语言学教程第四版练习第一章

Chapter One Introduction to Linguistics I. Mark the choice that best completes the statement. 1.All languages’languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics. A. morphology B. lexicogrammar C. syntax D. meaning 2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary? A.tree B.typewriter C.bowwow D.bang 3.The function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees C entigrade is ___. Centigrade is ___. A.interpersonal B.emotive rmative D.performative 4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely likely to to to say say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as as a a a means means means of of of controlling controlling controlling the the the forces forces forces which which which they they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform? A.interpersonal B.emotive rmative D.performative 5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)? A. Transferability B. Duality C. Displacement D. Arbitrariness 6. 6. What What What language language language function function function does does does the the the following following following conversation conversation conversation play?(The play?(The play?(The two two two chatters chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.) A ：A nice day, isn’t it?B : R ight! I really enjoy the sunlight.Right! I really enjoy the sunlight. A. Emotive B. Phatic C. Performative D. Interpersonal 7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances. A.Performative petence C. Langue D. Parole 8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists exists here here here and and and now. now. now. It It It couldn’t couldn’t couldn’t be be be sorrowful sorrowful sorrowful for for for some some some lost lost lost love love love or or or lost lost lost bone.bone. This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- . A. Reference B. Productivity C. Displacement D.Duality 9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language. A. Psycholinguistics B. Anthropological linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Applied linguistics 10.-------- 10.-------- deals deals deals with with with the the the study study study of of of dialects dialects dialects in in in different different different social social social classes classes classes in in in a a a particular particular region. A. Linguistic theory B. Practical linguistics C. Sociolinguistics D. Comparative linguistics II. II. M M ark ark the the the following following following statements statements statements with with with “T” “T” “T” if if if they they they are are are true true true or or or “F” “F” “F” if if if they they they are are false.(10%) 1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first. 2. 2. For For For learners learners learners of of of a a a foreign foreign foreign language, language, language, it it it is is is arbitrariness arbitrariness arbitrariness that that that is is is more more more worth worth worth noticing noticing than its conventionality. 3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. 4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer. 5. 5. Interpersonal Interpersonal Interpersonal function function function is is is also also also called called called ideational ideational ideational function function function in in in the the the framework framework framework of of functional grammar. 6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function. 7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user. 8.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language. 9.Articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves. 10.The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description. III ．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely, qualitative and q__________ research approaches. 2. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined combined into into into innumerable innumerable innumerable sentences sentences sentences based based based on on on limited limited limited rules. rules. rules. This This This feature feature feature is is usually termed as p__________. nguage nguage has has has many many many functions. functions. functions. W e W e can can can use use use language language language to to to talk talk talk about about about language. language. language. This This function is m__________function.4.The 4.The claim claim claim that that that language language language originated originated originated by by by primitive primitive primitive man man man involuntary involuntary involuntary making making making vocal vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y ＿theory. 5.P________ 5.P________ is is is often often often said said said to to to be be be concerned concerned concerned with with with the the the organization organization organization of of of speech speech speech within within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language. 6.Modern linguistics is d ＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. 7.One 7.One general general general principle principle principle of of of linguistics linguistics linguistics analysis analysis analysis is is is the the the primacy primacy primacy of of of s___________over s___________over writing .8.The 8.The description description description of of of a a a language language language as as as it it it changes changes changes through through through time time time is is is a a a d___________ d___________ linguistic study. 9.Saussure 9.Saussure put put put forward forward forward the the the concept concept concept l__________ l__________ l__________ to to to refer refer refer to to to the the the abstract abstract abstract linguistic linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. 10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________. IV IV. . Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features 2.Displacement petence 4.Synchronic linguistics V . Answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.Why 1.Why do do do people people people take take take duality duality duality as as as one one one of of of the the the important important important design design design features features features of of of human human languages? Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features? 2.How 2.How can can can we we we use use use language language language to to to do do things ? Please Please Please give give give two two two examples examples examples to to to show show show this this point. VI .Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.(10%)A B (1)language varieties a. phonetics (2)information retrieval b. phonology (3)shape of syllables c. morphology (4)emergence of language d. syntax (5)word formation e. semantics (6)production of speech f. pragmatics (7)immediate constituents g. psycholinguistics (8)reference ,force and effect h. sociolinguistics (9)denotation of words I. anthropological linguistics (10)cognition j. computational linguistics II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. 1. Language Language Language is is is ____________in ____________in ____________in that that that communicating communicating communicating by by by speaking speaking speaking or or or writing writing writing is is is a a purposeful act. 2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and and communication communication communication can can can only only only take take take place place place effectively effectively effectively if if if all all all the the the users users users share share share a a a broad broad understanding of human interaction. 3.The features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________, _____________. 4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness. 5.The fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________. nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language. 7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions. 8.In Jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function. 9.When people use language to express express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version.10.In functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________. 11.Among Halliday’s three metafunctions ______________creates relevance to context. 12.The________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons. 13.Please name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,__________________, _____________________and ____________________. 14.In________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds. 15.In________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave 16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning. 17.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________. 18.The 18.The study study study of of of how how how sounds sounds sounds are are are put put put together together together and and and used used used to to to convey convey convey meaning meaning meaning in in communication is called_________________. 19.The study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________. 20.The study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________. 21.The fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement. 1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study. A. descriptive B. prescriptive C. synchronic D. diachronic 2. 2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentence because_______ A. he has come across all of them in his life B. he has internalized a set of rules about his language C. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language 3.3.Saussure’s Saussure’s Saussure’s distinction distinction distinction between between between langue langue langue and and and parole parole parole is is is very very very similar similar similar to to to Chomsky’s Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of view A. sociological, psychological B. psychological, sociological C. biological, psychological D. psychological, biological 4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______ A. arbitrary B. rule-governed C. applied D. illogical 5.We 5.We can can can understand understand understand and and and produce produce produce an an an infinitely infinitely infinitely large large large number number number of of of sentence sentence sentence including including sentences we never heard before, because language is______ A. creative B. arbitrary C. limitless D. resourceful 6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speaker A. Duality B. Displacement C. productivity D. Arbitrariness 7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a language A. Phonetics B. syntax C. Semantic D. Pragmatics 8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words. A.Morphology B. syntax C. Semantic D. phonology 9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning A.Duality B. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity 10.______of 10.______of language language language makes makes makes it it it potentially potentially potentially creative, creative, creative, and______ and______ and______ of of of language language language makes makes learning a language laborious A. Conventionality, arbitrariness B. Arbitrariness, replacement C. Arbitrariness, conventionality D. Conventionality, arbitrariness 11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of language A.poetic B. creative C. phatic D. metalingual 12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. A. Chomsky B.Saussure C.Jacobson D. Halliday 13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations. A.Interpersonal B. Textual C. Logical D. Ideational 14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship. A. social B. experiential C. textual D. personal 15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society. A. e xperiential B. referential C. metalingual D. Interpersonal 16.The 16.The study study study of of of the the the description description description and and and classification classification classification of of of speech speech speech sounds, sounds, sounds, words words words and and connected speech belongs to the study of_____. A.phonology B. phonetics C. morphology D. syntax 17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves. A.articulatory B. acoustic C. auditory D. sound 18.French 18.French distinguishes distinguishes distinguishes between between between nouns nouns nouns like like like GARE(station)which GARE(station)which GARE(station)which is is is feminine feminine feminine and and nouns nouns like like like TRAIN TRAIN TRAIN which which which is is is masculine. masculine. This This shows shows shows that that that French French French is is is a a a language language which____. A.is illogical B. has grammatical gender C.has biological gender D. has two cases petence , in the linguistic sense of the word, is______. A.pragmatic skill B. intuitive knowledge of language C.perfect knowledge of language skill D. communicative ability 20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean . This shows us that____. . This shows us that____. A. both languages are alike in expressing future time B. Both languages have a future tense but English requires more words C. English is loose while French is compact D. French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix 21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____ A. lexis B. syntax C. semantics D. pragmatics 22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions. A. perfect language user B. ideal language user C. proficient user D. native language user IV IV. . Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary. a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine 2.Examine the the the way way way the the the following following following words words words are are are separated. separated. separated. Comment Comment Comment on on on the the the way way way of of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.What is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent? a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.universal language?4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a They are hunting dogs? What is 5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence? V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.1. Match the linguistic items in Column A with one relevant item in Column B. A B (1) emotive function a. contact(of communication element) (2) context(of communication element) b. imperatives and vocatives (3) conative function c. metalingual function (4) phatic function d. intonation showing anger (5) message (of communication function) e. referential function (6) code (of communication element) 2. Match the sentences in Column B with the language functions in Column A. A B (1)informative function a. We have 15 people here. (2)interpersonal function b. Pass me the salt please. (3)performative function c. God! Damn it! (4)emotive function d. Dear sir; Johnny 3. Match the linguistic items in Column B with the linguistic branches in Column A. A B (1)phonology a. morphology (2)phonetics b. phoneme (3)morphology c. entailment (4)semantics d. speech act (5)syntax e. synonymy (6)pragmatics f. word order in a sentence g. word formation h. conversational implicature i. speech organs j. sound waves 4.Match the linguistic items in Column B with the linguistic branches in Column A. A B (1)psycholinguistics a. language acquisition (2)sociolinguistics b. dialect (3)anthropological linguistics c. corpus (4)computational linguistics d. emergence of language e. language and cognition f. computer translating g. biological foundation of language h. the divergence of language over thousands of years i. gender and language 。

第四版语言学教程答案

第四版语言学教程答案【篇一：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist. iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences nativespeakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historical development and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇二：语言学课后答案4】the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.co-occurrence: it means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence. for instance, what can precede a noun (dog) is usually the determiners and adjectives, and what can follow it when it takes the position of subject will bepredicators such as bark, bite, run, etc. in short, co-occurrence is the syntactic environment in which a construction, with its relevantelements, can appear grammatically and conventionally. thus relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.construction: it refers to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use construct contains. it can be further divided into the external and internal properties. take sentence the boy kicked the ball as an example, we will determine the external syntax as an independentclause, while np (―the boy‖), vp (―kicked‖) and np (―theb all‖) will be assigned respectively to the different elements in this clause.constituent: constituent is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a largerlinguistic unit. several constituents together form a construction: for example, in the sentence the boy ate the apple, s (a), the boy (b), ate the apple(c), each part is a constituent. constituents can be joined together with other constituents to form larger units. if two constituents, in the case of the example above, b (the boy) and c (ate the apple), are joined to form ahierarchically higher constituent a (―s‖, here a sentence), then b and c are said to be immediate constituents of a.endocentric: endocentric construction is one whose distribution isfunctionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head. in the phrase two pretty girls, girls is the centre or head of this phrase or word group.exocentric: exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable centre or head inside the group. exocentric construction usually includes basic sentence, prepositional phrase, predicate (verb + object) construction, andconnective (be + complement) construction. in the sentence a whole.coordination: a common syntactic pattern in english and other languages is formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but or or. this phenomenon is known as coordination. in the construction the lady or the tiger, both nps the lady and the tiger have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.subordination: subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. consequently, they can be called modifiers. in the phrase swimming in the lake, swimming is the head and in the lake are the words modifying the head.category: the term category in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, forexample, include number, gender, case and countability; andof the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, and so on.agreement: agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (orcategories). for instance, the syntactic relationship between this pen and it in the following dialogue:--.embedding: embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in another clause in syntactic subordination.e.g., i saw the recursiveness: it mainly means that a phrasal constituent can beembedded within (i.e., be dominated by) another constituent having the same category, but it can be used to any means to extend any constituent. together with openness, recursiveness is the core of creativity of language. for example, ―i met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new‖.grammatical subject logical subject: grammatical and logical subjects are two terms accounting for the case of subject in passive voice. take the sentences and as examples. since the core object noun (john in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called grammatical subject, for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies; the core subject (a dog), now the object of a preposition (by a dog), is called a logical subject, since semantically the core subject still does what a subject normally does: it performs an action.cohesion: cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. the cohesivedevices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexicalcollocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on. in the following example, the cohesive deviceis ―reference‖, that is, ―it‖ refers back to the door: .2.(1) the instructor told the students to study.[np(det.+n.)+v+np(det.+n.)+inf.]【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement4.synchronic linguisticsv. answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.how can we use language to do things? please give two examples to show this point.ii. fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.the features that define our human languages can becalled_____________, which include____________,_____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.the fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ andits___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.in jakobson’s version, there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________,________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.when people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in jakobson’s version.10.in functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely,_____________,____________________,__________________.11.among halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.12.the________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.please name five main branch oflinguistics:___________________________,_________________ __,__________________, _____________________and____________________.14.in________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.in________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.the study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication iscalled_________________.19.the study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.the study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.the fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.iii. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.the description of a language at some print in time isa_______________ study.a. descriptiveb. prescriptivec. synchronicd. diachronic2. according to chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentencebecause_______a. he has come across all of them in his lifeb. he has internalized a set of rules about his languagec. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but saussure takes a ____________view of language and chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewa. sociological, psychologicalb. psychological, sociologicalc. biological, psychologicald. psychological, biological4.the fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates languageis______a. arbitraryb. rule-governedc. appliedd. illogical5.we can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______a. creativeb. arbitraryc. limitlessd. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakera. dualityb. displacementc. productivityd. arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languagea. phoneticsb. syntaxc. semanticd. pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.a.morphologyb. syntaxc. semanticd. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaninga.dualityb. arbitrarinessc .replacementd. creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousa. conventionality, arbitrarinessb. arbitrariness, replacementc. arbitrariness, conventionalityd. conventionality, arbitrariness11.when people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languagea.poeticb. creativec. phaticd. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.a. chomskyb.saussurec.jacobsond. halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.a.interpersonalb. textualc. logicald. ideational14.interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.a. socialb. experientialc. textuald. personal15.by_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.a. experientialb. referentialc. metalinguald. interpersonal16.the study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the studyof_____.a.phonologyb. phoneticsc. morphologyd. syntax17.in__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.a.articulatoryb. acousticc. auditoryd. sound18.french distinguishes between nouns likegare(station)which is feminine and nouns like train which is masculine. this shows that french is a language which____.a.is illogicalb. has grammatical genderc.has biological genderd. has two casesa.pragmatic skillb. intuitive knowledge of languagec.perfect knowledge of language skilld. communicative ability20.french has tu (means: you) aimera (means: will love) jean and english has you will love jean. this shows us that____.a. both languages are alike in expressing future timeb. both languages have a future tense but english requires more wordsc. english is loose while french is compactd. french forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____a. lexisb. syntaxc. semanticsd. pragmatics22.a(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.a. perfect language userb. ideal language userc. proficient userd. native language useriv. analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary. a.they married and had a baby.b.they had a baby and married.2.examine the way the following words are separated. comment on the way of separation in relation to bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.what is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? what kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?。

语言学教程chapter 1 练习

• Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph? • 交通灯没有二重性。很显然交通灯不是双层的系统。符号与意义之间只有一一对应的关系，而意义单元不能进一步分为更小的无意义的成分。因此，交通灯跟动物的叫声一样，只有底层没有上层。 • 红→ 停 • 绿→ 行 • 黄→ 准备
Linguistics：A Course Book
语言学教程
毛峻凌
Exercises of Chapter 1
• 1. Language, broadly speaking, is a means of _verbal communication. • 2. In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed _creativity • ____.创造性
Pragmatics语用学
• II. Decide whether the following statements are true [T] or false [F]. • 1. Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings. T • 2. Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language. F

语言学教程课后习题答案第一章资料(最新整理)

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazellesin the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to saySuch expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, someguidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associativemeaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century Vocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学教程课后习题答案第一章

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:design feature: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.function: the role language plays in communication (e.g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical ‘point’ in time.diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. prescriptive: to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).displa cement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.l angue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After careful ly comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differencesamong the definitions.ANSWER:All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Yes" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we c an feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goYellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, ma ybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.You should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?You should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guid elines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit valuejudgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of language studies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure andwithout specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options e mbodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows children’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importance to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely included by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. You may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for w e can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, one may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学教程各章节练习及答案

Exercises to Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue:Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behaviour in usinglanguage, i.e. to tell people what they should day and what they should not say, it is saidto be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is saidto be descriptive;competence: Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human communication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.”2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be combined freely in the second level to form meaning.There is only simple one to one relationship between signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Dobody language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is competence and performance an important distinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce andunderstand an indefinite numbers of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and socialfactors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of competence, not performance. The distinction of the two terms “competence and performance”represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say competence and performance is an important distinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditional grammar. The two are complementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[❆] voiced dental fricative2)[☞] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[☠] velar nasal4)[♎] voiced alveolar stop5)[☐] voiceless bilabial stop6)[ ] voiceless velar stop7)[●] (alveolar) lateral8)[♓] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[◆:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate; kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive [♌]a voiced labio-dental fricative [❖]a voiceless velar plosive [ ]4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [♓:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [♑] being velar while [♌] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [❍] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology: Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of communication.Phone: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phonesPhoneme: Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English.Compare the words peak and speak, for instance. The /☐/ in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [☐♒] while the /☐/ in speak is unaspirated, phonetically [☐＝]. [☐,☐♒] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /☐/. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:. The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called Suprasegmental features. Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited”and “waded”follows another alveolar plosive. [d] in “waved”follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped” follows voiceless consonants, there being voicing assimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologically acceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl” and “tritch”4.Why can we not use the sequence [☠kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [☠kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs compare the position of the stress. Comment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the following utterances as indicated by the boldtype:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Compound:Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to,e.g. the plural morpheme in “dogs”.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.plete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme” is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or asemantic one? What is its relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Define the following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent. Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i.e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents Surface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produceand receive.Theme: The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme: All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has onlya linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence,seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents.But the main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g. the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences inparticular.Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context. Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context. Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic component: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g.[+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same,one of them will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless”, which has been replaced by “radio”. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not beconsidered to be synonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed.The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinatesense and reference.Illocutuonary act:the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle:in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds, a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. He calls this guiding principle theCooperative Principle, CP for short.. It runs as follows: "make yourconversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, bythe accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.”Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable tothe listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why andhow he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CooperativePrinciple (CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin” is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answered “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door” is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?” he answers “Nothing.”What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing” will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing” here means “Nothing interesting”. If A adds after “Nothing” “The workers are on strike today” or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight”, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’will be cancelled.11。

胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结

Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too muchabout it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books”: “book”in English, 书in Chinese, “check”in Korean.It is symbolic,because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”.The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrarinessis the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You may object to this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words that sound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguisticforms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructedaccording to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to whichthe members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules forthe correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once andfor all.For example, “Don’t say X.”is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.”is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive becausethe nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study ofthe features oftheEnglish used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study ofthe changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is thatunlessthe various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence ofthe speaker andthe actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass ofconfused facts, i.e. to discover theregularities governing all instances of parole and make themthe subject of linguistics.petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, andthe actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychologicaland social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomskybelievesthat linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)eticsvs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction betweenthe material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable andarticulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences betweenAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you canfind.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shar ed by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: wh en we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。

语言学教程第四版答案

语言学教程第四版答案【篇一：《语言学教程》测试题答案】xt>i.1~5 b a c c c6~10 b a c a cii.11~15 f f t f f 16~20 f f f f fiii.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function24. yo-he-ho25. scientific26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceiv.31. design feature: it refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.32. displacement: it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. competence: it is an essential part of performance. it is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.a transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. synchronic linguistics: it refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. the timestudied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as latin. synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.v.35. duality makes our language productive. a large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds,around 48 in the case of the english language. and out of the huge number of words, there can beastronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. most animal communication systems do not have this design feature ofhuman language.if language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system whichwill be highly limited. it cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36. it is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.vi.37. it should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy andobjectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against theobservable facts – come to a conclusion.第二章：语音参考答案i1~5 a c d a a6~10 d b a b bii.11~15 t t t f f 16~20 t t t f fiii.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. co-articulation29. phonemes30. air streamiv.31. sound assimilation: speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. in connected speech, under the influenceof their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. sometimes two neighboring sounds influence eachother and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. this process is called sound assimilation.32. suprasegmental feature: the phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are calledsuprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. the main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. complementary distribution: the different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. distinctive features: it refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. if we cangroup the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature. v.35. acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. when a speech soundis produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. soundsproduced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.vi. 37.omit.第三章：词汇参考答案i1~5 a a c b b6~10 b c a d bii. 11~15 f t f t t16~20 f t f f fiii.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootiv.31. blending: it is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. allomorph: it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.33. close-class word: it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. morphological rule: it is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to forma new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.vi .37. (1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) b第四章：句法参考答案i1~5 d c d d d 6~10 a d d b aii. 11~15 t t t t f16~20 f t f t tiii.21. simple 22. sentence 23. subject24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open28. adjacency29. parameters 30. caseiv.31. syntax: syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. ic analysis: immediate constituent analysis, ic analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence interms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. hierarchical structure: it is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents andshows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as np, vp and pp.34. trace theory: after the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the originalposition. this is the notion trace in t-g grammar. it’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. e.g. thepassive dams are built by beavers. differs from the active beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. if we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.v.35. an endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. a typicalexample is the three small children with children as its head. the exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. (1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers第五章：意义参考答案i1~5 a b d d b 6~10 c a c d aii. 11~15 f f t f t 16~20 t f t t tiii.21. semantics 22. direct 23. reference 24. synonyms25.homophones26. relational27. componential 28. selectional 29. argument 30. namingiv.31. entailment: it is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified withthe following sentences:a. tom divorced jane.b. jane was tom’s wife.in terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when a is true,b must be also true; when b is false, a must also be false. when b is true, a may be true or false.therefore we can say a entails b.32. proposition: it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs andwhich some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. for example, the two sentences“caesar invaded gaul” and “gaul was invaded by caesar” hol d the same proposition.33. compositional analysis: it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, orsemantic features. for example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: human, young and male. similarly girl may be analyzed into human, young andfemale.34. reference: it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationshipbetween the form and the reality.v.35. hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. (omit.)vi.37. (1)the (a) words and (b) words are male.the (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2)the (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.the (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3)the (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.the (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.第七章：语言、文化和社会参考答案i1~5 b c a a c 6~10 d a c a dii. 11~15 f t f f f 16~20 t f t f fiii.21. community22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning25.sociolects26. stylistic 27. official28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectionaliv.31. lingua franca: a lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for socialcontact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. regional dialect: regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by themembers of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. register: register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particularspeech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. sociolinguistics: defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the studyof language in relation to society. it is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.v. 35. american english is not superior to african english. as different branches of english, africanenglish and american english are equal. similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. in china, chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. so in chinese there are a lot morekinship words than in english.vi. 37. (omit.)第八章：语言的使用参考答案i1~5 d b c b a 6~10 c b c a dii. 11~15 f t t f f 16~20 f f f t tiii.21. context22. utterance 23. abstract 24. constatives 25. performatives26. locutionary 27. illocutionary28. commissive29. expressive30. quantityiv.31. conversational implicature: in our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. in other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to conversesmoothly and successfully. in accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listenershave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. this sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, orwithhold relevant information from one another. however, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. the real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. performative: in speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (= a warning).33. locutionary act: a locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. horn’s q-principle: (1) make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) say as much as you can(given r).v.35. pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationshipsbetween sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. pragmatics includes the study of(1) how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) how speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without referenceto the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. yes, b is cooperative. on the face of it, b’s statement is not an answer to a’s question. b doesn’t say“when.” however, a will immediately interpret the s tatement as meaning “i don’t know” or “i am not sure.” just assume that b is being “relevant” and “informative.” given that b’s answer contains relevant information, a can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “trafficja m,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” thus, b’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”vi.37. it occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. the context oftenhelps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.the context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. a mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. in a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. the room was wanted for a meeting. (2)a. a mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’sappearance. b. a regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c. that she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.第十二章：现代语言学理论与流派参考答案i1~5 b a c a a 6~10 a b d c cii. 11~15 f f t t f 16~20 f t t t fiii.21. synchronic22. phonetics23. j. r. firth 24. systemic25. sociologically26. distribution27. bloomfieldian 28. descriptivism29. innateness30. hypothesis-maker iv.31. fsp: it stands for functional sentence perspective. it is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to ananalysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. cohesion: the cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. lad: lad, that is language acquisition device, is posited by chomsky in the 1960s as a deviceeffectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. case grammar: it is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. it is a type ofgenerative grammar developed by c. j. fillmore in the late1960s.v. vi. omit.【篇二：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.20. in sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members of social groups. the social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historicaldevelopment and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement。

胡壮麟第四版语言学教程第一章大题总结-推荐下载

Chapter1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Why study language?2.What is language? Explain it in details.3.What makes language unique to human beings?4.What are the design features of language? List out at least three of them.5.In what sense we say linguistic is a science?6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrariness.7.What is the function of language?8.Do you understand the distinction between the langue and paroleintroduced by Saussure?9.Descriptive vs. Prescriptive10.Synchronic vs. Diachronicpetence vs. Performance1.Why study language?First, language is such an integral part of our life and humanity that too much about it has been taken for granted. For some people, language may not even be considered a worthy job for academic study. They take it as a tool for access to other fields of knowledge rather than as a subject in and of itself. However, it is indeed necessary to reconsider how much we really the nature of language and its role in our life. And you may be surprised to realize that some of our most damaging racial, ethnic, and socio-economic prejudices are based on our linguistic ignorance and wrong ideas about language.Second, for a student learning language, some knowledge of language is of both interest and important. To know the general properties of language can help the student have an overview of its. No necessary question to ask for human language, they can understand the details of its different features thereof.Third, let us mention the broader educational concerns. We can note that language plans a central role in our lives as individuals and social beings. If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. The understanding of language should not be confined to linguistics, as language is a vital human resource that of us share.2.What is language? Explain it in details.Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of language, i.e. systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic, human-specific.It is system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense(从某种意义上说) that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a word and the object it refers to. This explains and explained by the fact that different language have different “books” : “book” in English, 书in Chinese, “check” in Korean.It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human language, developed or “new”. The term” human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.6.Explain the different levels of the arbitrarinessArbitrariness is the core feature of language. Saussure holds the idea that the forms of linguistics signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. There seems to be different levels of arbitrariness:1)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its means. You mayobjectto this when you think of words with different degrees of onomatopoeia, namely, words thatsound like the sounds they describe. e. g. in Chinese 叮咚,轰隆,叽里咕噜. These linguistic forms seem to have a natural basis. But in English, totally different words are used to be describe the sound. For example, the dog barks bowwow in English but汪汪in Chinese. But there are some misunderstandings about the onomatopoeia effect. As a matter of fact, arbitrariness and onomatopoeia effect may work at the same time.2)Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelBy syntax we refer to the ways that sentences areconstructed according to the grammar of arrangement. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence clauses and the rule happenings. In other words, syntax is less arbitrary than words, especially in so far as in this kind of order is concerned. Compared:a)He came in and set down.b)He set down and came in.c)He set down after he came in.Sentence (a) means the man came in first and then set down, but (b) means the opposite perhaps he got into his wheelchair and propelled(推进去) himself into the room. In (c), with the word “after” help, we can reverse the order of the clauses.3)Arbitrariness and conventionIn fact, the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Here we have to look at the other side of arbitrariness, namely, conventionality. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learning a language laborious. For learners of foreign language, it is conventionality of language that is more worth noticing than its arbitrariness. That may be why when we are burying ourselves memorizing idioms, we feel nothing of the arbitrariness of the language but are somewhat tortured (折磨) by its conventionality.8-12 important distinctions in linguistics8.Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.9.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history.E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language is successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.ngue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics. petence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.12.Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researchers making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemicsanalyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.13.Traditional grammar vs. modern linguistics14.What are the differences between traditional grammar and modernlinguistics? Illustrate with your own understanding.As we all know, linguistic is concerned with observing facts about language, setting up hypotheses, testing their validity and accepting or rejecting them accordingly. To avoid biases of the kinds mentioned above, modern linguists differ from traditional grammarians in adopting empirical rather than speculative or intuitive approaches in their study. Here are some differences I can find according the text books and my understanding.The first difference: modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive. That is linguists try to make statements which are testable, and take language as it is rather than say how it should be.The second difference: modern linguistics regards spoken rather than written language as primary. Traditional grammar tends to emphasize the importance of written language and the writings.The third difference: modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. In the past, Latin was considered the language that provided a universal grammar for all languages.Here is a form I found from the internet and it can show the differences between traditional grammar and modern linguistics simply.Traditional grammar Modern linguisticsPrescriptive DescriptiveOver-emphasize written words Spoken language is primaryForce languages into a Latin-based frameworkDo not judge one language by standards of anotherAt last, we should know when criticizing traditional grammar for being unscientific, modern linguistics do not deny altogether the contributions of traditional grammar to the development of modern linguistics. A balance view on traditional grammar is needed in order to track down the continuity of Western linguistic theories from the earliest times to the present day.15.Illustrate the difference between langue and parole with examples you can find.F. De Saussure refers “langue” to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, orthe realization of langue.Langue is abstract while parole is concrete. In fact, langue is not spoken by any individual; parole is always a really happening event. Langue is systematic; on the contrary, parole is a pile of complicated speech. Langue exists in our brain, not the words we say. Parole is the words we human beings use to communicate with each other. In a word, langue is the totality of a language or the abstract language system shared by all the members of a speech of a speech community, while parole is the realization of langue in actual use, that is, the concrete act of speaking at a particular time and in a specific situation.Example1: when we Chinese says “do you have dinner?” to an American. The sentence uttered by the Chinese is parole, and how the American understands the sentence is langue.Example2: when Jack said I love you to Rose in the street, the sentences itself is the parole. And how Rose understands this sentence is all about the langue.To sum up, langue is our potential ability to speak while parole is the actual use of language in concrete situation. Langue is social, but parole is individual.End of Chapter 1。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》第四版笔记

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly withoutany definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment ofconversation.加1 Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.加2 the direct/non-arbitrary/non-symbolic relation between meaning and form. There are resemblances between the language form and whatthey refer to. That relationship is called icon. Iconicity exists in sounds,lexicons and syntax. It is the motivation between language forms andmeanings. It is a relation of resemblance between language form and whatthey refer to.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.three metafunctions:1. function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer;embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3.of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., tomaintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8.1 Psycholinguistics1.8.2 Sociolinguistics1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics1.8.4 Computational linguisticsTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actuallyconform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages werestudied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description insteadof prescription.1.9.2A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point ofobservation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through thecourse of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since thenwould be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a languageare successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.1.9.3Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable andsystematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spokenby an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discoverthe regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject oflinguistics.1.9.4According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concretesituations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce andunderstand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakesand ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is ofteninfluenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does notalways match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to studycompetence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinctionis not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competenceis deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language morefrom a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter dealswith his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic means researcher s’making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemicsanalysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appealto the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. – the study of the production of speech sounds2. –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consist of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive:2. Fricative:3. (Median) approximant:4. Lateral (approximant):2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximantChapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of theplurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. Stability2. Relative uninterruptibility3. A minimum free form3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable words2. Grammatical words and lexical words3. Closed-class words and open-class words4. Word class3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1.Free morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix isthe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes towhich an inflectional affix can be added.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affixInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes andderivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with thefollowing ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammaticalmeaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serveto produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivationalaffixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attachto, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or mightnot, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, andthat between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguisticfactors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” isdetermined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivationalaffixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. Thechoice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talkabout the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of beingclever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are alwaysword final. E.g. drums, walks,etc. But derivational affixes can beprefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound)and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form,such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded,wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbalcompound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participantof the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives:virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formedby V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V+ A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc.(2) Derivation。

语言学教程课后习题答案第一章

Chapter 12. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.ANSWER: All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?ANSWERS:creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.bang: a sudden loud noise.roar: a deep loud continuing sound.buzz: a noise of buzzing.hiss: a hissing sound.neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.mew: the noise that a gull makes.bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?ANSWER:4. No matter you say "Y es" or "No", you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like "murmurous" and "murderous". They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but "murmurous" is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while "murderous" is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)5. Y es. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequenceof happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic-functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?6. Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.ANSWER:Red→stopGreen→goY ellow→get ready to go or stop7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3.ANSWER:Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when I was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that…8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?ANSWER:On a whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means "OK/YES" for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying "NO". Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?ANSWER:Y es. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language: “No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar with any type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings? ANSWER:When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11.Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese? There is the dialog between Ms. P and Ms. Q. in section 1.5.5. When someone sneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic communion? Have you noticed your parents or grandparents say something special on such an occasion?Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are: 吃了吗？家里都好吧？这是去哪里啊？最近都挺好的？ANSWER:If someone is sneezing violently, maybe you parents and grandparents may say: “Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” or something like these to show their concerns.12．There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives, namely, talking about talk and think about thinking, for instance, to be honest, to make a long story short, come to think of it, on second thought, can you collect a few more to make a list of these expressions? When do we use them most often?ANSWER:To tell the truth, frankly speaking, as a matter of fact, to be precise, in other words, that is to say Such expressions are used most frequently when we want to expatiate the meaning of former clauses in anther way in argumentation.13. Comment on the following prescriptive rules. Do you think they are acceptable?(A) It is I.(B) It is me.Y ou should say A instead of B because “be” should be followed by the nominative case, not the accusative according to the rules in Latin.(A) Who did you speak to?(B) Whom did you speak to?Y ou should say B instead of A.(A) I haven't done anything.(B) I haven't done nothing.B is wrong because two negatives make a positive.ANSWER:(1) the Latin rule is not universal. In English, me is informal and I is felt to be very formal.(2) Whom is used in formal speech and in writing; who is more acceptable in informal speech.(3) Language does not have to follow logic reasoning. Here two negative only make a more emphatic negative. This sentence is not acceptable in Standard English not because it is illogical, but because language changes and rejects this usage now.14. The prescriptivism in grammar rules has now shifted to prescriptions in choice of words. In the “guidelines on anti-sexist language” issued by the British sociological association, some guidelines are listed below. Do you think they are descriptive and prescriptive? What’s your comment on them?(1) Do not use man to mean humanity in general. Use person, people, human beings, men and women, humanity and humankind.(2) colored: This term is regarded as outdated in the UK and should be avoided as it is generally viewed as offensive to many black people.(3) civilized: This term can still carry racist overtones which derive from a colonialist perception of the world. It is often associated with social Darwinist thought and is full of implicit value judgments and ignorance of the history of the non-industrialized world.ANSWER:They are undoubtedly descriptive. Guidelines are not rules that can determine whether a sentence is right or not. The guidelines advise you to avoid the use of particular words that are grammatically correct but offensive to some certain groups. Actually, they describe the way anti-sexist advocators speak and write.15. Why is the distinction between competence and performance an important one in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept “communicative competence”?ANSWER:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair—competence and performance.16. Which branch of linguistics do you think will develop rapidly in China and why?It is up to you to decide after you have gone through the whole book. At this stage, we suggest all branches of linguistics have the potential to flourish.17. The following are some well-known ambiguous sentences in syntactic studies of language. Can you disambiguate them?The chicken is too hot to eat.Flying planes can be dangerous.ANSWER:The chicken is too hot to eat.The chicken meat is too hot, so it cannot be eaten at the moment.The chicken feels so hot (maybe after some intense aerobic exercises) that it cannot start eating and needs to calm down first.Flying planes can be dangerous.The ambiguity comes from "flying planes". It can be deciphered as "the planes that is flying" or "to fly planes".18. There are many reasons for the discrepancy between competence and performance in normal language users. Can you think of some of them?ANSWEREthnic background, socioeconomic status, region of the country, and physical state (such as intoxication, fatigue, distraction, illness) vary from individual to individual.19. What do these two quotes reveal about the different emphasis or perspectives of languagestudies?(1) A human language is a system of remarkable complexity. To come to know a human language would be an extraordinary intellectual achievement for a creature not specifically designed to accomplish this task. A normal child acquires this knowledge on relatively slight exposure and without specific training. He can then quite effortlessly make use of an intricate structure of specific rules and guiding principles to convey his thoughts and feelings to others, ... Thus language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.(Noam Chomsky: Reflections on Language. 1975: 4)(2) It is fairly obvious that language is used to serve a variety of different needs, but until we examine its grammar there is no clear reason for classifying its uses in any particular way. However, when we examine the meaning potential of language itself, we find that the vast numbers of options embodied in it combine into a very few relatively independent “networks”; and these networks of options correspond to certain basic functions of language. This enables us to give an account of the different functions of language that is relevant to the general understanding of linguistic structure rather than to any particular psychological or sociological investigation. (M. A. K. Halliday, 1970: 142)ANSWER:The first quote shows chil dren’s inborn ability of acquiring the knowledge of intricate structure of specific rules. It implies that the language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is the valuable object of study for linguists. The second attaches great importanc e to the functions of language. It regards the use of language as the choice of needed function. The meaning of language can be completely inc luded by a few “networks” which is directly related to basic functions of language. It indicates the necessity to study the functions of language.20. Y ou may be familiar with the following proverbs. How do you perceive them according to the arbitrariness and conventionality of language?The proof of the pudding is in the eating.Let sleeping dogs lie.Y ou can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.Rome was not built in a day.When in Rome, do as the Romans do.All roads lead to Rome.ANSWER:20. Arbitrariness and conventionality derive from the choice of the subject matter. For example, in the “The proof of the pudding is in the eating.” The word “pudding” is selected arbitrarily, for we can use another word such as cheese instead of pudding without changing the associative meaning of the proverb. On the other hand, once such links between particular words and associative meaning are fixed, it becomes a matter of conventionality.21. Give examples of situations in which a usage generally considered non-standard (e.g. ain’t) would be acceptable, even appropriate.ANSWER21. In the talks between intimate friends, o ne may say “gimme that!” instead of “give me that!” and “wachya doin’?” instead of “what are you doing?” and this list may go on.22. The following are some book titles of linguistics. Can you judge the diachronic and diachronic orientation just from the titles?English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.Pejorative Sense Development in English.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English V ernacular.ANSWER22. Synchronic:Protean Shape: A Study in Eighteenth-century V ocabulary and Usage.The Categories and Types of Present-Day English Word-Formation.Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English V ernacular.Diachronic:English Examined: Two centuries of Comment on the Mother-Tongue.Pejorative Sense Development in English。

语言学教程第四版-练习-第一章

Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.All languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaning2.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.treeB.typewriterC.bowwowD.bang3.The function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative4.In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?A.interpersonalB.emotivermativeD.performative5.Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play?(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t it?B : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A.EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A.PerformativepetenceC. LangueD. Parole8.When a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone.This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. DisplacementD.Duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. M ark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.Articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.The nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the wordis already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely, qualitativeand q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined intoinnumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.4.The claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.P________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.Modern linguistics is d＿in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.One general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)1.Why do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?2.How can we use language to do things? Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.3.The features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________, _____________.4.________is the opposite side of arbitrariness.5.The fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________.nguage is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.7._______benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.8.In Jakobson’s version,there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function.9.When people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version.10.In functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________.11.Among Halliday’s three metafunctions ______________creates relevance to context.12.The________________function of language is primary to change the social status of persons.13.Please name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,__________________,_____________________and ____________________.14.In________________phonetics,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.15.In________________phonetics,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wave16.________________is the minimal unit of meaning.17.The study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.18.The study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.19.The study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.20.The study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.21.The fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance, but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageA.PhoneticsB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.A.MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningA.DualityB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageA.poeticB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.ChomskyB.SaussureC.JacobsonD. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.A.InterpersonalB. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.e xperientialB. referentialC. metalingualD. Interpersonal16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the study of_____.A.phonologyB. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.A.articulatoryB. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.A.is illogicalB. has grammatical genderC.has biological genderD. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.A.pragmatic skillB. intuitive knowledge of languageC.perfect knowledge of language skillD. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in rel ation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.a.typical,success.ful.ly,organiz.action,hard.ly,wind.y,word3.What is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language?5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs? What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence?V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》配套题库（第4版）【课后习题】-第1~12章【圣才出品】

胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》配套题库（第4版）【课后习题】-第1~12章【圣才出品】第⼆部分课后习题第1章语⾔学导论1. Define the following terms.·design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.·function:the role language plays in communication (e. g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e. g. religious, legal). ·synchronic:said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “ point”in time.·diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time.·prescriptive:to make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.·descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.·arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.·duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters). ·displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from thespeaker’ s immediate situation.·phatic communion: said of talk used to establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.·metalanguage: a language used for talking about language ·macrolinguistics: a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.·competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.·performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing. ·langue:the language system shared by a “ speech community”.·parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.2. Consult at least four introductory linguistics textbooks (not dictionaries), and copy the definitions of “ language” that each gives. After carefully comparing the definitions, write a paper discussing which points recur and explaining the significance of the similarities and differences among the definitions.Key: All the definitions should not exclude the description of design features that have been mentioned in this course book. Also it will be better if other design features, say, interchangeability or cultural transmission is included. But it seems impossible to give an unimpeachable definition on language, because the facets people want to emphasize are seldom unanimous. To compare several definitions can make you realize where the argument is.3. Can you think of some words in English which are onomatopoeic?Key: Creak: the sound made by a badly oiled door when it opens.Cuckoo: the call of cuckoo.Bang: a sudden loud noise.Roar: a deep loud continuing sound.Buzz: a noise of buzzing.Hiss: a hissing sound.Neigh: the long and loud cry that a horse makes.Mew: the noise that a gull makes.Bleat: the sound made by a sheep, goat or calf.4. Do you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning?Key: No matter whether you say “Yes” or “No”, you cannot deny that onomatopoeia needs arbitrariness. Before we feel a word is onomatopoeic we should first know which sound the word imitates. Just as what is said in Chapter One, in order to imitate the noise of flying mosquitoes, there are many choices like “murmurous” and “murderous”. They both bear more or less resemblance to the genuine natural sound, but “murmurous” is fortunately chosen to mean the noise while “murderous” is chosen to mean something quite different. They are arbitrary as signifiers.5. A story by Robert Louis Stevenson contains the sentence “As the night fell, the wind rose.” Could this be expressed as “As the wind rose, the night fell’?” If not, why? Does this indicate a degree of non-arbitrariness about word order? (Bolinger, 1981: 15)Key: Yes. It is a case in point to illustrate non-arbitrariness about word order. When the two parts interchange, the focus and the meaning of the sentence is forced to change, because clauses occurring in linear sequence without time indicators will be taken as matching the actual sequence of happening. The writer’s original intention is distorted, and we can feel it effortlessly by reading. That is why systemic functionalists and American functionalists think language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.6. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Key: Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.7. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the creativity of language. Can you write a recursive sentence following the example in section 1.3.3?Key: Today I encountered an old friend who was my classmate when l was in elementary school where there was an apple orchard in which we slid to select ripe apples that...8. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Key: On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little hit. For instance, nod means“OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.9. Do you agree with the view that no language is especially simple?Key: Yes. All human languages are complicated systems of communication. It is decided by their shared design features.10. What do you think of Bertrand Russell’s observation of the dog language,“No matter how eloquently a dog may bark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest”? Are you familiar withany type of ways animals communicate among themselves and with human beings?Key: When gazelles sense potential danger, for example, they flee and thereby signal to other gazelles in the vicinity that danger is lurking. A dog signals its wish to be let inside the house by barking and signals the possibility that it might bite momentarily by displaying its fangs.11. Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?There is the dialogue between Ms. P and Ms. Q. on p.12. When someonesneezes violently, do you say anything of the nature of phatic co mmunion’!Have you noticed your parents or grand-parents say something special on such an occasion?Key: Some of the typical phatic expressions in Chinese are：吃了吗？家⾥都好吧？这是去哪⾥呀？最近都挺好的？If someone is sneezing violently, maybe your parents and grandparents may say:” Are you ok?”, “Do you need to see a doctor?”, “Do you need some water?”, “Do you need a handkerchief?”, “Do you have a cold?” “or something like these to show their concerns.12. There are many expressions in language which are metalingual or self-reflexives,。

胡壮麟语言学第四版第1章

1.9.2 Synchronic vs. Diachronic
•Synchronic study---description of a language at some point of time (modern linguistics) •Diachronic study---description of a language through time (historical development of language over a period of time
•Syntax----the rules governing the combination of words into sentence. •Semantics----the meaning of language (when the meaning of language is conducted in the context of language use---Pragmatics) •Pragmatics---is the study of meaning in context.
1.4. Origin of language
•语言的起源是语言学的基本理论问题之一。对于语言的起源问题。有摹声说bow-wow、劳动号子 yo-he-ho说、“社会契约”论和“手势语言”论。 •语言的发展必然包含两个方面：语言交际功能的发展和语言结构系统的发展。 •消亡的词汇不少，但是新产生的更多。词汇变化的另一形式表现为词意的改变。词汇在不同的历史时期可以具有不同的词义， •语音的变化虽然不如词汇明显，但是它也是随着时间的推移在发展的。英语历史上就出现了“元音大变迁”。 •语法也同样在发生变化。
1.1 Why Study Language?

语言学教程第四版答案

语言学教程第四版答案【篇一：《语言学教程》测试题答案】xt>i.1~5 b a c c c6~10 b a c a cii.11~15 f f t f f 16~20 f f f f fiii.21. verbal 22. productivity / creativity 23. metalingual function24. yo-he-ho25. scientific26. descriptive 27. speech 28. diachronic linguistic29. langue 30. competenceiv.31. design feature: it refers to the defining properties of human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.32. displacement: it means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events andconcepts, which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.33. competence: it is an essential part of performance. it is the speaker’s knowledge of his or herlanguage; that is, of its sound structure, its words, and its grammatical rules. competence is, in a way, an encyclopedia of language. moreover, the knowledge involved in competence is generally unconscious.a transformational-generative grammar is a model of competence.34. synchronic linguistics: it refers to the study of a language at a given point in time. the timestudied may be either the present or a particular point in the past; synchronic analyses can also be made of dead languages, such as latin. synchronic linguistics is contrasted with diachronic linguistics, the study of a language over a period of time.v.35. duality makes our language productive. a large number of different units can be formed out of asmall number of elements – for instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds,around 48 in the case of the english language. and out of the huge number of words, there can beastronomical number of possible sentences and phrases, which in turn can combine to formunlimited number of texts. most animal communication systems do not have this design feature ofhuman language.if language has no such design feature, then it will be like animal communicational system whichwill be highly limited. it cannot produce a very large number of sound combinations, e.g. words,which are distinct in meaning.36. it is difficult to define language, as it is such a general term that covers too many things. thus,definitions for it all have their own special emphasis, and are not totally free from limitations.vi.37. it should be guided by the four principles of science: exhaustiveness, consistency, economy andobjectivity and follow the scientific procedure: form hypothesis – collect data – check against theobservable facts – come to a conclusion.第二章：语音参考答案i1~5 a c d a a6~10 d b a b bii.11~15 t t t f f 16~20 t t t f fiii.21. voiced, voiceless, voiced 22. friction23. tongue 24. height 25. obstruction26. minimal pairs27. diphthongs 28. co-articulation29. phonemes30. air streamiv.31. sound assimilation: speech sounds seldom occur in isolation. in connected speech, under the influenceof their neighbors, are replaced by other sounds. sometimes two neighboring sounds influence eachother and are replaced by a third sound which is different from both original sounds. this process is called sound assimilation.32. suprasegmental feature: the phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are calledsuprasegmental features; these are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable, the word, and the sentence. the main suprasegmental ones includes stress, intonation, and tone.33. complementary distribution: the different allophones of the same phoneme never occur in the samephonetic context. when two or more allophones of one phoneme never occur in the same linguistic environment they are said to be in complementary distribution.34. distinctive features: it refers to the features that can distinguish one phoneme from another. if we cangroup the phonemes into two categories: one with this feature and the other without, this feature is called a distinctive feature. v.35. acoustic phonetics deals with the transmission of speech sounds through the air. when a speech soundis produced it causes minor air disturbances (sound waves). various instruments are used to measure the characteristics of these sound waves.36. when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. soundsproduced in this way are described as voiceless; consonants [p, s, t] are produced in this way. but when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. [b, z, d] are voiced consonants.vi. 37.omit.第三章：词汇参考答案i1~5 a a c b b6~10 b c a d bii. 11~15 f t f t t16~20 f t f f fiii.21. initialism, acronym 22. vocabulary 23. solid, hyphenated, open 24. morpheme25. close, open 26. back-formation 27. conversion 28. morpheme29. derivative, compound 30. affix, bound rootiv.31. blending: it is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combining themeanings and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms, like newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch)32. allomorph: it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoiningsounds.33. close-class word: it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited. pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed-class words.34. morphological rule: it is the rule that governs which affix can be added to what type of base to forma new word, e.g. –ly can be added to a noun to form an adjective.vi .37. (1) c (2) a (3) e (4) d (5) b第四章：句法参考答案i1~5 d c d d d 6~10 a d d b aii. 11~15 t t t t f16~20 f t f t tiii.21. simple 22. sentence 23. subject24. predicate25. complex 26. embedded 27. open28. adjacency29. parameters 30. caseiv.31. syntax: syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in alanguage, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.32. ic analysis: immediate constituent analysis, ic analysis for short, refers to the analysis of a sentence interms of its immediate constituents – word groups (phrases), which are in turn analyzed into theimmediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience.33. hierarchical structure: it is the sentence structure that groups words into structural constituents andshows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as np, vp and pp.34. trace theory: after the movement of an element in a sentence there will be a trace left in the originalposition. this is the notion trace in t-g grammar. it’s suggested that if we have the notion trace, all the necessary information for semantic interpretation may come from the surface structure. e.g. thepassive dams are built by beavers. differs from the active beavers built dams. in implying that all dams are built by beavers. if we add a trace element represented by the letter t after built in the passive as dams are built t by beavers, then the deep structure information that the word dams was originally the object of built is also captured by the surface structure. trace theory proves to be not only theoretically significant but also empirically valid.v.35. an endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approachingequivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. a typicalexample is the three small children with children as its head. the exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type.36. (1) more | beautiful flowers(2) more beautiful | flowers第五章：意义参考答案i1~5 a b d d b 6~10 c a c d aii. 11~15 f f t f t 16~20 t f t t tiii.21. semantics 22. direct 23. reference 24. synonyms25.homophones26. relational27. componential 28. selectional 29. argument 30. namingiv.31. entailment: it is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified withthe following sentences:a. tom divorced jane.b. jane was tom’s wife.in terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when a is true,b must be also true; when b is false, a must also be false. when b is true, a may be true or false.therefore we can say a entails b.32. proposition: it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs andwhich some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. for example, the two sentences“caesar invaded gaul” and “gaul was invaded by caesar” hol d the same proposition.33. compositional analysis: it defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, orsemantic features. for example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: human, young and male. similarly girl may be analyzed into human, young andfemale.34. reference: it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationshipbetween the form and the reality.v.35. hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. (omit.)vi.37. (1)the (a) words and (b) words are male.the (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2)the (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.the (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3)the (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.the (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.第七章：语言、文化和社会参考答案i1~5 b c a a c 6~10 d a c a dii. 11~15 f t f f f 16~20 t f t f fiii.21. community22. variety 23. dialectal 24.planning25.sociolects26. stylistic 27. official28. superposed29. vernacular 30. inflectionaliv.31. lingua franca: a lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a common speech for socialcontact among groups of people who speaks different native languages or dialects.32. regional dialect: regional dialect, also social or class dialect, is a speech variety spoken by themembers of a particular group or stratum of a speech community.33. register: register, also situational dialect, refers to the language variety appropriate for use in particularspeech situations on which degrees of formality depends.34. sociolinguistics: defined in its broadest way, sociolinguistics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, is the studyof language in relation to society. it is concerned with language variation, language use, the impact of extra-linguistic factors on language use, etc.v. 35. american english is not superior to african english. as different branches of english, africanenglish and american english are equal. similar as they are, they are influenced by their respective cultural context and thus form respective systems of pronunciation, words and even grammar.36. in china, chinese has a more strict and complex relationship system. so in chinese there are a lot morekinship words than in english.vi. 37. (omit.)第八章：语言的使用参考答案i1~5 d b c b a 6~10 c b c a dii. 11~15 f t t f f 16~20 f f f t tiii.21. context22. utterance 23. abstract 24. constatives 25. performatives26. locutionary 27. illocutionary28. commissive29. expressive30. quantityiv.31. conversational implicature: in our daily life, speakers and listeners involved in conversation aregenerally cooperating with each other. in other words, when people are talking with each other, they must try to conversesmoothly and successfully. in accepting speakers’ presuppositions, listenershave to assume that a speaker is not trying to mislead them. this sense of cooperation is simply one in which people having a conversation are not normally assumed to be trying to confuse, trick, orwithhold relevant information from one another. however, in real communication, the intention of the speaker is often not the literal meaning of what he or she says. the real intention implied in the words is called conversational implicature.32. performative: in speech act theory an utterance which performs an act, such as watch out (= a warning).33. locutionary act: a locutionary act is the saying of something which is meaningful and can beunderstood.34. horn’s q-principle: (1) make your contribution sufficient (cf. quantity); (2) say as much as you can(given r).v.35. pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationshipsbetween sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used. pragmatics includes the study of(1) how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world;(2) how speakers use and understand speech acts;(3) how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and thehearer.pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without referenceto the users and communicative functions of sentences.36. yes, b is cooperative. on the face of it, b’s statement is not an answer to a’s question. b doesn’t say“when.” however, a will immediately interpret the s tatement as meaning “i don’t know” or “i am not sure.” just assume that b is being “relevant” and “informative.” given that b’s answer contains relevant information, a can work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “trafficja m,” and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming.” thus, b’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus comes”; it contains an implicature concerning “when the bus comes.”vi.37. it occurs before and / or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. the context oftenhelps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc.the context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used.(1)a. a mild criticism of someone who should have cleaned the room.b. in a language class where a student made a mistake, for he intended to say “tidy.”c. the room was wanted for a meeting. (2)a. a mild way to express disagreement with someone who has complimented on a lady’sappearance. b. a regret that the customer had not taken the dress. c. that she wore a red shirt was not in agreement with the custom on the occasion.第十二章：现代语言学理论与流派参考答案i1~5 b a c a a 6~10 a b d c cii. 11~15 f f t t f 16~20 f t t t fiii.21. synchronic22. phonetics23. j. r. firth 24. systemic25. sociologically26. distribution27. bloomfieldian 28. descriptivism29. innateness30. hypothesis-maker iv.31. fsp: it stands for functional sentence perspective. it is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to ananalysis of utterances (or texts) in terms of the information they contain.32. cohesion: the cohesion shows whether a certain tagmeme is dominating other tagmemes or isdominated by others.33. lad: lad, that is language acquisition device, is posited by chomsky in the 1960s as a deviceeffectively present in the minds of children by which a grammar of their native language is constructed.34. case grammar: it is an approach that stresses the relationship of elements in a sentence. it is a type ofgenerative grammar developed by c. j. fillmore in the late1960s.v. vi. omit.【篇二：语言学教程(胡壮麟版)综合测试题含标准答案】 class=txt>英语语言学试卷（一）第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the fourchoices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, cor d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1.saussure’s distinction and chomsky’s are very similar, but they differ in that ____________. a.saussure took a sociological view of language while chomsky took a psychological point of viewb. saussure took a psychological view of language while chomsky took a sociological point ofviewc. saussure took a pragmatic view of language while chomsky took a semantic point of viewd. saussure took a structural view of language while chomsky took a pragmatic point of view2. language is a system of ____________ vocal symbols used for human communication. a.unnatural b. artificialc. superficiald. arbitrary3. we are born with the ability to acquire language,_______________.a. and the details of any language system are genetically transmittedb. therefore, we needn’t learn the details of our mother tonguec. but the details of language have to be learnt.d. and the details are acquired by instinct4. a(n)________ is a phonological unit of distinctive value. it isa collection of distinctivephonetic features. a. phone b. allophonec. phonemed. sound5. the morpheme –ed in the word “worked” is a(n) __________ morpheme. a. derivationalb. inflectionalc. freed. word-forming6. wh-movement is __________ in english which changes a sentence from affirmative tointerrogative. a. obligatoryb. optionalc. selectionald. arbitrary7. naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, was proposed by_____________. a. griceb. platoc. saussured. ogden and richards8. “john married a blond heiress.”__________ “john married a blond.” a. is synonymous withb. is inconsistent withc. entailsd. presupposes9. in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called ____________, which is theabstraction of the meaning of a sentence. a. utterance b. referencec. predicationd. morpheme10. in austin’s speech act theory, ___________ is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; itis the act performed in saying something. a. a perlocutionary act b. alocutionary actc. a constative actd. an illocutionary act第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter ofwhich is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are notallowed to change the letter given. (1%x10=10%)11. p___________ relates the study of language to psychology. it aims to answer such questionsas how the human mind works when people use language.12. a d_________ study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development oflanguage over a period of time.13. language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. at the lower level,there is a structure of meaningless sounds, which can be combined into a large number ofmeaningful units at the higher level. this design feature is called d___________.14. the articulatory apparatus of a human being is containedin three important areas: thepharyngeal cavity, the o_________ cavity and the nasal cavity.15. the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain iscalled l_____________.16. s_____________ features such as stress, tone and intonation can influence the interpretationof meaning.17. phrase structure rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinitelength, due to their r_________ properties.18. h__________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.19. some important missions of historical linguists are to identify and classify families of related languages in a genealogical family tree, and to reconstruct the p____________, the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.20. in sociolinguistics, speakers are treated as members of social groups. the social group isolated for any given study is called the speech c___________.iii. directions: judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. put a t for true or f for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2%x10=20%)( ) 21. linguists believe that whatever occurs in the language people use should be described and analyzed in their investigation.( ) 22. language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to.( ) 23. the conclusions we reach about the phonology of one language can be generalized into the study of another language.( ) 24. the meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in english because english, unlike chinese, is a typical tone language.( ) 25. the syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.( ) 26. when we think of a concept, we actually try to see the image of something in our mind’s eye every time we come across a linguistic symbol.( ) 27. all utterances can be restored to complete sentences. for example, “good morning!” can be restored to “i wish you a good morning.”( ) 28. two people who are born and brought up in the same town and speak the same regional dialect may speak differently because of a number of social factors.( ) 29. black english is linguistically inferior to standard english because black english is not as systematic as standard english.( ) 30. any child who is capable of acquiring some particular human language is capable of acquiring any human language spontaneously and effortlessly.iv. directions: explain the following terms. (3%x10=30%)31. parole:32. broad transcription:33.allophones:34.phrase structure rules:35.context36.historical linguistics:37.standard language:38.linguistic taboo:39.acculturation:40.care-taker speech:v. answer the following questions. (10%x2=20%)41. enumerate three causes that lead to the systematic occurrence of errors in second language acquisition and give your examples.42. english has undergone tremendous changes since its anglo-saxon days. identify the major periods in its historicaldevelopment and name major historical events that led to the transition from one period to the next.英语语言学试卷答案(一)第一部分选择题i. directions: read each of the following statements carefully. decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter a, b, c or d in the brackets.(2%x10=20%)1. a2. d3. c4. c5.b6. a7. b8. c9. c 10. d第二部分非选择题ii. directions: fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. note that you are to fill in one word only, and you are not【篇三：语言学教程第四版练习第一章】inguisticsi. mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.all languages’ have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.a. morphologyb. lexicogrammarc. syntaxd. meaning2.which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?3.the function of the sentence water boils at 100 degrees centigrade is ___.a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative4.in chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. which function does it perform?a.interpersonalb.emotivermatived.performative5.which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?a. transferabilityb. dualityc. displacementd. arbitrariness6. what language function does the following conversation play?(the two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)a：a nice day, isn’t it?b : right! i really enjoy the sunlight.a. emotiveb. phaticc. performatived. interpersonal7.------- refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.8.when a dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. it couldn’t be sorrowful for some lost love or lost bone. this indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .a. referenceb. productivityc. displacementd.duality9.--------- answers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.a. psycholinguisticsb. anthropological linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. applied linguistics10.-------- deals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.a. linguistic theoryb. practical linguisticsc. sociolinguisticsd. comparative linguisticsii. mark the following statements with “t” if they are true or “f” if they are false.(10%)1. the widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by chomsky first.2. for learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handlegeneralizations and abstractions.4. for jakobson and the prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. the relationship between competence and performance in chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.8.a study of the features of the english used in shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.9.articulatory phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.10.the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.iii．fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. the first letter of the word is already given(10％)1. nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies, namely,qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2. in any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can becombined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. this feature is usually termed as p__________.nguage has many functions. we can use language to talk about language. this function is m__________function.4.the claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.5.p________ is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.6.modern linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.7.one general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.the description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.linguistic potential is similar to saussure’ s langue and chomsky’ s c__________.iv. explain the following concepts or theories.1.design features2.displacement。

语言学教程第四版练习第一章

Chapter One Introduction to LinguisticsI. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.languages’have three major components: a sound system ,a system of___and a system of semantics.A. morphologyB. lexicogrammarC. syntaxD. meaningof the following words is entirely arbitrary?function of the sentence Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade is ___.Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 碎碎（岁岁）平安as a means of controlling the forces which they believe might affect their lives. Which function does it perform?of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place of speaking (due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation)?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness6. What language function does the following conversation play?(The two chatters just met and were starting their conversation by the following dialogue.)A：A nice day, isn’t it?B : Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. EmotiveB. PhaticC. PerformativeD. Interpersonalrefers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.C. LangueD. Parolea dog is barking, you assume it is barking for something or at someone that exists here and now. It couldn’t be sorro wful for some lost love or lost bone. This indicates that dog’s language does not have the feature of --------- .A. ReferenceB. ProductivityC. Displacementanswers such questions as we as infants acquire our first language.A. PsycholinguisticsB. Anthropological linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Applied linguisticsdeals with the study of dialects in different social classes in a particular region.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Comparative linguisticsII. Mark the following statements with “T” if they are true or “F” if they are false.(10%)1. The widely accepted meaning of arbitrariness was discussed by Chomsky first.2. For learners of a foreign language, it is arbitrariness that is more worth noticing than its conventionality.3. Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle generalizations and abstractions.4. For Jakobson and the Prague school structuralists, the purpose of communication is to refer.5. Interpersonal function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.6. Emotive function is also discussed under the term expressive function.7. The relationship between competence and performance in Chomsky’s theory is that between a language community and an individual language user.study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is an example of the diachronic study of language.phonetics investigates the properties of the sound waves.nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with prescription instead of description.III．Fill in each of the following blanks with an appropriate word. The first letter of the word is already given(10％)1.Nowadays, two kinds of research methods co-exist in linguistic studies,namely, qualitative and q__________ research approaches.2.In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things andcan be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed as p__________.has many functions. We can use language to talk about language. This function is m__________function.claim that language originated by primitive man involuntary making vocal noises while performing heavy work has been called the y＿theory.is often said to be concerned with the organization of speech within specific language, or with the systems and patterns of sounds that occur in particular language.linguistics is d＿ in the sense that linguist tires to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.general principle of linguistics analysis is the primacy of s___________over writing.8.The description of a language as it changes through time is a d___________ linguistic study.9.Saussure put forward the concept l__________ to refer to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10.Linguistic potentia l is similar to Saussure’ s langue and Chomsky’ s c__________.IV. Explain the following concepts or theories.1.Design features2.Displacementpetence4.Synchronic linguisticsV. Answer the following question briefly.(10%)do people take duality as one of the important design features of human languages?Can you tell us what language would be like if it had no such design features?can we use language to do things? Please give two examples to show this point.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with (an) appropriate word(s).1. Language is ____________in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act.2. Language is_____________ and__________ in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction.features that define our human languages can be called_____________, which include____________, _____________, ______________,_____________.the opposite side of arbitrariness.fact that in the system of spoken language, we have the primary units as words and secondary units as sound shows that language has the property of___________. is resourceful because of its_____________ and its___________, which contributes to the_____________ of language.human beings by giving them the power to handle generalization and abstractions.Jakobso n’s version,there are six functions of language, namely, ____________, _____________, _______________, ________________, ________________and metalingual function.people use language to express attitudes, feelings and emotions, people are using the _____________ function of language in Jakobson’s version. functional grammar, language has three metafunctions, namely, _____________,____________________,__________________.Halliday’s three metafunctions______________creates relevance to context.of language is primary to change the social status of persons.name five main branch of linguistics:___________________________,___________________,_________ _________, _____________________and ____________________.,we study the speech sounds produced by articulatory organs by identifying and classifying the individual sounds.,we focus on the way in which the listener analyzes or processes a sound wavethe minimal unit of meaning.study of sounds used in linguistic communication is called_______________.study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication is called_________________.study of the way in which symbols represent sounds in linguist communicate are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of study called_____________.study of rules which governs the combinations of words to form permissible sentences constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies that is_________________.fact that we have alliteration in poems is probably because of the__________________ function of language.III. Mark the choice that best completes the statement.1.The description of a language at some print in time is a_______________ study.A.descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. synchronicD. diachronic2. According to Chomsky, a speaker can produce and understand aninfinitely large number of sentence because_______A. he has come across all of them in his lifeB. he has internalized a set of rules about his languageC. he has acquired the ability through the act of communicating with others language3.Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole is very similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance,but Saussure takes a ____________view of language and Chomsky looks at language from a__________ point of viewA. sociological, psychologicalB. psychological, sociologicalC. biological, psychologicalD. psychological, biological4.The fact that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we write with indicates language is______A. arbitraryB. rule-governedC. appliedD. illogical5.We can understand and produce an infinitely large number of sentence including sentences we never heard before, because language is______A.creativeB. arbitraryC. limitlessD. resourceful6.______means language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situation of the speakerA.DualityB. DisplacementC. productivityD. Arbitrariness7.______examines how meaning is encoded in a languageA.PhoneticsB. syntaxC. SemanticD. Pragmatics8.______is concerned with the internal organization of words.B. syntaxC. SemanticD. phonology9.______refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningB. Arbitrariness C .Replacement D. Creativity10.______of language makes it potentially creative, and______ of language makes learning a language laboriousA. Conventionality, arbitrarinessB. Arbitrariness, replacementC. Arbitrariness, conventionalityD. Conventionality, arbitrariness11.When people use language to indulge in itself for its own sake, people are using the______ function of languageB. creativeC. phaticD. metalingual12.____proposes a theory of metafunctions of language.A.Chomsky D. Halliday13.____function constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations.B. TextualC. LogicalD. Ideational14.Interpersonal function enacts_________ relationship.A.socialB. experientialC. textualD. personal15.By_____________ function people establish and maintain their status in society.A.experientialB. referentialC. metalingualD.Interpersonal16.The study of the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech belongs to the study of_____.B. phoneticsC. morphologyD. syntax17.In__________ phonetics, we investigate the properties of the sound waves.B. acousticC. auditoryD. sound18.French distinguishes between nouns like GARE(station)which is feminine and nouns like TRAIN which is masculine. This shows that French is a language which____.illogical B. has grammatical genderbiological gender D. has two casespetence, in the linguistic sense of the word, is______.skill B. intuitive knowledge of languageknowledge of language skill D. communicative ability20.French has Tu (means: you) aimer a (means: will love) Jean and English has You will love Jean. This shows us that____.A. both languages are alike in expressing future timeB.Both languages have a future tense but English requires more wordsC.English is loose while French is compactD.French forms its future tense by adding a special suffix21.Knowing how to say something appropriate in a given situation and with exactly the effect you intend is a question of the_____A.lexisB. syntaxC. semanticsD. pragmatics22.A(n)_____is a speaker/listener who is a member of homogeneous speech community, who knows language perfectly and is not affected by memory limitations or distractions.A. perfect language userB. ideal language userC. proficient userD. native language userIV. Analyze the following with your linguistic knowledge.e the following two examples to support the idea that language is not all arbitrary.a.They married and had a baby.b.They had a baby and married.2.Examine the way the following words are separated. Comment on the way of separation in relation to Bloomfield’s idea that word is minimal unit of meaning.3., is the difference between the following two statements in terms of attitude to grammar? What kind of linguistic concepts do they represent?a.Never put an a before an uncountable noun.b.People usually do not put an a before an uncountable noun.4.How do you understand the sentence Music is a universal language?5.What are the two interpretations of the sentence They are hunting dogs? What is the linguistic knowledge that enables you to distinguish the meanings of this sentence?V. Match each term in Column A with one relevant item in Column B.1. Match the linguistic items in Column A with one relevant item in Column2. Match the sentences in Column B with the language functions in Column。

语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第1章

语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第1章第1章Invitations to Linguistics第一部分Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1. ArbitrarinessArbitrariness, put forward by Saussure, means that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meanings. For example, there is no necessary relationship between the word monkey and the animal it symbolizes.However, there are different levels of arbitrariness:1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.Language is not entirely arbitrary, even with onomatopoeic words that sound like the sounds they describe, such as crash, bang in English.Totally different words are used to describe the sound. e.g. the dog barks bowwow in English but 汪汪汪in Chinese.Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary, such as photocopy.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level:Language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happening. For example,He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after came in.3) Arbitrariness and conventionConvention means you have to say things in this way andyou can’t change the expression any other way. The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learn a language laborious.2. DualityDuality means that the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units.Many animals communicate with special calls, which have corresponding meanings. That is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into elements. For example, tens of thousands of words are formed out of a small set of sounds, around 40 in the case of the English language.3. CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, and refers to the feature that one is able to construct and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in his native language, including these that one has never heard before.①Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard.②Recursiveness, refers t o the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.E.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher whotaught in a sch ool which…4. DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of conversation. We can talk about things that are not present, as easily as we do things present. In other words, we can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. For example, I can refer to Confucius even though he has been dead for over 2550 years.第二部分Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions1. Phatic communion（寒暄功能）考过It refers to the social interaction of language. We always use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you often state the obvious. They indicate that a channel of communication is open if it should be needed.Different cultures have different topics of phatic communication. For example, Chinese people useThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often feel they need to speak their thoughts aloud.And language serves for the expression of content, that is, of the speaker’s experience of the realThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language, because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, damn it,The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations, such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, yours.In addition, attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of expressing identity. For example, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings all signal who we are and whereThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.The metalingual function means language can be used to talk about itself. For example, I can use the word “book” to talk about a book.To organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed aboutwhere they are and where they are going. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive, that is, we human can talk about talk and think about thinking.第三部分Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics（语音学）Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.2. Phonology（音系学）Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.3. Morphology（形态学）Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words, it studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax（句法学）Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, it is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.5. Semantics（语义学）Semantics studies the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.6. Pragmatics（语用学）Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker and takes context into consideration.第四部分Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描写式和规定式）To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.E.g. A grammar of Ancient Chinese.Diachronic: The study of language as it changes through time is diachronic.E.g. From Old English to Standard English.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics aslangue and parole.①Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of language.②Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;③Langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s co mpetence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance doesn’t always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.C homsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is considered as a property of mind of each individual.Saussure looks at language more from a sociological orsociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.。

语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第1章

第1章Invitations to Linguistics第一部分Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1. ArbitrarinessArbitrariness, put forward by Saussure, means that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship to their meanings. For example, there is no necessary relationship between the word monkey and the animal it symbolizes.However, there are different levels of arbitrariness:1) Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.Language is not entirely arbitrary, even with onomatopoeic words that sound like the sounds they describe, such as crash, bang in English.Totally different words are used to describe the sound. e.g. the dog barks bowwow in English but 汪汪汪in Chinese.Besides, some compound words are also not entirely arbitrary, such as photocopy.2) Arbitrariness at the syntactic level:Language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level. And there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happening. For example,He came in and sat down. He sat down and came in. He sat down after came in.3) Arbitrariness and conventionConvention means you have to say things in this way and you can’t change the expression any other way. The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention. Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes learn a language laborious.2. DualityDuality means that the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. The property of duality only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units.Many animals communicate with special calls, which have corresponding meanings. That is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into elements. For example, tens of thousands of words are formed out of a small set of sounds, around 40 in the case of the English language.3. CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, and refers to the feature that one is able to construct and understand an infinitely large number of sentences in his native language, including these that one has never heard before.①Because of duality, the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard.②Recursiveness, refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.E.g. He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which…4. DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of conversation. We can talk about things that are not present, as easily as we do things present. In other words, we can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.Displacement benefits human beings by giving us the power to handle generalizations and abstractions. Once we can talk about physically distant thing, we acquire the ability to understand concepts which denote “non-things”, such as truth and beauty. For example, I can refer to Confucius even though he has been dead for over 2550 years.第二部分Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions1. Phatic communion（寒暄功能）考过It refers to the social interaction of language. We always use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you often state the obvious. They indicate that a channel of communication is open if it should be needed.Different cultures have different topics of phatic communication. For example, Chinese people useThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often feel they need to speak their thoughts aloud.And language serves for the expression of content, that is, of the speaker’s experience of the realThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language, because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something. e.g. God, damn it,The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations, such as Dear Sir, Dear Professor, yours.In addition, attached to the interpersonal function of language is its function of expressing identity. For example, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings all signal who we are and whereThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.The metalingual function means language can be used to talk about itself. For example, I can use the word “book” to talk about a book.To organize any written text into a coherent whole, writers employ certain expressions to keep their readers informed about where they are and where they are going. This makes the language infinitely self-reflexive, that is, we human can talk about talk and think about thinking.第三部分Main branches of linguistics1. Phonetics（语音学）Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is, how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.2. Phonology（音系学）Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.3. Morphology（形态学）Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words, it studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.4. Syntax（句法学）Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. Specifically, it is the study of the rules governing the ways in which words, word groups and phrases are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between sentential elements.5. Semantics（语义学）Semantics studies the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.6. Pragmatics（语用学）Pragmatics studies the intended meaning of a speaker and takes context into consideration.第四部分Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1. Descriptive vs. prescriptive（描写式和规定式）To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.E.g. A grammar of Ancient Chinese.Diachronic: The study of language as it changes through time is diachronic.E.g. From Old English to Standard English.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole.①Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of language.②Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;③Langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance doesn’t always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction.Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is considered as a property of mind of each individual.Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.。

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