语言学 SEMANTICS
语言学(6-10)
第六章语义学一、导读6.1 意义研究语义学（semantics）是研究意义的科学。
它的理论探讨对象是语言的意义（linguistic meaning）或语义，语义是一般意义的一部分。
人类对语言意义的关注已有久远的历史。
古希腊哲学家在研究哲学问题时，也涉及了语言的意义问题。
但古今中外的各种学科，都未把语言的意义问题进行系统探讨。
只有语义学才把语言意义作为直接的、基本的研究对象，并对语言意义进行全面、系统的研究。
现代语义学的一个重要特点是这门学科与许多相关科学的相互借鉴和交融贯通。
哲学、逻辑学、符号学、心理学、音韵学、人类学等众多学科都为语义学的发展提供了丰富的营养，而语义学则是兼收并蓄，博采众长，使自身的理论日斟精深，体系趋于完整。
6.2 指称和意义语义学中涉及意义问题的几种主要理论有指称论、意念论、实证论等等。
指称论将词义与词的指称对象直接联系，其观察词义的出发点是外延逻辑。
指称论提供了一种对词义的自然、直观的解释：词语有意义是因为词语标示了语言外世界中的事物。
词的意义就是它指称的对象。
意义的指称论有明显的缺陷，用此理论解释词义会遇到各种矛盾：并非所有的词语都有指称对象，某些词（如语气词、感叹词、连接词、介词等）都无指称对象。
不同词语可指称同一对象。
如“伦敦”和“英国首都”指称同一城市，但意义也不同。
有些词在现实世界中无指称对象，但有意义，如“负一”。
这些情况一方面显示出意义并不局限于指称，另一方面在语言表达与所确定的实体之间并不总是存在一一对应的关系。
意义常常大于所指。
词汇不仅与客观世界相关也与人类思维有联系。
因此除了指称，还有意义。
意义是思维的体现。
6.3 词汇意义的分类词汇意义主要有指称意义和联想意义。
指称意义是指词和句子等语言成分跟语言外部世界的关系。
如woman（女人）一词其意义可以说包含了+HUMAN(人)，-MALE（非男性），+ADULT（成人）这几个特征。
附加在指称意义上的其它意义会随着历史时期的不同而有所改变。
英语语言学第五章semantics
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6.3 Complementary antonymy
The members of a pair complementary to each other. They divide the whole of a semantic field completely. The assertion of one means the denial of the other and the denial of one means the assertion of the other. There is no intermediate ground between the two. Distinction between gradable and complementary contrary and contradictory
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3.2 Connotative meaning
the emotional association which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind. It is the supplementary value added to the purely denotative meaning of a word. Mother a female parent connotes love, care and tenderness. Dogs have different connotative meaning between Chinese and English.
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3.7 Thematic meaning
determined by the order of the words and the different prominence they each receive.
语言学第五章Semantics
语⾔学第五章SemanticsChapter Five SemanticsTeaching Focus1. What is semantics2. Meanings of “meaning”3. Sense and reference4. Sense relations5. Componential analysis --- a way to analyze lexical meaning6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaning1. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Or specifically, it is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.Different focus of the study in semantics:Logical semantics/philosophical semantics: Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or …propositions?) within a single language.Linguistic semantics: The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.2. Meanings of “Meaning”The word “meaning” has different meanings.It has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists.The naming theory: Plato & AristotleWords are just names or labels for things.Can you show the limitations of this theoryThe semantic triangle: C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923) → The Meaning of Meaning.There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. ?thought/reference (concept)symbolizes refers tosymbol/form referent(word, phrase) stands for(object)Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaningSocial meaningAffective meaning associative meaningReflected and meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaning(1) Conceptual meaningIt makes the central part of meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.(2) Connotative meaningThe communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features. ?Involving the …real world? experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.Unstable: they vary considerably according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.(3) Social meaningWhat a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use.Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class.Time: the language of the 18th c., etc.Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc.Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc.Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.domicile: very formal, official steed: poeticresidence: formal horse: generalabode: poetic nag: slanghome: general gee-gee: baby language (4) Affective meaningReflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Youre a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it!Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. orWill you belt up.(5) Reflected meaningArises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. When you hear …click the mouse twice, you think of Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Many taboo terms are result of this.(6) Collocative meaningThe associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, colour, village, etc.handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat, airliner, typewriter, etc.(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.3. Sense and referenceSense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.Grammatical words like but, if ,and do not refer to anything. And words like God, ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things. Therefore it is suggested that we should study meaning in terms of sense rather than reference.4. Sense relationsSynonymygradableAntonymy complementaryconverseHyponymyPolysemy4.1 SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Complete synonyms are rare. According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:i. Dialectal synonyms --- used in different regional dialectsBritish English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorflat apartmenttube undergroundii. Stylistic synonyms --- differing in stylekid, child, offspringkick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, deceaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningcollaborator, accompliceiv. Collocational synonymsaccuse, chargev. Semantically different synonymssurprise, amaze, astound4.2 AntonymyThe term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.There are three types of antonyms.i. Gradable: Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very; Can have comparative forms; Can be asked with how. good, badyoung, oldhot, coldii. Complementary: the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.alive, deadmale, femalepresent, absentiii. Converse or relational: exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the pair; one presupposes the other. husband, wifebuy, sellbefore, after4.3 HyponymyHyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general word and a more specific word. It is a kind of inclusiveness. Superordinate: the more general wordHyponyms: the more specific wordsCo-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinateflower, rose, lilyanimal, cat, dogfurniture, bed, desk4.4 PolysemyPolysemy refers to the sense relation that the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is called a polysemic word.table: a piece of furniture; orderly arrangement of facts, figures5. Componential analysis---a way to analyze lexical meaningComponential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, calledsemantic features.HUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.6. Predication analysis --- a way to analyze sentence meaningThe meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words.Predication analysis: proposed by the British linguist G. LeechThe basic unit in this method is called prediction. It is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.An argument is logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence.A predicate is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. Tom smokes.Tom is smoking.Tom has been smoking. TOM (SMOKE)Does Tom smokingTom does not smoke. argument predicateKids like apples. → KID, APPLE (LIKE)It is hot. → (BE HOT)AssignmentsHow can words opposite in meaning be classified To which category does each of the following pairs of antonyms belong?north/south vacant/occupiedliterate/illiterate above/belowdoctor/patient wide/narrowpoor/rich father/daughterhonest/dishonest normal/abnormalExercisesI. Multiple choice.1. The naming theory seems applicable to ___ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns2. Hyponyms of the superordinate “flower” do not include “___”.A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose3. Predication analysis is a way to analyze ___ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentenceII. Make judgments (true or false)1. In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word “symbol” refers to the object in the world of experience.2. When the same one word has more than one meaning we call it a polysemic word.3. Complete synonyms, i.e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English.。
语言学导论-第5章Semantics
Lexical meaning: Reference & Sense
Reference 指称:
what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world; dealing with the relationship between language and the world.
“dog”:
4-legged mammal, hairy, canine, definitely loyal
(newsworthy)
What is Meaning?
Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning. Linguistic views:
The conceptualist view 概念论
The semantic triangle 语义三角
(Ogden & Richards 1923) Thought/Reference 思想/指称 (concept)
“dog”
Symbol/Form 符号/形式 (word/phrase/sentence)
Meaning & Language: Semantics
Definition
Semantics: the study of meaning in language.
It deals with the meaning of words (lexical semantics). And how meaning of sentences (compositional semantics) is derived from words.
chapter5semantics语言学
chapter5semantics语言学语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子意义的研究。
1.“意义”的意义G.Leech提出7种意义：概念意义，内涵意义，社会意义，感情意义，反射意义，搭配意义，主题意义。
G.Leech的概念意义包括两个方面：涵义和指称。
涵义和指称的区别类似内涵与外延：前者指一个实体的抽象属性，后者指拥有这些属性的具体实体。
每个单词都有涵义，即概念意义，否则他们无法使用或理解，但并非每个单词都有指称。
2.指称论（命名论）：该理论把词语意义与词所指或词所代表的事物联系起来。
该理论对于解释专有名词或在现实中有所指的名词时很有效。
但其无法指称抽象概念。
有时同一东西会有不同词语的表达。
3.概念论。
代表是语义三角说。
该理论认为，词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，而是以抽象的概念为中介。
4，语境论认为应该在具体语境中研究词的意义. 语境包括情景语境和上下文两种。
5.行为主义理论认为词的意义是说话者说话得情景及听话人的反应6.意义关系词语词之间的主要意义关系：相同关系，相反关系，包含关系a.同义关系。
完全同义关系很少，所谓的同一都依赖语境，并总在某方面不同。
（方言，内涵，文体等）b.反义关系主要包括：等级反义关系，互补反义关系，关系反义关系。
1）等级反义的特点：第一，否定一方并不必然是肯定另一方，还有中间状态；第二，没有绝对评判标准，标准随对象而改变。
第三，通常用其中表示较高程度的词来覆盖整个量级。
覆盖性词被称为“无标记的”，即一般性的；被覆盖词被称为“有标记的”，即特殊的。
一般使用覆盖性词语。
一旦使用被覆盖词语，表示有某种特殊的、不一般的情况。
第四，可用very修饰，可有比较级最高级2）互补反义关系，第一，肯定一方意味着否定另一方。
反之亦然。
第二，不用very修饰，没有比较级最高级。
第三，评判标准绝对。
没有覆盖性词语3）关系（反向）反义关系，表现两个实体间的一种反向关系，不构成肯否定对立。
一个预设着另一个的存在。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
语言学知识_语义学
语义学一．语义学（Semantics）的定义：研究语言单位的意义，尤其是词语和句子的意义。
二．词汇意义（Lexical Meaning）：1）意义与指称（sense and reference）：意义与指称是语言研究中的两个术语，它们之间既相互联系，又相互区别。
意义（sense）是一系列抽象语义特征的集合，与语境无关，可以在字典中查到。
而指称（reference）是语言形式在现实物质世界中所指的事物；它涉及语言形式与非语言的现实世界之间的关系。
意义与指称是意义的两个相关但不同的方面，例如“morning star”和“evening star”的意义虽然不同，但其指称一样，都指代天空中的同一颗星星。
2）外延意义（denotative meaning）：指词语所指称的外部世界的事物、状态、抽象情感。
例如：dog(狗)的外延意义是指“一种四肢、有毛、会汪汪叫的哺乳动物”，这种意义在任何国家、任何时代都不会改变。
3）内涵意义（connotative meaning）：指源于语言使用者的个人经历、情感、评价、语境等外部因素的意义。
例如dragon一词，在汉语文化中象征着“高贵”、“权利”，但在某些英语国家文化中，其内涵意义则为“残暴”和“邪恶”。
三．意义关系（Sense Relationship）：1）同义关系（Synonymy）：方言同义词（Dialectal synonyms）：意义相同但方言有差异的词，例如：autumn（BrE）= fall（ArE）。
文体同义词（Stylistic synonyms）：意义相同但在文体上或者正式程度上有差别的词，例如：buy（较为随意）——purchase（较为正式）。
搭配同义词（Collocational synonyms）：指意义上相同，但是搭配不相同的词。
例如：provide和supply，provide sth. for sb.和supply sth. to sb.在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的同义词（Synonyms with different emotive or evaluative meaning）：意义相同，但在情感或评价意义方面存在差异的词，例如：politician （政客）含贬义色彩，statesmen（政治家）含褒义色彩。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
语言学 第五章 semantics
6 Collocative meaning（）搭配意义
conscience
case
sky
clear
The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.
Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical • constructions. Tomorrow I plan to have an outing. I plan to have an outing tomorrow.
有意义，无指称
5.3.2 Leech’s seven types of meaning
Geoffrey Leech
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Geoffrey N. Leech (Born 16 January 1936[1]) was Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002. He then became Research Professor in English Linguistics. He has been Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, since 2002.
英语语言学概论 Chapter 7 Semantics
3 objects, characteristics and state of affairs in the real world. 4 the speaker and the specific situational context(情景语境)
(4) Theories of meaning
Conceptual meaning: the meaning given in the dictionary: Associative meaning(联想意义):the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning: connotative, stylistic, affective and collocative meanings.
Basic concepts
Reference(所指 指称 the relation between 所指,指称 所指 指称): the linguistic expression and the object in extra-linguistic reality to which the expression refers to. Denotation: the objects or state of affairs in the real world that linguistic expressions stand for. Denotation is invariant and utteranceindependent while reference is variable and utterance dependent, could be specific.
Extension(外延 the class of entities to 外延): 外延 which a linguistic expression is correctly applied. Intension(内涵 内涵):the set of defining 内涵 properties which determine the applicability of a linguistic expression. Extension and intension are two aspects of denotation, which are complementary to each other.
(完整版)语义学理解
语义学各个领域对语义学的看法语义学（Semantics），也作“语意学”，是一个涉及到语言学、逻辑学、计算机科学、自然语言处理、认知科学、心理学等诸多领域的一个术语。
虽然各个学科之间对语义学的研究有一定的共同性，但是具体的研究方法和内容大相径庭。
一、语言学的语义学研究目的在于找出语义表达的规律性、内在解释、不同语言在语义表达方面的个性以及共性；其主要有三个分支：1结构主义语义学：从20世纪美国结构主义语言学发展而来，研究内容是词汇的意义和结构，如义素分析、语义场等，也可称为词汇语义学，词和词之间的各种关系是词汇语义学研究的一个方面，例如同义词、反义词，同音词等，找出词语之间的细微差别。
2生成语义学：20世纪六七十年代流行于生成语言学内部的一个语义学分支, 借鉴了结构语义学对义素的分析方法，比照生成音系学的音位区别特征理论，主张语言的最深层的结构是义素，通过句法变化和词汇化的各种手段而得到表层的句子形式。
3形式语义学：最初的研究开始于蒙太古以数理逻辑方法对英语的研究，后来经过语言学家和哲学家的共同努力，发展成为一个独立的学科，并且摒弃了蒙太古对生成语言学的句法学的忽视，强调语义解释和句法结构的统一，从而最终成为生成语言学的语义学分支。
二、逻辑学的语义学是对一个逻辑系统的解释，着眼点在于真值条件，不直接涉及自然语言；现代的逻辑学，或者说形式逻辑、数理逻辑等，其目的是设计出来一套形式语言系统，并对其作出语义解释。
这样的形式语言系统是一个个抽象的封闭体系.一个逻辑系统通常由三个部分组成，即词汇部分、句法部分和基于模型论的语义部分。
所谓的词汇部分就是列举出一个形式系统所使用的所有符号，句法部分是这些符号的组合规则，规定什么样的符号序列可以是这个系统的句子，语义部分是对合格句子的解释，这样的解释通常是：在一个模型中进行的对真值条件推导。
逻辑学的语义学着眼点在于逻辑系统的语义解释，是一个理想化的模型系统，不直接涉及自然语言。
semantics名词解释
semantics名词解释1. Semantics(semantically)意义学，语义学；关于意义的研究。
在语言学中指对词和句子的含义进行探讨，包括各种词汇和语法构造的意思以及它们在具体语境中的运用方式。
例句：1. Semantics is a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words and sentences.意义学是语言学的一个分支，研究词汇和句子的含义。
2. Semantic analysis involves examining the structure and meaning of language.语义分析涉及审查语言的结构和含义。
3. The study of semantics is important in understanding how language is used to convey meaning.研究语义对于理解语言如何传达含义至关重要。
4. The semantics of a sentence can change depending on the context in which it is used.一句话的语义会因其所在的语境而有所改变。
5. In semantics, we look at both the denotative and connotative meanings of words.在语义学中，我们关注词语的指示意义和隐含意义。
6. The semantic content of a text refers to its underlying meaning and themes.一段文本的语义内容指的是其潜在的意义和主题。
7. Understanding the semantics of a language is important in accurately translating it into another language.了解一种语言的语义对于准确翻译它到另一种语言至关重要。
英语语言学概论第五章笔记
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1.What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。
2.Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1)The naming theory 命名论It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。
该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。
2)The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中介物来联系的。
semantics含义和举例
semantics含义和举例
Semantics是一个英语词汇，指的是语言学和逻辑学中与词义、句义以及语言表达的意义相关的概念和研究领域。
在语言学中，semantics研究词汇和句子的意义，并探讨词汇和句子之间的
关系。
在逻辑学中，semantics研究命题、谓词和推理等的意
义和语义逻辑。
举例:
1. 在语言学中，semantics可以用来解释词汇的意义。
比如，
英语单词"dog"的semantics是指代一种四肢的、长尾巴的、被
驯化且以人类为主要伙伴的哺乳动物。
2. 在逻辑学中，semantics可以用来解释谓词和推理的意义。
例如，谓词"是母亲"的semantics可以定义为"对于一个人x，
如果存在一个人y，y是x的孩子，则x是母亲"。
3. 在计算机科学中，semantics可以用来解释编程语言的意义。
比如，当编写一个计算两个数之和的程序时，semantics可以
定义为将两个数相加并返回结果的操作。
总而言之，semantics的含义涵盖了语言学、逻辑学和计算机
科学等多个学科领域。
它帮助我们理解和研究词汇、句子、命题以及计算机程序等的意义和语义关系。
英语语言学名词解释总结
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
大学英语新编语言学教程Chapter 5 Semantics
Conceptualist/ Mentalism View(概念论)
• Conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in our mind.
• Mentalism or Conceptualism follows Saussure’s “sign ” theory ,and considers the linguistic sign to consist of a signifier and signified, i.e., a sound image and a concept ,linked by a psychological “associative” bond
现代语言学名词解释
现代语言学名词解释一绪论1 Linguistics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics. For example, vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The s tudy of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. For example, phone, phoneme, and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology. For example, boy and “ish”---boyish, teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax. For example:“John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,: The seal c ould not be found. The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found, The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics. For example, regional dialects, social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way exceptfor one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegmental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English{$is best} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to createa word. Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form new words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.{$is best}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Chomsky def ines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а: Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i.e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed byrules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning ofa sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers ofa language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act perfo rmed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. {$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segment, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in whicha word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes.{$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves asa medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established as a native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 taboo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemisms, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive. {$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particularly interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is known as the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers toa period in one’s life extending fr om about age two to puberty during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”. of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also called holophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen, acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction,in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousness about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
语言学讲义 考研 5 Semantics
考研语言学 谭宗燕
பைடு நூலகம்
10
• Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋： 词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的 所有形式中，其词汇意义相同。） For example : The word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different grammatical meanings of tense, person, and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component (same lexical meaning ).
What connotations do you think “home”, “dragon” and “mother” might have?
考研语言学 谭宗燕 15
2) Stylistic Meaning • Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. • 很多词除了其概念意义外，还有文体色彩， 以适应不同的文体风格。 • In some dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as „formal, informal, literary, archaic, slang‟ and so on.
语言学名词解释
1.(7-8)Language: language is a system of arbitrary任意的vocal symbols used for human communication. ( Language is a system; language is arbitrary; language is vocal; language is human –specific.)2.(15)phonetics语音学: a branch of linguistics语言学which is studies the characteristic of speech sounds语音and provides methods for their description ，classification and transcription.3.(62)semantics语义学: it can be defined as the study of meaning which is central to the study of communication.4.(77)pragmatics语用学: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect产生，引起successful communication.（It’s also the study of language in use or language communication, the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning.）5.(42)syntax: is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation结构，组成of sentences.6.(31)morphology形态学: it refers to the study of the internal内部的structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.7.(66)synonymy同义词: refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.8.(66)reference指称: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,真实physical world物质; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world（非语言世界，即real，physical world）of experience.9.(66)sense词义: is concerned with the inherent固有的，内在的meaning of a linguistic form, the collection集合of all its features（语言形式所有特征的集合）; it’s abstract and de-contextualized去情景化. I t’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers编辑者are interested in.10.(9)duality: language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. A large number of units of meaning such as morphemes and words are found at the higher level of the system. The duality of structure of language enables its users to talk about anything within their knowledge.?11.(112-113)dialect: dialects vary. A regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. Social dialect has to do with separation brought about by different social conditions.?12.(114)accent: it’s an important marker of sociolect. Regional accents and RP took on social implications, becoming in effect social accents.?13.(87)conversational maxim会话准则: It has 4 maxims: the maxim of quantity(make your contribution as informative as required;don’t make your contribution more informative than is required),the maxim of quality(don’t say what you believe to be false;don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence),the maxim of relation(be relevant) and the maxim of manner(avoid obscurity of expression;abvoid ambiguity;be brief;be orderly).?14.(78-79)context: it is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. (Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.)15.(5)competence: it’s the ideal(best) user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.16.(5)performance: it’s the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.17.(117)register 语域:refers to a variety of language defined according to its use in social situations, such a register of medical English, legal English.18.(81)locutionary act 言外行为:is the act of uttering words,phrases,and clauses. It is the act of conveying literal字面meaning by means of syntax, 句法lexicon词汇and phonology.音韵学19.(69)hyponymy: 下义关系，上下义refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive宽泛word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate上义词,and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.下义词20.(22)phonology: 音位学it relates to the study of sound and aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form pattern and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.21.(照片)speech community :the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community.22.(17-18)transcription:it includes the transcription with letter-symbols only and the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. The former is called broad transcripton which is normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks for general purposes. The latter is called narrow transcription which is needed and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds.23.(33)bound morpheme黏着词素: a morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme, whereas a morpheme that must be attached to another one isa bound morpheme.24.(24-25)minimal pair:when two different forms are identical完全一致in every way except for one sound segment一个音段which occurs in the same position in the strings,the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair.25.(27)stress: the syllable consists of three parts: onset起音, peak, coda收尾.？26.(38)compounding: it’s a new way to form new words,or compou nd words, and is by string words together.27.(百度)affixation词缀: it’s the process whereby new words are formed from existing words or bases.28.(23-24)allophone音位变体:the phones can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments。
新编语言学教程名词解释
Chapter5 Semantics（语义学）（定义）Sense（意义）and reference（所指/指称）（定义）Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the c ollection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the as pect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Chapter6 Pragmatics（语用学）Pragmatics vs. semanticsSemantics: is the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics: the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration), e.g. “Today is Sunday”, semantically, it means that today is the first day of the week; pragmatically, you can mean a lot by saying this, all depending on the context and the inte ntion of the speaker, say, making a suggestion or giving an invitation …Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning句子意义和话语意义Sentence meaning: Abstract and context-independent meaning; lite ral meaning of a sentence; utterance meaning: concrete and context -dependent meaning; intended meaning of a speaker;Chapter11Second Language AcquisitionConnections between first language acquisition and second la nguage acquisition:The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewoo d, 1986).Positive transfer: facilitate target language learningNegative transfer: interfere or hinder target language learningIt is believed that differences between the native language and the t arget language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language le arning and teaching, e.g. *To touch the society .*There are more people come to study in the states.*I wait you at the gate of the schoolErrors & mistakesErrors: unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self -corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)；Mistakes: either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and s elf-corrigible (failure in performance).。
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• Semantics is the study of meaning.
(the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular)
Some views concerning the study of meaning
s = Jack hears Jill says “I’m thirsty”.
R = Jack picks the apple for Jill.
3.Lexical meaning
Sense and reference(系统意义和指称意义）
Sense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contextualized. Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. Differences
Behaviorism (行为主义论)
Definition: a view which draws on behaviorist psychology
when trying to define the meaning of lin）：意义就是讲话人的刺激和听话人的反应。（
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms（同义词）
Types of Synonyms:
1. Dialectal synonyms（方言） e.g. autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline… 2. Stylistic synonyms（文体风格---正式、一般、口语） e.g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;… 3. Synonyms that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning （褒义或贬义）
meaning as speaker’s stimulus and hearer’s response
The story of Jack and Jill:
Jill
Jack
S_________r--------s_________R
S = Jill sees an apple. r = Jill says “I’m thirsty”.
Chapter 5 SEMANTICS
Review
1. What is semantics? 2. The major views concerning the study
of meaning 3. Lexical meaning 4. Sense relations between sentences 5. Analysis of meaning
• 词语只是代表物体的名字或标记。 • Limitations:
1) Applicable to nouns only. 2) There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world, e.g. ghost, dragon, unicorn, phenix… 3) There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions, e.g. joy, impulse, hatred…
Naming theory (Plato) 命名说
The conceptualist view 概念论
Contextualism (Bloomfield) 语境论
Behaviorism 行为主义论
Naming theory (Plato)命名说
• Words are just names or labels for things.
1. 系统意义具有相对的稳定性、明确性；而外指意义回因人、时、地而 异，具有变化性、模糊性。
2. 一般说来，系统意义是抽象化了的定义，多具有非物质化特征；而外 指意义会具有物质化的特征。
3. 有意义的词语都有系统意义，但不一定有外指意义。
Synonymy（同义现象)
Definition: refer to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.
The conceptualist view 概念论
• Definition： one concerning meaning.
• It is also called ideational theory（观念论）.
SEMANTIC TRIANGLE（语义三角） THOUGHT/REFERENCE
（概念/思想 /所指参照）(concept)
形式与意义直接相关
意义是在客观事物的 基础上概括而成的
形式和所
SYMBOL/FORM ……指之…间没....…REFERENT
有必然的
(语言符号)
联系
（所指事物）
(linguistic)
(the real thing
existing in the world)
Contextualism (语境论)
• Definition: Meaning should be studied in terms of
situation, use, context
.Two types of contexts are recognized: (1)Situational context场景语境 (2) linguistic situation语言语境