind of decision about internal processing or external sourcing (e.g. make-or-buy decisions).Phase 3: Harmonization of Corporate Data – Compiling and Acquisition On the way to a transparent and systematic information system, it is convenient to check core corporate information systems of procurement and logistics, production planning, and waste disposal with reference to their capability to provide the necessary precise figures for the determined material/energy flow model and for previously identified principal and peripheral processes. During the course of the project, a few modifications within existing information systems were, in most cases, sufficient to comply with these requirements; otherwise, a completely new softwaremodule would have had to be installed without prior analysis to satisfy the data requirements.Phase 4: Database conceptsWithin the concept of a transparent accounting system, process-based accounting can provide comprehensive and systematic information both on corporate material/ energy flows and so-called overhead costs. To deliver reliable figures over time, it is essential to integrate a permanent integration of the algorithms discussed above into the corporate information system(s). Such permanent integration and its practical use may be achieved by applying one of three software solutions (see Figure 2).For small companies with specific production processes, an integrated concept is best suited, i.e. conventional andenvironmental/process-oriented accounting merge together in one common system solution.For medium-sized companies, with already existing integrated production/ accounting platforms, an interface solution to such a system might be suitable. ECA, then, is set up as an independent software module outside the existing corporate ERP system and needs to be fed data continuously. By using identical conventions for inventory-data definitions within the ECA software, misinterpretation of data can be avoided.Phase 5: Training and CoachingFor the permanent use of ECA, continuous training of employees on all matters discussed remains essential. To achieve a long-term potential of improved efficiency, the users of ECA applications and systems must be able to continuously detect and integrate corporate process modifications and changes in order to integrate them into ECA and, later, to process them properly.。
会计专业外文资料及翻译
外文资料Why credit risk occur? And how to deal with it? Adverse selection in loan markets occurs because bad credit risks(those most likely to default on their loans) are the ones who usually line up for loans ; in other words, those who are most likely to produce an adverse outcome are the most likely to be selected. Borrowers with very risky investment projects have much to gain if their projects are successful; and so they are the most eager to obtain loans. Clearly ，however, they are the least desirable borrowers because of the greater possibility that they will be unable to pay back their loans.Moral hazard exists in loan markers because borrowers may have incentives to engage in activities that are undesirable from the lender’s point of view. In suc h situations, it is more likely that the lender will be subjected to the hazard of default. Once borrowers have obtained a loan, they are more likely to invest in high-risk investment projects-projects that pay high returns to the borrowers if successful. The high risk, however, makes it less likely that they will be able to pay the loan back.To be profitable, financial institutions must overcome the adverse selection and moral hazard problems that make loan defaults more likely. The attempts of financial institutions to solve these problems help explain a number of principles for managing credit risk: screening and monitoring, establishment of long-term customer relationships, loan commitments, collateral, compensating balance requirement, and credit rationing.Screening and monitoringAsymmetric information is present in loan markets because lenders have less information about the investment opportunities and activities of borrowers than borrowers do. This situation leads to two information-producing activities by banks and other financial institutions, screening and monitoring. Indeed , Walter Wriston, a former head of Citicorp, the largest bank corporation in the United States, was often quoted as stating that the business of banking is the production of information.Screening . Adverse selection in loan markets requires that lenders screen out the bad credit risks from the good ones so that loans are profitable to them. To accomplish effective screening, lenders must collect reliable information from prospective borrowers. Effective screening and information collection together form an important principle of credit risk management.Specialization in lending. One puzzling feature of bank lending is that a bank often specializes in lending to local firms or to firms in particular industries, such as energy. In one sense, this behavior seems surprising because it means that the bank is not diversifying its portfolio of loans and thus is exposing itself to more risk. But from another perspective such specialization makes perfect sense. The adverse selection problem requires that the bank screen out bad credit risks. It is easier for the bank to collect information about local firms and determine their creditworthiness than to collect comparable information on firms that re far away. Similarly, by concentrating its lending on firms in specific industries, the bank becomes more knowledgeable about these industries and is therefore better able to predict which firms will be able to make timely payments on their debt.Monitoring and Enforcement of Restrictive Covenants. Once a loan has been made, the borrower has an incentive to engage in risky activities that make it less likely that the loan will be paid off. To reduce this moral hazard, financial institutions must adhere to the principle for managing credit risk that a lender should write provisions (restrictive covenants) into loan contracts that restrict borrowers from engaging in risky activities. By monitoring borrowers’ activities to see whether they are complying with the restrictive covenants and by enforcing the covenants if they are not, lenders can make sure that borrowers are not taking risks at their expense. The need for banks and other financial institutions to engage in screening and monitoring explains why they spend so much money on auditing and information-collecting activities.Long-term customer relationshipsAn additional way for banks and other financial institutions to obtain information about their borrowers is through long-term customer relationships, another important principle of credit risk management.If a prospective borrower has had a checking or savings account or other loans with a band over a long period of time, a loan officer can look at past activity on the accounts and learn quite a bit about the borrower. The balances in the checking and savings accounts tell the banker how liquid the potential borrower is and at what time of year the borrower has a strong need for cash. A review of the checks the borrower has written reveals the borrower’s suppliers. If the borrower has borrowed previously from the bank, the bank has record of the loan payments. Thus long-term customer relationships reduce the costs of information collection and make it easier to screen out bad credit risks.The need for monitoring by lenders adds to the importance of long-term customer relationships. If the borrower has borrowed from the bank before, the bank has already established procedures for monitoring that customer. Therefore, the costs of monitoring long-term customers are lower than those for new customers.Long-term relationships benefit the customers as well as the bank. A firm with a previous relationship will find it easier to obtain a loan at a low interest rte because the bank has an easier time determining if the prospective borrower is good credit risk and incurs fewer costs in monitoring the borrower.A long-term customer relationship has another advantage for the bank. No bank can think of every contingency when it writes a restrictive covenant into a loan contract; there will always be risky borrower activities that are not ruled out. However, what if a borrower wants to preserve a ling-term relationship with a bank because it will be easier to get future loans at low interest rates? The borrower then has the incentive to avoid risky activities that would upset the bank, even if restrictions on these risky activities are not specified in the loan contract. Indeed, if a bank doesn’t violating any restrictive covenants, it has some power to discourage the borrower from such activity: the bank can threaten not to let the borrower have new loans in the future. Long-term customer relationships therefore enable banks to deal with even unanticipated moral hazard contingencies.The advantages of establishing long-term customer relationships suggest that closer ties between corporations and banks might be beneficial to both. One way to create these ties is for banks to hold equity stakes in companies they lend to and for banks to have embers on the boards of directors of these companies.Loan commitmentsBanks also create long-term relationships and gather information by issuing loan commitment to commercial customers. A loan commitments a bank’s commitment (for a specified future period of time) to provide a firm with loans up to a given a mount at an interest rate that is tied to some market interest rate. The majority of commercial and industrial loans are made under the loan commitment arrangement. The advantage for the firm is that it has a source of credit when it needs it. The advantage for the bank is that the loan commitment promotes a long-term relationship, which in turn facilitates information collection. In addition, provisions in the loan commitment agreement require that the firm continually supply the bank with information about the firm’s income, asset and liability position, business activities,and so on. A loan commitment arrangement is a powerful method for reducing the bank’s costs for screening and information collection.<<China City Commercial Bank Report,2008>>tells us: China’s city commercial banks, as the last institutions emerging in China’s commercial banking system, were founded in 1995 through shareholding reform of the former urban credit cooperatives. They are regarded as “the third echelon” in China’s banking system.In 2007, China accelerated the pace of initial public offerings of its city commercial banks. On July 19th 2007, Bank of Nanjing went public in Shanghai Stock Exchange, becoming the first urban commercial bank stock in Shanghai Stock Exchange. Bank of Nanjing with a registered capital of CNY1.207 billion is the third urban commercial bank that has set up branches in other cities, after the Bank of Beijing and Bank of Shanghai. Besides Bank of Nanjing, Bank of Ningbo also had its IPO on the same day in the Shenzhen Stock Exchange.Bank of Beijing (601169) had its IPO in the Shanghai Stock Exchange on Sep. 19th 2007. The Bank of Beijing opened at 23 yuan per share in its market debut, up 84% from its IPO prices of 12.5 yuan. The bank issued 1.2 billion A shares in all, among which, 900 million shares were issued on-line. The bank’s shares were chased by the market and a total of CNY1.9 trillion was frozen for subscription.Furthermore, Bank of Hangzhou, Bank of Chongqing, and Bank of Tianjin have all expressed their intention to go public clearly. It is inevitable that more China’s urban commercial banks will be listed on the stock market in 2008.China Banking Regulatory Commission requires that domestic city commercial banks should be of a basic rudiment of a modern financial company in 2008. The basic rudiment should cover the following seven aspects: firstly, non-performing loan should remain at about 5%; secondly, capital adequacy ratio should be above 8%; thirdly, NPL provision coverage rate should reach 100%; fourthly, profit shouldcontinue to grow; fifthly, all information should be fully disclosed; sixthly, the ability to prevent market risk and operational risk should be further enhanced; seventhly, operation features, operation mechanism, corporate management, corporate culture and quality of employees should also be further improved. All city commercial banks have made great efforts to meet the above requirements and their efforts are finally paid off, according to our in-depth analysis in this report on operation conditions and performance of 75 city commercial banks in China.中文译文信用风险的成因及该如何应对？在信贷市场上所以发生逆向选择问题，是因为高信贷风险者（那些最有可能在贷款上违约的人们）常常就是那些排着队申请贷款的人。
会计专业外文翻译
China's Stock Market: A Marriage of Capitalism and Socialism [ From:Wong, Sonia M L.Cato Journal26.3 (Fall 2006): 389-424. ] Abstract (summary)China's stock market had three unique features that made its rapid development unique and interesting.First, the government used it largely as a fundraising vehicle for funding state-owned enterprises (SOEs).Second, China's stock market developed under a repressed financial regime.Third, China's stock market was developed under a weak legal framework that offered shareholders little protection.The author argues that the marriage of socialism and capitalism took place when China's poorly regulated stock market was becoming a venue whereby local governments and SOEs issued shares to capture economic rents created by financial repression, and traders bought and sold shares based on speculative motives rather than investment value. The success of the central government's reforms of China's stock market will ultimately come down to Beijing's ability to gradually overcome the various oppositions and to establish appropriate market-oriented institutions so that the benefits of a well-functioning stock market can be realized.The rise of China's stock market during the 1990s was nothing short of breathtaking.For more than 30 years after 1949, China was a centrally planned economy in which virtually all enterprises were state owned or collectively owned.Investments were centrally planned and funded by government fiscal grants as well as by loans from the state-owned monobank system as dictated by the government's central credit plan.On the late 1980s, as part of enterprise reforms that took place during China's gradual transition to a markete conomy, local governments in China started experimenting with selling shares of collectively owned enterprises directly to domestic individuals in order to raise equity capital.Curbed trading of enterprise shares soon began and was quickly followed by over-the-counter (OTC) trading in more organized but still informal exchanges.In 1991, two stock exchanges, one created by the Shanghai municipal government and the other by the Shenzhen municipal government, were launched, with the central government's formal approval.Between 1992 and 2003, the market raised a total of 796.79 billion yuan of equity capital.At the end of 2003,China's stock market had 1,287 listed enterprises and more than 70 million investor accounts (CSRC 2004).The Chinese stock market since its inception the market experienced tremendous growth with total (negotiable) market capitalization increasing from 353.1 (86.16)billion yuan at the end of 1993 to 4,245.77 (1,317.85) billion yuan at the end of 2003.1 Along with the growth in market capitalization, the market also enjoyed a high level of liquidity, with trading volume increasing from 68.13 billion yuan in 1992 to 6,082.67 billion yuan in 2000.The two exchanges now boast a modern infrastructure with a computerized automated trading system, a high-speed nationwide satellite communications system backed by digital data networks, a paperless depository, and an efficient clearing and settlement system.2 In about a decade, China built a respectable stock market from scratch.Stock market development in China took off in the early 1990s, roughly at the same time as it did in other transitional economies (Pistor, Kaiser, and Geifer 2000).But China's stock market is performing better than the markets of most other transitional economies, when comparisons are made using standard measuresofstock market performance, including the number of listed firms, market capitalization, liquidity, and fundraising capacity (Pistor and Xu 2005: 191).3 By the end of 2000, while many stock markets in transitional economies were plagued by low market capitalization and low liquidity, China's total stock market capitalization had swelled to more than US$507 billion.That made China's stock market capitalization the second largest in Asia, after Japan's.China's stock market had three unique features that made its rapid development unique and interesting.First, the government used it largely as a fundraising vehicle for funding state-owned enterprises (SOEs).4 As a result,most listed enterprises were state controlled, with only one-third of the enterprises' equity capital sold to private shareholders during initial public offerings (IPOs).The other two-thirds of the equity capital raised was held either by state asset management agencies or by SOEs themselves.In an effort to prevent the loss of state control over listed enterprises, the government forbade trading of state-owned shares on China's two exchanges, and the shares could be transferred only after approval from state asset management authorities had been obtained, which made these shares effectively non-tradable.The transfer of state-owned shares to private shareholders was rare in the 1990s.At the end of the 1990s, more than 90 percent of the enterprises listed on China's two stock exchanges remained state controlled, with state-owned entities as their controlling shareholders.The rapidity of the development of China's stock market seems to suggest that a stock market (which is regarded as the incarnation of capitalism) can coexist with state ownership (which is regarded as the defining institution of socialism) and doesnot necessarily require the presence of private enterprise.Second, China's stock market developed under a repressed financial regime.Financial repression was created through a combination of capital controls on international capital flows and administrative measures imposed by the central government to dampen potential competition among different financial assets (eg, bank deposits, enterprise stocks, enterprise bonds, and various kinds of government bonds) within the domestic financial sector.5 While the capital controls helped toprevent capital from flowing out of the country, the competition-mitigating administrative controls sought to avoid the driving up of returns on various financial assets and thus to allow the government to maintain a source of cheap capital for financing SOEs' investments (Li 1994; Li 2001; Gordon and Li 2003).Financial repression, which generates artificially low returns on financial assets, inevitably creates excessive demand for valuable financial resources and hence results in nonprice rationing of those financial resources to preferred claimants (McKinnon 1973; Shaw 1973).Financial repression is therefore a disguised form of investment planning.In theory, this form of investment planning was to be gradually phased out with the emergence of a stock market that provided a forum for direct transactions between investors and fund seekers.However, China's central government imposed a host of administrative controls aimed at preserving its monopoly over the uses of funds long after the emergence of the stock market, thus grafting thesocialistic investment planning institution onto the stock market.Such a unique institutional structure is intriguing for studies on financial repression as well as the functioning of stock markets.Furthermore, the traditional economics literature generally views financial repression as an obstacle that limits financial marketdevelopment, because, under a repressive financial regime, holders of financial assets are not rewarded for real growth in their portfolios(McKinnon 1973; Shaw 1973).The rapid growth of China's stock market during its first decade seems to offer an interesting alternative case study.Third, China's stock market was developed under a weak legal framework that offered shareholders little protection.On the widely used indicators for shareholder rights protection developed by La Porta et al.(1998),China scored 3, compared with the average score of 3.61 for all other transitional economies (Pistor and Xu2005: 191).6 The actual protection for shareholders La Porta in China, however, is lowerthan what the index suggests because of the weak legal enforcement in China (Tenevand Zhang 2002; Allen, Qian, and Qian 2005; Pistor andXu 2005).The development of China's stock market therefore presents a puzzling case for economists and financial analysts who hold that legal shareholder protection is a prerequisite for the development of a functioning capital market (Shleifer and Vishny 1997; LaPorta et al. 1997, 1998; Pistor and Xu 2005).This article attempts to explain how China was able to develop a large, active, and technologically advancedstock market in the 1990s while maintaining its salient socialistic institutions of state ownership and monopolistic control over financial intermediation, and offering shareholders only weak legal protection.I argue that the marriage of socialism and capitalism took place when China's poorly regulated stock market was becoming a venue whereby local governments and SOEs issued shares to capture economic rents created by financial repression, and traders bought and sold shares based on speculative motives rather than investment value.I show how the development of China's stock market in the 1990s was in fact driven primarily by these rent-seeking and speculative activities rather than by value-driven transactions between investors and fund seekers.In the early 2000s, China's central government introduced a series of reform measures for privatizing listed enterprises, removing restrictive barriers in the financial sector, and improving legal protection for shareholders.Those measures are all consistent with the standard prescriptions for fostering the development of a well-functioning stock market.However, they have met with little enthusiasm and have triggered a bear market.The composite index of the Shanghai Stock Exchange slid from around 2,250 points in mid-2001 to around 1,300 points in December 2004, a plunge of 42 percent.In January 2005, the central government decided to slash the stamp tax by half, reducing it to 0.1 percent in an apparent attempt to boost the falling stock market.The stock market, however, remained weak.As recently as March 2006, the composite index was still hovering around 1,300.I conclude this article with a discussion of the impacts of recent reforms as well as the likely evolution of China's stock market in the future.Institutional Development of China's Stock MarketThe origin of China's stock market can be traced to a fall in the central government's revenues in the early 1980s, which necessitated finding new sources of capital to fund SOEs' capital expenditures.Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978, the central government's revenues declined steadily relative to grossdomestic product (GDP), falling from 31.2 percent in 1978 to 15.8 percent in 1989.7 Mired in a deficit of 17.06 billion yuan (about 5 percent of national income ) in 1979, the government did not achieve a small surplus until 1985.8 During this period, private household savings surged, with deposits in state-owned banks increasing from 21.06 billion yuan in 1978 to 121.47 billion yuan in 1984.9 In July 1983, the government started to fund most of the SOEs' capital expenditures with bank loans rather than via free budgetary allocations.Bank lending to industrial enterprises for capital construction investment jumped from a mere fraction of the total capital investment in 1979 to about 80 percent in 1985.The central government's shift from budgetary to bank financing of SOEs represented only a switch from financing SOEs with direct taxes to financing them with implicit taxes (quasi-fiscal revenue) collected from bank deposits (Gordon and Li 2003).Under a financially repressed regime, the government had been able to set the deposit interest rate lower than the foreign borrowing cost that it faced, thus adding an implicit tax rate onto the returns to savers from their deposits.The difference between the foreign borrowing cost and the domestic interest rate (ie, the implicit tax rate on domestic savings) was at least 6 percent during the period 1978-84 (Gordon and Li 2003).In the mid-1980s, after having taken over control and cash flow rights of the vast majority of small- and medium-sized SOEs in the early 1980s, local governments wanted access to alternative sources of investment funds in addition to fiscal grants and bank loans Some local governments spontaneously started to sell the shares of a few collectively owned enterprises to domestic individuals.However, selling shares directly to individuals represented a challenge to both state ownership and monopolistic control over financial The issuance of shares to individuals inherently creates private ownership, which is perceived as one of the defining features of capitalism.The emergence of enterprise shares also creates potential competition for bank deposits because enterprises now have the option of seeking direct financing, and domestic households can invest their savings in the stock market rather than deposit them in state-owned banks.This poses a threat to the government's monopolistic control over financial intermediation and implicit tax benefits. The challenge becomes more pronounced when stocks become more liquid with the emergence of secondary markets in which more funds are drawn from the banking system into share .Despite these potential risks, the central government saw that a functioning stock market could facilitate the mobilization of private savings to financeSOEs and to diversify investment risks otherwise concentrated in the state-owned banking system.The government also sought to use corporatization to restructure SOEs in the hope of improving their performance by subjecting them to the disciplinary forces of the stock market. In other words, the government wanted to free ride private shareholders' monitoring of SOEs via the stock market. The government, therefore, had conflicting views about the emergence of the stock market.中国股市：资本主义和社会主义的婚姻摘要（摘要）中国股市有三个独特的功能，使得其快速发展的独特和有趣。
会计中英文对照[定稿]
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会计中英文对照[定稿]第一篇：会计中英文对照[定稿]财会常见名词英汉对照表（1）会计与会计理论会计accounting 决策人Decision Maker 投资人Investor 股东Shareholder 债权人Creditor 财务会计Financial Accounting 管理会计Management Accounting 成本会计Cost Accounting 私业会计Private Accounting 公众会计 Public Accounting 注册会计师 CPA Certified Public Accountant 国际会计准则委员会IASC 美国注册会计师协会AICPA 财务会计准则委员会FASB 管理会计协会IMA 美国会计学会AAA 税务稽核署IRS 独资企业Proprietorship 合伙人企业Partnership 公司 Corporation 会计目标 Accounting Objectives 会计假设Accounting Assumptions 会计要素Accounting Elements 会计原则Accounting Principles 会计实务过程Accounting Procedures 财务报表Financial Statements 财务分析Financial Analysis 会计主体假设Separate-entity Assumption 货币计量假设Unit-of-measure Assumption 持续经营假设Continuity(Going-concern)Assumption 会计分期假设 Time-period Assumption 资产Asset 负债Liability 业主权益Owner's Equity 收入Revenue 费用Expense 收益 Income 亏损 Loss 历史成本原则 Cost Principle 收入实现原则 Revenue Principle 配比原则 Matching Principle 全面披露原则Full-disclosure(Reporting)Principle 客观性原则Objective Principle 一致性原则Consistent Principle 可比性原则Comparability Principle 重大性原则 Materiality Principle 稳健性原则Conservatism Principle 权责发生制Accrual Basis 现金收付制Cash Basis 财务报告 Financial Report 流动资产 Current assets 流动负债Current Liabilities 长期负债Long-term Liabilities 投入资本Contributed Capital 留存收益 Retained Earning（2）会计循环会计循环Accounting Procedure/Cycle 会计信息系统Accounting information System 帐户 Ledger 会计科目 Account 会计分录 Journal entry 原始凭证 Source Document 日记帐 Journal 总分类帐General Ledger 明细分类帐Subsidiary Ledger 试算平衡Trial Balance 现金收款日记帐 Cash receipt journal 现金付款日记帐Cash disbursements journal 销售日记帐 Sales Journal 购货日记帐Purchase Journal 普通日记帐 General Journal 工作底稿 Worksheet 调整分录 Adjusting entries 结帐 Closing entries（3）现金与应收帐款现金 Cash 银行存款 Cash in bank 库存现金 Cash in hand 流动资产 Current assets 偿债基金 Sinking fund 定额备用金 Imprest petty cash 支票 Check(cheque)银行对帐单 Bank statement 银行存款调节表 Bank reconciliation statement 在途存款 Outstanding deposit 在途支票Outstanding check 应付凭单Vouchers payable 应收帐款Account receivable 应收票据 Note receivable 起运点交货价 F.O.B shipping point 目的地交货价F.O.B destination point 商业折扣Trade discount 现金折扣Cash discount 销售退回及折让Sales return and allowance 坏帐费用Bad debt expense 备抵法Allowance method 备抵坏帐 Bad debt allowance 损益表法 Income statement approach 资产负债表法 Balance sheet approach 帐龄分析法 Aging analysis method 直接冲销法 Direct write-off method 带息票据Interest bearing note 不带息票据 Non-interest bearing note 出票人 Maker 受款人 Payee 本金 Principal 利息率 Interest rate 到期日Maturity date 本票Promissory note 贴现Discount 背书Endorse 拒付费Protest fee（4）存货存货Inventory 商品存货Merchandise inventory 产成品存货 Finished goods inventory 在产品存货Work in process inventory 原材料存货Raw materials inventory 起运地离岸价格F.O.B shipping point 目的地抵岸价格F.O.B destination 寄销Consignment 寄销人Consignor 承销人Consignee 定期盘存Periodic inventory 永续盘存Perpetual inventory 购货 Purchase 购货折让和折扣 Purchase allowance and discounts 存货盈余或短缺 Inventory overages and shortages 分批认定法 Specific identification 加权平均法 Weighted average 先进先出法First-in, first-out or FIFO 后进先出法Lost-in, first-out or LIFO 移动平均法 Moving average 成本或市价孰低法 Lower of cost or market or LCM 市价 Market value 重置成本 Replacement cost 可变现净值 Net realizable value 上限 Upper limit 下限 Lower limit 毛利法Gross margin method 零售价格法Retail method 成本率Cost ratio（5）长期投资长期投资 Long-term investment 长期股票投资 Investment on stocks 长期债券投资 Investment on bonds 成本法 Cost method 权益法Equity method 合并法Consolidation method 股利宣布日Declaration date 股权登记日Date of record 除息日Ex-dividend date 付息日 Payment date 债券面值 Face value, Par value 债券折价Discount on bonds 债券溢价Premium on bonds 票面利率Contract interest rate, stated rate 市场利率 Market interest ratio, Effective rate 普通股 Common Stock 优先股 Preferred Stock 现金股利Cash dividends 股票股利Stock dividends 清算股利Liquidating dividends 到期日 Maturity date 到期值 Maturity value 直线摊销法 Straight-Line method of amortization 实际利息摊销法Effective-interest method of amortization（6）固定资产固定资产 Plant assets or Fixed assets 原值 Original value 预计使用年限 Expected useful life 预计残值 Estimated residual value 折旧费用 Depreciation expense 累计折旧 Accumulated depreciation 帐面价值 Carrying value 应提折旧成本 Depreciation cost 净值 Net value 在建工程 Construction-in-process 磨损 Wear and tear 过时Obsolescence 直线法 Straight-line method(SL)工作量法 Units-of-production method(UOP)加速折旧法Accelerated depreciation method 双倍余额递减法 Double-declining balance method(DDB)年数总和法Sum-of-the-years-digits method(SYD)以旧换新Trade in 经营租赁Operating lease 融资租赁Capital lease 廉价购买权Bargain purchase option(BPO)资产负债表外筹资Off-balance-sheet financing 最低租赁付款额 Minimum lease payments（7）无形资产无形资产 Intangible assets 专利权 Patents 商标权 Trademarks, Trade names 著作权Copyrights 特许权或专营权Franchises 商誉Goodwill 开办费Organization cost 租赁权Leasehold 摊销Amortization（8）流动负债负债 Liability 流动负债 Current liability 应付帐款Account payable 应付票据Notes payable 贴现票据Discount notes 长期负债一年内到期部分Current maturities of long-term liabilities 应付股利Dividends payable 预收收益Prepayments by customers 存入保证金 Refundable deposits 应付费用 Accrual expense 增值税 value added tax 营业税 Business tax 应付所得税 Income tax payable 应付奖金 Bonuses payable 产品质量担保负债 Estimated liabilities under product warranties 赠品和兑换券Premiums, coupons and trading stamps 或有事项Contingency 或有负债 Contingent 或有损失 Loss contingencies 或有利得 Gain contingencies 永久性差异 Permanent difference 时间性差异 Timing difference 应付税款法 Taxes payable method 纳税影响会计法Tax effect accounting method 递延所得税负债法Deferred income tax liability method（9）长期负债长期负债 Long-term Liabilities 应付公司债券 Bonds payable 有担保品的公司债券Secured Bonds 抵押公司债券Mortgage Bonds 保证公司债券 Guaranteed Bonds 信用公司债券 Debenture Bonds 一次还本公司债券 Term Bonds 分期还本公司债券 Serial Bonds 可转换公司债券 Convertible Bonds 可赎回公司债券 Callable Bonds 可要求公司债券 Redeemable Bonds 记名公司债券 Registered Bonds 无记名公司债券 Coupon Bonds 普通公司债券 Ordinary Bonds 收益公司债券 Income Bonds 名义利率，票面利率 Nominal rate 实际利率Actual rate 有效利率 Effective rate 溢价 Premium 折价 Discount 面值Par value 直线法Straight-line method 实际利率法Effective interest method 到期直接偿付Repayment at maturity 提前偿付Repayment at advance 偿债基金 Sinking fund 长期应付票据 Long-term notes payable 抵押借款 Mortgage loan（10）业主权益权益Equity 业主权益 Owner's equity 股东权益 Stockholder's equity 投入资本 Contributed capital 缴入资本 Paid-in capital 股本Capital stock 资本公积 Capital surplus 留存收益 Retained earnings 核定股本 Authorized capital stock 实收资本 Issued capital stock 发行在外股本Outstanding capital stock 库藏股Treasury stock 普通股Common stock 优先股Preferred stock 累积优先股Cumulative preferred stock 非累积优先股 Noncumulative preferred stock 完全参加优先股Fully participating preferred stock 部分参加优先股Partially participating preferred stock 非部分参加优先股Nonpartially participating preferred stock 现金发行 Issuance for cash 非现金发行 Issuance for noncash consideration 股票的合并发行 Lump-sum sales of stock 发行成本 Issuance cost 成本法 Cost method 面值法 Par value method 捐赠资本 Donated capital 盈余分配Distribution of earnings 股利Dividend 股利政策Dividend policy 宣布日 Date of declaration 股权登记日 Date of record 除息日 Ex-dividend date 股利支付日 Date of payment 现金股利 Cash dividend 股票股利 Stock dividend 拨款 appropriation（11）财务报表财务报表 Financial Statement 资产负债表 Balance Sheet 收益表 Income Statement 帐户式 Account Form 报告式 Report Form 编制（报表）Prepare 工作底稿 Worksheet 多步式 Multi-step 单步式 Single-step（12）财务状况变动表财务状况变动表中的现金基础 SCFP.Cash Basis（现金流量表）财务状况变动表中的营运资金基础SCFP.Working Capital Basis （资金来源与运用表）营运资金Working Capital 全部资源概念 All-resources concept 直接交换业务Direct exchanges 正常营业活动Normal operating activities 财务活动 Financing activities 投资活动Investing activities（13）财务报表分析财务报表分析Analysis of financial statements 比较财务报表Comparative financial statements 趋势百分比 Trend percentage 比率 Ratios 普通股每股收益 Earnings per share of common stock 股利收益率 Dividend yield ratio 价益比 Price-earnings ratio 普通股每股帐面价值Book value per share of common stock 资本报酬率Return on investment 总资产报酬率 Return on total asset 债券收益率 Yield rate on bonds 已获利息倍数 Number of times interest earned 债券比率 Debt ratio 优先股收益率 Yield rate on preferred stock 营运资本Working Capital 周转Turnover 存货周转率Inventory turnover 应收帐款周转率 Accounts receivable turnover 流动比率 Current ratio 速动比率 Quick ratio 酸性试验比率 Acid test ratio（14）合并财务报表合并财务报表Consolidated financial statements 吸收合并Merger 创立合并 Consolidation 控股公司 Parent company 附属公司Subsidiary company 少数股权Minority interest 权益联营合并Pooling of interest 购买合并Combination by purchase 权益法Equity method 成本法 Cost method（15）物价变动中的会计计量物价变动之会计 Price-level changes accounting 一般物价水平会计 General price-level accounting 货币购买力会计 Purchasing-power accounting 统一币值会计 Constant dollar accounting 历史成本 Historical cost 现行价值会计 Current value accounting 现行成本Current cost 重置成本Replacement cost 物价指数Price-level index 国民生产总值物价指数 Gross national product implicit price deflator(or GNP deflator)消费物价指数Consumer price index(or CPI)批发物价指数Wholesale price index 货币性资产Monetary assets 货币性负债 Monetary liabilities 货币购买力损益 Purchasing-power gains or losses 资产持有损益 Holding gains or losses 未实现的资产持有损益 Unrealized holding gains or losses 现行价值与统一币值会计 Constant dollar and current cost accounting oracle的应用软件版本11提供了45个集成的软件模块。
会计专业财务会计中英文对照外文翻译文献
(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)中英文对照外文翻译附件：外文翻译译文战略财务会计在中小企业摘要：随着社会经济的发展和科学技术的进步,中国的企业在一个充满机会和危险的阶段。
介绍了安全会计的含义和意义战略财务会计中存在的问题,阐述了财务策略进行小中型企业一起,最后提出了一些对策和原因。
关键词：中小企业的战略财务会计、问题、对策一个企业的不确定性的金融环境其财务活动充满风险。
除了机会,有许多的危险从时间,以时间,其财务会计。
因此,它已经成为了成功的关键一个企业的财务会计是否能跟踪的趋势变化什么是有用的吸收。
应当拒绝接受什么是有害的。
战略会计思想是非常重要的在企业的财务会计,因为我们必须努力去分析和把握一般环境和发展一个企业的发展趋势,从而提高适应能力、可变性和适用性的金融中心会计不确定环境。
目前,中小企业在100年通过了工商登记、以企业总数的90%。
因此,其战略财务会计是特别重要的,这也是本论文的主题。
1 简介战略性的财务会计是财务会计理论,根据该融资应该的在最适当的方式进行,采集到的资本必须利用和会计的最有效的方式虽然企业和决策和利润分配应该最合理。
根据其内涵,总结三个主要内容的战略财务会计,包括融资策略,投资战略和利润分配决策策略。
详情如下:融资策略高度发达的现代企业具有的销售急剧增长。
当面对这样一种局势,企业倾向于有很大的要求从股票和应收账款是资本的提升。
更大的为销售增长的张力,但更大的资本要求。
因此,在融资策略都具有十分重要的意义战略会计财务。
融资策略的功能在于明确的指导方针融资、铺设融资目标下,建立整体规模、融资渠道和方法,安排战略资本结构优化方案,从各方面对此作了相应的对策,以达到融资目标,最后预测和收集的大量资金的企业的需要。
投资策略为核心的战略财务会计,这种策略决定一个企业只能分配它的首都资源合理而有效的方法。
投资策略包括确认投资固定资产的方向、公司规模和资本规模、投资选择相关的外部扩张或内部扩张,改革旧的产品或开发新的、独立或联合操作,自有资金投资决定或贷款之间的百分比固定资产、流动资产、投资策略和风险和那些在通货膨胀。
会计学毕业论文外文文献及翻译
LNTU---Acc附录A国际会计准则第 37 号或有负债和或有资产目的本准则的目的是确保将适当的确认标准和计量基础运用于准备、或有负债和或有资产，并确保在财务报表的附注中披露充分的信息，以使使用者能够理解它们的性质、时间和金额。
范围1．本准则适用于所有企业对以下各项之外的准备、或有负债和或有资产的会计核算：（1）以公允价值计量的金融工具形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产：（2）执行中的合同（除了亏损的执行中的合同）形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（3）保险公司与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（4）由其他国际会计准则规范的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
2．本准则适用于不是以公允价值计量的金融工具（包括担保）。
3．执行中的合同是指双方均未履行任何义务或双方均同等程度地履行了部分义务的合同。
本准则不适用于执行中的合同，除非它是亏损的。
4．本准则适用于保险公司的准备、或有负债和或有资产，但不适用于其与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产。
5．如果其他国际会计准则规范了特定的准备、或有负债和或有资产，企业应运用该准则而不是本准则，例如，关于以下项目的准则也规范了特定的准备：（1）建造合同（参见《国际会计准则第11号建造合同》）；（2）所得税（参见《国队会计准则第12号所得税》）；（3）租赁（参见《国际会计准则第17 号租赁》），但是，《国际会计准则第17 号》未对已变为亏损的经营租质的核算提出具体要求，因而本准则应适用于这些情况；（4）雇员福利（参见《国际会计准则第19号一雇员福利》）。
6．一些作为准备处理的金额可能与收入的确认有关，例如企业提供担保以收取费用，本准则不涉及收入确认，《国际会计准则第18 号收入》明确了收入确认标准，并就确认标准的应用提供了实务指南，本准则不改变《国际会计准则第18 号》的规定。
7．本准则将准备定义为时间或金额不确定的负债，在某些国家，“准备”也与一些项目相联系使用，例如折旧，资产减值和坏账：这些是对资产账面金额的调整，本准则不涉及。
韩德睿-会计102-外文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系：经济系专业：会计学姓名：韩德睿学号： 1005180222 外文出处：SME and Entrepreneurship Financing: The Roleof Credit Guarantee Schemes and Mutual Guarantee Societies in supporting finance for small and medium-sized enterprises附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文中小企业与创业融资：信用担保计划及互助担保社团在给予小型和中小型企业金融支持中的作用最终报告内容提要1.在许多国家，信用担保计划（CGSs）代表了一个解决中小企业融资缺口的重要政策工具，同时也缓解了公共财政的负担。
因为没有足够的担保抵押能力，有限或者空的信用记录，以及经常缺乏必要的专业知识去编制精细复杂的财务报表，中小企业和创业企业通常被限制获得信贷。
公司与潜在放贷人之间存在的信息不对称，意味着后者对借款者来说具有默认情况下的高风险属性，而且，在没有足够的抵押品的情况下，最终导致一个对信贷需求部分或否定的反应。
信用担保机制是一种常用的针对这种市场失灵情况的办法。
通过给予一部分所要求的贷款担保保护，CGS可以降低贷款人的风险，并且有利于向那些有信用约束的企业提供融资。
2.在一些经合组织国家，信用担保计划已经成为决策者在近来的金融危机中改善中小企业和企业家融资渠道的工具。
在一些非经合组织国家，信用担保制度也成为拓展信贷市场，改善金融包容性的机制，并迅速的发展起来。
公共担保工具的扩展，以及对私人担保计划的扶持，通过提供资金或共同担保，引发了对对监测和评估的更大需求。
同时，也有必要去区分从广泛使用的信用担保产生并成为他们的日常运作的反周期工具，进而成为金融体系的结构要素所带来的特定挑战。
3.目前的研究目的是通过几个方面的调查如所有制结构和资金，法律和监管框架，以及包括服务类型，资格标准，担保分配处理和信贷风险管理在内的计划的运作特点，来提高对信用担保的作用，影响和可持续性的认识。
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献
会计学财务报表中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文：中美财务报表的区别(1)财务报告内容构成上的区别1)美国的财务报告包括三个基本的财务报表，除此之外，典型的美国大公司财务报告还包括以下成分：股东权益、收益与综合收益、管理报告、独立审计报告、选取的5-10年数据的管理讨论与分析以及选取的季度数据。
2)我国财务报告不注重其解释，而美国在财务报告的内容、方法、多样性上都比较充分。
中国的评价部分包括会计报表和财务报表，财务报表是最主要的报表，它包括前述各项与账面不符的描述、财会政策与变化、财会评估的变化、会计差错等问题，资产负债表日期，关联方关系和交易活动等等，揭示方法是注意底部和旁注。
美国的财务范围在内容上比财务报表更加丰富，包括会计政策、技巧、添加特定项目的报告, 报告格式很难反映内容和商业环境等等，对违反一致性、可比性原则问题，评论也需要披露的，但也揭示了许多方面，比如旁注、底注、括号内、补充声明、时间表和信息分析报告。
(2)财务报表格式上的比较1)从资产负债表的格式来看，美国的资产负债表有账户类型和报告样式两项描述，而我国是使用固定的账户类型。
另外，我们的资产负债表在项目的使用上过于标准化，不能够很好的反映出特殊的商业项目或者不适用于特殊类型的企业。
而美国的资产负债表项目是多样化的，除此之外，财务会计准则也是建立在资产负债表中资产所有者投资和支出两项要素基础上的，这一点也是中国的财会准则中没有的。
2)从损益表格式的角度来看，美国采用的是多步式，损益表项目分为两部分，营业利润和非营业利润，但是意义不同。
我国的营业利润在范围上比美国的小，例如投资收益在美国是归类为营业利润的而在我国则不属于营业利润。
另外，我国的损益表项目较美国的更加规范和严格，美国校准损益表仅仅依赖于类别和项目。
报告收可以与销售收入及其他收入相联系，也可以和利息收益、租赁收入和单项投资收益相联系；在成本方面，并不是严格的划分为管理成本、财务成本、和市场成本，并且经常性销售费用、综合管理费用以及利息费用、净利息收益都要分别折旧。
会计学专业词汇英语翻译
会计学专业词汇英语翻译单纯顺序simple sequence单纯信托simple trust同时检证simultaneous verification单一预算single budget单一成本制single cost system单式簿记single entry bookkeeping独资single proprietorship，sole proprietorship 专用报表single purpose statement单账户制(指在制品帐) single-account system 单名票据single-name paper单站式损益表single-step income statement偿债基金资产sinking fund asset在线英语学习偿债基金债券sinking fund bond偿债基金费用sinking fund expense偿债基金收益sinking fund income偿债基金投资sinking fund investment 偿债基金需要sinking fund requirements偿债基金准备sinking fund reserve偿债基金受托人sinking fund trustee偿债基金，债务基金sinking fund，debt service fund 偿债基金折旧法sinking-fund method (of depreciation) 就地审计site audit骨干式账户，丁账户skeleton account偏斜度skewness位数移动slide传票制度slip system呆滞资产slow asset修匀smoothing社会会计，国民会计social accounting有偿债能力solvent，solvency稳妥价值sound value资金来源去路表，资金运用表source-and-disposition statement，source-and-uses statement，statement of application of funds地位费用space expense特赋special assessment特赋债券special assessment bond特赋基金special assessment fund特赋留置权special assessment liens应收特赋留置权special assessment liens receivable应收特赋special assessment receivable特赋清册special assessment roll特种审计，特别查帐special audit专栏special column多栏式特种日记帐special columnar journal特别意外准备special contingency reserve特种基金，专款special fund特种基金存款special fund deposit特别调查special investigation特种日记帐special journal特种分类帐，明细分类帐special ledger，subsidiary ledger 分批工作通知单special order，job order特别合伙人special partners特别所入基金special revenue fund专用财务报表special-purpose financial statement 特定特赋债券special-special assessment bond在线英语学习硬币specie特定成本specific cost指定遗赠specific legacy分批成本制specific order cost system，job order cost system 规范，规格specification规定成本，标准成本specification cost，standard cost投机者speculator析产分立(指公司) spin off多栏日记帐split column journal，analytical journal分割split off分离点split off point损坏spoilage损坏材料spoiled material坏料报单spoiled material report损坏工作spoiled work损坏工作报单spoiled work report损坏在制品spoiled work-in-process手存现金spot cash现货价格spot price现货销售spot sale摊记，毛利，佣金，进出价差，期货买卖spread 分录汇总分析表spread sheet稳定stability，stabilization稳定币值会计stabilized accounting稳定衡量单位stable measuring unit币值稳定单位stable unit内部查帐员，内部审核员staff auditor，internal auditor 印花税stamp tax标准standard标准成本standard cost标准成本单standard cost sheet标准成本制standard cost system标准减项standard deduction标准差standard deviation标准误standard error估计标准误standard error of estimate标准工作时数standard hours worked 标准分批成本单standard job cost sheet 标准人工standard labor标准工资率standard labor rate标准人工时间standard labor time标准机器时间standard machine time 在线英语学习标准材料standard material标准方法standard method标准操作standard operation标准准备时数standard preparation hours标准价格standard price标准价格法(指领料计价) standard price method标准分步成本单standard process cost sheet标准利益standard profit标准购价standard purchase price标准比率standard ratios标准批量，经济批量standard run quantity，economic lot size 标准单位率standard unit rate标准值(统计质量控制) standard value标准工资率standard wage rate标准化会计standardized accounting标准化间接费率standardized burden rate固定成本standby cost，fixed cost应急设备standby equipment余股包购standby underwriting经常成本，固定成本standing cost，fixed cost经常费用单standing expense order，standing order 主要货品，存料，纤维staple筹备成本，开办费starting-load cost设定资本，法定资本stated capital账面负债stated liabilities设定股值stated value报表，结单statement报表分析statement analysis报告式statement form，report form 应付帐款清单statement from creditors。
会计外文译文(中文)
XX内部控制制度与公司治理的实证研究1.简介2005年至2006年间，意大利见证了引进“公司治理”概念之后的重要变化，特别是上市公司。
事实上，继1998年改革（“综合金融法”）和2003年（公司法改革），法案262，以及所谓的“储蓄保护法”之后的法律于2005 年批准通过。
就自律而言，由于在意大利证券交易所主导下，大型上市公司，金融机构和相关的同行业公会以及专家等代表组成的委员会发布修订了的“自我法案”，2006 年代表着一个关键阶段。
通过实证调查，本研究准备探讨意大利公司内部控制制度工作和三个主要专业负责人员（即内部审计师，法定审计和外部审计）作用需要改进的主要的限制和领域。
实现这些目标所使用的方法可归纳如下（详细方法见第3 部分）：第一，为验证内部控制和风险管理主题如何被相关活动的主要类别认识到，进行了一些采访（采访所谓的“四巨头”的合作伙伴，首席内部审计师和法定审计师委员会主席）。
第二，制定了一些研究假设。
第三，准备调查问卷并邮寄给上文提及的三类审计师（内部审计师，法定审计师，外聘审计师）。
根据问卷调查的结果，这些假设得到验证或被证实是错误的。
上文提到的法律262 /05的第14，15和30部分，在关于起草公司财务报告的责任方面，提出重要变化；更确切地说，它指的是个人层面的权力和责任（制裁的可能性与之相连），这些能在美国萨班斯法案的主要原则中找到借鉴。
特别是，如果根据操作的独立性和客观性方面的国际标准进行实施，内部审计（内审）活动将变成一个借鉴美国经验的重要保障因素：就公司信誉而言，保证高层管理人员以及不同的利益相关者双方的积极回报（澳大利亚信息产业协会，2006；佩恩，2006；阿克哈法吉，2007；肯切尔，2007）。
法律262 /05 生效后，期望其影响在意大利将实现（至少部分）是十分合理的。
这种说法在一些意大利文献结论中得到支持（马拉古齐，2007；科尔提斯和泰塔曼吉，2007）。
大学中各学院的英文翻译
在行政职务中，assitant指“助手”，可译作“副”或“助理”，即正职的主要助手，如：部长助理——assistant minister, 副司令员——assistant commander,公司副经理——assistant manager,副校长（中小学）——assistant headmaster;在技术职称中，assistant指“助理”，如助理工程师——assistant engineer,助理农艺师——assistant agronomist,助理会计师——assistant accountant,助理巡视员——assistant counsel。
deputy与director, chief, head secretary, dean, mayor搭配；
sub-与commissioner, dean, head, chief, editor, master, chairman, principal搭配。
一些不符合英语习惯的搭配要防止，如：vice-professor, vice-director, vice-manager, vice-mayor, vice-mayor, vice-editor-in-chief.
大学里的副教授一般用associate professor,不用vice-professor或deputy professor,同样的例子如：副研究员——associate research fellow,副主编——associate editor,副审判长——associate chief judge,学院的副院长、大学的副教务长——associate dean。
◆ School of Mines矿院
◆ School of Safety Engineeranics & Civil Engineering力建
关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)
The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。
会计专业毕业论文外文文献翻译.
密级：绝密外文翻译THESIS OF BACHELOR题目：浅析商业银行会计风险控制存在的问题及对策英文题目: Analysis of Commercial Bank Accounting Risk Control Problems and Countermeasures 学院: 系别:专业:班级:学生姓名:学号：指导老师:起讫日期:我国商业银行会计风险成因及防范对策历史资料表明:导致许多国家20世纪以来先后爆发银行危机的主要原因是未能妥善解决银行风险问题。
长期以来,这一问题也困扰着我国，成为威胁我国国民经济持续、健康发展的重大隐患。
几年来国家采取了一系列必要措施：从1994至1995年给银行业立法，1996年后加强金融审慎性监管，1998年为四大银行补充2700亿元资本金,1999年成立资产管理公司并剥离五大行的1。
4万亿元不良资产，2000年以后国务院严令各行降低不良资产率，等等。
但这些措施均没有触及体制不合理这个根本问题，因而无法从根本上控制银行风险增量,提高银行经营绩效。
目前，我国银行潜伏的高风险日益暴露出来.面临2006年银行业全面开放后外资金融机构进入所带来的竞争和挑战,本届政府下决心彻底改革国有银行的体制,去年末央行动用外汇储备向中国银行、中国建设银行注资450亿美元，充实其资本金，使之达到《巴塞尔协议》规定的8%的资本充足率,推动国有银行股份制改革和最终上市，从根本上解决国有银行风险的增量问题。
因此，研究中国银行风险的特点、特殊的制度成因，股份制改革和公司治理结构建立这些被称为治本措施的一系列政策问题，具有重要的理论和现实意义。
本文第一章首先阐述了我国银行风险的表现形式.其中银行信用风险特别是国有商业银行资产信贷质量问题，成为当前最为突出的金融风险；国有商业银行的流动性风险虽未显现（暂时被居民的高储蓄率所掩盖），但潜在的支付困难因素日益增多；财务风险主要表现在国有商业银行资本金严重不足和经营利润虚盈实亏两方面；此外我国银行还存在着较为严重的利率汇率风险、市场风险、犯罪风险。
会计专业外文文献翻译原文及译文
企业的社会责任：一种趋势和运动，但社会责任是什么，是为了什么？1企业社会责任（CSR ）已成为一个全球趋势，涉及企业，国家，国际组织和民间社会组织。
但这远远不能清楚CSR的主张，有什么真正的趋势，是从哪里开始，在哪里发展，谁是项目的主要行动者。
如果把它作为一种社会运动，我们必须要问：什么运动和谁执行？讨论有助于我们反思形成的趋势和如何管理某些特点来迅速和广泛地在全球各地进行扩展，并增加了以下体制变革,特别是对变化中国家之间、企业法人和民间社会组织关系之间的界限的作用。
企业社会责任的趋势在三个方面：作为一个管理框架，新的要求，地方企业;作为动员企业行为，以协助国家的发展援助;和作为管理趋势。
每一个这些画像表明，中心的某些行为，关系，驾驭团队和利益。
我的例子表明，没有人对这些意见似乎比别人更准确，而是，活动包括规范的不同利益、作用因素、起源和轨迹。
这些多重身份的趋势可以部分描述其成功以及它的争论，脆弱性和流动性。
许多公司现在有具体的计划和小节在其网站上处理企业社会责任。
在过去，软条例和指导网络，国际公认的规则一直是一种重要机制，作用在公司、国家和国家间组织的需求，例如，发布指导方针和条例的公司。
在这背景下，国际组织仍然是重要的行动者，他们正在寻求与跨国公司进行对话，而不是试图通过国家控制企业社会责任。
各国际组织不是对企业的社会责任监管机构;而他们却是监管和自我约束的倡议之间的经纪人的最合适人选。
对社会负责行为和监测这些行为的需求越来越多地以国家以外的这些组织为渠道，并强调赞成高比例的自律。
因此，我们看到了软法律(Morth, 2004)的出现，或者是Knill 和Lehmkuhl (2002) 所说的“被规管的自律”，和Moran (2002)所归纳的“精细”或“非正式”规章。
我更喜欢“软法律”和“软规章”的说法，因为他们并不总是非正式的。
软规章常常包括正式报告和统筹程序。
还有，从统筹和行政的观点来看，那些规章和精细还是相去甚远的。
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本科毕业论文外文翻译题目：民间融资存在的问题及其对策分析原文题目：《正规与非正规金融：来自中国的证据》作者：Meghana Ayyagari，Asli Demirguc-kunt，Vojislav Maksimovic 原文出处：世界银行发展研究组财政与私营部门政策研究工作文件，2008正规与非正规金融：来自中国的证据中国在财务结果与经济增长的反例中是被经常提及的，因为它的银行体系存在很大的弱点，但它却是发展最快的全球经济体之一。
在中国，私营部门依据其筹资治理机制，促进公司的快速增长，以及促进中国的发展。
本文以一个企业的融资模式和使用2400份的中国企业数据库资料，以及一个相对较小的公司在利用非正式资金来源的样本比例，得出其是更大依赖正式的银行融资。
尽管中国的银行存在较大的弱点，但正规融资金融体系关系企业快速成长，而从其他渠道融资则不是。
通过使用选择模型我们发现，没有证据证明这些成果的产生是因为选择的公司已进入正规金融体系。
虽然公司公布银行贪污，但没有证据表明它严重影响了信贷分配或公司的业绩获得。
金融的发展与更快的增长已证明和改善资源配置有关。
尽管研究的重点一直是正式的金融机构，但也认识到非正式金融系统的存在和其发挥的巨大作用，特别是在发展中国家。
虽然占主导地位的观点是，非正规金融机构发挥辅助作用，提供低端市场的服务，通常无抵押，短期贷款只限于农村地区，农业承包合同，家庭，个人或小企业的贷款筹资。
非正规金融机构依靠关系和声誉，可以有效地监督和执行还款。
可是非正规金融系统不能取代正规金融，这是因为他们的监督和执行机制不能适应金融体系高端的规模需要。
最近，有研究强调非正式融资渠道发挥了关键的作用，甚至在发达市场。
圭索，萨皮恩扎和津加莱斯（2004）表明，非正式资本影响整个意大利不同地区的金融发展水平。
戈麦斯（2000）调查为什么一些股东在新股投资恶劣的环境下，仍保护投资者的权利，并得出结论，控股股东承诺不征用股本，是因为担心他们的声誉。
Garmaise和莫斯科维茨（2003）显示，即使在美国，非正式金融在融资方面也发挥了重要的作用。
举一个商业房地产作为例子，市场经纪人，他们主要是为客户提供服务，以获得资金，这和证券经纪和银行开发具有非正式网络有某些类似情况。
上述的研究表明，存在正规系统的同时，非正规系统也发挥了重要的作用。
在中国，一些私有企业，尽管所受的法律保护和资金获得比国有及上市部门的公司少，但却是增长最快的，因为它们有效的集资和治理手段。
艾伦钱（2005）进一步表明，中国可能是一个重要的反榜样，中国公司的发展依靠对正规系统的重点发展，而不是通过正式的外部融资方式获得融资。
我们使用2400份中国企业一级调查数据，来探讨在中国的非正规金融体系。
非正规部门是具有高增长和利润再投资的，作为对正规金融体系的替代物，不正规部门主要服务于低端市场？为了回答这个问题，我们首先调查是否是因为中国企业融资模式的不同，下一步，我们将探讨其融资方式，正式和非正式的，全国各个城市和地区不同类型的企业。
然后我们研究金融和银行如何从非正式渠道筹集资金，公司的销售增长情况，生产力增长和利润再投资情况。
为解决这些问题，我们使用一个新的数据源。
2003年，由世界银行牵头的一家大公司进行水平调查，选择对中国18个不同城市的公司融资信息进行调查。
其中主要调查的范围是中小型企业。
因此，除了融资资金来源于商业银行外，调查资料还包括小企业的非正式资金来源，如放债人，如贸易信贷和非正式的银行资融或其他融资来源。
我们发现，样本的20％融资来自银行，比如印度，印度尼西亚，巴西，孟加拉国，尼日利亚和俄罗斯联邦。
然而，破裂的非银行资金来源存在较大差异。
相对于其他国家，在中国，我们的样本企业依靠大量非正规部门和其他融资渠道获得资金，这些资金来源很可能是大型地下贷款。
在企业层面，我们发现，在中国银行融资，大公司的融资模式，存在异质性。
样本中的公司来自中国五个不同的地区：沿海，西南，中部，西北和东北。
此次融资模式显示，最大的银行融资额（23.3％）和西南地区（26％在沿海）有一个利于正式融资的投资环境。
我们发现，企业使用正规的银行融资提供经费的增长速度比从其他渠道要快。
我们的研究结果认为，即使我们排除注册公司，上市公司或国有企业，仅看私人样本的公司，它们是中国最快的经济增长公司。
我们发现该公司的资金来自正规银行融资的再投资率较高，其生产率的增长至少等同于从非正规银行融资来源。
本文的结果不依赖于建立因果关系，即使增长最快的企业是通过正规银行集资，因为通过显示性偏好，我们知道非正式金融为企业的快速增长提供了重要作用。
然而，我们使用了其他规格，工具变量估计和匹配的估计，测试结果为，企业获得银行贷款增长低于同类企业依靠非正式的融资或其他来源。
我们发现，控制了内生性的银行融资决策，银行融资是较高的销售增长，利润再投资。
银行分配在银行和控制政府官员腐败上有重要的作用，帮助获取贷款的选择模式增强了银行对企业融资的影响性能。
当我们估计匹配的模式时，我们再次发现，有条件的，例如大小，公司经营时间，法律地位，所有权和城市定位，银行融资公司更比非银行融资的企业，其再投资增长更快。
从非正规来源依靠外部融资，我们还直接比较的公司的报告，银行贷款，性能。
企业依赖非正式的外部融资，利润再投资率的增长速度较低或高于银行融资的企业生产率的增长。
只有在非正式融资时，包括内部融资，是非正式提高劳动生产率的增长和再融资相关的（但不高于增长）。
虽然我们研究了大多数的企业获得银行贷款的增长速度，但我们仍找到一个公司。
该公司的报告显示，政府帮助有助于争取银行贷款。
大约16％的样本公司，并没有显示获得银行贷款，会在增长，再投资或生产力方面有所改善。
然而，这些结果并不适用于中国的金融。
总的来说，我们的研究结果表明，即使是中国这样一个快速发展的经济体，正规金融系统提供了私营部门一个小部分，使得私营部门快速增长。
我们发现，没有证据表明融资渠道的选择都与更高的增长有关。
虽然我们有一些证据表明，非正规金融可以帮助小型企业，但我们发现，所有不论大小公司，从正规金融更能获得好处。
非正规融资对治理和支持私营公司的增长机制可能是有限的，不可能代替正式机制。
Formal versus Informal Finance:Evidence fromChinaMeghana Ayyagari，Asli Demirguc-kunt，Vojislav Maksimovic The World Bank Development Research GroupFinance and Private Sector TeamPolicy Research Working Paper，2008China is often mentioned as a counterexample to the findings in the finance and growth literature since, despite the weaknesses in its banking system, it is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. The fast growth of Chinese private sector firms is taken as evidence that it is alternative financing and governance mechanisms that support China's growth. This paper takes a closer look at firm financing patterns and growth using a database of 2,400 Chinese firms. The authors find that a relatively small percentage of firms in the sample utilize formal bank finance with a much greater reliance on informal sources. However, the results suggest that despite its weaknesses, financing from the formal financial system is associated with faster firm growth, whereas fund raising from alternative channels is not. Using a selection model, the authors find no evidence that these results arise because of the selection of firms that have access to the formal financial system. Although firms report bank corruption, there is no evidence that it significantly affects the allocation of credit or the performance of firms that receive the credit. The findings suggest that the role of reputation and relationship based financing and governance mechanisms in financing the fastest growing firms in China is likely to be overestimated.Financial development has been shown to be associated with faster growth and improved allocative efficiency.While the research focus has been on formal financial institutions, the literature has recognized the existence and role played by informal financial systems, especially indeveloping economies.The dominant view is that informal financial institutions play a complementary role to the formal financial system by servicing the lower end of the market，informal financing typically consists of small,unsecured, short term loans restricted to rural areas, agricultural contracts, households,individuals or small entrepreneurial ventures. Informal financial institutions rely on relationships and reputation and can more efficiently monitor and enforce repayment from a class of firms than commercial banks and similar formal financial institutions can.According to this view however, informal financial systems cannot substitute for formal financial systems because their monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are ill-equipped to scale up and meet the needs of the higher end of the market.Recently, studies have emphasized the critical role played by informal networks and financial channels even in developed markets. Guiso, Sapienza and Zingales (2004) show that social capital affects the level of financial development acrossdifferent regions of Italy and is particularly important when legal enforcement is weaker and among less educated people who have limited understanding of contracting mechanisms. Gomes (2000) investigates why minority shareholders invest in IPOs in environments with poor investor protection rights and concludes that controlling shareholders commit implicitly not to expropriate them because of reputation concerns.Garmaise and Moskowitz (2003) show that even in the United States, informal networks play an important role in controlling access to finance. Using the commercial real estate market as an example they show that brokers serve an important role in providing clients access to finance and that brokers and banks develop informal networks that have a significant effect on availability of finance. While the above work shows the existence of informal networks alongside formal systems, a controversial extension of this literature has been recent work by Allen, Qian, and Qian (2005), suggest that China may be an important counter-example to the law and finance literature's focus on formal systems since the fastest growing Chinese firms rely on alternative financing channels rather than formal external finance.In this paper, we use detailed firm level survey data on 2400 firms in China to investigate which of the two views are consistent with the operation of the informal sector in China. Is the informal sector associated with high growth and profit reinvestment and serve as a substitute to the formal financial system or does the informal sector primarily serve the lower end of the market? To answer this question, we first investigate whether Chinese firms' financing patterns are different when compared to those of similar firms in other countries that have been the focus of the prior literature. Next, we explore how the financing patterns, both formal and informal, vary across different types of firms across cities and regions. We then study how bank finance and financing from informal sources are associated with firm sales growth, productivity growth and profit reinvestment.We address these issues using a new data source, the Investment Climate Survey6, a major firm level survey conducted in China in 2003 and led by the World Bank. The survey has information on financing choices for firms across 18 different cities. One of the strengths of the survey is its coverage of small and medium enterprises. Hence, in addition to information on commercial financing sources such as bank finance, the survey also includes information on sources of financing that are associated with small firm finance such as trade credit and finance from informal sources such as a money lender or an informal bank or other financing sources.Finance such as trade credit and finance from informal sources such as a money lender or an informal bank or other financing sources.We find that 20% of firm financing in our sample is sourced from banks, which is comparable to the use of bank financing in other developing countries such as India,Indonesia, Brazil, Bangladesh, Nigeria and the Russian Federation. However, the breakdown of non-bank financing sources shows greater differences.At the firm level, we find that bank financing is more prevalent with larger firms as expected.7 We also find substantial firm level heterogeneity in financing patterns within China. The firms in the sample come from five different regions of China: Coastal, Southwest, Central, Northwest, and Northeast. The financing patterns show that the largest amount of bank financing is in the Coastal (23.3%) and Southwest regions (26%)that have an investment climate that facilitates access to formal sources of external finance.We find that firms using formal bank finance grow faster than those financed from alternative channels. Our results hold even when we exclude firms registered as publicly traded companies or state owned companies and look at a sample of just private sector firms, which are the fastest growing firms in the Chinese economy. We also find that firms financed by formal bank finance experience higher reinvestment rates, and productivity growth at least equal to that of firms financed from non-bank sources. This suggests that the growth financed by banks is not inefficient growth.The paper's results do not rely on establishing causality since even if it were the case that fastest growing firms are bank financed, then by revealed preference we know that at the margin banks are a better alternative to informal finance for fast growing firms.However, we use a full battery of alternative specifications, a selection model,instrumental variables estimators and a matching estimator, to empirically test for the possibility that firms that obtain bank loans grow less fast than similar firms that rely on informal or other sources of financing. We find that, controlling for the endogeneity of the bank financing decision, bank finance is associated with higher sales growth and profit reinvestment. Controlling for perceived imperfections in the allocation of bank loans such as corruption among bank officers andimportance of government help in obtaining loans in the selection models strengthens the effect of bank financing on firm performance. When we estimate a matching model, again we find that conditional on firm characteristics such as size, age, legal status, ownership and city location, bank financed firms grow faster and reinvest more compared to non-bank financed firms.We also directly compare the performance of firms which report bank loans with that of firms that rely on external financing from informal sources. Firms which rely on informal external financing have lower profit reinvestment rates and do not grow faster or have higher productivity growth than firms that are bank financed. Only when informal financing is defined, to include internal financing, is informal financing associated with higher productivity growth and reinvestment.While we find the majority of firms that receive bank loans grow faster as a result,we do find a subpopulation of firms that do not. Firms that report that government help was instrumental in obtaining a bank loan, about 16% of the sample, do not show improvements in growth, reinvestment or productivity. However, these results do not make China an exception to the growth and finance literature.Overall, our results suggest that even in fast growing economies like China where the formal financial system serves a small portion of the private sector, external finance from the formal financial system is associated with faster growth and higher profit reinvestment rates for those firms that receive it. We find no evidence that alternative financing channels are associated with higher growth. While we have some limited evidence that informal finance might help the smallest micro sized firms, we find that all firms irrespective of size, benefit from access to formal finance. Our findings suggest that the role of reputation and relationship based informal financing and governance mechanisms in supporting the growth of private sector firms is likely to be limited and unlikely to substitute for formal mechanisms.。