专业英语第2讲

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(完整版)英语专业综合教程2课后题翻译答案

Unit11.那部关于古代战争的电影采用了先进的技术，令观众仿佛身临其境。

Thanks to advanced technology, the film about the ancient battle gives the audience the illusion of being on the battlefield themselves.2. 在那场大火中，整个古城毁于一旦，但是这块石碑却幸运地保存了下来。

（devastate）That ancient city was devastated by the fire, but fortunately the stone tablet survived.3.他们看了那段录像，听了那位妇女的讲述，心里充满了对那位地震孤儿的同情。

The videotape and the story by the woman filled them with sympathy for the child who had become an orphan in the earthquake.4．那场大地震中，我们听到过太多太多教师的事迹，他们拒绝离开学生自己逃生，献出了自己的生命。

（leave behind）In that earthquake, we heard many stories of teachers who had refused to leave their students behind and laid down their lives.5.豫园的建造始于1558年，但由于资金短缺时建时停，1578年才完成。

The construction of the Yu Yuan Garden began in 1558, but it was not completed until 1578 because building went off and on for lack of money.6. 1980年我遇到她时，她刚从国外读完硕士回来。

电气工程专业英语教程 (2)

Notes
[2] Electrons which are forced out of their orbits can result in a lack of electrons where they leave and an excess of electrons where they come to rest 本句中的主语是electrons，谓语是can result in， a lack of electrons where they leave and an excess of electrons where they come to rest是宾语。这个宾语由and连接的名词短语a lack of electrons以及an excess of electrons组成，两个where引导地点状语，在理解时要分清这里面的层次。由于电子从轨道移走而造成该原子缺少电子，而移入电子的原子电子过剩。使由于质子数多余电子数，缺少电子的成为正电荷。
参考译文
1.3 电荷之间的吸引和排斥俗话说，异性吸引” 处理电荷时是正确的。俗话说， “ 异性吸引 ” ，处理电荷时是正确的。每个电荷四周有一个看不见的电场。电荷四周有一个看不见的电场。当两个电性相同的电荷靠近时电场将相斥，荷靠近时电场将相斥，当两个电性不同的电荷靠近时电场将相吸。电场将相吸。电荷周围的电场通过不可见的电力线表示，不可见的电力线表示引起吸引和排斥的不可见的电场。正电荷用离开的电力线表示、电场。正电荷用离开的电力线表示、负电荷用进入的电力线表示。电力线表示。
Notes
[3] Trying to measure even small values of current would result in unimaginably large numbers. 本句的主语是一个动名词短语trying to measure even small values of current，谓语是动词词组result in，result in不能机械地理解为“导致”，因为“导致”带有明显的感情色彩，理解为“造成”更顺畅。试图测量电流微小的值将产生难以想象的巨大的数字。

《专业英语》教学大纲(适用于护理学专业)

《专业英语》教学大纲课程类别：专业方向课程性质：选修英文名称：Special English总学时：40 讲授学时：32 实训学时：8学分：2.5先修课程：护理学基础、大学英语适用专业：：护理学专业（涉日护理方向）开课单位：护理学院一、课程简介专业英语教学内容涵盖了医学专业词汇构词法、医院的科室介绍、门诊病人接待、导医、住院病人护理和治疗、对病人的健康教育以及国际护士资格考试相关介绍等内容。

通过本课程的学习，帮助学生掌握常见的护理术语和表达，能够与病人和其他医务工作者进行口语交流；了解医学英语术语的构词法，掌握常见的词根、前缀、后缀，能够初步读懂护理文献；了解CGFNS考试的有关信息及考试范围、内容及、题型，为CGFNS的自学提供基础。

二、教学内容及基本要求第一章：医学英语词汇（6学时）教学要求：识记：（1）常见的词根、前缀、后缀的意义（2）护理环境中常见疾病、物品、器械等的表达方式理解：（1）医学英语术语的构词法应用：（1）能对一般护理文献进行翻译授课方式：讲授、自学、实训第二章：Orienting the Patient to the Unit and Hospital （2学时）教学要求：理解：（1）关于病人入院美国医院与中国医院的异同应用：（1）能为新入院病人介绍医院环境和规章制度授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第三章：Filling out the Admission Form （2学时）教学要求：应用：（1）会应用护理病历单对病人进行资料收集（2）会应用口语向病人解释护理专业名词授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第四章：Explaining Procedures （2学时）教学要求：应用：（1）用口语向病人解释常见护理操作的目的（2）能在护理操作中与病人进行交流并对病人进行适当的解释授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第五章：Explaining Routines （2学时）识记：（1）常用护理常规的表达方式（2）美国护理环境中温度、体重、身高的表达方式应用：（1）会用口语向病人解释常见护理常规的意义授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第六章：Preoperative Care （2学时）教学要求：理解：（1）“知情同意书”的意义（2）交班制度应用：（1）会对术前病人进行饮食、备皮等方面的健康教育（2）会向病人解释术后常见并发症及其原因、预防措施授课方式：授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第七章：Postoperative Care （2学时）教学要求：应用：（1）会对术后病人进行呼吸运动、下床活动的指导授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第八章：Emergency Care （2学时）教学要求：识记：（1）收集病人过去病史和现病史的表达应用：（1）能对心脏病病人进行护理评估授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第九章：Coronary Care Unit （2学时）教学要求：应用：（1）能说出常用的急救设备（2）会向病人解释常见急救设备的用途授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第十章：Obstetrics （2学时）教学要求：识记：（1）对孕妇问诊的常用表达方式应用：（1）能对孕妇进行饮食、运动、用药等方面的健康教育授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第十一章：Discharge Planing （2学时）教学要求：识记：（1）对病人进行出院指导的内容应用：（1）能说出含钾高的食物（2）能对高血压病人进行饮食指导与用药指导授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第十二章：CGFNS简介（4学时）教学要求：理解：（1）CGFNS考试应用：（1）会做简单的CGFNS考试题目授课方式：讲授、课堂作业法第十三章：Patient Education: Medication （4学时）应用：（1）能对病人进行药物治疗方面健康教育授课方式：讲授、角色扮演第十四章：Patient Education: Examination （6 学时）教学要求：应用：（1）能对病人解释常见检查的目的，并进行指导授课方式：讲授、角色扮演三、其他教学环节安排四、考核方式（1）平时成绩：30%学习态度：10分翻译及读书笔记汇报：10分角色扮演实训报告：10分（2）期末考核：70%笔试：70分五、教材及主要参考书（1）教材：Judith Perry，蔡碧华．护理美语．XX：科学出版社，2006．（2）主要参考书：宋军．护理专业英语．XX：人民卫生出版社，2006．Smeltzer，S. C. O. and Bare，B. G．Brunner & Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing （10th Ed）. Philadelphia，PA．Lippincott Williams & Wilkins，2004．。

化学工程与工艺专业英语1、2、3、4、5、6、7、10、11、12、13、20、21

Unit 1 Chemical Industry化学工业1．化学工业的起源尽管化学品的使用可以追溯到古代文明时代，我们所谓的现代化学工业的发展却是非常近代（才开始的）。

可以认为它起源于工业革命其间，大约在1800年，并发展成为为其它工业部门提供化学原料的产业。

比如制肥皂所用的碱，棉布生产所用的漂白粉，玻璃制造业所用的硅及Na2CO3. 我们会注意到所有这些都是无机物。

有机化学工业的开始是在十九世纪六十年代以William Henry Perkin 发现第一种合成染料—苯胺紫并加以开发利用为标志的。

20世纪初，德国花费大量资金用于实用化学方面的重点研究，到1914年，德国的化学工业在世界化学产品市场上占有75%的份额。

这要归因于新染料的发现以及硫酸的接触法生产和氨的哈伯生产工艺的发展。

而后者需要较大的技术突破使得化学反应第一次可以在非常高的压力条件下进行。

这方面所取得的成绩对德国很有帮助。

特别是由于1914年第一次世界大仗的爆发，对以氮为基础的化合物的需求飞速增长。

这种深刻的改变一直持续到战后（1918-1939）。

1940年以来，化学工业一直以引人注目的速度飞速发展。

尽管这种发展的速度近年来已大大减慢。

化学工业的发展由于1950年以来石油化学领域的研究和开发大部分在有机化学方面取得。

石油化工在60年代和70年代的迅猛发展主要是由于人们对于合成高聚物如聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龙、聚脂和环氧树脂的需求巨大增加。

今天的化学工业已经是制造业中有着许多分支的部门，并且在制造业中起着核心的作用。

它生产了数千种不同的化学产品，而人们通常只接触到终端产品或消费品。

这些产品被购买是因为他们具有某些性质适合（人们）的一些特别的用途，例如，用于盆的不粘涂层或一种杀虫剂。

这些化学产品归根到底是由于它们能产生的作用而被购买的。

2．化学工业的定义在本世纪初，要定义什么是化学工业是不太困难的，因为那时所生产的化学品是很有限的，而且是非常清楚的化学品，例如，烧碱，硫酸。

英语专业第二课堂与综合素养创新能力培养

英语专业第二课堂与综合素养创新能力培养在近些年素质教育的背景下，英语专业逐年缩水。

面对严峻的就业形势和低就业率，现有英语专业教育方向和发展模式逐步被挑战和质疑，在新形势下英语专业掀起了改革的大潮。

本着提高学生创新能力和综合素质的目的，各个院校都在探索适合自己的有特色的第二课堂形式。

据此，以河北工业大学外国语学院莎士比亚戏剧社为例，分析莎士比亚戏剧社的成立对英语专业学生综合素养和创新能力的培养作用。

标签：英语专业；第二课堂；综合素养；创新能力；莎士比亚戏剧社1 素质教育体制下高校第二课堂迎来新局面第一，知识经济下对传统教育理念提出的新挑战。

当今社会，知识进步和技术创新是人类经济和社会发展的重要动力和不竭源泉，知识经济正在给中国的经济发展和社会发展注入更新的动力，带来更好的机遇。

同时，它也对传统的教育理念和人才培养模式提出新的挑战和要求。

我国曾提出“2020年我国要进入创新型国家行列”，这一宏伟目标的实现依赖于我国高校打破传统教育理念的束缚，建立新的教育模式，培养新型素质人才。

而现下的人才培养模式把更多的精力放在第一课堂，但从近几年社会对高校人才培养的反馈来看，现有人才培养理念和模式效果并不理想。

第一课堂并不能满足学生综合素质的培养，存在一定的弊端和漏洞。

这就要求全国高校打破现有的理念和模式，开发创新型人才培养方案。

第二，素质教育体制对传统人才培养模式提出的新要求。

素质教育是指，依据人的发展和社会发展的实际需要，以全面提高全体学生的基本素质为根本目的，以尊重学生主体性和主动精神，注重开发人的智慧潜能，注重形成人的健全个性为根本特征的教育。

“十二五”之后，中国教改以十大改革试点作为突破口再度发力。

素质教育包括思想素质、道德素质、科学素质、人文素质、身心素质、创新精神和实践能力的教育和培养。

“第二课堂”具有不可替代的自主性、内容的广泛性、形式的多样性、参与的实践性，成为实施素质教育的重要载体和不可或缺的途径。

材料科学与工程_专业英语_Unit_2_Classification_of_Materials译文

Solid materials have been conveniently grouped into three basic classifications: metals, ceramics, and polymers. This scheme is based primarily on chemical makeup and atomic structure, and most materials fall into one distinct grouping or another, although there are some intermediates. In addition, there are three other groups of important engineering materials—composites, semiconductors, and biomaterials.译文：固体材料被便利的分为三个基本的类型：金属，陶瓷和聚合物。

这个分类是首先基于化学组成和原子结构来分的，大多数材料落在明显的一个类别里面，尽管有许多中间品。

除此之外，有三类其他重要的工程材料－复合材料，半导体材料和生物材料。

Composites consist of combinations of two or more different materials, whereas semiconductors are utilized because of their unusual electrical characteristics; biomaterials are implanted into the human body. A brief explanation of the material types and representative characteristics is offered next.译文：复合材料由两种或者两种以上不同的材料组成，然而半导体由于它们非同寻常的电学性质而得到使用；生物材料被移植进入人类的身体中。

2 工业设计专业英语第三版第二课设计革命采访对话

Design Revolution:An Interview with Emily Pilloton设计革命:对Emily Pilloton的采访By Allan Chochinov艾伦乔奇诺Allan Chochinov: Welcome Emily! We’re very excited about the new book of course, and wanted to start at the start.How did this project begin?欢迎艾米丽!当然，我们对新书感到非常兴奋，并想从头开始。

这个项目是如何开始的?Emily Pilloton:As has been the case with so much of Project H's growth,it was a story of serendipity.When I launched Project H in January of2008at the age of26,I had big plans,and wanted to push product design to a more humanitarian-driven industry.The idea of writing a book crossed my mind,though I had placed it on my things to do in the next ten years"list.About four months into Project H's existence,I had just returned from South Africa and Uganda,where we had been working on projects with Hippo Roller and the Kutamba AIDS Orphans School,and was giving a lecture during New York design week,at Metropolis’"Make Good and Prosper"confe rence at the ICFF(Figure2-2).艾米丽·皮尔洛顿:就像“H计划”的发展一样，这是一个充满意外的故事。

数学专业英语(吴炯圻-第2版)2-2

2－C Trigonometric function and solution of right triangles
One of the most important applications of trigonometry is the solution of triangles. Let us now take up the solutions of right triangles. A triangle is composed of six parts, three sides and three angles. To solve a triangle is to find the parts not given. 三角学的重要应用之一是解三角形。现在我们接下来讲三角
One of the most important objectives derived from a study of geometry is making the student be more critical in his listening, reading and thinking. In studying geometry he is led away from the practice of blind acceptance of statements and ideas and is taught to think clearly and critically before forming conclusions.
有三种线：直线，折线和曲线。曲线是指其中没有任何部分是直的。折线是由连起来的直线段构成，如图2-2-3中的 ABCDE.
3. Parts of a circle. A circle is a closed curve lying in one plane, all points of which are equidistant from a fixed point called the center. A line segment drawn from the center of the circle to a point on the circle is a radius of the circle.

工程管理专业英语unit2

桂林理工大学博文管理学院建筑工程系工程管理专业英语
Unit 2 Emerging Role of Management in Civil Engineering 管理对土木工程的重要性
When local firms insist that they only participate as a join-venture
桂林理工大学博文管理学院建筑工程系工程管理专业英语
Unit 2 Emerging Role of Management in Civil Engineering 管理对土木工程的重要性
Comprehension Exercises
Please answer the following questions briefly. Q1：what is the basis for the argument that the need for civil engineering is growing? Q2: what is the hottest new graduate program in civil engineering at northwestern university? which subjects does the program include? Q3 why are all project managers required to be able to communicate well verbally as well as in writing?
在当地公司坚持它们只能以合资伙伴参与，项目经理面临的问题

就增加了，因为当地公司通常不能提供一份履约保证金、责任保险或者甚至是一套有意义的能建立它们真正的工资成本和日常开支的账户。 In summary, the present paper is intended to show……总之，本文旨在说明…… accelerate vt. 加速,促进，增加 command vt. 赢得，拥有，掌握 appreciably ad.明显的，可觉察到，相当的

数学专业英语第2章课后答案上课讲义

数学专业英语第2章课后答案上课讲义2.12.比:ratio 比例:proportion 利率:interest rate 速率:speed 除:divide 除法:division 商:quotient 同类量:like quantity 项:term 线段:line segment 角:angle 长度:length 宽:width高度:height 维数:dimension 单位:unit 分数:fraction 百分数:percentage3.(1)一条线段和一个角的比没有意义,他们不是相同类型的量.(2)比较式通过说明一个量是另一个量的多少倍做出的,并且这两个量必须依据相同的单位.(5)为了解一个方程,我们必须移项,直到未知项独自处在方程的一边,这样就可以使它等于另一边的某量.4.(1)Measuring the length of a desk, is actually comparing the length of the desk to that of a ruler.(3)Ratio is different from the measurement, it has no units. The ratio of the length and the width of the same book does not vary when the measurement unit changes.(5)60 percent of students in a school are female students, which mean that 60 students out of every 100 students are female students.2.22.初等几何:elementary geometry 三角学:trigonometry 余弦定理:Law of cosines 勾股定理/毕达哥拉斯定理:Gou-Gu theorem/Pythagoras theorem 角:angle 锐角:acute angle 直角:right angle 同终边的角:conterminal angles 仰角:angle of elevation 俯角:angle of depression 全等:congruence 夹角:included angle 三角形:triangle 三角函数:trigonometric function直角边:leg 斜边:hypotenuse 对边:opposite side 临边:adjacentside 始边:initial side 解三角形:solve a triangle 互相依赖:mutually dependent 表示成:be denoted as 定义为:be defined as3.(1)Trigonometric function of the acute angle shows the mutually dependent relations between each sides and acute angle of the right triangle.(3)If two sides and the included angle of an oblique triangle areknown, then the unknown sides and angles can be found by using the law of cosines.(5)Knowing the length of two sides and the measure of the included angle can determine the shape and size of the triangle. In other words, the two triangles made by these data are congruent.4.(1)如果一个角的顶点在一个笛卡尔坐标系的原点并且它的始边沿着x轴正方向，这个角被称为处于标准位置.(3)仰角和俯角是以一条以水平线为参考位置来测量的,如果正被观测的物体在观测者的上方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的角叫做仰角.如果正被观测的物体在观测者的下方,那么由水平线和视线所形成的的角叫做俯角.(5)如果我们知道一个三角形的两条边的长度和对着其中一条边的角度,我们如何解这个三角形呢?这个问题有一点困难来回答,因为所给的信息可能确定两个三角形,一个三角形或者一个也确定不了.2.32.素数:prime 合数:composite 质因数:prime factor/prime divisor 公倍数:common multiple 正素因子: positive prime divisor 除法算式:division equation 最大公因数:greatest common divisor(G.C.D) 最小公倍数: lowest common multiple(L.C.M) 整除:divide by 整除性:divisibility 过程:process 证明:proof 分类:classification 剩余:remainder辗转相除法:Euclidean algorithm 有限集:finite set 无限的:infinitely 可数的countable 终止:terminate 与矛盾:contrary to3.(1)We need to study by which integers an integer is divisible, that is , what factor it has. Specially, it is sometime required that an integer is expressed as the product of its prime factors.(3)The number 1 is neither a prime nor a composite number;A composite number in addition to being divisible by 1 and itself, can also be divisible by some prime number.(5)The number of the primes bounded above by any given finite integer N can be found by using the method of the sieve Eratosthenes.4.(1)数论中一个重要的问题是哥德巴赫猜想,它是关于偶数作为两个奇素数和的表示.(3)一个数,形如2p-1的素数被称为梅森素数.求出5个这样的数.(5)任意给定的整数m和素数p,p的仅有的正因子是p和1,因此仅有的可能的p和m的正公因子是p和1.因此,我们有结论:如果p是一个素数,m是任意整数,那么p整除m,要么(p,m)=1.2.42.集:set 子集:subset 真子集:proper subset 全集:universe 补集:complement 抽象集:abstract set 并集:union 交集:intersection 元素:element/member 组成:comprise/constitute包含:contain 术语:terminology 概念:concept 上有界:bounded above 上界:upper bound 最小的上界:least upper bound 完备性公理:completeness axiom3.(1)Set theory has become one of the common theoretical foundation and the important tools in many branches of mathematics.(3)Set S itself is the improper subset of S; if set T is a subset of S but not S, then T is called a proper subset of S.(5)The subset T of set S can often be denoted by {x}, that is, T consists of those elements x for which P(x) holds.(7)This example makes the following question become clear, that is, why may two straight lines in the space neither intersect nor parallel.4.(1)设N是所有自然数的集合,如果S是所有偶数的集合,那么它在N中的补集是所有奇数的集合.(3)一个非空集合S称为由上界的,如果存在一个数c具有属性:x<=c对于所有S中的x.这样一个数字c被称为S的上界.(5)从任意两个对象x和y，我们可以形成序列（x，y），它被称为一个有序对，除非x=y，否则它当然不同于（y，x）.如果S和T是任意集合，我们用S*T表示所有有序对（x,y),其中x术语S，y属于T.在R.笛卡尔展示了如何通过实轴和它自己的笛卡尔积来描述平面的点之后，集合S*T 被称为S和T的笛卡尔积.2.52.竖直线:vertical line 水平线:horizontal line 数对:pairs of numbers 有序对:ordered pairs 纵坐标:ordinate 横坐标:abscissas 一一对应:one-to-one 对应点:corresponding points圆锥曲线:conic sections 非空图形:non vacuous graph 直立圆锥:right circular cone 定值角:constant angle 母线:generating line 双曲线:hyperbola 抛物线:parabola 椭圆:ellipse退化的:degenerate 非退化的:nondegenerate 任意的:arbitrarily 相容的:consistent 在几何上:geometrically 二次方程:quadraticequation 判别式:discriminant 行列式:determinant3.(1)In the planar rectangular coordinate system, one can set up aone-to-one correspondence between points and ordered pairs of numbers and also a one-to-one correspondence between conic sections and quadratic equation.(3)The symbol can be used to denote the set of ordered pairs （x，y）such that the ordinate is equal to the cube of the abscissa.（5）According to the values of the discriminate，the non-degenerate graph of Equation （iii）maybe known to be a parabola， a hyperbolaor an ellipse.4.（1）在例1，我们既用了图形，也用了代数的代入法解一个方程组（其中一个方程式二次的，另一个是线性的）。

第二讲数学专业英语的阅读与翻译(1)案例

(1)找出句子的主要成分和较明显的语法特征. (2) 做大意群的划分. (3) 然后做小意群的划分. (4) 最后进行综合校对. 对数的使用把计算的劳动强度减少到这样的程度，即许多计算当未采用对数时需要耗费几个小时，而现在由于借助于对数只需要用原来的很少一部分时间就能完成.
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7. 翻译的若干技巧
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（4）词序的变动
英语中，倒序的句子，翻译时，需要按自然词序译出.英语中一般短语和定语从句，单个分词或形容词做定语都后置，翻译时一般需要译成正常词序. The square root of a negative number is a pure imaginary .
负数的平方根是纯虚数.
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2
（4）归纳段落大意和全文主题. 2. 提高阅读理解的方法（1）掌握基本语法，习惯用法和常用单词的基本用法，逐步扩大常用数学单词和词组的识记和使用范围; (2)多读多练，在阅读专业英语的过程中，逐步掌握数学专业英语的特点，不断总结提高.
3. 正确的阅读方法
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（1）speed:60/min ；（2）理解具体信息（main idea,best title) ；（3）理解文中概念性涵义（concept) ；（4）相关推理判断和引申（infer) （5）根据上下文推测生词的涵义；（6）理解文章总体结构；（7）理解作者的意图，观点和态度；（8）区分论点和论据（例证题）.
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（6）句子成分的转换
状语译成主语，定语译成谓语.
The statement of the Gauss theorem is as follows:.
高斯定理叙述如下：
主语statement 译成了谓语.
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（7）语态和人称的改变

试论英语专业第二课堂教学

试论英语专业第二课堂教学试论英语专业第二课堂教学目前，英语专业学生在课外学习的现状是受有限课时的影响，教师没有实施更有效的指导和管理，大大影响了课堂学习的效果。

因此，有效地开展英语专业教学改革，充分发挥课外英语教学活动开放、灵活和广泛的优势特点，调动学生在英语学习过程中的主动性和创造性，增强学生学习的积极性和学习兴趣，是很有意义的。

[摘要]本文以建构主义为理论依据，分析了黄冈师范学院外国语学院英语专业学生第二课堂教学改革实践活动的实施模式和效果，得出了英语专业学生第二课堂活动的开展有一定理论研究与应用研究价值，对人才培养有积极的促进作用。

[关键词]建构主义;英语专业;第二课堂教学1国内外相关研究现状分析国内外的专家学者都注意到英语课外教学实践的重要性。

目前，对大学英语课外教学的主要理论研究有“输入假设”和“建构主义”。

克拉申的“输入假设”提出第二课堂教学能给英语学习者提供相对真实的语言环境和可理解性“输入”和“输出”。

“建构主义”提出英语课外教学的原则和框架。

建构主义教学主张“在问题解决中学习”，提倡充分的沟通、合作和支持。

而英语第二课堂教学活动弥补了大学英语课堂教学中教学条件和资源有限等不足，给学习者提供了相对轻松的交流环境以及建构知识的机会。

国内外的学者提到了英语第二课堂教学在英语学习中的作用和地位，而对于如何在实践中更为系统地规划好英语第二课堂教学活动等一系列问题的研究几乎没有，也没有课题和文章是以英语专业学生为研究对象的，大部分是泛泛之谈。

本项目从建构主义角度出发，以黄冈师范学院外国语学院学生的英语能力拓展活动为例，来探讨英语课外教学的作用和意义，使英语专业学生更能适应21世纪国际化的知识经济时代的人才需求。

2理论依据——建构主义建构主义注重学习者的主观能动性，强调学习者主动建构知识的能力。

根据建构主义所提出的`学习规律，学习者会根据自己的兴趣、意愿等内在经验进行选择和加工，从而建构当前事物或者信息的意义，并不是简单被动地接受来自于外面世界的信息和知识。

包装材料专业英语.Unit 2 Packaging Functions

第三、四讲Unit 2 Packaging Functions（第二单元包装的功能）（概述，包容性功能，保护/保藏功能，运输功能，信息/销售功能，食品包装）1. Introduction(概述)(1)The four main functions of a package: contain, protect/preserve, transport, inform/sell.(2)Definitions of different packaging levels:●Primary package: The first wrap or containment of the product that directly holds theproduct for sale.●Secondary package: A wrap or containment of the primary package.●Distribution package (shipper): A wrap or containment whose prime purpose is toprotect the product during distribution and to provide for efficient handling.●Unit load: A number of distribution packages bound together and unitized into a singleentity for purposes of mechanical handling, storage, and shipping.Figure 2.1 illustrates some of these levels.All levels of the system must work together.Figure 2.1 Packaging can have many levels.For example, the primary package for a breakfast cereal is the inner undecorated bag. Its main function is to contain and preserve the product, and to a lesser extent, to protect it. The secondary package, a paperboard carton, provides physical protection, informs the consumer and motivates the purchase decision. Twelve cartons are packed into a corrugated shipping container to protect the product and to facilitate distribution. The information printed on the corrugated shipper primarily identifies the product for distribution purposes. Finally, corrugated shippers are assembled into a unit load, whose primary purpose is to facilitate transport and distribution.(3)Packages are often defined by their intended destination●Consumer package: A package that will ultimately reach the consumer as a unit of salefrom a merchandising outlet.●Industrial package: A package for delivering goods from manufacturer to manufacturer.Industrial packaging usually, but not always, contains goods or materials for further processing.2. The Contain Function(包容性功能)The first step in preparing a package design is to consider the nature of the product and the kind of packaging needed to contain the product. These Considerations include:●The product’s physical form:mobile fluid viscous fluid solid/fluid mixturegas/fluid mixture granular material pastefree-flowing non-free-flowing powder solid unitdiscrete items multicomponent mix●The product’s nature:corrosive corrodible flammablevolatile perishable fragileaseptic toxic abrasiveodorous subject to odor transfer easily markedsticky hygroscopic under pressureirregular in shape3. The Protect/Preserve Function(保护/保藏功能)(1)Considerations related to the protect/preserve function●“Protect” refers to the prevention of physical damage. Specifics on what will cause loss ofvalue (damage) must be known.●“Preserve” refers to stopping or inhibiting chemical and biological change, and refers tothe extension of food shelf life beyond the product’s natural life or the maintenance of sterility in food or medical products.(2)Examples of protective packaging problemsTable 2.1 Examples of protective packaging problems and concernsCondition Quantification or Design RequirementVibration Determine resonant frequenciesMechanical shock Determine fragility factor (drop height)Abrasion Eliminate or isolate relative movementDeformation Determine safe compressive loadTemperature Determine critical valuesRelative humidity Determine critical valuesWater Design liquid barrierTampering Design appropriate systems(3)Examples of preservation packaging problemsTable 2.2 Typical preservation packaging problems and concernsCondition Quantification or Design RequirementOxygen Determine required barrier levelCarbon dioxide Determine required barrier levelOther volatiles Determine nature and barrier levelLight Design opaque packageSpoilage Determine nature/chemistryIncompatibility Determine material incompatibilitiesLoss of sterility Determine mechanismBiological deterioration Determine natureDeterioration over time Determine required shelf life4. The Transport Function(运输功能)The transport function entails the effective movement of goods from the point of production to the point of final consumption. This involves various transport modes, handling techniques and storage conditions. In addition to the general physical rigors of distribution, there are a number of carrier rules that will influence package design. Examples of some of the information required to design successful distribution packaging appear in Table 2.3.Table 2.3 Typical transport handling and storage informationtruck rail aircraftcargo ship storage duration storage conditionshandling methods unitizing methods specific shipping unitweight considerations stock-picking dimension limitscarrier rules environmentally controlled storageTransportation and distribution is generally regarded as an activity that is hazardous to the product being moved.Packaging contributes to the safe, economical, and efficient storage of a product. Good package design take into account the implications of transport and warehousing, not just for the distribution package and unitized load, but for every level of packaging.5. The Inform/Sell Function(信息/销售功能)(1)Package communication rolesThe communication role of packaging is perhaps the most complex of the packaging functions to understand, measure and implement because of the many levels at which this communication must work. Law or customs dictate certain messages without much leeway in their presentation. Examples of such message are:• Specific name of the product (what is this?)• Quantity contained• Address of the responsible body(2)“Persona”A good package is said to have a “persona”, or personality. If the designer has done an effective job, that persona will appeal to the targeted audience.The targeted audience itself needs to be identified and studied. This is the realm of demographics and psychographics.(3)How a package communicates• Selected material• Shape and size• Color• Predominant typography• Recognizable symbols or icons• IllustrationsAll of the communication channels must be balanced and supportive of one another toproduce a persona with appeal and instant recognition. All supporting material, such as promotions and advertisements, must agree with the image projected by the package.Producing a well-balanced package persona requires an intimate familiarity with not just the structural qualities of packaging materials, but also the emotional qualities that they project. A thorough understanding of the various printing processes and the specialized decorating techniques used to create particular effects or decorate unusual surfaces is essential.6. Food Preservation(食品包装)(1)The Nature of FoodFood is derived from animal or vegetable sources. Its organic nature makes it an unstable commodity in its natural form. Various means can increase the natural shelf life of foods, thus reducing dependence on season and location. To understand how the natural life of foodstuffs is prolonged, it is necessary to understand how food products deteriorate. Food spoilage can occur by three means:a) “Internal biological deterioration” describes biological functions that continue even though the food has been harvested. Fruits continue to ripen and vegetables continue to respire. Fresh meat exhibits many of the processes associated with living tissue. In some instances, internal biological factors are used to advantages. But beyond a certain point, all biological activity will lead to spoilage and loss of product.b) “External biological deterioration” refers to the action of microorganisms. What is food to us is also food to a host of other organisms. Molds, bacteria and yeasts are present in most foods. They are harmless or beneficial.c) “Abiotic deterioration” describes those changes that are chemical or physical in nature and that are not dependent on a biological agent. For example, atmospheric oxygen will chemically react with many substances. Vitamin C is no longer a useful nutrient once oxidized. Oxidized oils and fats have a rancid taste.What is generally described as “t aste” more correctly refers only to the sweet, sour, salty, and bitter sensations that we detect with the taste sensors located on our tongue.We are also capable of detecting complex volatile substances, variously known as essential oils or “sensory active agents”or sense of smell. We detect them when minute quantities, in gaseous form, pass over sensors located in our nasal passages.What we perceive as a food product’s flavor is a combination of what we detect with our sense of taste combined with what we detect with our sense of smell. Because essential oils are volatile, they are easily lost through evaporation or oxidation. Great care must be taken to ensure that essential oils characteristic of a product are not lost. Preservation of essential oils retains the food’s full flavor at retail.Volatiles can permeate packaging materials and making the problem of contamination or isolation even more difficult.The above discussion addresses the importance of controlling the gain or loss of essential oils in food products. Similarly, it is equally important to retain essential oils in the many nonfood products whose appeal lies partly or entirely on the smells associated with that product. Perfumes, colognes and room fresheners are essentially blends of pure essential oils. Most health and beauty aids such as cosmetics, soaps, shampoos and toothpastes also contain essential oils in their formulations.Water vapor is similar to an essential oil in that it readily permeates many packaging materials. Moisture loss or gain can be a deteriorating factor, depending on the nature of the food.A snack food loses quality as it gains moisture while a cake loses quality as it loses moisture.The creation of high-barrier packaging systems is partly in response to the need for packaging that will either hold desirable gases and volatiles in the package or prevent undesirable volatiles from entering the package.Temperature can promote undesirable changes that are abiotic in nature. The most common of these are the irreversible changes encountered when some fruits are frozen. The formation of ice crystals punctures the fruit’s fragile cell walls, and the fruit loses its desirable character.Specific food categories have their own characteristics, such as meat and fish.Meat productsMeats are an ideal medium for microorganisms because they contain all the necessary nutrients to sustain growth. In addition to biological action, fatty tissue is susceptible to oxidation, and the entire mass can lose water.Reduced temperature retards microorganism activity, slows evaporation and slows chemical reactions such as those associated with oxidation. At 0℃and 85% relative humidity (R.H.), beef carcasses keep for about 21 days. Beef retail cuts on open display at 5℃ keep for 1 or 2 days. Proper packaging and storage of retail cuts can increase this to 10 days.✧FishThe preservation of fish is a difficult challenge because of three main factors:• Psychrophilic bacteria may be present.• Many fish oils are unsaturated and are easily oxidized.• Typical fish proteins are not as stable as red meat proteins.Chilling does not affect the activity of psychrophilic bacteria, to the extent it does mesophyllic types, so the “keeping quality” of fresh fish is limited. Frozen fish is typically kept at much lower temperatures (-30℃) than other frozen foods in order to ensure the control of psychrophilic bacteria.✧Fruit productsHarvested fruits and vegetables continue to respire and mature. They contain large amounts of water and will wither if water loss is excessive. No two fruits or vegetables are alike, and the rate at which biological and abiotic changes occur varies with the species. Peas, green beans, and leafy vegetables have high respiration rates compared with those of apples oranges, and pears. Potatoes, turnips and pumpkins respire slowly and are easy to store. Moisture loss is more rapid with lettuce than with a turnip because of the large available surface area.Most fruits have an optimum ripening temperature, usually about 20℃. Few fruits will ripen below 5℃. Freezing of many produce items will damage cell structure, and breakdown is very rapid after thawing.The growth, maturation and ripening of a fruit or vegetable is controlled by various hormones and gases. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) while reducing the amount of oxygen (O2) slows the respiration rates. However, some oxygen must always be present to keep the fruit alive. These techniques are used in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). Ethylene gas, produced by plant tissues, is associated with the ripening of many fruits, and its control is effectively used to retard or accelerate the ripening process.Bananas are particularly sensitive to the atmosphere around them. It can remain in a mature but green state for up to six months in atmospheres of 92% nitrogen, 5% oxygen, 3% carbon dioxide and no ethylene.As the above brief discussion illustrates, atmosphere and temperature control are key requirements for extending the shelf life of fresh produce. Packaging for these products must betailored to the individual product’s needs, and trade-offs are necessary. The ideal humidity for many produce is about 90%. At these levels bacterial and fungal growth is greatly encouraged. Furthermore, sealed plastic bags are subject to condensation and wetting, which will only aggravate the problem. The compromise seen for many produce items is a perforated or vented plastic wrap. This allows respiration while providing for some containment and restraint to the loss of moisture. Another option is to select packaging films with high gas-transmission rates, i.e. precut salad bags (the shelf life of about ten days) have excellent moisture barrier and very low oxygen barrier.Barrier PackagingWe have noted that the movement of gases into or out of a package can lead to undesirable changes in the product. An important factor in the preservation of products that contain gaseous or volatile components or that are susceptible to change through the action of such components is the ability to control the movement of these gases and volatiles. (Figure 2.2)Figure 2.2 A barrier packaging material is one that slows down or stops the movement of selected gaseous substances into or out of a packageStopping the movement of a gas requires barrier packaging. This packaging construction either retains desirable gases and volatiles inside the package or prevents undesirable gases and volatiles from entering the package. Of the materials a packager can choose from, only glass and metal provide absolute barriers to all gases and volatiles. While glass and metal are superior in this property, they have associated disadvantages, and packagers frequently seek alternatives with plastic materials. However, all plastics have a measurable permeability. The actual permeability varies widely depending on the plastic selected and the nature of the permeant gas or volatile. It is important to understand both the nature of the permeant and the properties of the candidateplastics. The term "high barrier" plastic is a relative, nonspecific term and should not be taken to mean "absolute" barrier.Barrier packaging can harm some products. Fresh produce, for example, continues to respire after harvesting and would shortly consume all the oxygen in an oxygen-barrier package. This would lead to reduced shelf life. Plastic bags for produce commonly have vent holes punched in them to allow for a free exchange of atmospheric gases.Microorganisms and their preferred environments for propagationMicroorganismsA large part of food preservation depends on the control of microorganisms. Bacteria or microbes are unicellular microscopic organisms that reproduce by splitting into two identical cells (binary fission). Bacteria grown exponentially and can divide as fast as every 20 minutes. Certain bacterial species can form spores that are highly resistant to killing.Molds or fungi are multicellular and unicellular plantlike organisms. Neither is capable of producing chlorophyll or carbohydrates. Instead, they depend on outside sources for nutrients. Molds form filamentous branching growths called mycelia and reproduce by spores. Yeasts are similar organisms that reproduce by budding. The propagation and spread of molds and yeasts is typically slower than for bacteria because of the reproduction method.Microorganisms ’preferred environments for propagationTypical of any living entity, each microorganism type has a preferred environment in which to exist and propagate and other environments under which it will not. By manipulating the four principal environmental factors that regulate microorganism growth-temperature, moisture, acidity (pH), and nutrient source-microorganisms can be controlled or eliminated. Microorganisms are often classified by their preferred reproduction environment, the most important being the following:Mesophyllic: Prefer ambient conditions, 20-45℃Psychrophilic: Prefer cool conditions, 10-25℃Thermophilic: tolerate heat; will propagate at 30℃to 75℃Aerobic: need oxygen to propagateAnaerobic: propagate only in the absence of oxygenSome microorganisms act only on the food. They do little harm when ingested Pathogenicorganisms can cause sickness or death, falling into basic classes:• Those that produce harmful toxins as by-products in the food they infest.• Those that infest the food and then grow in the human body to produce illnesses.(2)Six basic methods, which are used alone or in combination, can extend the normal biological shelf life of food:• Reduced temperatures • Thermal processing• Water reduction • Chemical preservation• Modified atmospheres • IrradiationEach method can slow the natural biological maturation and spoilage of a food product, reduce biological activity or inhibit the chemical activity that leads to abiotic spoilage. Each method requires its own unique blend of packaging materials and technology.①Reduced Temperature and FreezingReducing temperatures below the ambient temperature has many beneficial effects that will lead to a longer shelf life. Doing so:• Slows chemical activity• Slows loss of volatiles• Reduces or stops biological activityWhile chilling a food product will increase shelf life, actual freezing provides the greatest benefits. Bacteria and molds stop developing at about -8℃, and by -18℃, chemical and microorganism activity stops for most practical purposes. Freezing kills some microorganisms, but not to the extent of commercial usefulness.Ice crystal formation is greatest between 0 and -5℃. Ice crystals can pierce cell walls, destroying the texture of many fruits and vegetables. Rapid freezing reduces this damage.Freezer conditions will cause ice to sublimate, and serious food dehydration, commonly referred to as freezer burn, will occur. Snug, good moisture-barrier packaging with a minimum of free air space will reduce freezer dehydration. Complete filling of the package is desirable because ice will sublimate inside the package, dehydrating the product and leaving ice pieces in the voids.Frozen food packages materials must remain flexible at freezer temperatures, provide a good moisture barrier and conform closely to the product. When paperboard is used as part of the package, it should be heavily waxed or coated with polyethylene to give protection against theinevitable moisture present in the freezing process.Poultry packaging in high-barrier PVDC bags is an excellent example of an ideal freezer pack. Prepared birds, placed into bags, pass through a vacuum machine that draws the bag around the bird like a second skin. The tight barrier prevents water loss and freezer burn for extended periods, as well as preventing passage of oxygen that would oxidize fats and oils.②Thermal ProcessingHeat can destroy microorganisms. The degree of treatment depends on the:• Nature of the microorganism to be destroyed• Acidity (pH) of the food• Physical nature of the food• Heat tolerance of the food• Container type and dimensionsPasteurization, a mild heat treatment of 60 to 70℃, kill most, but not all, microorganisms present. Pasteurization is used when• More severe heating would harm the product• Dangerous organisms are not very heat resistant (such as some yeasts)• Surviving organisms can be controlled by other means• Surviving organisms do not pose a health threat➢Aseptic packaging“Hot filling”refers to product filling at elevated temperatures up to 100℃. It is used to maintain sterility in products such as jams, syrups and juices.Some products can tolerate high temperatures for short time periods. Ultra-high temperature (UHT) processing of milk and fruit juices uses temperatures in the range of 135 to 150℃, but for a few seconds or less. The high temperature is enough to kill most pathogens. UHT is the basis of most flexible aseptic drink packaging.The term “aseptic”as applied to packaging refers to any system wherein the product and container are sterilized separately and then combined and sealed under aseptic conditions. In the 1940s, metal cans were sterilized and filled with puddings, sauces, and soups (the Dole Process). In the 1970s, aseptic packaging was adapted to institutional bag-in-box systems.●Advantages: eliminating the need for the elevated temperatures and pressures used inconventional canning methods. Eliminating the need for extreme sterilizing conditions allows aseptic packaging materials to have lower physical strengths and lower temperature tolerance.Commercial systems, such as Tetra Pak, Combibloc, and Bosch, use hydrogen peroxide to sterilize simple paper, foil and polyethylene laminates, and then fill the formed package with UHT-treated product.Unlike aseptic packaging, normal canning only maintains nominal cleanliness in the food and the container. After the food has been sealed in the container, it is subjected to temperature high enough to kill pathogens and achieve commercial sterility. Temperatures of 110 to 130℃are typical. The actual cook time depends on many factors, calculated in advance to ensure commercial sterility. One of the most important factors is the rate of heat penetration to the farthest and most insulated portion of the product, usually the container’s geometric center.Generally, the less acid the food, the longer the cook times needed to ensure destruction of Clostridium botulinum. Foods with acidities high enough to prevent harmful pathogens from propagating can be heat-processed by immersion in boiling water.The retortable pouch is a laminate of polyester (for toughness), foil (for an oxygen barrier) and a heat-sealable polyolefin. Retortable pouch material is shipped in roll form, creating significant transport and storage savings. Since the pouch can be as little as 12 mm thick, thermal processing time can be reduced, thus improving food texture and nutritional qualities. There are also attractive implications for waste disposal. Its largest customer is the military in North American.③Water ReductionDrying is an old and well-established method of preserving food. The essential feature of drying is that moisture content is reduced below that required for the support of microorganisms. An added advantage is reduced bulk and reduction of other chemical activity. Available moisture can be reduced by simple heat drying or by the addition of salt or sugar. Concentrated salt and sugar solutions tie up free water and make it unavailable to microorganisms. Jams and marmalades having high sugar contents do not require refrigeration for this reason.Equilibrium relative humidity (E.R.H) is the atmospheric humidity condition under which a food will neither gain nor lose moisture to the air. This value is often expressed as Aw, the wateractivity. A food with an Aw of 0.5 is at an equilibrium relative humidity of 50%. Table 2.3 lists the moisture content and the desired E.R.H for some common foods.Table 2.4 Typical moisture content and E.R.H rangesProduct Typical Moisture(%) E.R.HPotato chips, instant coffee3% or less 10 to 20%Crackers, breakfast cereals 3 to 7% 20 to 30%Cereal grains, nuts, dried fruit 7 to 20% 30 to 60%Salt 75%Sugar 85%Very low-E.R.H. foods are hygroscopic and will draw available moisture from the air. These foods require a barrier package that will not permit the entry of atmospheric moisture.Dried foods such as potato chips and instant coffee require packaging materials with high moisture-barrier properties. Potato chips are also rich in oil (about 30%), so that they also need a high oxygen barrier. In-package desiccants and oxygen scavengers are sometimes used to increase the shelf life of very sensitive products.Dried foods with E.R.H. values of 20% to 30% have less stringent moisture-barrier requirements and are easier to package. Depending on the food, oxygen or other barriers may still be needed. Many crackers, biscuits, and breakfast cereals fall into this category.Foods with an E.R.H. of 30% to 60% can often be stored for long periods with little or no barrier packaging since their E.R.H. corresponds to typical atmospheric conditions. Cereal grains, nuts and dried fruits are in this group. If the food has high oil content, oxygen barriers may be needed. Bacteriological activity is rarely a problem with low- or reduced-moisture foods since one of the essentials of bacterial growth has been removed.High E.R.H. foods lose moisture under typical atmospheric conditions. A cake with an E.R.H. of 90% would soon establish a relative humidity of 90% inside a sealed package, creating ideal conditions for mold growth. The packaging challenge is to control moisture loss, retarding it as much as possible, but not to the extent that a high humidity is established within the package.④ Chemical PreservativesVarious natural and synthetic chemicals and antioxidants are used to help extend the keeping quality of foods. They are used in conjunction with other preservation methods. The use of mostof them is strictly controlled by law, although what is allowed varies from country to country.Chemical preservatives work in various ways: Some, such as lactic, acetic, propionic, sorbic and benzoic acids, produce acid environments. Others, such as alcohol, are specific bacteriostats. Carbon dioxide, found in beers and carbonated beverages creates an acid environment and is also a bacteriostat. Smoking and curing of meat and fish is partly a drying process and partly chemical preservation. Aliphatic and aromatic wood distillation products (many related to creosote) are acidic and have variable bacteriostatic effects. Varying amounts of salt pretreatment accompanies most smoking.Antioxidants and oxygen absorbers can reduce oxidation.⑤Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)MAP recognizes that many food degradation processes have a relationship with the surrounding atmosphere. MAP involves the introduction of a gas mixture other than air into a package, that mixture is then left to equilibrate or change according to the nature of the system. A related process, controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP), is used in storage and warehousing where the atmosphere can be monitored and adjusted.Vacuum packaging is one type of MAP. It has the effect of eliminating some or all oxygen that might contribute to degradation. However, the method is not universally useful, since products such as fruits and vegetables have respiratory functions that must be continued. Another difficulty is that red meat will turn brown or purple without oxygen. pressures created by the external atmosphere surrounding a vacuum-packaged product can physically crush delicate products or squeeze water out of moist products.Ambient air is about 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen, with a trace of carbon dioxide. Altering these proportions alters product response. This forms the basis of MAP shelf life extension. Table 2.5 lists atmospheric combinations for some common food products.Table 2.5 Typical modified atmospheres for selected food productsProduct Oxygen Carbon Dioxide NitrogenRed meat 40% 20% 40%White meats/pasta ——50% 50%Fish 20% 80% ——Produce 5% ——95%。

电气工程及其自动化专业英语第二章课文翻译

第二章第一篇To say that we live in an age of electronics is an understatement. From the omnipresent integrated circuit to the equally omnipresent digital computer, we encounter electronic devices and systems on a daily basis. In every aspect of our increasingly technological society— whether it is science, engineering, medicine, music, maintenance, or even espionage—the role of electronics is large, and it is growing.谈论关于我们生活在一个电子学时代的论调是一种空泛的论调。

从无处不在的集成电路到同样无处不在的数字计算机，我们在日常活动中总会遇到电子设备和电子系统。

在我们日益发展的科技社会的方方面面——无论是在科学、工程、医药、音乐、维修方面甚至是在谍报方面——电子学的作用是巨大的，而且还将不断增强。

In general, all of the tasks with which we shall be concerned can be classified as "signal-processing“tasks. Let us explore the meaning of this term一般说来，我们将要涉及到的工作被归结为“信号——处理”工作，让我们来探究这个术语的含义吧。

A signal is any physical variable whose magnitude or variation with time contains information. This information might involve speech and music, as in radio broadcasting, a physical quantity such as the temperature of the air in a room, or numerical data, such as the record of stock market transactions. The physical variables that can carry information in an electrical system are voltage and current. When we speak of "signals", therefore, we refer implicitly to voltages or currents. However, most of the concepts we discuss can be applied directly to systems with different information-carrying variables. Thus, the behavior of a mechanical system (in which force and velocity are the variables) or a hydraulic system (in which pressure and flow rate are the variables) can often be modeled or represented by an equivalent electrical system. An understanding of the behavior of electrical systems, therefore, provides a basis for understanding a much broader range of phenomena. 信号就是其与时间有关的量值或变化包含信息的任何物理变量。

汽车专业英语车身电气系统第2讲 Air Conditioning System(空调系统)

In recent years R-134a (CH2F-CF3) is widely used as
refrigerant instead of R-12 in air conditioning
system. It has more advantages than R-12.It does not deplete the ozone layer which helps to protect us from the ultraviolet from the sun, and its evaporative temperature is higher than that of R-12.
interior 内部的
dehumidify 除湿
compressor 压缩机
condenser 冷凝器
receiver 贮液干燥器
evaporator 蒸发器
expansion valve
膨胀阀 amplifier
放大器
Fig. 3-2-1 Air Conditioning System Electrical Control Parts Location （空调系统电控部件位置图）
消散
cooling unit, its temperature and pressure come down.
Fig. 3-2-2 The Cooling Process of the Air Condition （空调系统制冷过程）
1- compressor （压缩机）2- low-pressure side （低压侧）3- high-pressure side （高压侧） 4- expansion valve（膨胀阀）5- cooled fresh air （冷却后的新鲜空气）6- evaporator （蒸发器）7- warm fresh air （冷却前的热新鲜

Unit2SilicateStructures无机非金属专业英语

Unit2 Silicate StructuresAtomic arrangement in hundreds of silicates having complex chemical compositions have in their basic structures a beautiful simplicity and order. At the same time the details of many of the silicate structures are complex and difficult to illustrate without three-dimensional models, and we will not attempt to give precise structure information.The radius ratio for Si-O is 0.29, corresponding to tetrahedral coordination, and four oxygen ions are almost invariably arrayed around a central silicon. With a bond strength of 1, oxygen ions may be coordinated with only two silicon atoms in silica; this low coordination number makes close-packed structures impossible for SiO2, and in general silicates have more open structures than those discussed previously. The SiO4tetrahedra can be linked in compounds such as corners are shared in several ways. There are four general types. In orthosilicates, [SiO4]4-, tetrahedra are independent of one another; in pyrosilicates ,[Si2O7]6- ions are composed of two tetrahedra with one corner shared; in metasilicates, SiO3(SiO3)n, two corners are shared to form a variety of ring or chain structures; in layer structures,(Si2O5)n, layers are made up of tetrahedra with three shares corners; in the various forms of silica, SiO2, four corners are shared.silica. Crystalline silica, SiO2, exists in several different polymorphic forms corresponding to different ways of combining tetrahedral groups with all corners shared. Three basic structures—quartz、tridymite、cristobalite—each exists in two or three modifications . The most stable forms are low quartz , below 573C ;high quartz ,573 to 867C;high tridymite,867 to 1470C;high cristobalite ,1470 to 1710C;and liquid ,above 1710C;and liquid , above 1710C .The low temperature modifications are distorted derivative structures of the basic high—temperature forms .(A derivative structure in the sense is one that can be derived from a basic structure of greater symmetry by distorting the structure in space rather than substituting different chemical species) We confine our attention to the basic high—temperature forms .High quartz has a structure which can be viewed as composed of connected chains of silica tetrahedra. Compared to the close packed structures discussed in the last section ,this is a relatively open structure; for example ,the density of quartz is 2.65g/cm3,compared with 3.59 for MgO and 3.96 for Al2O3 .However ,quartz has a greater density and closer packing than either of the high—temperature forms, tridymites(p=2.26)and cristobalite(p=2.32)Orthosilicates. This group includes the olivine minerals (forsterite,Mg2SiO4, and solid solutions with Fe2SiO4), the garnets, zircon, and the aluminosilicates-kyanite, silimanite, andalusite, and mullite. The structure of forsterite, Mg2SiO4, is similar to that found for chrysoberyl, Al2BeO4.The oxygen ions are nearly in a hexagonal close-packed structure with Mg2+ in octahedral and Si4+ in tetrahedral sites. (From a coordination point of view this assembly can also be considered an array of SiO4 tetrahedra with Mg2+ ions in the octahedral holes) .Each oxygen ion is coordinated with one Si4+ and three Mg2+ or with two Si4+.The structure of kyanite, Al2SiO5, consists of nearly cubic close-packed oxygen ions with Si4+ in tetrahedrl and Al3+ in octahedral sites. However, in the polmorphic forms andalusite and sillimanite have much more open structures, with SiO4tetrahedra coordinated with AlO6octahedral. Mullite, Al6Si2O13 , a common constituent of fired clay, has a structure similar to that of sillimanite (compare Al16Si8O40 and Al18Si6O39) .Pyrosilicate. Crystalline silicates containing Si2O76- ions are rare.Metasilicates. Silicates containing (SiO3)n2n-ions are of two types-cyclic or chain arrangements of the silica tetrahedra. Some of the discrete cyclic ions observed are the Si3O96- (such as in wollastonite, CaSiO3) and Si6O1812- (in bery1,BeAl2Si6O18) ions. Minerals with chain structures comprise a large group. Those with compositions corresponding to singlechain,(SiO3)n2n-, are the pyroxenes , and those with double chains,(Si4O11)n6n-,the amphiboles. The pyroxenes include enstatite, MgSiO3 ; dropsied ,MgCa(SiO3)2; spodumene,LiAl(SiO3)2; and jadeite .The amphiboles include tremolite ,(OH)2CaMg5(Si4O11)2, in which isomorhic substitution is widespread. The asbestos minerals are amphiboles. Framework Structures. Many important silicate structures are based on an infinite three dimensional silica framework. Among these are the feldspars and the zeolites. The feldspars are characterized by a framework formed with Al3+ replacing some of the Si4+ to make a framework with a net negative charge that is balanced by large ions in interstitial positions, that is,albite,NaAlSi3O8;anorthite,CaAl2Si2O8;orthoclase,KalSi3O8;celsian,BaAl2S i2O8; and the like .The network structures are similar in nature to the cristobalite structure ,with the alkali or alkaline earth ions fitting into interstices. Only the large positive ions are from feldspars; smaller ones that enjoy octahedral coordination are from chains or layer silicates.Much more open alumina-silica frameworks occur in the zeolites and ultramarines. In these compounds the framework is sufficiently open for there to be relatively large channels in the structure .The alkali and alkaline earth ions present can be exchanged in aqueous solutions, leading to there use as water softeners. In addition ,these channels can be used as molecularsieves for filtering mixtures on the basis of molecular size. The size of the channels in the network depends on the composition.硅酸盐结构单元原子排列在数以百计的硅酸盐有复杂的化学成分的基本结构一个美丽的简单性和秩序。

专业英语

Unit 1 what is Geomatics●Geomatics —测绘学 English for Geomatics Engineering(测绘工程专业英语)●Geodesy —大地测量学 Informatics —信息学，情报学GEODESY+GEOINFORMATICS = GEOMATICS (将大地测量学和地球信息学两词合成后就成为测绘学这一专业词汇)●Surveyor —测量员 Hydrographic —海道测量，水道测量More explicit job descriptions such as Land Surveyor , Engineering Surveyor , or Hydrographic Surveyor for example.(更多这类工作详细描述为土地测量员、工程测量员、水道测量员等等）●Surveying and mapping —测绘 Photogrammetry —摄影测量学Remote sensing(RS) —遥感 Global positioning system —全球定位系统The science and technology of acquiring , storing , processing, managing , analyzing , and presenting geographically referenced information (geo-spatial data).This broad term applies both to science and technology , and integrates the following more specific disciplines and technologies including surveying and mapping , geodesy , satellite positioning , photogrammetry , remote sensing , geographic information systems(GIS) , land management , computer systems , environmental visualization and computer graphics .测绘学是关于捕获、存储、处理、分析以及显示地理学相关信息（地球空间数据）的科学技术。

英语专业高级英语2课后翻译

1. However intricate the ways in which animals communicate with each other, they do not indulge in anything that deserves the same of conversation.无论动物之间的交流有多么复杂，它们都称不上聊天。

2. Argument may often be a part of it, but the purpose of the argument is not to convince. There is no wining in conversation.争吵可能经常是它的一部分，但争吵的目的并不是要说服他人。

聊天中没有输赢之分。

3. Perhaps it is because of my upbringing in English pubs that I think bar conversation has a charm of its own.或许是我自小常去英国酒吧的缘故，我认为酒吧聊天拥有自己独特的魅力4. I do not remember what made one of our companions say it —— she clearly had not come into the bar to say it, it was not sth. that was pressing on her mind —— but her remark fell quite naturally into the talk我不记得是什么使我们的一个伙伴提前了这个话题——她显然不是特意来酒吧说这件事的，那也不是什么她非说不可的事——但她十分自然的在聊天中说出了这句话5.There is always resistance in the lower classes to any attempt by an upper class to lay down rules for "English as it should be spoken ".每当上流社会想给“规范英语”制定一些规则时，总会遭到下层社会的抵制。