Linguistics语言学归纳

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语言学知识点概括

语言学知识点概括Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rul es of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学 Linguistics笔记

---------------------------------------------------------------最新资料推荐------------------------------------------------------语言学Linguistics笔记Chapter one Introduction 一、定义 1.语言学 Linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2.普通语言学General Linguistics The study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics. 3.语言 language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design Features It refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness 任意性 Productivity 多产性 Duality 双重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission 文化传递⑴arbitrariness There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions ⑵Productivity Animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶Duality Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. ⑷Displacemen t Language can be used1/ 38to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. ⑸Cultural transmission Human capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species. 5.语言能力 Competence Competence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. 6.语言运用 performance Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语言学复习重点

语言学复习重点文件排版存档编号：[UYTR-OUPT28-KBNTL98-UYNN208]C h a p t e r1绪论1. What is linguistics 什么是语言学Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2. The scope of linguistics 语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology.（形态学）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学）and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3. Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay downrules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is adiachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There arestill many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes whatlinguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.is language 语言的定义Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Sapir uses “ideas” “emotions” and “desires” in his definition. Hall, like Sapir, treats language as a purely human institution. Chomsky’s definition is quite different, it focus on the purely structural properties of languages and to suggest that these properties can be investigated from a mathematically precise point of view.5. Design features 语言的甄别性特征Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.Arbitrariness 语言的随意性Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. It is not entirely arbitrary.Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity 语言的创造性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.Duality 语言的二重性The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meaning.Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis, ., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1. The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Speech and writing are the two media used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech ismore basic than writing. Speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises.For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing.The limited ranges of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language (语言的声音媒介) . The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds （语音）.2．What is phonetics什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。

Linguistics语言学归纳(可编辑修改word版)

Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balcony Balloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-license Undertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。

英语语言学知识整理1

Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题：How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language?→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)问题: What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?→phonetics（语音学）→the study of sounds→phonology（音位学）→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology（形态学）→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax（句法学）→the study of rules of forming sentences →semantics（语义学）→the study of meaning→pragmatics（语用学）→ the context of language use Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics（语言心理学）：Relate the study of language to psychologyApplied linguistics（应用语言学）：In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive（规定性）/descriptive（描写性）②synchronic（共时）/diachronic（历时）③speech（口语）/writing（书面语）④langue（语言）/parole（言语）（the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure ——Course in General Linguistics）⑤competence（语言能力）/performance（语言应用）（the American linguist N. Chomsky）⑥traditional grammar （传统语法）/modern linguistics（现代语言学）问题：in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题：Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?In modern linguistics, a synchronic (不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的) approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic (探求现象变化的, 历时的) one.Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题：For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writing?From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented”by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised”record of speech. And linguists’data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Design features of language（7个识别特征）①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization and abstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language：三大主要功能：The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson（6种首要因素，结构主义语言学家）①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使（权力）功能M.A.K. Halliday①ideational②interpersonal（indicate/establish/maintain/social relationships）③textual问题：How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?The distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, i.e., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题：What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?①arbitrariness 任意性（at the syntactic level）②productivity 能产性，创造性Secondary units（底层结构 sounds）③duality 双层性Primary units （上层结构 units of meaning）④displacement 不受时空限制性（handle generalization andabstraction）⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: （语音学）①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves →acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocalcords⒊the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palate(velum)/hard palate/teeth ridge(alveolus)/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription（宽式标音）→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription（严式标音）→the transcription withletter-symbols together withthe diacriticsClassification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms ofmanner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⑤Classification of English vowels⒈criteria :（monophthongs）单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/back The openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-closevowels/semi-openvowels/open vowels The shape of the lips: unrounded/roundedThe length of the vowels: tense/lax⒉diphthongs 双元音/ ei // ai // au // əu // ɔi // iə //εə// uə /Phonology 音韵学，语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a languageform patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.Phone（音素）: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. Phoneme（音位）: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone（音位变体）: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.Phonemic contrast（音位对立）Complementary distribution（音位变体的互补分布）Minimal pairs（最小对立体）：含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set（最小对立集）：is used to find the important sounds in language.Phonological Analysis（音位分析）Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule.Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l // r // w /②assimilation rule:同化规则③deletion rule：省略规则Suprasegmental features 超音段特征≠超音段（比音位更大的语言单位）①stress（单词，句子层面）：the location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Syllable音节：A syllable nucleus (often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (often consonants)单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中，单词由音节构成，音节由音位构成。

语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language peopleactually use, it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard”behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say andwhat they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily,the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possiblethe construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units ofthe primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in asociety.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certainactions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of thespeaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions toestablish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it isconcerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols togetherwith diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems oflanguages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. Butthey differ in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in allhuman languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produceduring linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit,not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that isconcerned with word formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; egself-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic formand what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significancesuggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words andphrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated withthe form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked atfrom this point of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The.word可编辑.approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.. 专业.专注.。

Linguistics知识点总结

第一章Language figures centrally in our livesWe discover our identity as individuals and social beings when we acquire a language during childhoodLanguage serves as a means of cognition and communicationLanguage provides for present needs and future plans,and at the same time carries with it the impression of things past _WiddowsonFuctions of language recognized by ancient peopleTo achieve sth by giving order；To praise the almighty；To challenge the heavenLanguage is the system of human communication which consists of the structured arrangement of sounds into larger units.e.g.morphemes,words,sentences,utterancesLanguages are particular systems of human communication,e.g.the French language,the Hindi languageLinguistics---the scientific study of language or of particular languagesV arieties of language：Dialect,accent,sociolect,temporal dialect,register,idiolect,standard dialect2Attitudes:Prescriptive=there’s a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. PlatoDescriptive=knowledge of language was arrived at by convention and agreement of the speakers of a given language. AristotleLanguage as an entityNativism,Mentalism=there is a biological,physiological entity inside our brain which decides that we speak Behaviorism,Empiricism=our brain was blank when we were. Language is a social,empirical entity.3 adequacies: Observational,DescriptiveExplanatoryThe principal organs of articulation第三章Micro-Applied linguistics=the study of second and foreign language learning and teachingPhonetics is the science of speech sounds, which aims to provide the set of features or properties that can be used to describe and distinguish all the sounds used in human语音学Phonetics is divided into 3 sub-fields:发音语音学Articulatory phonetics studies speech production by the speech organs;声学语音学Acoustic phonetics studies physical properties of speech sounds;听觉语音学Auditory phonetics studies the perception of speech sounds in the human auditory and cognitive system. Phoneme: the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish meaning (or two words).两类•Free morphemes: those which can occur on their own as separate words, e.g.luck•Bound morphemes: those which cannot occur on their own as separate w ords, e.g.-y ◊ lucky; -s ◊ books; re- ◊retellAllophones：allophones in complementary distribution;allophones in free variation.音位变体，互补，自由。

《语言学导论》重点整理

《语⾔学导论》重点整理1 .An Introduction to Linguistics and language1. What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It endeavors to answer the question--what is language and how is represented in the mind? Linguists focus on describing and explaining language and are not concerned with the prescriptive rules of the language.2. Basic criteria for doing Linguistics1. Objectivity2. Explicitness3. Rigorousness4. Adequacy3. The Scope of Linguistics(1)General Linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the study of sounds in linguistic communicationPhonology: the study of the sound patterns of language. It is concerned with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology : the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.4. The Scope of Linguistics (2): Syntax the study of sentence structure. It attempts to describe what is grammatical in a particular language in term of rules Semantics: the study of meaning.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in contextSociolinguistics: the study of social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholingustics:the study of language with relation to psychologyApplied linguistics: the study of applications of linguistics.5. Some distinctions in linguisticsPrescriptive vs.descriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicSpeech and writingLangue and paroleCompetence and performanceTraditional grammar and modern linguistics(linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards spoken language as primary, not the written; modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in that it does not force language into a Latin-based framework.)6. What is language?Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. ? Walt Whitman7. The definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication8. Design features (Properties)Arbitrariness: vast majority of linguistic expressions are arbitraryProductivity: creativity or open-endednessDuality: double articulation(sounds and meanings)Displacement: eg. Santa Claus, Superman, dragonCultural transmission: meme, memics(Discreteness:the sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. Eg. pack, back)9. AssignmentsComment on the definition of language.Summarize the design features of language.What is your understanding of synchronic study of language2.Chapter 2 Phonetics and phonology1. Phonetics: the sounds of languageThree branches of phoneticsArticulatory Phonetics发⾳语⾳学: the production of speech sounds.Auditory Phonetics听觉语⾳学: the study of the perception of speech soundsAcoustic Phonetics声学语⾳学: the study of the physical production and transmission of speech sounds.2. Organs of speech: 1.The pharyngeal cavity喉腔2.The oral cavity⼝腔3.The nasal cavity⿐腔3. Two kinds of transcriptionBroad transcription宽式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbolsNarrow transcription窄式标⾳: transcription with letter-symbols and the diacritics4. Classification of English consonants5. Classification of English vowels6. Phonology : the sound patterns of languageDifference Phone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair7. Phones, phonemes, and allophonesPhonology is the study of sound patterns of language( i.e. how sounds are arranged to form meaningful units) and the function of each sound. It reveals what are the possible combinations of sounds in a language and explains why certain words take the form they do.8. Phone ⾳素phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speechi) phonetic unit ii) not distinctive of meaning iii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ]9. Phoneme ⾳位the minimal unit in the sound system of a language. With phonemes, we establish the patterns of organization within the infinitely large number of sounds. Each language can be shown to operate with a relatively small number of phonemes (15-80). No two languages have the same phonemic system.10. Phoneme ⾳位i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaning iii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /.11.Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different; 3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment. Minimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc.11. Allophone ⾳位变体: phonic variants/realizations of a phoneme12. Phonological rules:Phonological patterning is rule-governed. [blik] and [kilb], though not found in English, can be possible combinations, while [kbil] or [lkib] cannot. Sequential rules are those that account for the combination of sounds in a particular language. They are language-specific, as in thefollowing cases:* [tlait] [iltrit]13.Sequential ruleIf three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should follow the order/sequence below:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/, /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /l/, /r/, or /w/. spring, string, squirrel, split, screen14. Assimilation ruleA sound may change by assimilating/copying a feature of a sequential/neighboring sound, e.g. impossible, irresistible, illegal [in-]Question: What other examples?sink /since pan cake sun glasses five past seven has to15. Deletion ruleA sound may be deleted even though it may be orthographically represented.16.Stress, tone, and intonationSuprasegmental （超切分）phonology Suprasegmental phonemes:stress, tone and intonation17.Stress重⾳Word stress/sentence stress Primary stress/secondary stressStress of compounds: ‵blackbird / black ‵bird; ‵greenhouse / green ‵ houseSentence stress: Depending on the relative importance of the words; contrastive stress18. Tone (声调）Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies, which are termed as different pitches. Pitch variations are distinctive of meaning.In some languages like Chinese, pitch variations are called tones. Languages using tones are tone languages.19. Intonation（语调）When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence, they combine to become known as intonation.Three major types of English intonation: a. falling tone/tune b. rising tone/tune c. fall-rise tone/tune20. Assignments:Difference between phonetics and phonologyPhone, phoneme, allophonePhonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair3. Morphology（词法）1. Morphology is the study of word formation and structure. It studies how words are put together from their smaller parts and the rules governing this process.2. Two kinds of words1. Open class words: content words .e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs2. Closed class words: grammatical words or functional words. E.g. conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns Words can be related to other words, e.g. "happy" — "unhappy".The rules that relate such sets of words are called Word Formation Rules. Thus, the morphology containsfundamental elements – morphemes rules of combination -- Word Formation Rules4. MorphemesThe elements that are combining to form words are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning you can have in a language.we know three things about every morpheme:1. its meaning2. its form (the sounds that make it up)3. a rule of combination (put it before/after/inside the stem)5. A case: Unhappy Happier unhappier6. Bound and Free Morphemes" In the word doors" there are two morphemes: "door" and "-s".The morpheme "door" can be used by itself, so it is called a FREE morpheme.But the morpheme "s" cannot be used by itself: ? "How many doors did you shut?" "More than one." OK "s" Not OK Therefore, "-s" is called a BOUND morpheme.7. AffixesMorphemes added to free forms to make other free forms are called affixes. There are four principle kinds of affixes:1. prefixes (at beginning) — "un-" in "unable"2. suffixes (at end) — "-ed" in "walked"3. circumfixes (at both ends) — "en--en" in "enlighten" (These always seem to consist ofotherwise attested independent prefixes and suffixes.)4. infixes (in the middle) -- "-bloody-" in "inbloody- credible"8.Derivational morphemesDerivational morphemes may or may not change the category, or grammatical class of words.E.g. Noun--- Adjective affection + ate alcohol+ ic9. Inflectional MorphologyMorphology that interacts with syntax (sentence structure) is called INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY Some examples are: ? person? number? gender ? noun class ? case ? tenseInflectional morphemes never change the category. Inflectional morphemes do not change the "core" meaning of the word. Inflectional morphemes usually occur "outside" derivational ones. 10. A Rule for Forming some English Words 11. Compounds12. Other ways of Forming Words13. Word-formation:the creation of new words on the basis of existing structural devices in the language derivation compounding derivational affixation clipping, abbreviation, acronyms conversion* affixation * coinage: Ford, Kodak* compounding/composition: hot-line, keep-fit* conversion /functional shift : knee, cool, trigger, brake* derivation: alcoholic, affectionate* back-formation:edit, babysit, massproduce, laze* blending: smog, motel, globesity* shortening (clipped words, acronym) * borrowing: tea, algebra15. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? Lab OED16. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?lab babysit (from: babysitter)17. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ? institution-al skin-deep18. Compare the following derived words: in how far do they differ?to strength-en to house (e.g. this building houses 500 families)19. AssignmentsDistinguish the following terms: Open class words and closed class wordsBound morpheme and free morphemeInflectional morpheme and derivational morpheme List some rules of word formation 4. syntax1. Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. Syntactic rulesHow do we COMBINE WORDS to make SENTENCES? Syntax uses trees (just as in morphology) but the trees are built on WORDS instead of morphemes. Words are the fundamental units of sentences. The laws of combination for words are the syntactic rules.3. Sentence StructureWe know that there is structure in sentences separate from the meaning of the sentence because of the difference between "well formed nonsense" (1) and "total gibberish" (2) :(1) Colorless green ideas sleep furiously. (2) Green sleep furiously ideas colorless.Which sounds better ?4. Word-level categoriesMajor lexical categoriesN( Noun) book, boy V(Verb) run, buy A(Adjective) happy, heavyP (Preposition) about, in Minor lexical categories Det (determiner) the, a thisDeg (Degree word) quite, very Qual (Qualifier) often, always Aux(Auxiliary) must, should Con (Conjunction) and, but 5. Three criteria for judging the word’s categories1.meaning Noun—entity2.inflection -ed, -s3.distribution the girl Det+ N6. Phrase categoriesPhrases are constructed out of a "head" plus other material into:Noun Phrase (NP) Verb Phrase (VP) Adjective Phrase (AP) Prepositional Phrase (PP)7. Head, specifier, complementHead: the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier: the words on the left side of the headscomplement: the words on the right side of the headsE.g. a touching story about a sentimental girl8. Phrase Structure RulesNP → (Det)N (PP) ? VP → (Qual) V ( NP) ? AP → (Deg)A (PP) ? PP → (Deg) P (NP)9. XP rule X= N, V, A or P XP →(specifier) X (complement)10. X – theory XP →(specifier) X X - → X(complement)11. Co-ordination rules X → X Con X12. XP rule (revised): XP →(specifier) X (complement ) Matrix clauseComplement phrase (CP) Complement clause Complementizers (Cs)13. ModifierAP PP AdvP The expanded XP rules XP →(spec)(Mod) X (complement*)(Mod)14. The S ruleS NP VPDet N V P Det N| | | | | |The cat is on the mat15. Transformational RulesOnce we have built a basic tree, we then might want to change it, for example to turn it into a question.1. John is going to school.2. Is John going to school?What happened between (1) and (2)? "Is" moved to the front. How did we make the yes/no question? What change did we make?16.Deep structure and surface structure:Deep structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from insertion of lexical items into the tree structure generated by the phrase structure rules.Surface structure is a level of syntactic representation that results from the application of whatever transformations are needed to yield the final syntactic form of the sentence.17. The organization of the syntactic componentThe XP ruleDeep structuretransformationsSurface structure18. Wh MovementMove the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceMove a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP19. Word OrderRecall that languages can choose the order of the constituents in a phrase structure rule. ? English: PP → P NP ? Japanese: PP → NP P20. SVOWe can say that the overall word-order in a simple sentence is Subject-Verb-Object or SVO.There are two choices for each rule:1. Sentence: S → NP VP S → VP NP2. Verb Phrase: VP → V NP VP → NP V21. AssignmentsDraw two possible trees for the sentence “The boy saw the man with the telescope. ”5. Semantics1. Semantics is the study of meaning.2. The Meanings of MeaningEveryday use and ambiguity of the word mean(ing)(1) Daddy, what does 'unique' mean? (2) When Mary talks about "her ex" she means me.(3) 'Purchase' means the same as 'buy'. (4) Gwailou means "foreign devil".(5) When he drinks it means he's depressed. (6) I didn't mean to hurt you.3. Ogden and Richards' The Meaning of Meaning (1923)sixteen different meanings of the words "mean/meaning" were distinguished. Here are some of them:John means to write. 'intends’A green light means go. 'indicates' Health means everything. 'has importance'His look was full of meaning. 'special import'What is the meaning of life? 'point, purpose'What does 'capitalist' mean to you? 'convey'What does ‘cornea‘(⾓膜)mean? 'refer to in the world'4. What does meaning mean in linguistics?It is the last kind of use that comes closest to the focus of linguistic semantics. In modern linguistics, the meaning is studied by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts ("meaning" is not some kind of "entity" separate from language - any more than measures such as "height" or "length" have some kind of independent existence). This is an approach shared by a number of philosophers and psychologists. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889- 1951), in particular, stressed its importance in his dictum: "The meaning of a word is its use in the language."5. 4 views concerning the study of meaningThe naming theory The conceptual theory Contextualism behaviorism6. The naming theoryPlato Words are names or labels for things.Limitations of the theory: it can be applicable to nouns only, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are not names or labels; imaginary things like “dragon”;abstract nouns like “joy”7. The conceptual theoryOgden & Richards' TriangleTHOUGHT (concepts, images, schemas)/ \(Sense) / \/ \(language) WORDS - - - - - - - - WORLD(things, situations)(Reference)Note: (i) Reference as an indirect relation(ii) Sense as a psychological notionWhat is the link between the language and concept?8. ContextualismLudwig Wittgenstein Malinowski J.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context9. BehaviorismBloomfield 1926, 1935 Behaviorism vs. mentalismHuman and animal behaviorStimulus and responseS -> r ... s -> R Jack and Jill10. Lexical meaningSense and referenceSense refers to the meaning of a Noun Phrase which determines its referent;Reference refers to that part of meaning of a Noun Phrase which is its referent.Sense is abstract and de-contextualized;Reference is concrete and contextualized.11. sense relations between words1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymy11.1. synonymytwo words, same meaning never complete; tendency toward divergence,e.g small - little, but cf. small change and little sistera) dialectal synonymsb) stylistic synonymsc) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningd) collocational synonymse) semantically different synonyms11.2. polysemyone word, many meaningseye 'organ of sight', 'center of hurricane' , 'hole in needle'11.3.homonymydifferent words, same soundbear 'carry' bear 'furry creature' bare 'naked'cf. Homonymy, Homography: different words, same spelling bow 'knotted ribbon' bow 'front of ship'11.4.hyponymysuperordinate (hyponym) to subordinate Also: co-hyponymsProblematic superordinates:aunt - uncle > none sweet - sour - bitter > Tastes , but no Adj chair - sofa - couch > ? sitting furniture (Sitzm?bel) 11.5. antonymy(1) Gradable (scalar) antonyms: cold. . hot(2) Complementary antonyms: dead - alive(3) Relational opposites: teach - learn husband - wife12. six sense relations between sentencesa) X is synonymous with Yb) X is inconsistent with Yc) X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X)d) X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)e) X is a contradiction?f) X is semantically anomalous?13. Analysis of meaningComponential analysisPredication analysisgrammatical meaningsemantic meaning13.1 Componential analysisFeatures in Semantic Theoryman = [+human] [+adult] [+male]woman = [+human] [+adult] [+female]girl = [+human] [-adult] [+female]boy = [+human] [-adult] [+male]stool = [+sitting] [+legs] [-back] [-arms] [+single person]chair = [+sitting] [+legs] [+back] [+/- arms] [+single person]sofa = [+sitting] [+/-legs] [+back] [+arms] [-single person] etccow = [+bovine] [+adult] [+female]ewe = [+ovine] [+adult] [+female] bull = [+bovine] [+adult] [+male]ram = [+ovine] [+adult] [+male] calf = [+bovine] [- adult]lamb = [+ovine] [-adult]But should calf = [+/-female] [+/-male] or simply unspecified?And what about: steer? = [+bovine] [+adult] [-male] [-female]13.2Predication analysisIt is proposed by G. Leech. In his framework of analysis, the basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A predication consists of arguments and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a predication. A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14.Interdisciplinary nature of semantics (1)philosophy: definitions, truth, logiclinguistics: lexical, grammatical meaning; structural ambiguitypsychology: concepts, categorization, learninglaw: interpretation, entailment translation: translatability, paraphrasecomputer science: processing and representation of information15. Interdisciplinary nature of semantics(2)musicology: musical meaning (Joseph Swain: Musical Languages, 1997)anthropology: cultural meaning, relativityliterary criticism: interpretation, ambiguity, metaphorreligion (Anna Wierzbicka, What did Jesus mean?, 2001)16. Assignments:Summarize the four approaches to the studies on meaning.Specify the five major sense relations1.synonymy2.polysemy3.homonymy4.hyponymy5.antonymyDefine the following terms: componential analysis Predication analysis6 Pragmatics1. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context2. Contextualist viewLudwig WittgensteinMalinowskiJ.R.Firth2 kinds of contexts: the situational context and the linguistic context3. Some issues in PragmaticsDeixis指⽰ Speech acts⾔语⾏为 Indirect language间接语⾔Conversation会话 Politeness礼貌 Cross-cultural communication跨⽂化交际Presupposition预设4. Pragmatics and Semanticsa There is continuum between Semantics (things that are true by theDEFINITIONS and RULES) and Pragrmatics (things that are true by virtue of the REAL WORLD Complementarism: semantics studies meaning in the abstract; pragmatics studies meaning in the context/use.5. Consider the following sentences:The rock ate my lunch. Semantically false, because "eat" requires anANIMATE subject.The giraffe ate the hyena. Grey area, does SEMANTICS include the concept VEGETARIANThe giraffe ate one hundred pounds of grass today.Pragmatics, how much DOES a giraffe eat in a day?6. ContextAccording to Firth, context includes the relevant features of participants: persons, personalities, the verbal and non-verbal action of the participants, the relevant objects and the effect of the verbal action. Hymes’ notion of context includes addressor, addressee, topic, setting, channel, code, message form, event, key and purpose.Shared knowledge7. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningSentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. Utterance is the issuance in an actual context.The meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized,while the meaning of an utterance is concrete and contextdependent.8. Speech Act TheoryAustin noticed that some sentences are special in that they DO things. One class is PERFORMATIVES. When spoken such sentences do the work:I (hereby) declare the fair open. ("hereby" is a good diagnostic of performatives)Performatives⾏事: Performatives were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Constatives⾔事: constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were thusverifiable9. Three kinds of actsLocutionary act⾔内⾏为: locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.Illocutionary act⾔外⾏为: an illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention. It is an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act⾔后⾏为: perlocutionary act is the act performed by saying something. 10. Searle’s classification of speech actsRepresentatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true;Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something;Commissives: committing the speaker himself to future course of action;Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state;Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something11. Principle of ConversationGrice discovered a number of conversational maxims (rules) that people generally obey.Two of them are: ? Be cooperative ? Be relevantThe following discourse represents a failure of cooperation:A: Do you know what time it isB: Yes.Or, if you know for sure that you're leaving on Tuesday it's misleading to say: "I'm leaving on Monday or Tuesday."12. Four maximsThe maxim of quantity The maxim of qualityThe maxim of relation The maxim of manner13. Conversational Implicatureconversational implicature: Conversational implicature occurs only when the maximsof Cooperative Principle are “flouted”. A: Do you know where Mr. X lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has Mr. X’s address.)A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t they?(said when it is known to both A and B that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess)A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.(said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word“ice-cream”).14. Leech’s Politeness PrincipleTact maxim Generosity maxim Approbation maximModesty maxim Agreement maxim Sympathy maxim15. The 6 maxims of Leech’s PPtact generosityapprobation modestyagreementsympathy16. Tact Maxim:1. Minimize cost to other 2.Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim:1. Minimize benefit to self 2. Maximize cost to self Approbation Maxim: 1. Minimize dispraise of other 2. Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim:1. Minimize praise of self 2. Maximize dispraise of self17. Agreement Maxim: 1.Minimize disagreement between self and other2.Maximize agreement between self and otherSympathy Maxim: 1. Minimize antipathy between self and other2. Maximize sympathy between self and other18. Politeness scale: DirectnessdirectCould you possibly answer the phone?Would you mind answering the phone?Can you answer the phone?Will you answer the phone?I want you to answer the phone.Answer the phone.indirect19. Politeness scale: Cost – benefitbenefitHave another sandwich.Enjoy your holiday.Look at that.Sit down.Hand me the newspaper.Peel these potatoes.Cost20. PresuppositionsStatements or questions that presuppose a related sentence. "Leading" questions or statements. "When did you stop beating your donkey?" presupposes:You stopped beating your donkey.You did beat your donkey.You beat something.You have a donkey...."I'll have some more coffee." presupposes that you have already had some.21. assignmentsSpeech act theorycoperative principleconversational implicature7. Language Change1. ReviewPrescriptive vs.descriptive (Chapter 1)The definition of language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication (Chapter 1) Word formation: affixation, composition, conversion, back formation, blend, shortening , coinage (Chapter 3) Contextualism (Chapter 5) Context (Chapter 6)2. All languages change through timeLanguages change in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.3. The changes of language at different levels (1)Sound changeMorphological and syntactic changea) change in “agreement” ruleb) change in negation rulec) process of simplificationd) loss of inflections4. The changes of language at different levels (2)Vocabulary changea) addition of new words(coinage, clipped words, blending, acronyms, backformation, functional shift, borrowing)b) loss of wordsc) changes in the meaning of words (widening of meaning, narrowing of meaning,meaning shift)5. Some recent trendsMoving towards greater informalityThe influence of American EnglishThe influence of science and technologya) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology6. Causes of language changea) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words: fax, laser, telecomb) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created: chairman-chairperson, fireman-fire fighter.c) The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change.d) “economy of memory ” and “theory of least effort”. foe/foes, cow/cows (kine)cheap-cheaplye) other factors, e.g. elaboration of grammar7. SummaryThe linguistic change is complex.The linguistic change is gradual.The exact reasons for language change are still elusive and need to be further investigated. 8. Assignments1. Illustrate the vocabulary change with examples.2. What are the possible causes of language change?8. Language and Society1. The relatedness between language and societyLanguage is used to establish and maintain social relationship.The kind of language the users choose is in part determined by his/her social background.Language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social.2. Speech communityFor general linguists, a speech community is defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of a language.。

简明英语语言学知识点汇总

新编简洁英语语言学知识点汇总1Introduction Whatis linguistics?①t ry to answer the basic questions and probe into various problems related to language;②l inguistics studies not any particular language but languagein general;③s cientific study because based on systematic investigation oflinguistic data.The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistic. phonetics Study the sounds used in linguistic studyphonology How sounds put together and convey meaning morphology The way symbols representing sounds are arrangedand combined to form wordssyntax Rules governing the combination of wordssemantics The study of meaningpragmatics Study the meaning in contextAbove are major or core branches of linguistics;Following are linguistics link with other disciplines.sociolinguistics language and society psycholinguisticsHowinfant acquire mother tongue,processinformationlanguage and brainApplied linguistics Applied to the recovery oflanguage,language acquisitionSome important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptiveAims to lay down rules for“ correct & standard ”whatever occurs in thelanguage people use should bedescribed and analyzed)synchronicdiachronicThe description of a languageThe description of a languageat some point of timeas it changes through time① Difficult to describe the changes that have taken placein its historical development;② Synchronic description are often thought of as beingdescriptions of a language in its current existence.speech writingdescriptiveDescribe and analyze thelanguage actuallyuse(modern linguists believe thatSpeech is prior to writing:①writing system is always “invented ”by the users to record the speech when the need arises;②speech plays a greater role in terms of amount of conveying information;③ speech is always the way native speaker acquire their mother tongue while writing is learn and taught in school;④spoken language reveals more feature of human speech,whichis authentic while written language is only the revised record of speech.Langue 语言Parole语言The realization of language in Abstract linguistic system;actual use;Concrete;Relatively stable Vary from person to person &situation to situationProposed by Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century:parole is a mass of linguistic facts,to abstract langue from parole.competence performanceThe actual realization of this The ideal user ’s knowledge ofknowledge in linguisticthe rules of his languagecommunication. proposed by American linguist, Similar to Saussure,whatlinguists should study is the ideal speaker ’s competence,notthe performance.Difference:Saussure took sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social convention;whileChomsky looks at psychological point and to him competence isa property of the mind of each individual.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive;Descriptive;written language is primary;Spoken language is primary;Force language into a Trying to set up a universalLatin-based framework;frameworkModern linguistics begin from the publication of Sassure’sbook course in general linguisticsWhat is languageDefinitions of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Characteristics:①language is system,elements of language are combined according to the rules;②language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsicconnection between a linguistic symbol and what it stands for, A rose by any other name would smell as well;③language is vocal because the primary mediumfor all language is sound;④language is human -specific,different from animal communication.Design features of languageProposed by American linguist Charles Hockett:comparing the animal &human communication are five major design features of human language:①arbitrarinessNo logical connection between meaning and sounds(exceptonomatopoetic and compound words)②p roductivityIt makes to possible to construction and interpretation of new signalby its users.③dualityLanguage is a system which consists of two structures.At the lower level there is a structure of sounds,which are meaningless by the sounds can grouped or regrouped together into a larger numbers of units of meaning such as morpheme or words,which are found at the higher level ofsystem(carp& park).Then the higher level can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite numbers of sentences;④DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speakers;⑤c ultural transmissionWhile humancapacity for language has a genetic basis,the details of any language systems are not genetically transmitted, but instead have tobe taught and learned.(language is cultural transmitted[language notmutually intelligible] while animal call system is geneticallytransmitted)Functions of languageThree main functions of language which distinct from each otherbut actually overlapping to some degree:①d escriptive functionThe primary function of language;The Sichuan earthquake is the most serious one China has ever suffered.②expressive functionand Supply information about the user ’s feeling,preference,prejudicesvalue, will never come to this coffee shop again.③social functionServes to establish and maintain social relations between people. Howcan I help you, Sir?Others:Russian-born structuralRoman Jakobson：six elemenslinguist (function)of a speech:意动 ) context -referential Addresser -emotive ( 动机 ) addressee -conative( message-poetic contact -phaticcommunion code- metalinguisticBritish linguistic Halliday:①ideational function( 语篇功能 )[included descriptive & expressivefunctin] is to organize the speaker’s experience of the real or imaginary world.②interpersonal function is to indicate ,establish,or maintain social relationship between people.[social function]③textual function is to organize written or spoken texts to coherewithin themselves and fit to the particular situation in which they are used.The phonic medium of languageSpeech sounds produced by human speech organTwo major media of communication:speech and writing;what is phonetics?The study of phonic mediumof language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occurs in the world’s language.Articulatory phonetics(发音语言学)Longest Three branches Auditory phonetics(听觉语言学)Acoustic phonetics(声学语言学)organs of speechPharyngeal cavity(咽喉 )Nasal cavity（鼻腔）简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Oral cavity（口腔）Voicing:vibration of the vocal cordsVocal glotorthgraphic representation of speech sounds :broad & narrowcords tisInternational phonetic alphabet:letter ai→soundsBroad(used in textbook):letter symbols [p]lun h Narrow: letter symbols + diacritics(变音符 )[p it] [spit]gh→aspiration[phonetician more interested in]classification of English speech soundsLabio-Dental Alveloar VelarBilabialdental Palatal Glottal（齿（齿龈（软Total（双唇音）（唇齿（腭音）（喉音）音）音）腭）obstruction音）StopsVL p f t k (闭塞音)PartialVD b v d g obstructionFricativeVL o s f h （摩擦音）omplete at firstelease slowly with VD d z gartial obstructionAffricatesVL tf tf（塞擦音）VD dg dgNasalsVD m n n （鼻音）LiquidsVD L,r（流音）GlidesVDwj（滑音）Monophthongs ：closeSemi-closeSemi-openfrontI: Ie centrale:ebackU: uC:openae a^D a:phonologyphonology & phoneticsP h o n o l o g y v s p h o n e t i c sphone phoneme allophonePhoneticSpeech soundsphonemic contrastcomplementary distributionminimal pairsome rules in phonology Sequential rules assimilation rule deletion rulePhonological featuresthat occur above the level of segments)suprasegmental features(phonemicunitDark l &Pill bill Stress : N & v[p][clear lProducedForm patters &Tone ：四声Different phonesGovern the combination of representinga phonemein Intonation： diffrenty convey different meaning even the sentences unchangedsounds, convey meaningfeatures &3.Morphologydifferent phonetic. Word begin with a [l] orenvironmentGrammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure[r],nextsound must be a vowelWord: the smallest free form found in languageMorpheme: the smallest unit of meaningRoot stem baseAssimilate one sound toanother by copying a feature Root: believeof sequential phoneme,makingStem: believable (除去全部的语法成份 , 留下词根和派生成份 )Base ： unbelievable (un two phones similar的词基 )Derivational morpheme:change category grammatical class of wordsPrefix:change meaningTo tell us when a sound is to be deletedalthough it is orthographicallySuffix: change meaning and parts of speechInflectional morpheme:signify tense number caseWord formation:① Clipping （shortening & abbreviation）[no change of part of speech]gym expo memo disco burger quake fridge script②back-formation [changeof part of speech]editor-edit hawker-hawk beggar-beg baby-sister--baby-sitButcher-butch donation-donate orientation-orient(ate)③ conversion(functional shift):N-v v-n a-v a-n ④acronyms [pronouncedas words]CEO B2B IT CPI IAD WTO BBS(FOR BULLETIN BOARD SYSTEM) APEC AIDS UNESCO UCLA IDD⑤initialism[produced as letters]FBI EEC⑥blendingSmoke+fog=smogTaikong+astronaut=taikonaut⑦compoundingBittersweet landlady⑧onomatopoeiaBlast rustle5.SemanticsSome views concerning the study of meaning:1) the naming theory,plato,words→objects Limitations:√N ×ADJ ADV V√Concrete×abstract2)the conceptualist viewSemantic triangle,ogden & richardswords→mind→wordsLimitations:what is the precisely link symbol and concept unclarify 3)Contextualism简洁英语语言学知识点汇总Firth。

linguistics的分类

linguistics的分类Linguistics（语言学）是一门研究语言的学科，它可以分为以下几类：1. Phonetics（语音学）：研究语言的声音系统，包括语音的产生、传输和感知。

它关注语音的物理特性、音位的区别以及语音在不同语言中的变化。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语言中的声音模式和语音规则。

它关注音位的组合、音节结构、重音和语调等方面，以及它们在语言中的作用和变化。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究单词的结构和形式。

它包括词素、词根、词缀和词形变化等方面，探讨单词的构成和派生规则。

4. Syntax（句法）：研究句子的结构和组成规则。

它关注句子中的词语顺序、句子成分的关系以及句子的类型和结构。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言的意义和语义关系。

它探讨词汇和句子的意义、词义的演变、语义场和语义角色等方面。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际交际中的使用和理解。

它关注语言的语境依赖、言外之意、会话原则和话语分析等方面。

7. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言与社会之间的关系。

它包括语言的社会变体、语言政策、语言习得、语言与身份等方面。

8. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言的心理过程和认知机制。

它关注语言的产生、理解、记忆和学习等方面，以及语言与思维和认知的关系。

9. Computational Linguistics（计算语言学）：应用计算机技术来处理和分析自然语言。

它包括自然语言处理、机器翻译、信息检索、文本挖掘等方面。

这些分类是语言学的主要领域，每个领域都有其特定的研究对象和方法。

不同领域之间相互关联和交叉，共同构成了对语言的全面研究。

语言学复习指要Linguistics

语言学复习指要Linguistics第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）1.任意性Arbitratriness：shu 和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；同样的声音，各国不同的表达方式2.双层结构Duality：语言由声音结构和意义结构组成（the structure of soundsand meaning）3.多产性productive:语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）4.移位性Displacemennt：可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等5.文化传播性Cultural Transmission：语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）1.传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main function2.人际功能Interpersonal：人类在社会中建立并维持各自地位的功能establishand maintain their identity3.行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses4.表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions5.寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！”　等等6.元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics：关注语音的产生、传播和接受过程，着重考察人类语言中的单音。

LinguisticsRevision语言学复习资料分解

Final examination for Introduction to Linguistics (January, 2015)I.Translation (1 X 20 = 20 %): Chinese into English = 10 English into Chinese = 10II.Fill in the blanks (2 X 15 = 30 %): Fill in the blanks in sentences using linguistic terms III.Definitions ( 4 X 5 = 20 %)IV.Short essays (15 X 2 = 30 %)RevisionI.Terms for sections I, II, and III.Chapter 7:1) sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics might be defined as the study of correlations between linguistic variables (e.g. the precise phonetic quality of a vowel, or the presence or absence of a certain element in a system and non-linguistic variables such as the social class of speakers, their age, sex, hometown, etc.2) the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃夫假说American Anthropological linguisticsLinguistic determinism: Language determines our way of thinking.Linguistic relativity: similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.3) linguistic determinism 语言决定论Language determines our way of thinking.4) linguistic relativity 语言相对论Similarity between languages is relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.5) the context of situation 情景语境According to Halliday, the context of situation contains three components:（1）Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.（2）Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversations（3）Mode of discourse: the channel of communication6) communicative competence 交际能力The implications from sociolinguistics for language teaching is called communicative competenceHymes:(1) Whether (and to what degree) something is formally possible.(2) Whether (and to what degree) something is feasible, in virtue of the means of implementation available.(3) Whether (and to what degree) something is appropriate (adequate, happy, successful) inrelation to the context in which it is used and evaluated.(4) Whether (and to what degree) something is in fact done, actually performed, and what its doing entails.M. Canale and M. Swain:(1) Grammatical competence(2) Sociolinguistic competence(3) Discourse competence(4) Strategic competence7) woman register 女性用语According to Lakoff, there exists a woman register in language that takes on the following features:(1) Women use more fancy color terms such as mauve (淡紫色) and beige（米色）.(2) Women use less powerful curse words.(3) Women use more intensifiers such as terribly and awfully.(4) Women use more tag questions: He’s right, isn’t he?(5) Women use more statement (declarative) questions: He’s rig ht?(6) Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men's: Could you lower your voice a little?8) linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视linguistic discrimination against women: chairman, man power, man（used to refer to the whole human race）, he (used to refer to a person of unknown sex), gentlemen.There are many more words for prostitutes than for whoremasters or whoremongers.If a man behaves strangely, one may say, “There’s a woman in it.”The proverb: Wives and children are bills of charges.9) cross-cultural communication跨文化交际Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavor to communicate across cultures.Chapter 8:1) the speech act theory 言语行为理论This is the first major theory in the study of language in use. It originated with the Oxford philosopher Austin who classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives.2) performatives 言语行为句Austin classifies sentences in two categories: performatives and constatives. Performatives do not describe things. They cannot be said to be true or false. Uttering them is, or is a part of, doing an action, e.g.I name this ship Queen Elizabeth.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I sentence you ten years of imprisonment.3) constatives 表述句Constatives are descriptive statements, capable of being analyzed in terms of truth-values, e.g.I pour some liquid into the tube.John went to the zoo yesterday.4) locutionary act 表述性言语行为、言中行为The act of producing speech sounds, words or sentences.5) illocutionary act 施为性言语行为、言外行为T he act of making known the speaker’s purpose or the intended meaning: ∙asking or answering a question∙giving some information or an assurance or a warning∙pronouncing sentence∙making a request or an appointment or a criticism∙making an identification or giving a description, and many others.6) perlocutionary act 言后行为The consequential effect of a locution upon the hearer. By saying something the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer, misleading him, surprising him, or induce him to do something. Whether these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act performed by the speaker. This is what is called perlocutionary act.7) the cooperative principle 合作原则According to Grice, in daily conversations, people are cooperative. They often recognize a common purpose or a set of purposes or at least a mutually agreed direction for the conversation to develop. That is, they follow a cooperative principle or CP for short.8) maxim of quantity 数量准则(1) make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange)(2) do not make your contribution more informative than is required.9) maxim of quality 质量准则(1) do not say what you believe to be false.(2) do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.10) maxim of relation 关联准则Be relevant11) maxim of manner 方式准则Be perspicuous(1) avoid obscurity of expression.(2) avoid ambiguity.(3) be brief(4) be orderly12) calculability 可计算性Implicature is calculable in that it can be worked out on the basis of previous information, including:1) the conventional meaning of the words,2) the CP and its maxims,3) the context,4) other items of the background knowledge,5) the fact that all relevant items falling under the previous headings are available to both participants and both participants know or assume this to be the case.13) cancellability 可删除性Also known as defeasibility. A conversational implicature relies on a number of factors as discussed in the part for calculability. If any of them changes, the implicature will also change. Example:A: Where’s X?B: He’s gone to the library. He said so when he left. (implicature cancellation)14) non-detachability 非可分离性A conversational implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said, not to the linguistic form. Therefore, it is possible to use a synonym and keep the implicature intact. For example, John’s a genius and John’s a mental prodigy said ironically both implicate that John’s an idiot.But conversational implicatures related to the Manner maxim are an exception. Example (8):At home,A: Let’s get the kids something.B: OK, but I veto I-C-E C-R-E-A-M. (manner)15) non-conventionality 非规约性Conversational implicature is by definition different from the conventional meaning of words. To show this more clearly, we can have a look at some examples of entailment (a logical relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first necessarily follows from the falsity of the second: I saw a boy and I saw a child):John has three cows.John has only three cows. (implicature)John has some cows. (entailment)John has some animals. (entailment)John has something. (entailment)Somebody has three cows. (entailment)Somebody has some cows. (entailment)Somebody has some animals. (entailment)Somebody has something. (entailment)16) contextual meaning 语境意义A description of something in reality or a suggestion or a warning is sometimes referred to as contextual meaning, or speaker’s meaning or utterance meaning.17) pragmatics 语用学The discipline that concentrates on contextual meaning is called pragmatics.18) relevance theory关联理论Relevance theory was proposed by Sperber and Wilson who argue that all Gricean maxims, including the CP itself should be reduced to a single principle of relevance. The assumption, or principle, underlying relevance theory is that in any given context, what people say is relevant. This principle of relevance can be seen as a further specification of the Gricean notion of cooperation. For relevance theory, achieving successful communication by way of the relevance of what is being said is a sufficient aim in conversation or other verbal interaction.Chapter 9:1) literary stylistics 文学文体学Literary stylistics: the study of the linguistic features related to literary style, the way in which literary works are written.2) foregrounding 前景化(1) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns(2) Where there seems to be foregrounding on the level of lexis, morphological analysis can be done about new combinations of words(3) Where there is foregrounding on the level of word order and syntax, grammatical knowledge about word classes can be used to analyze unusual or marked combinations or constructions.(4) If a language unit cannot be literally interpreted, the figures of speech that are involved and used for signification may be analyzed.(5) In any case, unusual, deviant, or marked uses of language in literature (different from the everyday, non-literary language) are identified and analyzed.3) simile 明喻a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing. And it is explicitly signaled in a text, with the words as or like, e.g.I have seen ships sail like swan asleep.Pop looked so unhappy, almost like a child who’s lost his piece of candy.4) metaphor 暗喻always makes a comparison between two unlike things, but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated:All the world’s a stage,And all the men and women are merely players;5) metonymy 借喻a change of name, e.g.The pen is mightier than the sword.Can grey hairs make folly venerable?In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.6) synecdoche 提喻a type of metonymy. The name of a part of an object is used to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.The legs could hardly keep up with the tanks.A Daniel came to judgment.England beat Argentina in the football match.7) rhyme 尾韵serves a two-fold purpose: first, as a combining agency for the stanza; second, as a musical device giving pleasure in itself:That night when joy beganOur narrowest veins to flush.We waited for the flashOf morning’s leveled s un. (abba)8) alliteration 头韵the repetition of the same sound at the beginning of a series of words, or at the beginning of stressed syllables within words:Where with blade, with bloody blameful bladeHe bravely broached his boiling bloody breast.9) assonance 类韵the repetition of similar (not necessarily identical) vowels situated within words:We were the first that ever burst into the silent sea.10) consonance 辅音叠韵the repetition of the final consonant, functioning as the end rhyme:Light breaks where no sun shines;Where no sea runs, the waters of the heartPush in the tides.And broken ghosts with glowworms in their headsThe things of lightFile through the flesh where no flesh decks the bones. (abccba)11) reverse rhyme 反韵describes syllables sharing the vowel and initial consonants:Quelled and quenched it leaves the leaping sun.12) pararhyme 类尾韵when two syllables have the same initial and final consonants but different vowels, they pararhyme:And by his smile, I knew that sullen hall.By his dead smile I knew we stood in hell.13) repetition 重复the repetition of the same word:O, my luve is like a red, red rose14) metre 格when stress is organized to form regular rhythms, the word for it is metre.15) iamb 抑扬格an iambic foot contains two syllables: an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one:and palm to palm is ho ly pal mer’s kiss.16) trochee 杨抑格an trochaic foot contains two syllables: a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable: Wil lows whi ten, as pens qui ver.17) anapest 抑抑扬格an anapestic foot contains three syllables: two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one:without cause be he pleased, without cause be he cross.18) dactyl 扬抑抑格A dactylic foot contains three syllables: a stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones: one for the mas ter, and one for the dame.19) spondee 扬扬格a spondaic foot contains two stressed syllables, but lines of poetry rarely consist of onlyspondaic feet: and a black -/ Back gull bent like an iron bar slowly.20) couplet 对句two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme:Her eyes are wild, her head is bare,The sun has burnt her coal-black hair,21) quatrain 四行诗stanzas of four lines, very common in English poetry.When lovely woman stoops to folly,And finds too late that men betray,What charm can soothe her melancholy,What art can wash her guilt away?O, my luve is like a red, red rose,That’s newly sprung in June.O, my luve is like the melodie,That’s sweetly play’d in tune.22) blank verse 无韵诗consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme:But do not let us quar rel a ny more,No my lucrezia; bear with me for once:Sit down and all shall happen as you wish.You turn your face, but does it bring your heart?23) narrator 叙事者A narrator is a personal character or a non-personal voice that the creator of the story develops to deliver information to the audience, particularly about the plot. I-narrators are often said to be “limited” because they don’t know all the facts or “unreliable” because they trick the reader by withholding information or telling untruths.If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third person pronouns. This is the dominant narrator type.24) schemata 图式Schema theory suggests the knowledge we carry around in our head is organized into interrelated patterns. They are constructed from our experience of the experiential world and guide us as we make sense of new experience.In language schemas are the underlying structures which accounts for the organization of texts or discourse. Different participants in the same situation will have different schemas, relating to their different viewpoints. Besides indicating their viewpoints by choosing what to describe, novelists can also indicate it by how it is described, particularly through evaluativeexpressions:She opened the door of her grimy, branch-line carriage, and began to get down her bags. The porter was nowhere, of course, but there was Harry … there, on the sordid little station under furnace …25) new information 新信息information that is presented by the speaker as not recoverable26) given information 已知信息i nformation that is presented by the speaker as recoverable27) direct speech 直接引语a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” s he asked.28) indirect speech 间接引语the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause: She asked whether she was too late.29) free direct speech 自由直接引语a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”30) free indirect speech 自由间接引语closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.31) narrator’s representation of speech acts 叙事者的言语行为表达a summary of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.32) narrator’s representation of speech 叙事者的言语表达telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.Chapter 12:1) functional sentence perspective 功能句子观According to the Prague school linguists, apart from the analysis of a sentence in terms of subject and predicate from the formal point of view, there may also be a functional analysis in terms of Theme (the starting point of an utterance) and Rheme (the nucleus or the core of the utterance). In English, theme and rheme are often expressed by the grammatical subject and predicate.I went to the zoo yesterday.However, there are utterances in which they do not correspond, e.g.Yesterday I went to the zoo.At the airport I met John yesterday.The analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme is now known as the functional sentence perspective because this patterning is determined by the functional approach of the speaker.2) systemic-functional grammar 系统功能语法According to Halliday, the Systemic-Functional (SF) Grammar is a sociologically oriented functional linguistic approach which has two components: SYSTEMIC GRAMMAR and FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR.Systemic grammarThe system is a list of choices that are available in the grammar of a language. The number system in English, for example, contains two choices: singular and plural. The person system offers three choices: first person, second person, and third person. There are also systems of gender, tense and mood, etc.Functional grammarFunctional aspect is also termed sociosemantics. According to Halliday, the context of situation or the social context is at the basic level of linguistic investigation and contains three components:Field of discourse: the subject matter being discussed.Tenor of discourse: the social relations between the participants of conversationsMode of discourse: the channel of communicationThese three situational components are related to the three important functions of language identified by Halliday: ideational, interpersonal and textual: language serves for the expression of content (ideational); language serves to establish and maintain social relations (interpersonal); language enables people to construct texts (textual). These three functions are related to three grammatical systems: transitivity, mood and theme.3) American structuralism 美国结构主义American Structuralism is a branch of synchronic linguistics that emerged independently in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. It developed in a very different style from that of Europe, under the leadership of anthropologists and linguists as F. Boas, who held that there were no ideal types or forms of languages, for human languages were endlessly diverse, E. Sapir, who tried to impose the grammatical categories from the Indo-European languages upon all other languages, L. Bloomfield, who defined linguistics as a branch of psychology known as behaviourism, Z. Harris, and C. Hocket, whose tradition actually influenced the whole of the 20th century American linguistics.4) generative-transformational grammar 生成转换语法From his practice Chomsky gradually established the well-known Generative-transformational grammar. It has undergone five stages of development. The classical theory aims to make linguistics a science. The standard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistic theory. The extended standard theory focusesdiscussion on language universals and universal grammar. The revised extended theory focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the minimalist program, a further revision of the previous theory.5) the innateness hypothesis 天赋假说Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues that children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. And the study of language can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. This approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy.6) theme 主位the element which serves as the point of departure; it is that with which the clause is concerned. As a general guide, the Theme can be identified as the element which comes in the first position in the clause.7) rheme 述位the part in which the theme is developed, the remainder of the message, is called the Rheme.8) ideational function 概念功能language serves for the expression of content9) interpersonal function 人际功能language serves to establish and maintain social relations10) textual function 语篇功能language enables people to construct texts11) phrase structure rulesThe phrase structure component has phrase structure rules. e.g.S→NP + VPVP→V + NPNP→Det + NDet→the, a, etc.N→man, ball, etc.V→hit, took, etc.12) transformational rules 转换规则The transformational component has transformational rules which change the deep structures into surface structures. According to Chomsky, active and passive, declarative and interrogative, positive and negative sentences have the same deep structures.The difference between them simply comes from the operation of the relevant transformations.13) deep structure 深层结构the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.14) surface structure 表层结构the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.15) transitivity传递性the representation of outer experiences and inner experiences.II.Essay questions.1) What would you say about and for or against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?Sapir-whorf Hypothesis is a belief that our languages help mould our way of thinking and consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. On one hand, language determine our way of thinking, on the other hand, similarity between languages are relative, the greater their structural difference is, the more diverse their conception of world will be. As the hypothesis was put forward by Sapir and whorf, so, it is called Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.Arguments against S-w Hypothesis: the arguments are directed at strong version of s-w hypothesis, language determinism. It concerns excessively with surface structures of individual languages. In fact all languages are fundamental of the same universal human character. The flaws of that hypothesis can be revealed through the following analysis. One, Different grammatical structures do not mean that speakers of different languages differ in thinking logic. Two, Equivalent translation is always possible in spite of the fact that in practice there are hardly any people in perfect control of two different languages. Three, People who have good command of 2 genetic-unrelated languages do not have “double minds”.2) How would you summarize the concept of situation as proposed by Firth?A: Firth was strongly influenced by the Anthropological view of language and he was fully aware of the importance of the context in the study of language use, so he tried to set up a model for illustrating the close relationship between language use and its co-occurent factors. In the end, he developed his theory of “context of situation” which can be summarized as follows:1, The relevant features of the participants, person, personalities. 2, the relevant objects. 3, The effects of the verbal action.3) Does woman register differ from linguistic sexism?A: Woman register means that the language used by woman shares some characters which distinguish it from the language used by man. Woman register is a kind of speech variety, because of having a number of distinctive words or by using the words in a unique way or special grammatical structures, but linguistic sexism, is the discrimination against woman. Actually, all the woman register is the weaker-register, the difference between woman and man are governed by society. So, if we want to change the linguistic sexism we need to change the society.4) How would you describe and evaluated the theory of illocutionary acts?1 locutionary act: The performance of an utterance. The term equally refers to the surface meaning of an utterance. (We move our vocal organs and produce sounds, organized in a certain way and with certain meaning.)2 illocutionary act: The semantic 'illocutionary force' of the utterance, thus its real, intended meaning. (The intention and function of an utterance) To say sth is to do sth and act performed is known as an illocutionary act.3 perlocutionary act: Its actual, consequential effect, whether intended or not (its psychological consequences, such as persuading, convincing, scaring, enlightening, inspiring, or otherwise getting someone to do or realize something).5) How would you discuss the maxims of the cooperative principleand illustrate with your own example the violation of the maxim?A: CP is proposed by English philosopher Grice, its purpose is to explain the course of natural conversation, the participants must first be willing to cooperate, It goes as follows:1, Maxims of quantity, 2, Maxims of quality, 3, Maxims of relation, 4, Maxims of manner. Violations: boys are boys; wars are wars - Maxims of quantity.He is made of iron----Maxims of quality (at a party)A: “Mr.C is an old dog.” B: “It is a fine day.” - Maxims of relationA: “Let’s get kids something.” B: “Yes, but I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M” - Maxims of manner6) How is poetry analyzed at the phonological level?First step: to find where there seems to be foregrounding on the phonological level, phonological knowledge can be used to analyze the unusual sound patterns.Second step: to analyze the form of sound patterning, there are 7 types of sound patterning: rhyme, alliteration, consonance, reverse rhyme, pararhyme and repetition.Third step: to analyze the stress and metrical pattering to work out the number of syllables in each line and to fell the stressed or unstressed syllables, when stress is organized to form a regular rhythm, it is called meter, the unit of meter is called feet. So we analyze both the number and the type of feet, there are 6 types of feet, iamb, trochee, the melody, meter, rhythm.7) How would you illustrate the differences between different methods of speech presentation?The speech presentation continuum may have the following possibilities:Direct speech: a reporting clause, a reported clause and quotation marks:“Am I too late?” she asked.Free direct speech: a reported clause without either the reporting clause or the quotation marks or both:“Am I too late?”Indirect speech: the narrator provides the reporting clause and contributes to the formation of the reported clause:She asked whether she was too late.Free indirect speech: closer to the direct speech than the indirect speech.Was she too late? She asked.Narrator’s representation of speech acts (NRSA): a summery of a piece of discourse.She asked him a question.Narrator’s representation of speech (NRS): telling us that speech occurs.She talked with him for a while.8) How would the innateness hypothesis influence your understanding of child first language acquisition?According to Chomsky, language is innate and children are born with Language Acquisition Device. Innateness Hypothesis is based on 3 facts.First: children learn their first language very fast with little effort.Second: although children learn their first language in quite different environments, the results are the same.Third: children learn the total grammar of the language during a very limited time, from limited exposure to speech. So although children are not born with a language, they are born with a language, they are born with the device to acquire a language. Chomsky argues that LAD consists of 3 elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal and evaluation procedure. Children is the hypothesis maker, they look for regularizes in speech and make hypothesis about how to use the language and children must be equipped with an evaluation procedure, which allow them to choose a number of possible grammars.9) How would you describe the distinction between deep structures and surface structures in TG grammar?Every sentence exists on two levels: Surface structures are sentences or phrases which are pronounced or written and Deep structure the structures contain all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Examples: Boy loves Girl (deep structure). The boy kissed the girl (surface structure). The boy was kissing the girl. The girl was kissed by the boy. (Surface and deep structure)]. The deep structure shows the semantic components but the surface structure shows the proper phonological information in order to。

语言学考试整理名词解释

1.Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.3.Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .4.Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human languagethat tell the difference between human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication.5.Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings ofmind is called psycholinguistics.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.7.Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.8.Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwords is called morphology.9.Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.10.P honology：Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 11.P honeme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme；it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact，a phoneme is nota sound；it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.12.A llophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.13.I nternational phonetic alphabet：It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.14.I ntonation:When pitch，stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation，they are collectively known as intonation.15.P honetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages16.A uditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point ofview. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.17.A coustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the soundwaves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.18.P hone:Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.19.P honemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning，they are in phonemic contrast.20.T one：Tones are pitch variations，which are caused by the differing ratesof vibration of the vocal cords.21.M inimal pair：When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings，the two words are said to form a minimal pair.22.M orphology：Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.23.I nflectional morphology：The inflectional morphology studies the inflections24.D erivational morphology：Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.25.M orpheme：It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.26.F ree morpheme：Free morphemes are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.27.B ound morpheme：Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot beused independently but have to be combined with other morphemes，either free or bound，to form a word.28.R oot：A root is often seen as part of a word；it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear，definite meaning；it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.29.A ffix：Affixes are of two types：inflectional and derivational. Inflectionalaffixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories，while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.30.P refix：Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify themeaning of the stem，but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.31.S uffix：Suffixes are added to the end of the stems；they modify themeaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.32.D erivation：Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivativeaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.33.C ompounding：Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two orsometimes more than two words to create new words.34.S yntax：Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structureof language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35.S entence： A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement，question or command. Normally， a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.36.C oordinate sentence：A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined bya linking word called coordinating conjunction，such as "and"，"but"，"or".37.S yntactic categories：Apart from sentences and clauses， a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word （called a lexical category）or a phrase （called a phrasal category）that performs a particular grammatical function.38.G rammatical relations：The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases，grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.39.L inguistic competence：Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages，syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.40.T ransformational rules：Transformational rules are the rules that transformone sentence type into another type.41.D-structure：D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that existsbefore movement takes place. Phrase structure rules，with the insertion of the lexicon，generate sentences at the level of D-structure.42.S emantics：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning inlanguage.43.S ense：Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form；it is abstract and de -contextualized.44.R eference：Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world；it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience45.S ynonymy：Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity ofmeaning.46.P olysemy：Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may havemore than one meaning.47.H omonymy：Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form，i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling，or in both.48.H omophones：When two words are identical in sound，they are calledhomophones.49.H omographs：When two words are identical in spelling，they arehomographs.50.C omplete homonyms：When two words are identical in both sound andspelling，they are called complete homonyms.51.H yponymy：Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a moregeneral，more inclusive word and a more specific word.52.A ntonymy：Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.53.C omponential analysis：Componential analysis is a way to analyze wordmeaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components，which are called semantic features.54.T he grammatical meaning：The grammatical meaning of a sentence refersto its grammaticality，i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.55.P redication：The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.56.A rgument：An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It isgenerally identical with the nominal element （s）in a sentence.57.P redicate：A predicate is something that is said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.58.T wo-place predication：A two-place predication is one which contains twoarguments.59.P ragmatics：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of alanguage use sentences to effect successful communication.60.C ontext：Generally speaking，it consists of the knowledge that is shared bythe speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types：theknowledge of the language they use，and the knowledge about the world，including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.61.U tterance meaning：The meaning of an utterance is concrete，andcontext-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning；it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication，or simply in a context.62.S entence meaning：The meaning of a sentence is often considered as theabstract，intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.63.C onstative：Constatives were statements that either state or describe，andwere verifiable.64.P erformative：performatives，on the other hand，were sentences that didnot state a fact or describe a state，and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.65.L ocutionary act：A locutionary act is the act of uttering words，phrases，clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax，lexicon and phonology.66.I llocutionary act：An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker'sintention；it is the act performed in saying something.67.P erlocutionary act：A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resultingfrom saying something；it is the consequence of，or the change brought about by the utterance；it is the act performed by saying something. 68.C ooperative Principle：It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principlethat guides our conversational behaviours. The content is：Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.69.S ociolinguistics：Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.70.S peech community：The social group isolated for any given study is calledthe speech community or a speech community is a group of people who forma community and share the same language or a particular variety oflanguage. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must，in some reasonable way，interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties，as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.71.S peech variety：Speech variety，also known as language variety，refersto any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical，phonological，morphological，syntactic，or a combination of linguistic features.72.L anguage planning：Language standardization is known as languageplanning. This means that certain authorities，such as the government or government agency of a country，choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it，including its pronunciation and spelling systems，across regional boundaries.73.I diolect：An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional，social，and stylistic variation，in one form or another. In a narrower sense，what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality，pitch and speech rhythm，which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual's speech.74.S tandard language：The standard language is a superposed，sociallyprestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system，used by the mass media，and taught in educational institutions，including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.75.N onstandard language：Language varieties other than the standard arecalled nonstandard languages.76.L ingua franca：A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as amedium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.77.P idgin：A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by nativespeakers of other languages as a medium of communication.78.C reole：A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become establishedas a native language in some speech community.79.D iglossia：Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very differentvarieties of language co-exist in a speech community，each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.80.B ilingualism：Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which twostandard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers，such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.81.E thnic dialect：Within a society，speech variation may come about becauseof different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language，often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation，such as racial discrimination or segregation. 82.S ociolect：Social dialects，or sociolects，are varieties of language used bypeople belonging to particular social classes.83.R egister：Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use inparticular speech situations，in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.Format reason，registers are also known as situational dialects.84.S lang：Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive butnon-standard vocabulary，typically of arbitrary，flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.85.T aboo：Taboo，or rather linguistic taboo，denotes any prohibition by thepolite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.86.E uphemism：A euphemism，then，is a mild，indirect or less offensive wordor expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh，unpleasantly direct，or offensive.。

英语语言学复习资料整理

语言学重要概念梳理1. Language (语言) is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Linguistics(语言学)is generally defined as the scientific study of language.3. General linguistics(普通/一般语言学) The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.4. Phonetics(语音学) the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.5. Phonology(语音体系) how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.6. Morphology(形态学) these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.7. Syntax(句法学) then the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules. The study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies called syntax.8. Semantics(语意学) the study of meaning is known as semantics.9. Pragmatics(语用学) when the study of meaning is conducted, not in isolation, but in the context of language use, it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.10. Phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.11. Phoneme(音位)is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.12. Allophones(音位变体) the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones.13. IPA(International Phonetic Alphabet国际音标) It’s a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription. The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.14. Diacritics(变音符) it is a set of symbols which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions.15.broad transcription(宽式标音) one is the transcription with letter-symbols only.16.narrow transcription(严式标音) the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics.17. open class words(开放类词)In English , open class words are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. We can regularly add new words to these classes.18. closed class words(封闭类词) In English , closed class word are conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. New words are not usually added to them.19. Morpheme(词素) the most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.20. bound morpheme(黏着词素) morphemes which occurs only before other morphemes. They cannot be used alone.21. free morpheme(自由词素)it is the morphemes which can be used alone.22. suprasegmental features(超音段特征) the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.23. Category(范畴) it refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence ,a noun phrase or a verb.24. Phrases(短语) Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrases.1. Three distinct of phonetics(语音学的三个分支？)Articulatory phonetics发音语音学; auditory phonetics听觉语音学; acoustic phonetics声光语音学.2. Main features of language(语言的主要特征？)Language is a system. Language is arbitrary. Language is vocal. Language is human-specific.3. Synchronic vs. diachronic(共识语言学与历史语言学的区别？)Language exists in time and changes through time. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4. Speech and writing (言语与文字的区别？)Speech and writing are the two major media of linguistic communication. From the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school. Written language is only the “revised” record of speech.5. What are the branches of linguistic study?(语言学研究领域中的主要分支有哪些？)1) sociolinguistics; 2) psycholinguistics; 3)applied linguistics and so on.6. Traditional grammar and modern linguistics(传统语法与现代语言学的区别？)Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Second, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. Traditional grammarians, tended to emphasize, maybe over-emphasize, the importance of the written word.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.7. Prescriptive vs. descriptive (语言学中描写性与规定性的特征是什么？)Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, it is said to be prescriptive.8. Design features of language (语言的识别特征？)Arbitrariness随意性，productivity生产性, duality 二重性, displacement 不受时空限制的特征, cultural transmission 文化传递系统.9. Competence and performance (语言能力与语言行为的区别？)Competence is defined as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performan ce the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10. Organs of speech (发音器官)Pharyngeal cavity—the throat, oral cavity—the mouth, nasal cavity—the nose.11. Word-level categories(决定词范畴的三个标准)To determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely meaning, inflection and distribution.1. Some rules in phonology(音位学规则)sequential rules(序列规则)；assimilation rule (同化规则) ；deletion rule(省略规则)。

语言学总结

1.Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.Some important distinctions in linguistics(1). Descriptive vs. prescriptiveIf a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if it aims to lay down rules for “correct” behavior, i.e. , to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2).Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind. Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(3).Speech and writingModern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.(4).Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.(5).Competence and performanceA language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.3. Human language is ‘unique’(1).arbitrariness随机性(2).productivity多产性(3).duality二元性(4).displacement可替代性(5).cultural transmission文化传播性1. Phonetics：Is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.2.3.Orthographic representation of speech sounds:broad and narrow transcriptions4. Classification of English speech sounds(1)V owelsIn the production of a vowel, the air stream from the lungs meet with no obstruction(2).ConsonantsIn the production of a consonant, the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.5. The difference between vowels and consonants:The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.6.Classification of English ConsonantsEnglish consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. (1). manner of articulationStop (or Plosive) -Oral & Nasal: [P] [b]; [t] [d]Fricative: partial obstruction [f] [v] [s] [z] [Φ] [ς] [h](Median) ApproximantLateral (Approximant)Affricate: [t Φ] [d ς]Liquids: [l] [r]Nasals: [m], [n], [ŋ]Glides: [j] [w](2). place of articulation:Refers to the point where a consonant is made.Eleven places of articulation are distinguished on the IPA chart: Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w]Labiodental: [f] [v]Dental: [ð][θ]Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [n]Postalveolar:Retroflex Palatal Velar: [k] [g] [ŋ] Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal: [h]•7. Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors:The position of the tongue: Front, central, backThe openness of the mouth: Close, semi-close, semi-open, openThe shape of the lips: Rounded, unroundedThe length of the vowels: Long, shortMonophthongs; diphthongs8. We can now describe the English vowels in this way:Chapter 音系学1.Phonology ：is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.2. difference：Both phonology and phonetics are studies of speech sound, but they differ in their approach and focus.3.Phone, phoneme, and allophone(1).Phone:a phonetic unit or segment; a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning;(2).Phoneme: a phonological unit, abstract and of distinctive value;(3).Allophone: the different phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.(4) Minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings* Kill, till, pill* Beat, bit, bet, boot4.Some rules in phonology(1). Sequential rules* If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. * If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:a. The first phoneme must be /s/b. The second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/c. The third phoneme must be /1/ or /r/ or /w/.(2). Assimilation ruleDelete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.Chapter 形态学1. 造词的方法：How to express the reference in updating world?* Coining completely new words and expressions* Generalizing derivational words from existing ones* Using the first letters of the group of words and forming a new spelling which covers the meanings of the phrase. (Acronym)* Pronouncing the first letter of each word individually, to represent the whole phrase. (Alphabet Abbreviation)* Picking up symbolic letters within the word to represent the complete form, like the clippings of the paper. (Clippings)* Blending the words into halves, using the former part of the formerword, and the latter part of the latter one, to form a new word, within which, the meanings of the two words are both contained. (Blends)✓Motel=Motor+hotel; Informercial=Information+commercial; Brunch=Breakfast+lunch; Optical+electricity=Optitricity.* Using specific brand names of products as names for the products in general✓I left my IBM in my office;✓We can use your xerox when camping.✓Can I borrow your L’oreal?* Using Proper names which are of historic reasons to indicate the correspondent reference.✓Hooker, for the prostitutes following the troops led by the general Hooker;* Borrowing words and expressions from another language directly, for the local usage.✓Sushi (from Japanese); 镭射(from English Acronym: Razor) 雷达(From English Acronym: Radar); インフォーメーション(From English)* Changing the Meaning of Word, which means that with the time passing by, a new meaning can be given to the original word.2.The formation rules for word(1).MorphemeThe minimal meaningful unit within a language.*Morpheme*Free morpheme *bound morpheme*One-morpheme-word *prefix/infix/suffix bound basement contracted forms3. Affix: derivational affix and inflectional affix(1). Derivational: changing the part of the speech of the words (suffix) as well as making alterations to the original meanings (prefix/suffix). (Open) (2).Inflectional: adding meanings of tense, aspect, property, number and voice to the original word, without changing its part of speech, but just indicating its grammatical relationships with others. (Close) Quiz4.The principles of adding deriv./inf.* All prefixes are derivational morphemes* All inflectional ones are suffix* When adding one derivational morpheme to the word, then other derivational ones of the same position may be blocked.* When adding both derivational and inflectional morphemes to the same word, the inflectional morpheme is usually added at the last place, which could be regarded as the outline of the word.Chapter 句法学1. Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.2. Immediate Constituent Analysis* (IC Analysis)* Phrase Structure* Tree diagram*3. Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions ⏹The boy smiled. (Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) ⏹He hid behind the door. (Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)⏹ He kicked the ball. (Neither constituent stands for the verb-objectsequence.)⏹John seemed angry. (After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)Chapter 语义学1. Semantics is the study of meaning in language.2.The meaning of meaning3. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:* Conceptual meaning* Connotative meaning* Social meaning* Affective meaning* Reflected meaning* Collocative meaning* Thematic meaning====== associative meaning3. The naming theoryPlato: the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.4. Semantic triangle5.Contextualism⏹1930 to 1960⏹Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, and context -- elements closely linked with language behavior.⏹language should be treated as a mode of action, not an instrument of reflection⏹For a large class of cases ... the meaning of a word is its use in the language⏹One can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.6.Behaviorism⏹Bloomfield: situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearerJill Jack⏹S r……s R7.Sense and reference* Sense: the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; the collection of all the features of the linguistic form* Cat: a small furry animal with whiskers and sharp claws, often kept as a pet or to catch mice* Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world* The dog is barking.8. Major Sense Relations(1).Synonymy:Words that is close in meaning.Stylistic synonyms:Synonyms differing in style⏹old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent⏹start, begin, commence⏹kid, child, offspring⏹kick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decease Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning⏹collaborator'' and "accompliceCollocational synonyms⏹accuse ... of, charge ... with, rebuke ... ForSemantically different synonyms⏹amaze and astound(2). Polysemy: The same one word may have more than one meaning.(3). HomonymyThe phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words is identical in sound or spelling, or in both.* Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peace leak/leek* Homographs: bow v./bow n. tear v. / tear n. lead v. / lead n* Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v. scale n./scale v(4). HyponymyA is included in / a kind of B.Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flowerSuperordinate/hypernym: the more general termHyponym: the more specific termCo-hyponyms: members of the same class(5). Antonym: words that are opposite in meaning* Gradable antonyms: old and young⏹good ----------------------- bad⏹long ----------------------- short⏹big ----------------------- smallCan be modified by adverbs of degree like very.Can have comparative forms.Can be asked with how.* Complementary antonyms: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the otheralive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : fail boy : girl hit : miss* Relational opposites: Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbuy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : below before : after host : guest employer : employee9. Sense relations between sentences*X is synonymous with YX: He was a bachelor all his life.Y: He never married all his life.X: The boy killed the dog.Y: The dog was killed by the boy.if X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.* X is inconsistent with YX. John is married.Y: John is a bachelor.X: This is my first visit to your country.Y: I have been to your country before.if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.* X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X. )X: John married a blond heiress.Y: John married a blond.X: He has been to France.Y: He has been to EuropeIf X is true, Y is necessarily true; If X is false, Y may be true or false* X presupposes Y. (Y is a prerequisite of X.)X: John's bike needs repairing.Y: John has a bike.X: The queen of England is old.Y: England has a queen.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.* X is a contradiction.My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.那位无腿女孩踩了我一脚。

现代语言学名词解释

现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。

语言学名词解释

orderly.(08F)23.module: It refers to a unit of processing that is relatively autonomous from other processing units.24.Minimal attachment:we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language. (e g. Mike kissed Lucy and her sister…)te closure:wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the current constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing.(E.g.: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. )26.cohort model: in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers from beginning to end.27.Selectional restrictions---a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of the word-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words is organized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.29.Levelt’s model of speech production:Four stages of production: conceptualizing----- > formulating---- >articulating---- > self-monitoring.(1) Conceptualizing: we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate.(2)Formulating: we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the lexicon.(3) articulating:the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator which actually produces the utterance.(4) self-monitoring.:We monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）; a sequence of two utterances by different speake rs in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/ans wer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of o ne word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is gramma tically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day. There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the tempora l structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant. E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible fric tion. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）: meanings that are explicable in the l ight of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriat ely in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large un it within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, p repositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the fo rm of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and doe s not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic elemen t or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small numbe r of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful uni ts.18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet. 20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender ass umes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the as sumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret t he sentence.21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexpl oded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with t he exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine w ith words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a pa rticular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires t hat the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him. nguage universal (语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not a ll, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among gr oups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of so ciety,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系) The substitutional relation between a s et of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can b e substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Natur e,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elem ents which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sen tence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been take n”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the bes t example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rathe r than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappro priate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles th at enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without inst ruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universa l Grammar.（这是今年复试面试时教授的问题。

Linguistics语言学归纳

Linguistics1.The scope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation. syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use Descriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard” behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members ofa speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguisticcommunication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connection betweenmeanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation of languageenables users to talk about anything within their knowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）2.Functions of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factual information,which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’s feelings,preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain social relations betweenpeople.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.3.Morphemes词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function Free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed. (-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntactic category.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出4.Category: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb. Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua) Phrase elements : specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses. Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigerator burger-hamburger 3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunch camcorder-camera+recorder 4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technologyEU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate6)Function shiftn.-v. To knee/bug/tape v.-n. a hold/reject/retreatadj.-v. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitar balconyBalloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restateanti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inborn off-licenseUndertake without landlady handover whitewash8.Register 语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.9.Sapir-whorf hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to language development.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complex grammaticalstructures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD)ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—aspecific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language.Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules. Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)：语言学名词解释第四版教程语言学教程第四版笔记语言学教程考试题语言学教程中文版pdf篇一：新编语言学教程名词解释(部分重点)(1) linguistics: （语言学）the scienti?c or systematic study of language.(2) language: （语言）a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(3) arbitrariness: （任意性）the absence of similarity between the form of a linguistic sign andwhat it relates to in reality, e.g. the word dog does not look like a dog.(4) duality:（双重性）the way meaningless elements of language at one level (soundsand letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.(5) competence:（语言能力）knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formalabstraction and distinct from the behavior of actual language use,i.e. performance.(6) performance:（语言运用）Chomsky’s term for actual language behavior as distinct from theknowledge that underlies it, or competence.(11) synchronic linguistics: （共时语言学）the study of language and speech as they are used ata given moment and not in terms of how they have evolved over time.(12) diachronic linguistics: （历时语言学）the study of linguistic change over time in contrastto looking at language as it is used at a given moment.(6) phoneme:（音位）the abstract element of a sound, identi?ed as being distinctive in aparticular language.(7) phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they areproduced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(8)phonology: （音位学）the study of the abstract systems underlying the sounds of language.(1) morphology:（形态学）the study of the structure of words.(2) morpheme:（词素）the smallest unit of language that carries meaning or serves agrammatical function.(3) free morpheme: （自由词素）a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.(4) bound morpheme: （黏着词素）a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word,e.g. ment (as in establishment), and -er (as in painter).(5) morph:（语素变体）the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the levelof parole.(6) allomorph: a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized,e.g. -s, -es, and en are allallomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.(1) syntax: the term used to refer to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentencestructure.（句法学）(5) IC analysis:（Immediate constituent analysis 直接成分分析法）the approach to divide thesentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining itsultimate constituents.(11) ideational function（概念功能）: the use of language as a means of giving structure to ourexperience of the real or imaginary world.(12) interpersonal function（人际功能）: the use of language for maintaining social roles andinteracting with others.(13) textual function（语篇功能）: to create written or spoken texts which cohere withinthemselves and which ?t the particular situation in which they are used.(1) semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.语义学(14) synonymy:(同义) the sense relations of equivalence of meaning between lexicalitems, e.g. small/little and dead/deceased.(15) antonymy:(反义关系) the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning betweenlexical items, e.g. big/small, alive/dead and good/bad.(16) hyponymy:（上下义关系）the sense relation between terms in a hierarchy,where a more particular term (the hyponym) is included in the more general one (thesuperordinate): X is a Y, e.g. a beech is a tree, a tree is a plant. (17) meronym:（整体部分关系）the sense relation between body and its parts which are notonly sections of the body but de?ned in terms of speci?c functions. For example, thehead is the part of the body which carries the most important sense organs, i.e. eyes, ears, nose and tongue.(1) pragmatics:（语用学） a branch of linguistics that studies language in use.(2) deixis:（指示）the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations withrespect to certain points of reference such as the place (here/there) and time (now/then) of utterance.(1) sociolinguistics: the study of the relationship between language and society, that is, howsocial factors in?uence the structure and use of language.（社会语言学）(8) diglossia:（双语） a situation when two distinct varieties of the same languageare used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.(9) bilingualism:（双语现象）the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by agroup of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region ora nation.(11) taboo:（禁忌）a word or expression that is prohibited by thepolite society from generaluse.(12) euphemism:（委婉语）a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoidreference to certain acts or subjects, e. g. “powder room”for “toilet”.(1) cognitive linguistics: a new approach to the study of language and mind. According to thisapproach, language and language use are based on our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.（认知语言学）篇二：]胡壮麟版《语言学教程》前四章名词解释胡壮麟《语言学教程》术语表第一章phonology音系学grammar语法学morphology形态学syntax 句法学lexicology词汇学general linguistics普通语言学theoretical linguistics理论语言学historical linguistics历史语言学descriptive linguistics描写语言学empirical linguistics经验语言学dialectology方言学anthropology人类学stylistics文体学signifier能指signified所指morphs形素morphotactics语素结构学/形态配列学syntactic categories句法范畴syntactic classes句法类别序列sub-structure低层结构super-structure上层结构open syllable开音节closed syllable闭音节checked syllable成阻音节rank 等级level层次ding-dongtheory/nativistic theory本能论sing-song theory唱歌说yo-he-ho theory劳动喊声说pooh-pooh theory感叹说ta-ta theory模仿说animal crytheory/bow-wow theory模声说Prague school布拉格学派Bilateral opposition双边对立Mutilateral opposition多边对立Proportional opposition部分对立Isolated opposition孤立对立Private opposition表缺对立Graded opposition渐次对立Equipollent opposition均等对立Neutralizable opposition可中立对立Constant opposition恒定对立Systemic-functional grammar系统功能语法Meaning potential意义潜势Conversational implicature会话含义Deictics指示词Presupposition预设Speech acts言语行为Discourse analysis话语分析Contetualism语境论Phatic communion寒暄交谈Metalanguage原语言Applied linguistics应用语言学Nominalism唯名学派Psychosomatics身学第二章trachea/windpipe气管tip舌尖blade舌叶/舌面front舌前部center舌中部top舌顶back舌后部dorsum舌背root舌跟pharynx喉/咽腔laryngeals 喉音laryngealization喉化音vocal cords声带vocal tract声腔initiator启动部分pulmonic airstream mechanism肺气流机制glottalic airstream mechanism喉气流机制velaric airstream mechanism腭气流机制Adam’s apple喉结Voiceless sound清音Voiceless consonant请辅音Voiced sound浊音Voiced consonant浊辅音Glottal stop喉塞音Breath state呼吸状态Voice state带音状态Whisper state耳语状态Closed state封闭状态Alveolar ride齿龈隆骨Dorsum舌背Ejective呼气音Glottalised stop喉塞音Impossive内爆破音Click/ingressive吸气音Segmental phonology音段音系学Segmental phonemes音段音位Suprasegmental超音段Non-segmental非音段Plurisegmental复音段Synthetic language综合型语言Diacritic mark附加符号Broad transcription宽式标音Narrow transcription窄式标音Orthoepy正音法Orthography正字法Etymology词源Active articulator积极发音器官Movable speech organ能动发音器官Passive articulator消极发音器官Immovable speech organ不能动发音器官Lateral边音Approximant [j,w]无摩擦延续音Resonant共鸣音Central approximant中央无摩擦延续音Lateral approximant边无摩擦延续音Unilateral consonant单边辅音Bilateral consonant双边辅音Non-lateral非边音Trill [r]颤音trilled consonant颤辅音rolled consonant滚辅音Labal-velar唇化软腭音Interdental齿间音Post-dental后齿音Apico-alveolar舌尖齿龈音Dorso-alveolar舌背齿龈音Palato-alveolar后齿龈音Palato-alveolar腭齿龈音Dorso-palatal舌背腭音Pre-palatal前腭音Post-palatal后腭音Velarization软腭音化Voicing浊音化Devoicing清音化Pure vowel纯元音Diphthong二合元音Triphthong三合元音Diphthongization二合元音化Monophthongization单元音化Centring diphthong央二合元音Closing diphthong闭二合元音Narrow diphthong窄二合元音Wide diphthong宽二合元音Phonetic similarity语音相似性Free variant自由变体Free variation自由变异Contiguous assimilation临近同化Juxtapostional assimilation邻接同化Regressive assimilation逆同化Anticipatoryassimilation先行同化Progressive assimilation顺同化Reciprocal assimilation互相同化Coalescent assimilation融合同化Partial assimilation部分同化Epenthesis插音Primary stress主重音Secondary stress次重音Weak stress弱重音Stress group重音群Sentence stress句子重音Contrastive stress对比重音Lexical stress词汇重音Word stress词重音Lexical tone词汇声调Nuclear tone核心声调Tonetics声调学Intonation contour语调升降曲线Tone units声调单位Intonology语调学Multilevel phonology多层次音系学Monosyllabic word多音节词Polysyllabic word单音节次Maximal onset principle最大节首辅音原则第三章词汇liaison连音contracted form缩写形式frequency count词频统计a unit of vocabulary词汇单位a lexical item词条 a lexeme词位hierarchy层次性lexicogrammar词汇语法morpheme语素nonomorphemic words单语素词polymorphemic words多语素词relativeuninterruptibility相对连续性a minimum free form最小自由形式the maximum free form最大自由形式variable words 可变词invariable words不变词paradigm聚合体grammatical words(function words)语法词/功能词lexical words(content words)词汇词/实义词closed-class words封闭类词opened-class words开放类词word class词类particles小品词pro-form代词形式pro-adjective(so)代形容词pro-verb(do/did)代副词pro-adverb(so)代动词pro-locative(there)代处所词/代方位词determiners限定词predeterminers前置限定词central determiners中置限定词post determiners后置限定词ordinal number序数词cardinal number基数词morpheme词素morphology形态学free morpheme自由词素bound morpheme黏着词素root词根affix词缀stem词干root morpheme词根语素prefix前缀infix中缀suffix后缀bound root morpheme黏着词根词素inflectional affix屈折词缀derivational affix派生词缀inflectional morphemes屈折语素derivational morphemes派生语素word-formation构词compound复合词endocentric compound 向心复合词exocentric compound离心复合词nominal endocentric compound名词性向心复合词adjective endocentric compound形容词性向心复合词verbal compound动词性复合词synthetic compound综合性复合词derivation派生词morpheme 语素phoneme音位morphonology形态语音学morphophomemics形态音位学morphemic structure语素结构phonological structure音素结构monosyllabic单音节polysyllabic多音节phonological conditioned音位的限制morphologicalconditioned形态的限制coinage/invention新创词语blending混成法abbreviation缩写法acronym首字母缩写法back-formation逆序造次/逆构词法analogical creation类比构词法borrowing借词法loanword借词loanblend混合借词loanshift 转移借词loan translation翻译借词loss脱落addition添加metathesis换位assimilation同化contact assimilation接触性同化contiguous assimilation临近性同化theory of least effort省力理论non- contiguous assimilation非临近性同化distant assimilation远距离同化morpho-syntactic change形态-句法变化morphological change形态变化syntactical change句法变化finite element有定成分semantic change语义变化multisemous多种意义broadening词义扩大narrowing词义缩小meaning shift词义转移class shift词性变换folk etymology俗词源orthographic change拼写的变化conversion变换/变码domain范围/领域meaning shift意义转移split infinitives分裂不定式(She was told to regularly classes) calque 仿造词语clipping截断法metanalysis再分化finiteness定式proximate(this)近指代词obviative(that)远指代词non-productivity/unproductive非多产性semiotics符号学paradigmatic relations聚合关系associative relations联想关系syntagmatic relations组合关系sequential relations序列关系logogram语标register语域passive vocabulary消极词汇lexis/vocabulary词汇表第四章句法number数gender性case格nominative主格vocative呼格accusative兵格genitive属格dative与格ablative 离格tense 时aspect体perfective完成体imperfective未完成体concord/agreement一致关系/协同关系government支配关系the governor支配者the governed被支配者signified能指signifier所指syntagmatic relationship组合关系paradigmatic relationship聚合关系associative relationship联想关系animate noun有生名词the two axes两根坐标坐标轴immediate constituent analysis(IC analysis for short)直接成分分析法linear structure线性结构hierarchical structure层级结构construction结构体constituent成分substituability替换性labeled tree diagram标签树形图endocentric/headed construction 向心结构/中心结构exocentric construction离心结构subordinate construction主从结构coordinate construction并列结构recapitulation再现the declarative陈述句the interrogative疑问句dative movement与格移位morph-phonemic rule形态音位规则constituent morphemes成分规则affix hopping词缀越位nominalization名物化object-deletion宾语删除subject-deletion主语删除categories语类lexicon词库temporal subject表时间的主语syntactic limitation句法限制standard theory标准理论trace theory语迹理论the same index带同标志government管辖binding约束a rule system规则系统a principle system原则系统constituentcommand(C-command for short)成分统制plain English普通英语anaphor照应语pronominal指代语r-expression(referential-expression)指称语INFL(inflection)形态变化reciprocals(each other)相互代词accessible subject可及主语local domain局部语域binding domain约束语域logophoricity主人公视角CS(computational system)计算系统Merger合并move移动theme主位rheme述位empty subject空主语objective order客观顺序subjective order主观顺序actual sentence division实义句子切分法functional sentence perspective 功能句子观communicative dynamism (CD)交际动力bipartition二分法tripartite classification三分法representative function表达功能expressive function表情功能appellative/vocative function称呼功能conative function意欲功能poetic function诗学功能ideational function概念功能interpersonal function人际功能textual function语篇功能transitivity及物性actor动作者mood system语气系统the finite verbal operator限定部分residue剩余部分indicative直陈语气imperative祈使语气mental-process(a process of sensing)心理过程（感觉过程）relational process(a process of being)关系过程（属性过程）verbal process(a process of saying)言语过程（讲话过程）existential process生存过程篇三：胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结胡壮麟语言学名词解释总结1. design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.2. function: the use of language tocommunicate,to think ,nguage functions inclucleimformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3. etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysisin linguistics proper.4. emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction ofphonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than viaqppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith or intuition alone.5. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant(usually,but not necessarily,thepresent),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6. diachronic:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.7. prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought tobe,ying down rules for language use.8. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.9. arbitrariness: one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms oflinguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.10. duality: one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having twolevels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has itsown principles of organization.11. displacement: one design feature of human language,which means human language enabletheir users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time andspace,at the moment of communication.12. phatic communion: one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction oflanguage.13. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description ofparticular studies.14. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between language and language-related disciplines suchas psychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches ofmacrolinguistics includepsycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguistics,et15. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.16. performance: the actual use of language in concrete situation.17. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker.18. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).19. Articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speechsounds.20. Coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulationsare involved..Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation andperseverative coarticulation.21. Voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant) by vibrating the vocalcords.22. Broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is calledbroad transcription;the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broadtranscription;while,the use of more specific symbols to show morephonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.23. Consonant: are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.24. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.25. Allophone:any of the different forms of a phoneme(eg.this an allophone of /t/inEnglish.When /t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspiratedt.Boththand tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.26. Vowl:are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of a totalstopping of the air can be perceived.27. Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to theactual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.28. Place of articulation: in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where inthe vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or theobstruction of air.29. Distinctive features: a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme fromanother.30. Complementary distribution: the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in thesame environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.31. IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the InternationalPhonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong a number of revisions.IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.32. Suprasegmental:suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more thansingle sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features are syllable,stress,tone,,and intonation.33. morpheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression andcontent,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it islexical or grammatical.34. compound oly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such asclassroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.35. inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectionalaffixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.36. affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to anothermorpheme(the root or stem).37. derivation: different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.38. root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.39. allomorph:any of the different form of a morpheme.For example,in English the pluralmortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and as/iz/ in classes.So/s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.40. Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can beadded.41. bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it isadded to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dog’s”.42. free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.43. lexeme:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.”dog in the manger”)44. lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and providedwith semantic interpretation.45. grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings,suchconjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.46. lexical word: word having lexical meanings,that is ,those which refer to substance,action andquality,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.47. open-class: a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.48. blending: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended byjoining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.49. loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightadaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.50. loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaningis fully borrowed.51. leanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.52. acronym: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavilymodified headword.53. loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.54. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived bydeleting an imagined affix from a long form already in the language.55. assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which ismore specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.56. dissimilation: the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.57. folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popularnation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous58. category:parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts ofspeech,the identification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.59. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study ofthe truth conditions for propositions:how the truth of a composite propositions and theconnection between them.60. Proposition:what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do withreference.61. predicate logic: also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.62. assimilation theory: language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features ofone element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.63. cohort theory: theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumesa “recognition lexicon”in which each word is represented by a full andindependent”recognistion element”.When the system receives the beginning of a relevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more of the signal isreceived,the system tries to match it independently with each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated;this process continues until only one remains active.64. context effect: this effect help people recognize a word more readily when the receding wordsprovide an appropriate context for it.65. frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its morefrequent usage in language.66. inference in context: any conclusion drawn from a set of proposition,from something someonehas said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in anordinary sense,e.g.in a specific context.67. immediate assumption: the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required tounderstand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.68. language perception:language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.69. language comprehension: one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studiesthe understanding of language.70. language production: a goal-directed activety,in the sense that people speak and write in ordeto make friends,influence people,convey information and so on. 71. lexical ambiguity:ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings:e.g.that of I saw abat,where a bat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.72. macroproposition:general propositions used to form an overallmacrostructure of the story.73. modular:which a assumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules orcomponents,each governed by its own principles and operating independently of others.74. parsing:the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriateaccidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning lat in grammar.75. propositions:whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.76. psycholinguistics: is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to a particular word).77. psycholinguistic reality: the reality of grammar,etc.as a purported account of structuresrepresented in the mind of a speaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria ofsimplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.78. schemata in text: packets of stored knowledge in language processing.79. story structure: the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.80. writing process: a series of actions or events that are part of a writing or continuingdevelopmeng.81. communicative competence: a speaker’s knowledge of the total set ofrules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in a society.Distinguished byD.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley’s concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of a grammar. 82. gender difference: a difference in a speech between men and women is”genden difference”83. linguistic determinism: one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguagedetermines thought.84. linguistic relativity: one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there’s no limit to thestructural diversity of languages.85. linguistic sexism:many differences between me and women in language use are brought aboutby nothing less than women’s place in society.86. sociolinguistics of language: one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want tolook at structural things by paying attention to language use in a social context.87. sociolinguistics of society:one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try tounderstand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.88. variationist linguistics: a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship betweenspeakers’social starts and phonological variations.89. performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes a statement which may be true or false.90. constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.91. locutionary act: the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by meansof syntax,lexicon,and ly.,the utterance of a。

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Linguisticsscope of linguistics: (a branch of linguistics that….)phonetics（语音学）: the study of linguistic speech sounds, how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties.(study of the phonic medium of language)phonology:（音位学）the study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistics communication.morphology:（形态学）the study of the word structure and word formation.syntax:（句法学）is the branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.semantics: (语义学) the study of linguistic meaning.pragmatics:（语用学）a branch of linguistics that studies the context of language use to effect successful communication.Some distinctions in linguistics:1)Prescriptive & descriptivePrescriptive: aims to describe and analyze the language people actually useDescriptive: aims to lay down rules for “correct & standard”behavior in using language.(doctor)2)Synchronic & diachronic 共时的&历时的Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time.3)Langue & parole 语言&言语Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use. 4)Competence & performance 语言能力&语言运用Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge inlinguistic communication.Design features of language:1)arbitrariness: （任意性）means there is no logical connectionbetween meanings and sounds.2)Productivity: it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users.3)Duality:（双重性）duality of structure or double articulation oflanguage enables users to talk about anything within theirknowledge.4)Displacement: language can be used to refer to contexts removedfrom the immediate situations of the speaker. 不受时空限制5)Cultural transmission 文化传播（eg:狼孩）of language:1)Descriptive function: it is the function to convey factualinformation, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)Expressive function: supplies information about the user’sfeelings, preferences, prejudices and values.3)Social function: serves to establish and maintain socialrelations between people.Phone:（音素）is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme:（音位）is a phonological unit. It is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit.词素—the minimal units of meaningThe smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or functionFree morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itself.Bound morpheme: a morpheme must be attached to another one.Derivational morphemes：(衍生词素) the morphemes which change the category or grammatical class of words. They are conjoined to other morphemes /words, new words are derived or formed.(-en,-ate,-ic,-ous,-ly,-tion,-sive,-er) 标出Inflectional morphemes: (曲折词素) they are attached to words or morphemes, but they never change their syntacticcategory.(-s,-er,-est,-ed,-ing) ○标出: refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phase or a verb.Non-traditional categories: determiner(Det)限定词,degree(Deg),qualifier(Qua)Phrase elements?: specifiers, complements(XP Rule), modifiers. Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties. 没变形陈述句Surface structure5. Lexical meaning:Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract andde-contextualized.Eg: dog-general meaning of dog, featuresReference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world.Eg；One particular/certain dog existent in the situation, known to each other6.Context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (John Firth)Speech act theory: (John Austin)Locutionary act:（言内行为）is the act of uttering words, phrases and clauses.Illocutionary act: (言外之意) is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act of performed in saying something. Perlocutionary act:（言后行为）is the act of performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle-CP (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity:Say no less than the conversation requires.Say no more than the conversation requires.The maxim of quality:Don't say what you believe to be false.Don't say things for which you lack evidence.The maxim of manner:Don't be obscure. Don't be ambiguous.Be brief. Be orderly.The maxim of relevance: Be relevant.7. Language changeAddition of new words:1)Coinage:创新词Spyware digital camera cyber citizen mouse potato 2)Clipped words: 缩略词Lab-laboratory gym-gymnasium fridge-refrigeratorburger-hamburger3)Blending: 紧缩法Smog-smoke+fog brunch-breakfast+lunchcamcorder-camera+recorder4)Acronyms: 首字母缩略词CEO-chief executive officer IT-information technology EU VIP B2B CPI5)Back-formation: 逆构词法To edit/beg/baby-sit/donate/orient/hawk/aviate/appreciate 6)Function shift. To knee/bug/tape . a hold/reject/retreat. to cool/narrow/dim/slow7)BorrowingBonus tragedy skirt education cycle prince guitarbalconyBalloon opera pump tea tofu kowtow sampan zeroKungfu mahjong spaghetti bizarre garage8)Derivation 派生词Fixable refusal exciting impressive dislike restate anti-pollution unfair realize happiness9)Compounds 复合词Bittersweet rainbow spoonfeed sleepwalk inbornoff-licenseUndertake without landlady handover whitewash语域Field of discourse话语范围: refers to what is going on: on the area of operation of the language activity.Tenor of discourse话语基调: refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and what relationship they stand to each other.Mode of discourse话语方式: refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with “how” communication is carried out.hypothesis (SWH) 萨丕尔·沃尔夫假说Language filters people’s perception ang the way they categorize their experiences.10. Language AcquisitionTheories of child language acquisition:1)The behavioristImitation and practice are preliminary, and discrimination and generalization are crucial to languagedevelopment.(habit-forming)But it fails to explain how children acquire more complexgrammatical structures of the language.2)The innatistLanguage Acquisition device(LAD) ChomskyIt proposed that human beings are born with an innate ability.It said that the “the black box” contain principles that are universal to all human language.Universal Grammar (UG)3)The interactionistIt holds that language develops as a result of the complexinterplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows. motherese child directed speech (CDS) caretaker talkCritical Period Hypothesis (CPH) Eric LennebergLAD works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.Two versions:Strong one suggests that children must acquire their firstlanguage by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.11. Second Language AcquisitionPositive transfer正迁移 facilitateNegative transfer 负迁移 interfere or hinderInterlanguage 中介语It was established as learners’ independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the secondlanguage, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language. Fossilization 石化现象It is a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.Acquisition 习得It is a subconscious process without minute learning of grammatical rules.Learning学习It refers to conscious efforts to learn the second language knowledge by learning the rules and talking about the rules.。

Linguistics语言学归纳

语言学知识点概括

语言学 Linguistics笔记

语言学复习重点

Linguistics语言学归纳(可编辑修改word版)

英语语言学知识整理1

语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)

Linguistics知识点总结

《语言学导论》重点整理

简明英语语言学知识点汇总

linguistics的分类

语言学复习指要Linguistics

LinguisticsRevision语言学复习资料分解

语言学考试整理 名词解释

英语语言学复习资料整理

语言学总结

现代语言学名词解释

语言学名词解释

Linguistics语言学归纳

语言学教程第四版里的名词解释总结(共10篇)

语言学考试整理名词解释