耶鲁大学公开课课件
Lecture+9耶鲁大学开放课程《聆听音乐》讲稿+
Professor Craig Wright: Okay. Let us start, ladies and gentlemen. We're going to pursue the issue of musical form today. It's an important thing to talk about because it allows us to follow a particular piece of music, and we'll be--I am using this metaphor of a musical journey and wanting to know where we are in music throughout the day today. Form is particularly important in all types of music--popular music as well as classical music--and we have this complex of material coming at us, this sonic material. And we try to make sense of it, and we say that it has a particular form. And we say it could have a particular structure even, so we tend to use metaphors having to do with architecture and things such as this.What we are really doing here is taking all of this sonic information that's coming into our brain and getting sorted, and makes us want to dance around or clap or be sad or happy, and make sense of it in terms of a few rather simple patterns. And musicians like to have forms because oftentimes it tells them what they ought to do next and where--here--I'm here but what ought to happen next? Well, if you've got a tried and true musical form that other musicians have used over the years, you might be inclined to use it too because your know your listener will be able to follow you.Now the other day, I asked early on in the course about the form in popular music, and I threw this out not really knowing what the answer would be. What's the most common form that one encounters when dealing with pop songs? And for the most part there was silence across the room, but one student--I have tracked him down--Frederick Evans, gave a very good answer--really a better answer than I could have given. So, clearly Frederick knew something about this idea of what he I think referred to as "verse and chorus" structure.I might call it "strophe and refrain," but it's the same thing whether you have it in a Lied of Franz Schubert or in a piece that I know nothing about. And Frederick is going to show us--introduce us--to a piece that I know nothing about. I sent him an e-mail last night saying, "Frederick, you gave a really good answer. Why don't you pick a piece, come up and demonstrate this?" So this is Frederick Evans. We're going--or excuse me. Yeah, Frederick Evans. He's going to come up here. I'm told we have to give him a microphone and he is going to introduce us to this particular piece. Now you probably all know what this piece is. How many of you have heard the piece we were just listening to? Everybody knows it. Who is the one person in the room that's never heard this piece before--has no clue what's happening? Moi. Okay? So Frederick, tell me about this piece, please.Frederick Evans: All right. This is a piece by 'N Sync--back when I was in fifth grade--and it's "Bye Bye Bye," and the pattern that it follows is really the archetype of a lot of popular songs. It's half of the chorus or so when it starts and then there's verse, chorus, verse, chorus and then what I call the bridge, which is like an emotional climax. And then the last one is a really powerful chorus where they just bring it home and then the music fades away.Professor Craig Wright: Okay. So it's this idea of changing text, then coming back to familiar text and familiar music, then changing, going back to the familiar new text, and then coming back to the familiar in terms of the chorus. Is that a fair shake?Frederick Evans: Yes, Sir. Yes.Professor Craig Wright: Okay. So shall we play--what are we going to hear first?Frederick Evans: So first you'll hear from seconds twenty-four to forty. This is an example of the verse where they have the beginning of the plot and then you have the chorus at seconds--about fifty-six--and that's where you get your repeating idea, which is what the piece is based on. And then last but not least, you have the emotional buildup where the background and the chord progression changes, a little more solemnly, and then there's the last chorus that just brings it home.Professor Craig Wright: Okay. Great. Let's listen to the-yeah. [music plays] Okay.Frederick Evans: Yep. So that was the first verse and that's when they really get you into what they're talking about.[music playing]Professor Craig Wright: What really interests me here is what they're using is a baroque ostinato "Lament bass" but that's--we'll get on to that in another week or so. So that's--okay. Now we'll go to the bridge, Frederick?Frederick Evans: Yes. There at the bridge is where they really sum up all their emotions and they really just want to tell you what they're building towards. [music playing]Professor Craig Wright: Okay. That's wonderful. Thank you, Frederick. That's exactly what I wanted. [laughs] [applause] Okay. How many want Craig to continue teaching this course and how many want Frederick? Let's hear it for Craig. [laughter] Let's hear it for Frederick. [applause] I knew it. Okay, but that's a good way of getting introduced to the idea of musical form.Let's talk about form now in classical music. The forms are a little more difficult in classical music because the music is more complex. And before we launch into a discussion of these musical forms, I want to talk about the distinction of genre in music and form in music. So we're going to go over to the board over here and you can see that I've listed the standard classical genres. What do we mean by genre in music? Well, simply musical type. So we've got this type called a symphony and this type of music called a string quartet and concerto, and so on. We could add other types: ballet, opera, things such as that. In the popular realm we've got genres too. We've got--classical New Orleans jazz would be a genre. Blues would be a genre. Grunge rock would be another sort of genre.A genre presupposes a particular performing force, a particular length of pieces and even dress and mode of behavior of the auditors--the listeners. If we were going to listen to the genre of a symphony, we would dress up one particular way, go to Woolsey Hall and expect to be there from eight o'clock until ten o'clock. If you were going to hear the Rolling Stones play at Toad's--where they do play occasionally--obviously one would not come at eight o'clock. One would come later, and one would dress in a particular sort of way and one would behave, presumably, in a different sort of way. So that's what we mean by genre, a kind of general type of music.Now today we'll start to talk about form in music, and what I need to say here is that each of these genres is made up of a--of movements, and each of the movements is informed by a particular form.So with the symphony we have four movements there: fast, slow, then either a minuet or a scherzo, and a final, fast movement, and each of these movements can be in one of the number of different forms and we'll talk about what they are in just a moment.So when we come to the string quartet, same sort of thing: fast, slow, minuet, scherzo, fast. Any one of those can be in a particular form. Concerto, generally, as mentioned before, has just three movements and sonata, a piano sonata, something played on a piano, or a violin sonata with violin and piano accompaniment--they generally have just three movements: fast, slow, fast. Okay.Let's talk about our forms now. In classical music things go by very quickly and it's difficult to kind of get a handle on it, and we, generally in life, don't like to be lost. We like to know where we are, we like to know what is happening, and this is what form allows us to do. So that if we're hearing a piece of music and all this stuff is coming at us we want to make sense of it by knowing approximately where we are. Am I still toward the beginning? Am I in the middle of this thing? Am I getting anywhere near the end of it? How should I respond at this particular point? Well, if we have in mind what I've identified here, we will be referring to as our six formal types, and we can think of these as templates that, when we're hearing a piece of music we make an educated decision about which formal type is in play. And then we drop down the model of this formal type, or the template of this formal type, and we sort of filter our listening experience through this template, or through this model.So here are our six models: ternary form, sonata allegro form, theme and variations, rondo, fugue, and ostinato. And they developed at various times in the history of music. Theme and variations is very old. Sonata-allegro is a lot more recent. Now of these, the ones that we'll be working with today are ternary form and sonata-allegro form, and sonata-allegro is the hardest, the most complex, the most difficult of all of these forms. It's so-called because it usually shows up in the first movement of a sonata, concerto, string quartet, symphony, so--and the first movements are fast so that's why we have allegro out there, and it most is associated with this idea of the sonata. It didn't necessarily originate there. It originated there and in the symphony, but for historical reasons we call this sonata because of its association with the sonata and the fact that it goes--and the fact that it goes fast--sonata-allegro form. So that in a symphony, usually your very first movement will be in sonata-allegro form.Your slow movement, well, that could be in theme and variations; it could be in rondo; it could be in ternary form. Your minuet and scherzo is almost always in ternary form and your last fast movement could be in sonata-allegro form. It could also be in theme and variations; could be in rondo; could be in fugue. Sometimes it's even in ostinato form. So you can see that these forms can show up and control--regulate--what happens inside of each of these movements. Okay? Are there questions about that? Does that seem straightforward enough? We have a big picture of genre here, movements within genre, and then forms informing each of the movements. Yes.Student: Did you say that the ternary form is normally used for the second movement?Professor Craig Wright: No. I said it's possible that it is--could be--used for the second movement. A ternary form is one of the forms that could be used with the slow second movement. We could also have theme and variations. We're going to hear one of those later in our course. It could also be a sortof slow rondo. So it's just one of really three possibilities there, but thanks for that question. Anything else? Okay.If not, let's talk then about ternary form because ternary form has much in common with what we experience in sonata-allegro form. Let me take a very straightforward example of ternary form. It's from Beethoven's "Für Elise," the piece--the piano piece that Beethoven wrote for one of his paramours at one time or another. Here. I'm going to tell you a story about this. My cell phone broke the other day.My cell phone broke the other day so I had to buy a new one. I was really happy about that. I hated to lose my old Mozart theme, but I then had to find a new Mozart theme. And nowadays my selections are more limited. So when you go on to these things--and in truth, I actually had my youngest son do this because I'm hopelessly incompetent with this kind of thing--you go on to these things, and now they only have one option for classical music, one option for--but it's called "Mozart" so good choice. Mozart has become the icon of classical music and I think it's the individual that should be the icon for classical music. All classical music now has been reduced down to just Mozart. Okay. I have no idea what that was about, but, well, who's calling?All right. So we have this piece in ternary form by Beethoven, and ternary form is--conveys to us simply the idea of presentation, diversion, re-presentation or statement, digression, restatement--anything like this. We like to diagram these in terms of alphabetical letters. You can think just A, B, A. [plays piano] All right. I'm going to pause here. We started out here. [plays piano] We are in this key. Major or minor? What do you think? Minor. All right. So were coming to the end of this A section. Here--The A section is very short [plays piano] but then [plays piano] we--major or minor? Major. Right. [plays piano] So what happened there? What do we call this? [plays piano] It's a very quick modulation. We've changed keys.And I'm going to digress here just for a moment to talk about this, which is this concept of relative major and minor. You may have noticed in music--and it's discussed briefly in the textbook--that there are pairs of keys, pairs of keys that have something in common. The members of the pairs have the same key signature, and we could take any key signature--three flats or two sharps, whatever--but there's going to be one major key with three flats and one minor key with three flats.And I think we have up on the board here an example of just that so you can see written in here the three flats, and this is a minor scale with three flats. Now we could also have three flats over here, but we encounter three flats where we have the major scale. This happens to work out so that it's pitched on C. If we come up three half steps in the keyboard, we come up to E-flat so the relative major--the major key in this pair--is always three half steps--[plays piano] one, two, three--three half steps up above its paired minor. Here's another one down at the bottom--happens to have one sharp in it. We have the key of G major here with one sharp but if we come down three half steps [plays piano] we get its relative minor down here, and the reason I mentioned this is not because we actually hear this very much.I'm not sure that I hear modulations to relative major because I don't have absolute pitch and I'm not tracking keys when I listen to pieces--and my guess is you're not either. So for the average listener, we may not hear the actual pitch relationship but we may hear that we've had a modulation and you cankind of make an educated guess: that about fifty percent of the time if it's going minor to major, it's coming in this relative arrangement-- where major down to minor; it's going in this relative arrangement, so this happens a lot.So here we are in the mid section of our ternary form, A B A. Here's the B part [plays piano] and then back to [plays piano] the minor A. [plays piano] Now that's just the opening section of this piece. It goes on to do other things, but it's a very succinct example of ternary form, and ternary form is a useful way of introducing a larger concept, which is sonata-allegro form.So let me flip the board here, and here we go on to this rather complex diagram. As I say, it's the most complex one of all the six forms that we'll be working with. It consists of three essential parts: exposition, development and recapitulation. So you could think you were coming out of ternary form. You've got an A here, you've got a B idea here and then you've got an A return back here--but this is a lot more complicated. There are things--lots of things--going on.And I should say also--in terms of fairness in advertising--that this is a model. This is also something of an abstraction or an ideal. Not every piece written in sonata-allegro form conforms to this diagram in all particulars. Composers wouldn't want to do that--they'd have to assert their independence or originality in one way or another--but it's a useful sort of model. It tells us what the norm is, what we can generally expect. So we've got these three sort of sine qua non here and then we've got two optional parts of this that we'll talk about as we proceed.So this is the way we set out then sonata-allegro form: exposition, development, recapitulation. So we start out with the first theme, in the tonic key of course. It might even have subsets to it so that we could have one A and one B and one C up here. I won't put them up there but it can happen. Then we have a transition in which we have a change of key, moving to the dominant key. Transitions tend to be rather unsettled. It gives you the sense of moving somewhere, going somewhere. That's why it's called a transition. It could also--musicians like--quickly--like to call it a "bridge." It's sort of leading you somewhere else--and maybe in that way it is similar to the type of bridge that Frederick was talking about earlier. So we have a transition or bridge that takes us to a second theme in--now in the dominant key. If, however, our symphony happened to begin in a minor key, then the second theme would come in in the relative major. So if we had C minor as Beethoven does in his Fifth Symphony-- [plays piano] So there we are there in C minor, but the second theme [plays piano] is in the relative major of E-flat. Both have three flats in it. So if you have the start in minor, then composers traditionally modulate, not to the dominant, but to the relative major--which is up on the third degree of the scale. That's why there's a big three (III) there.So then the second theme comes in. It's usually contrasting, lyrical, sweeter. You heard the difference there--more song-like in the Beethoven--not so much of that musical punch in the nose as I like to refer to it, but a more relaxed sort of second theme, and there is oftentimes some filler or what we might call an interstice and we come to a closing theme. That's abbreviated up here, just CT, closing theme of the exposition, closes the exposition.Closing themes tend to be rather simple in which they rock back and forth between dominant and tonic so that you could end on the tonic and that gives you a sense of conclusion of the exposition.Now what happens? Well, you see these dots up on the board. Anybody know what these dots mean? I think we--actually we talk about this if you read ahead in the textbook Can somebody tell me what the dots mean> Jerry?Student: Repeat?Professor Craig Wright: Okay. Repeat. Okay. So that's what dots in music do-- when we have these double bars and dots that means repeat so we got to repeat the whole exposition. If we didn't like it the first time, we get a second pass at it in the repeat. Then we go on to the development and as the term "development" suggests, we're going to develop the theme here, but it is oftentimes more than that. It could be something other than just the development and the expansion. It could actually be a contraction. Beethoven likes to strip away things and sort of play with particular subsets of themes or play with parts of motives.Generally speaking, your development is characterized by tonal instability--moves around a lot. You can't tell what key you're in--tonal instability--and it also tends to be, in terms of texture, the most polyphonic of any section in the piece. There's a lot of counterpoint usually to be found in the development section. Then towards the end of the development section we want to get back here to the return and we want to get back to our first theme and our tonic key. So composers oftentimes will sit on one chord. What they will sit on will happen to be the dominant. So I could put that up here. We could put a five (V) up here because we want a long period of dominant preparation. [sings] is where we're going, back over here. But we're going to set this up as preparation in terms of the dominant that wants to push us in to the tonic.So there we are back in the tonic now and all the first themes come back as they did before. We also have a bridge but this time it does not modulate. It stays in the tonic key. We don't want it to modulate because we've got to finish in the tonic here. So I was thinking just a moment ago it's kind of the "bridge to nowhere." It really is a bridge to nowhere. You go right back to where you were. You stay in that tonic key and the second theme material comes in, your closing theme comes in, and you could end the composition here.Sometimes Mozart as we will see in our course will end a piece right at this point--the end, right there--but more often than not composers will throw on a coda. What's a coda do? Well, it really says to the listener that "hey, the piece is sort of at an end here." Codas generally are very static harmonically. They're--there's not a lot of movement. It's--and I keep--maybe I should have got--come up a different metaphor here--the idea of throwing an anchor over, slowing the whole thing down, simplifying it to say we're at the end. So you get a lot of the [sings] kind of things in the coda just to tell the listener it's time to think about clapping at this point, or reaching for your coat. And the other optional--Coda--What's that come from? The Latin cauda (caudae) I guess. . Italian coda means tail, and these can be, like all tails, long or short. Mozart happened to like short codas. Beethoven liked longer codas. And the other optional component here is the introduction. My guess is--Jacob, what would you guess? How many--what portion of classical symphonies--you're an orchestral player--what portion of classical symphonies would begin with an introduction, would you say?Student: Most of them.Professor Craig Wright: Most of them? Well, we'll consider that. Let's go for fifty percent at the moment. We'll consider fifty percent at the moment, so we'll see. Now let's jump into a classical composition that begins with a movement in sonata-allegro form. We're going to open here with Mozart's "Eine kleine Nachtmusik," "A Little Night Music." This is sort of serenade stuff that he wrote for Vienna--sort of night music, evening music. Let's listen to a little of it. We're going to start with the first theme idea, and before she does let me play this. [plays piano] What about that? Conjunct or disjunct melody?Students: Disjunct.Professor Craig Wright: Disjunct, yeah. There's a lot of jumping around [plays piano] and that kind of thing. Notice it's mostly [plays piano] just a major triad with [plays piano] underneath. So if we were at a concert and we wanted to remember this, we'd probably have a lot of skippy Xs here. We don't have time to get into the particulars of this, but that's why we're doing all of this diagramming stuff. So we got a lot of these skipping Xs.All right. So let's listen to the first theme of Mozart's "Eine kleine Nachtmusik." [music plays] A little syncopation there. And a sort of a counterpoint to this, so maybe we've got a couple of little ideas in here: A, B and C. [music playing] Ah, agitation, movement. [music playing] Here goes the bass. [sings] Pause. So we had a cadence there, [sings]. That would be the end of the musical phrase, a cadence, and the music actually stopped. I used to like to think of this in terms of almost a drama. We've got a change of scene here the--where some characters have gone off, the stage is now clear, and other characters are going to come on. So what characters are going to come on? Well, a more lyrical second theme. I'm going to play just a bit of it for you. [plays piano]What about this? Is this a conjunct melody? Obviously, it's descending. Conjunct or disjunct? [plays piano] Very conjunct. Actually, it's just running down the scale. Now we don't have time, because this music is going by so fast. We've got our skippy opening theme going around like that. We don't have time to sort of write down all those Xs so maybe just--yeah. [sings] And maybe something-- [sings] something like that. So this is our first skippy theme. Our second theme [sings] has a nice sort of fall to it. Okay. Here's the second theme. [music playing] Repeat. [music playing] Now closing theme already. [music playing]What's the most noteworthy aspect of that theme? [sings] What do you think? Thoughts--what would you remember about that? How would you graph that? Yeah.Student: [inaudible]Professor Craig Wright: Okay. Yeah. It starts out [plays piano] and then it's really conjunct, right, because it's staying on one pitch level, sort of the ultimate conjunct joined to the point that it's a unison pitch, [sings]. So I'd remember that just like this idea. So our closing theme, [sings] almost is the "woodpecker" idea. Sorry. But think of that kind of [sings] or maybe even a machine gun--whatever sort of silly analogy you want to construct to help you remember that. Okay. So here we are almost at the end of the exposition. Let's listen now to the end of exposition and then we'll stop. [music playing] Okay. So we're going to stop there.Now on this recording what do you think? Well, I think--reasons for time--let's go ahead and we'll advance it up to the beginning of the development section. So now we should listen to this whole complex once again, but we're not going to do that. We're going to proceed here and we're going to go in to the development section. And it's kind of fun the way Mozart starts the development section here. [plays piano] Let me ask you this. We started here. [plays piano] The development begins higher or lower? [plays piano] Yeah?Student: Lower.Professor Craig Wright: Lower so he's dropped down to the dominant. He's now in the dominant [plays piano] and if he continued as he had, [plays piano] that's what he would have done. That's not what he does, however. [plays piano] He's sitting here [plays piano] and he ends up there [plays piano] so we get this sort of dissonant shift, and it's a signal. It's like the composer holding up a sign: "development---time for the development now!" Okay? So something--we've shifted, we--or a sort of slap in the face telling us that we're at a new point in our form, a new section in our form, the development section. So as we listen to this we'll hear Mozart move quickly through some--lots of different keys. I wouldn't be able to tell you what keys they are. I really wouldn't. But I do know that he moves through different keys. Then we will hear a re-transition start, but here is my challenge to you and why I'm sort of putting all these things up here. Which theme does he choose to develop here? Kind of interesting. Does he go with the first theme, [sings] or the [sings] or the [sings]? So which one? [music playing] [sings]Professor Craig Wright: Now he is all the way--first of all, what's the answer to the question? Which theme did he use here? We're now at the re-transition, we're almost finished this short development. Which one did he use? Who thinks they know? Raise your hand. Elizabeth?Student: The closing theme.Professor Craig Wright: Used just the closing theme [sings] so nothing but the closing theme in this short development section. Now we are at the re-transition and you're going to hear the violins come down [sings] but if I could sing the harmony--Maybe we should all sing it together. We'll be singing [sings]. It's the implied bass line. [sings] Then it's going to go [sings] back to the tonic. Then we're going to go [sings]. Then that first theme is going to come back in here. So let's listen to Mozart write a re-transition, and I'm going to sing the implied--or then sounded dominant that's going to lead to the tonic. [music playing] [sings] So all of the first theme material coming back--nothing new. [music playing] Here goes our bridge now--movement. [music playing] And he just cut it short. The first time he went there [sings]. That was what the bass did. This time he just stops the thing and stays in the tonic key. And then the rest of the material will come back in in the proper order in the tonic key. All right, but we need not hear that. Let's go on now to the coda and we're just going to listen generally to what happens in the coda here--typical coda with Mozart. [music playing] Tonic. [sings] [music playing] It's almost stereotypical. Right? [plays piano] You could have written that. I--even I could have written that--not so hard, but as they say, it's just a load of bricks to bring this thing to a conclusion. But it's a beautiful example of sonata-allegro form. It does what our model requires in all particulars in an unusually rapid rate here--about six minutes for this particular movement.。
《死亡哲学：耶鲁大学第一公开课(典藏版)》读书笔记PPT模板思维导图下载
08 第八章 死亡的本质
09
第九章 关于死亡的两 个惊人言论
010 第十章 死亡的坏处
011 第十一章 永生
012 第十二章 生命的价值
目录
013 第十三章 死亡的其他 特征
014
第十四章 面对死亡而 活
015 第十五章 自杀
016 第十六章 结论：寄语
017 致谢
018 推荐阅读
有件事是确定无疑的：终我们都会死亡。 但我们真的相信自己会死吗？ 死亡是生命的终点吗？ 人是否有不朽的灵魂？ 为什么说永生是件坏的事情？ 在某些情况下自杀是否可能合理和符合道德？ 我们终将死掉这个事实，会怎么影响我们的生活方式？ …… 《死亡哲学：耶鲁大学公开课》一书源于受欢迎的国际名校公开课之一《哲学：死亡》。在这本通俗易
提问 两种观点
二元论 物理主义
第三章 灵魂存在的论证
日常现象
最佳解释推论 （Inference
to ...
超自然现象
第四章 笛卡尔的论证
第五章 柏拉图：关于灵魂的 不朽
柏拉图的形而上 学
由理念本质引起 的论证（The Argum...
由单纯性引起的 论证（The Argume...
心灵就像是肉体 的和谐
第六章 个人同一性
1
证伪灵魂？
2
个人同一性
3 灵魂论（The
Soul View）
4 肉体论（The
Body View）
5 人格论（The
Personalit y ...
第七章 两种理论之间的选择
两个案例 复制
裂变（Fission） 什么才是重要的？
第八章 死亡的本质
第八章 死亡的本质
第九章 关于死亡的两个惊人 言论
【学习】耶鲁大学公开课-死亡
耶鲁大学公开课D E A T H和你想的不太一样亡[美]谢利·卡根◎著贝小戎等◎译糖炒诗人- ◎读书笔记PPT你可能相信我们拥有灵魂永生是一种赐福 对死亡感到恐惧无可厚非 死亡是一件神秘的事情你可能不曾想过我们没有灵魂永生是一种诅咒死亡并不神秘恐惧死亡并不恰当花5分钟同我一起思考死亡吧！死亡其实和你想的不太一样！目录●死亡是坏事吗？●永生是好事吗？●灵魂存在吗？●我们能在死后存活吗？●死亡的本质是什么？●我们该如何面对死亡而活？死亡是坏事吗？IS IT BAD TO BE DEAD?什么事对我有坏处？相较于其他事来说是坏事。
−捡到钱是好事，但是捡到5毛就不如捡到100好。
事情本身不坏，但会导致坏的结果。
−如熬夜看世界杯本身不是坏事，但它导致的精神不济、被扣工资、家庭矛盾甚至猝死等是坏事。
事情本身就是坏事。
−如疼痛、疾病，只要发生就是坏事。
相对坏结果坏 本质坏死亡的坏处是？死亡会剥夺可能拥有的美好和幸福−关于死亡坏处的剥夺解释理论死亡对于死者而言没有任何结果−任何事情对不存在的事物都不会有影响死亡本身不好也不坏−对于不存在的事物而言，不存在对它来说没有好处也没有坏处相对 有点坏 结果不坏 本质不坏那么，永生是好事吗？IS IT GOOD TO BE IMMORTAL？永生不见得是好事记忆能够保存假如记忆能够一直保存，再有意思的活动我们也用无尽的时间去体验所有的关卡变化。
生活将最终变为无尽模式的神庙大逃亡，无法结束的生命不是赐福反而是诅咒。
记忆不能保存假如灵魂通过转世得以永生，但每次转世都要喝孟婆汤清零记忆。
那么对于现在的我来说，不管我曾有多大的成就都毫无意义。
未来对现在的我来说是零。
永生对现在的我来说毫无意义。
尽管如此，我们希望活的久一点我们不一定要永生，但要能够活到我们满足为止。
为此，我们希望有灵魂，我们希望我们是灵魂和肉体的混合，而灵魂是我们的主要部分。
这样，我们才可能活得比肉体更久一些。
耶鲁大学公开课英文讲义—博弈论第一节
Game Theory: Lecture 1 TranscriptProfessor Ben Polak: So this is Game Theory Economics 159. If you're here for art history, you're either in the wrong room or stay anyway, maybe this is the right room; but this is Game Theory, okay. You should have four handouts; everyone should have four handouts. There is a legal release form--we'll talk about it in a minute--about the videoing. There is a syllabus, which is a preliminary syllabus: it's also online. And there are two games labeled Game 1 and Game 2. Can I get you all to look at Game 1 and start thinking about it. And while you're thinking about it, I am hoping you can multitask a bit. I'll describe a bit about the class and we'll get a bit of admin under our belts. But please try and look at--somebody's not looking at it, because they're using it as a fan here--so look at Game 1 and fill out that form for me, okay?So while you're filling that out, let me tell you a little bit about what we're going to be doing here. So what is Game Theory? Game Theory is a method of studying strategic situations. So what's a strategic situation? Well let's start off with what's not a strategic situation. In your Economics - in your Intro Economics class in 115 or 110, you saw some pretty good examples of situations that were not strategic. You saw firms working in perfect competition. Firms in perfect competition are price takers: they don't particularly have to worry about the actions of their competitors. You also saw firms that were monopolists and monopolists don't have any competitors to worry about, so that's not a particularly strategic situation. They're not price takers but they take the demand curve. Is this looking familiar for some of you who can remember doing 115 last year or maybe two years ago for some of you? Everything in between is strategic. So everything that constitutes imperfect competition is a strategic setting. Think about the motor industry, the motor car industry. Ford has to worry about what GM is doing and what Toyota is doing, and for the moment at least what Chrysler is doing but perhaps not for long. So there's a small number of firms and their actions affect each other.So for a literal definition of what strategic means: it's a setting where the outcomes that affect you depend on actions, not just on your own actions, but on actions of others. All right, that's as much as I'm going to say for preview right now, we're going to come back and see plenty of this over the course of the next semester.So what I want to do is get on to where this applies. It obviously applies in Economics, but it also applies in politics, and in fact, this class will count as a Political Science class if you're a Political Science major. You should go check with the DUS in Political Science. It count - Game Theory is very important in law these days. So for those of you--for the half of you--that aregoing to end up in law school, this is pretty good training. Game Theory is also used in biology and towards the middle of the semester we're actually going to see some examples of Game Theory as applied to evolution. And not surprisingly, Game Theory applies to sport.So let's talk about a bit of admin. How are you doing on filling out those games? Everyone managing to multitask: filling in Game 1? Keep writing. I want to get some admin out of the way and I want to start by getting out of the way what is obviously the elephant in the room. Some of you will have noticed that there's a camera crew here, okay. So as some of you probably know, Yale is undergoing an open education project and they're videoing several classes, and the idea of this, is to make educational materials available beyond the walls of Yale. In fact, on the web, internationally, so people in places, maybe places in the U.S. or places miles away, maybe in Timbuktu or whatever, who find it difficult to get educational materials from the local university or whatever, can watch certain lectures from Yale on the web.Some of you would have been in classes that do that before. What's going to different about this class is that you're going to be participating in it. The way we teach this class is we're going to play games, we're going to have discussions, we're going to talk among the class, and you're going to be learning from each other, and I want you to help people watching at home to be able to learn too. And that means you're going to be on film, at the very least on mike.So how's that going to work? Around the room are three T.A.s holding mikes. Let me show you where they are: one here, one here, and one here. When I ask for classroom discussions, I'm going to have one of the T.A.s go to you with a microphone much like in "Donahue" or something, okay. At certain times, you're going to be seen on film, so the camera is actually going to come around and point in your direction.Now I really want this to happen. I had to argue for this to happen, cause I really feel that this class isn't about me. I'm part of the class obviously, but it's about you teaching each other and participating. But there's a catch, the catch is, that that means you have to sign that legal release form.So you'll see that you have in front of you a legal release form, you have to be able to sign it, and what that says is that we can use you being shown in class. Think of this as a bad hair day release form. All right, you can't sue Yale later if you had a bad hair day. For those of you who are on the run from the FBI, your Visa has run out, or you're sitting next to your ex-girlfriend, now would be a good time to put a paper bag over your head.All right, now just to get you used to the idea, in every class we're going to have I think the same two people, so Jude is the cameraman; why don't you all wave to Jude: this is Jude okay. And Wes is our audio guy: this is Wes. And I will try and remember not to include Jude and Wes in the classroom discussions, but you should be aware that they're there. Now, if this is making you nervous, if it's any consolation, it's making me very nervous. So, all right, we'll try and make this class work as smoothly as we can, allowing for this extra thing. Let me just say, no one's making any money off this--at least I'm hoping these guys are being paid--but me and the T.A.s are not being paid. The aim of this, that I think is a good aim, it's an educational project, and I'm hoping you'll help us with it. The one difference it is going to mean, is that at times I might hold some of the discussions for the class, coming down into this part of the room, here, to make it a little easier for Jude.All right, how are we doing now on filling out those forms? Has everyone filled in their strategy for the first game? Not yet. Okay, let's go on doing a bit more admin. The thing you mostly care about I'm guessing, is the grades. All right, so how is the grade going to work for this class? 30% of the class will be on problem sets, 30% of the grade; 30% on the mid-term, and 40% on the final; so 30/30/40.The mid-term will be held in class on October 17th; that is also in your syllabus. Please don't anybody tell me late - any time after today you didn't know when the mid-term was and therefore it clashes with 17 different things. The mid-term is on October 17th, which is a Wednesday, in class. All right, the problem sets: there will be roughly ten problem sets and I'll talk about them more later on when I hand them out. The first one will go out on Monday but it will be due ten days later. Roughly speaking they'll be every week.The grade distribution: all right, so this is the rough grade distribution. Roughly speaking, a sixth of the class are going to end up with A's, a sixth are going to end up with A-, a sixth are going to end up with B+, a sixth are going to end up with B, a sixth are going to end up with B-, and the remaining sixth, if I added that up right, are going to end up with what I guess we're now calling the presidential grade, is that right?That's not literally true. I'm going to squeeze it a bit, I'm going to curve it a bit, so actually slightly fewer than a sixth will get straight A's, and fewer than a sixth will get C's and below. We'll squeeze the middle to make them be more B's. One thing I can guarantee from past experience in this class, is that the median grade will be a B+. The median will fall somewhere in the B+'s. Just as forewarning for people who have forgotten what a median is,that means half of you--not approximately half, it means exactly half of you--will be getting something like B+ and below and half will get something like B+ and above.Now, how are you doing in filling in the forms? Everyone filled them in yet? Surely must be pretty close to getting everyone filled in. All right, so last things to talk about before I actually collect them in - textbooks. There are textbooks for this class. The main textbook is this one, Dutta'sbook Strategy and Games. If you want a slightly tougher book, more rigorous book, try Joel Watson's book, Strategies. Both of those books are available at the bookstore.But I want to warn everybody ahead of time, I will not be following the textbook. I regard these books as safety nets. If you don't understand something that happened in class, you want to reinforce an idea that came up in class, then you should read the relevant chapters in the book and the syllabus will tell you which chapters to read for each class, or for each week of class, all right. But I will not be following these books religiously at all. In fact, they're just there as back up.In addition, I strongly recommend people read, Thinking Strategically. This is good bedtime reading. Do any of you suffer from insomnia? It's very good bedtime reading if you suffer from insomnia. It's a good book and what's more there's going to be a new edition of this book this year and Norton have allowed us to get advance copies of it. So if you don't buy this book this week, I may be able to make the advance copy of the new edition available for some of you next week. I'm not taking a cut on that either, all right, there's no money changing hands.All right, sections are on the syllabus sign up - sorry on the website, sign up as usual. Put yourself down on the wait list if you don't get into the section you want. You probably will get into the section you want once we're done. All right, now we must be done with the forms. Are we done with the forms? All right, so why don't we send the T.A.s, with or without mikes, up and down the aisles and collect in your Game #1; not Game #2, just Game #1.Just while we're doing that, I think the reputation of this class--I think--if you look at the course evaluations online or whatever, is that this class is reasonably hard but reasonably fun. So I'm hoping that's what the reputation of the class is. If you think this class is going to be easy, I think it isn't actually an easy class. It's actually quite a hard class, but I think I can guarantee it's going to be a fun class. Now one reason it's a fun class, is the nice thing about teaching Game Theory - quieten down folks--one thing about teaching Game Theory is, you get to play games, and that's exactlywhat we've just been doing now. This is our first game and we're going to play games throughout the course, sometimes several times a week, sometimes just once a week.We got all these things in? Everyone handed them in? So I need to get those counted. Has anyone taken the Yale Accounting class? No one wants to - has aspirations to be - one person has. I'll have a T.A. do it, it's all right,we'll have a T.A. do it. So Kaj, can you count those for me? Is that right? Let me read out the game you've just played."Game 1, a simple grade scheme for the class. Read the following carefully. Without showing your neighbor what you are doing, put it in the box below either the letter Alpha or the letter Beta. Think of this as a grade bid. I will randomly pair your form with another form and neither you nor your pair will ever know with whom you were paired. Here's how the grades may be assigned for the class. [Well they won't be, but we can pretend.] If you put Alpha and you're paired with Beta, then you will get an A and your pair a C. If you and your pair both put Alpha, you'll both get B-. If you put Beta and you're paired with Alpha, you'll get a C and your pair an A. If you and your pair both put Beta, then you'll both get B+."So that's the thing you just filled in.Now before we talk about this, let's just collect this information in a more useful way. So I'm going to remove this for now. We'll discuss this in a second, but why don't we actually record what the game is, that we're playing, first. So this is our grade game, and what I'm going to do, since it's kind of hard to absorb all the information just by reading a paragraph of text, I'm going to make a table to record the information. So what I'm going to do is I'm going to put me here, and my pair, the person I'm randomly paired with here, and Alpha and Beta, which are the choices I'm going to make here and on the columns Alpha and Beta, the choices my pair is making.In this table, I'm going to put my grades. So my grade if we both put Alpha is B-, if we both put Beta, was B+. If I put Alpha and she put a Beta, I got an A, and if I put Beta and she put an Alpha, I got a C. Is that correct? That's more or less right? Yeah, okay while we're here, why don't we do the same for my pair? So this is my grades on the left hand table, but now let's look at what my pair will do, what my pair will get.So I should warn the people sitting at the back that my handwriting is pretty bad, that's one reason for moving forward. The other thing I should apologize at this stage of the class is my accent. I will try and improve the handwriting, there's not much I can do about the accent at this stage.So once again if you both put Alpha then my pair gets a B-. If we both put Beta, then we both get a B+; in particular, my pair gets a B+. If I put Alpha and my pair puts Beta, then she gets a C. And if I put Beta and she puts Alpha, then she gets an A. So I now have all the information that was on the sheet of paper that you just handed in.Now there's another way of organizing this that's standard in Game Theory, so we may as well get used to it now on the first day. Rather then drawing two different tables like this, what I'm going to do is I'm going to take the second table and super-impose it on top of the first table. Okay, so let me do that and you'll see what I mean. What I'm going to do is draw a larger table, the same basic structure: I'm choosing Alpha and Beta on the rows, my pair is choosing Alpha and Beta on the columns, but now I'm going to put both grades in. So the easy ones are on the diagonal: you both get B- if we both choose Alpha; we both get B+ if we both choose Beta. But if I choose Alpha and my pair chooses Beta, I get an A and she gets a C. And if I choose Beta and she chooses Alpha, then it's me who gets the C and it's her who gets the A.So notice what I did here. The first grade corresponds to the row player, me in this case, and the second grade in each box corresponds to the column player, my pair in this case. So this is a nice succinct way of recording what was in the previous two tables. This is an outcome matrix; this tells us everything that was in the game.Okay, so now seems a good time to start talking about what people did. So let's just have a show of hands. How many of you chose Alpha? Leave your hands up so that Jude can catch that, so people can see at home, okay. All right and how many of you chose Beta? There's far more Alphas - wave your hands the Beta's okay. All right, there's a Beta here, okay. So it looks like a lot of - well we're going to find out, we're going to count--but a lot more Alpha's than Beta's. Let me try and find out some reasons why people chose.So let me have the Alpha's up again. So, the woman who's in red here, can we get a mike to the - yeah, is it okay if we ask you? You're not on the run from the FBI? We can ask you why? Okay, so you chose Alpha right? So why did you choose Alpha?Student: [inaudible] realized that my partner chose Alpha, therefore I chose [inaudible].Professor Ben Polak: All right, so you wrote out these squares, you realized what your partner was going to do, and responded to that. Any otherreasons for choosing Alpha around the room? Can we get the woman here? Try not to be intimidated by these microphones, they're just mikes. It's okay.Student: The reason I chose Alpha, regardless of what my partner chose, I think there would be better outcomes than choosing Beta.Professor Ben Polak: All right, so let me ask your names for a second-so your name was?Student: Courtney.Professor Ben Polak: Courtney and your name was?Student: Clara Elise.Professor Ben Polak: Clara Elise. So slightly different reasons, same choice Alpha. Clara Elise's reason - what did Clara Elise say? She said, no matter what the other person does, she reckons she'd get a better grade if she chose Alpha. So hold that thought a second, we'll come back to - is it Clara Elise, is that right? We'll come back to Clara Elise in a second. Let's talk to the Beta's a second; let me just emphasize at this stage there are no wrong answers. Later on in the class there'll be some questions that have wrong answers. Right now there's no wrong answers. There may be bad reasons but there's no wrong answers. So let's have the Beta's up again. Let's see the Beta's. Oh come on! There was a Beta right here. You were a Beta right? You backed off the Beta, okay. So how can I get a mike into a Beta? Let' s stick in this aisle a bit. Is that a Beta right there? Are you a Beta right there? Can I get the Beta in here? Who was the Beta in here? Can we get the mike in there? Is that possible? In here - you can leave your hand so that - there we go. Just point towards - that's fine, just speak into it, that's fine. Student: So the reason right?Professor Ben Polak: Yeah, go ahead.Student: I personally don't like swings that much and it's the B-/B+ range, so I'd much rather prefer that to a swing from A to C, and that's my reason. Professor Ben Polak: All right, so you're saying it compresses the range.I'm not sure it does compress the range. I mean if you chose Alpha, you're swinging from A to B-; and from Beta, swinging from B+ to C. I mean those are similar kind of ranges but it certainly is a reason. Other reasons for choosing? Yeah, the guy in blue here, yep, good. That's all right. Don't hold the mike; just let it point at you, that's fine.Student: Well I guess I thought we could be more collusive and kind of work together, but I guess not. So I chose Beta.Professor Ben Polak: There's a siren in the background so I missed the answer. Stand up a second, so we can just hear you.Student: Sure.Professor Ben Polak: Sorry, say again.Student: Sure. My name is Travis. I thought we could work together, but I guess not.Professor Ben Polak: All right good. That's a pretty good reason. Student: If you had chosen Beta we would have all gotten B+'s but I guess not.Professor Ben Polak: Good, so Travis is giving us a different reason, right? He's saying that maybe, some of you in the room might actually care about each other's grades, right? I mean you all know each other in class. You all go to the same college. For example, if we played this game up in the business school--are there any MBA students here today? One or two. If we play this game up in the business school, I think it's quite likely we're going to get a lot of Alpha's chosen, right? But if we played this game up in let's say the Divinity School, all right and I'm guessing that Travis' answer is reflecting what you guys are reasoning here. If you played in the Divinity School, you might think that people in the Divinity School might care about other people's grades, right? There might be ethical reasons--perfectly good, sensible, ethical reasons--for choosing Beta in this game. There might be other reasons as well, but that's perhaps the reason to focus on. And perhaps, the lesson I want to draw out of this is that right now this is not a game. Right now we have actions, strategies for people to take, and we know what the outcomes are, but we're missing something that will make this a game. What are we missing here?Student: Objectives.Professor Ben Polak: We're missing objectives. We're missing payoffs. We're missing what people care about, all right. So we can't really start analyzing a game until we know what people care about, and until we know what the payoffs are. Now let's just say something now, which I'll probably forget to say in any other moment of the class, but today it's relevant.Game Theory, me, professors at Yale, cannot tell you what your payoff should be. I can't tell you in a useful way what it is that your goals in life should be or whatever. That's not what Game Theory is about. However, once we know what your payoffs are, once we know what your goals are, perhaps Game Theory can you help you get there.So we've had two different kinds of payoffs mentioned here. We had the kind of payoff where we care about our own grade, and Travis has mentioned the kind of payoff where you might care about other people's grades. And what we're going to do today is analyze this game under both those possible payoffs. To start that off, let's put up some possible payoffs for the game. And I promise we'll come back and look at some other payoffs later. We'll revisit the Divinity School later.All right, so here once again is our same matrix with me and my pair, choosing actions Alpha and Beta, but this time I'm going to put numbers in here. And some of you will perhaps recognize these numbers, but that's not really relevant for now. All right, so what's the idea here? Well the first idea is that these numbers represent utiles or utilities. They represent what these people are trying to maximize, what they're to achieve, their goals.The idea is - just to compare this to the outcome matrix - for the person who's me here, (A,C) yields a payoff of--(A,C) is this box--so (A,C) yields a payoff of three, whereas (B-,B-) yields a payoff of 0, and so on. So what's the interpretation? It's the first interpretation: the natural interpretation that a lot of you jumped to straight away. These are people--people with these payoffs are people--who only care about their own grades. They prefer an A to a B+, they prefer a B+ to a B-, and they prefer a B- to a C. Right, I'm hoping I the grades in order, otherwise it's going to ruin my curve at the end of the year. So these people only care about their own grades. They only care about their own grades.What do we call people who only care about their own grades? What's a good technical term for them? In England, I think we refer to these guys - whether it's technical or not - as "evil gits." These are not perhaps the most moral people in the universe. So now we can ask a different question. Suppose, whether these are actually your payoffs or not, pretend they are for now. Suppose these are all payoffs. Now we can ask, not what did you do, but what should you do? Now we have payoffs that can really switch the question to a normative question: what should you do? Let's come back to - was it Clara Elise--where was Clara Elise before? Let's get the mike on you again. So just explain what you did and why again.Student: Why I chose Alpha?Professor Ben Polak: Yeah, stand up a second, if that's okay.Student: Okay.Professor Ben Polak: You chose Alpha; I'm assuming these were roughly your payoffs, more or less, you were caring about your grades.Student: Yeah, I was thinking -Professor Ben Polak: Why did you choose Alpha?Student: I'm sorry?Professor Ben Polak: Why did you choose Alpha? Just repeat what you said before.Student: Because I thought the payoffs - the two different payoffs that I could have gotten--were highest if I chose Alpha.Professor Ben Polak: Good; so what Clara Elise is saying--it's an important idea--is this (and tell me if I'm paraphrasing you incorrectly but I think this is more or less what you're saying): is no matter what the other person does, no matter what the pair does, she obtains a higher payoff by choosing Alpha. Let's just see that. If the pair chooses Alpha and she chooses Alpha, then she gets 0. If the pair chooses Alpha and she chose Beta, she gets -1. 0 is bigger than -1. If the pair chooses Beta, then if she chooses Alpha she gets 3, Beta she gets 1, and 3 is bigger than 1. So in both cases, no matter what the other person does, she receives a higher payoff from choosing Alpha, so she should choose Alpha. Does everyone follow that line of reasoning? That's a stronger line of reasoning then the reasoning we had earlier. So the woman, I have immediately forgotten the name of, in the red shirt, whose name was -Student: Courtney.Professor Ben Polak: Courtney, so Courtney also gave a reason for choosing Alpha, and it was a perfectly good reason for choosing Alpha, nothing wrong with it, but notice that this reason's a stronger reason. It kind of implies your reason.So let's get some definitions down here. I think I can fit it in here. Let's try and fit it in here.Definition: We say that my strategy Alpha strictly dominates my strategy Beta, if my payoff from Alpha is strictly greater than that from Beta, [and this is the key part of the definition], regardless of what others do.Shall we just read that back? "We say that my strategy Alpha strictly dominates my strategy Beta, if my payoff from Alpha is strictly greater than that from Beta, regardless of what others do." Now it's by no means my main aim in this class to teach you jargon. But a few bits of jargon are going to be helpful in allowing the conversation to move forward and this is certainly one. "Evil gits" is maybe one too, but this is certainly one.Let's draw out some lessons from this. Actually, so you can still read that, let me bring down and clean this board. So the first lesson of the class, and there are going to be lots of lessons, is a lesson that emerges immediately from the definition of a dominated strategy and it's this. So Lesson One of the course is:do not play a strictly dominated strategy. So with apologies to Strunk and White, this is in the passive form, that's dominated, passive voice. Do not play a strictly dominated strategy. Why? Somebody want to tell me why? Do you want to get this guy? Stand up - yeah.Student: Because everyone's going to pick the dominant outcome and then everyone's going to get the worst result - the collectively worst result.Professor Ben Polak: Yeah, that's a possible answer. I'm looking for something more direct here. So we look at the definition of a strictly dominated strategy. I'm saying never play one. What's a possible reason for that? Let's - can we get the woman there?Student: [inaudible]Professor Ben Polak: "You'll always lose." Well, I don't know: it's not about winning and losing. What else could we have? Could we get this guy in the pink down here?Student: Well, the payoffs are lower.Professor Ben Polak: The payoffs are lower, okay. So here's an abbreviated version of that, I mean it's perhaps a little bit longer. The reason I don't want to play a strictly dominated strategy is, if instead, I play the strategy that dominates it, I do better in every case. The reason I never want to play a strictly dominated strategy is, if instead I play the strategy that dominates it, whatever anyone else does I'm doing better than I would have done. Now that's a pretty convincing argument. That sounds like a convincing argument. It sounds like too obvious even to be worth stating in class, so let me now try and shake your faith a little bit in this answer.。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件耶鲁大学开放课程心理学导论第 2 课基础：这是你的大脑今天我们开始正式上课，心理学导论，我们首先要来探讨的是大脑；我想先提到一种观点，这种观点的提出者是位诺贝尔奖得主,生物学家、费兰西斯. 克里克；他将这种观点称为“惊人的假说”，这一惊人的假说大致观点如下：正如他在其著作《惊人的假说》中写道“你、你的喜悦、悲伤、回忆、抱负，你对人格同一性的感知、你的自由意志；事实上这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已；正如刘易斯. 卡罗尔在《爱丽斯》中所描述的“你不过是一堆神经元罢了”，用“惊人”来形容这个观点是贴切的，这是个古怪又反常的观点：我并不奢望大家在一开始就能接受这个观点，即使到课程结束时能否接受这个观点，依然是你们的自由；相反、你们要现在就能接受，倒是会让我感到很奇怪，我知道多数人接受不了。
实际上、他们持有另外一种观点，大多数人都是二元论者，二元论则是一种截然不同的假说，你能够在有史以来的所有宗教和绝大多数哲学体系中找到这个假说，比如、柏拉图就曾明确提出过；但是最著名最有影响力的二元论拥护者则非哲学家勒奈. 笛卡尔莫属，勒奈.笛卡尔明确地提出了一个问题“人类是否仅仅是生理机器、是生理客体而已”他的答复是“不”，他认为动物都是机器，实际上他将动物称之为“野兽机器”；他认为非人类动物全是机器人，但人类是不同的、人类具有二元性；我们和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但与动物不同，我们的本质却并非是生理的，我们是拥有生理客体的无形心灵，我们的心灵占据着生理客体，寄居其中与其形成紧密的联系，这便是二元论，因为它主张至少对于人类而言存在两种独立的成分，即有形的生理客体与无形的心理；笛卡尔为二元论提出了两点论据：第一点是基于对人类行为的观察，笛卡尔生活在一个人类社会发展相对成熟的时代，在他生活的年代已经出现了机器人，当然不是我们现代的电动机器人，当时的机器人需要用水力来带动，笛卡尔曾经在法国皇家园林中散步，当时的法国皇家园林被建造得犹如17 世纪的迪斯尼乐园一般，园林中有很多人偶造型可以运用水流来控制他们的动作；当你踏上相应的踩踏板，一个剑客便会跳出来向你挥剑，如果你踩到了另一块，一个正在沐浴的美女便会藏到树丛里去；因此笛卡尔说“天呐、这些机器可以对特定的动作做出特定的反应，原来机器也是可以完成某些动作的”；实际上他说道“我们的身体也是这样运作的，如果你轻击某人的膝盖，小腿就会弹出去，或许这就是我们的本质”但是笛卡尔否定了这一观点，因为有些事情人类可以做到，机器永远不可能做到；人类的行为不光只有反射，相反、人类拥有协调能力、创造力以及发起自发性行为的能力；例如我们能够运用语言，当然有时我说出的话会是反射性的，比如有人问我“你好吗？”我会说“很好、你呢？”但有时、我可以选择那些我想要说的话“你好吗”“非常好”我完全可以进行选择; 笛卡尔认为机器无法做出这种选择，因此我们不仅仅只是机器；当然、他的第二个论据非常的有名，在这里他用到了怀疑方法，他首先问自己一个问题“我究竟能够确信什么呢”之后他自答到“我相信上帝、但说实话、我不能确定上帝的存在，我相信我生活在一个富有的国度，但我可能是被愚弄了”；他甚至说“我相信我拥有朋友与家人，但或许我只是他们的一颗棋子罢了，或许是有个恶魔在戏弄我，让我产生错觉感受到了一些并不存在的东西”；《黑客帝国》便是这些怀疑的现代版演绎，《黑客帝国》的创意完全基于笛卡尔的哲学，笛卡尔对于恶灵的忧虑，或许你现在所经历的一切都不是真实的，而是某种邪恶生物制造出的幻觉；笛卡尔甚至同样怀疑自己身体的存在，事实上他注意到疯子有时会相信自己有额外的四肢或者相信他们的大小与形状是与实际不同的，笛卡尔问道“我如何让才能确定我不是个疯子，疯子们都认为自己是正常的，所以我觉得自己不是疯子，我又如何能确定我现在不是在做梦呢”；但迪卡尔认为有一点是他无法质疑的，那就是他无法怀疑自我思考的存在，而这又成为了对自己的反驳；因此、笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出与拥有不可确定的身体不同、拥有心理是肯定的；他用这一论据来支持二元论、来支持身心二元的观点；因此他总结到“我知道我是个实体、是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在，无需任何空间，也不依赖与任何有形实体；也就是说我的心灵、我的本质完全不同于我的身体”；我之前说过这是个普通观点，现在我要从几个方面来说明这个普遍观点：首先、二元论镶嵌于我们的语言之中，我们对我们所拥有的或是与我们有关的事物有着特定的表述模式，比如“我的胳膊、我的心脏、我的孩子、我的爱车”但我们对自己身体和大脑的表述，却也是如此在我们谈及我们拥有大脑时，似乎大脑是与我们相分的; 二元论揭示了直觉上的人格同一性，这也就是在说普通观点告诉我们，一个人、即使经历了身体上的巨变也依旧是原先的那个人，很多虚构的故事非常能说明这个道理；我们完全能够看懂电影中，一个少女睡去一觉醒来却变成了詹妮弗.加纳一个成年人，没人会说“这就是纪录片、我相信这些全部是真的” 但同时无论大人、青少年还是孩子、没有人会选择中途离开，说“我完全不知道电影在讲些什么”；相反、我们能够理解电影中的故事情节，我们也能理解很多包含更大转变的故事；比如某人死后又转世投胎到新生儿的身上，你可能有些不同的观点是关于对于转世投胎是否真的存在，在座的各位可能会有很多不同的看法；但我们可以想象一下，我们可以想象有这么个一个人死了，然后出现在另一个身体里；这并非是好莱坞首创上世纪最伟大的短篇小说之一，弗郎茨. 卡夫卡所写的名篇是这样开头的“一天早晨，格里高尔. 萨姆沙从不安的睡梦中醒来发现自己躺在床上变成了一只巨大的甲虫”这里卡夫卡再带次领我们去想象一觉醒来却变成一只甲虫的场景，而我们是可以想象到的；还有一个古老的例子，在公元前几百年荷马这样描述奥德赛的几个同样的命运，一个女巫将它们变成了猪，实际上这么说并不准确，他并未将它们变成猪，他的做法更加过分，女巫将它们封锁在猪的身体里，他们拥有猪的脑袋、声音、鬃毛和身体，但他们的心里却从未改变，他们被关在猪圈里轻声哭泣，在这里、作者再次邀请我们去想象，我们自己被困在其他动物身体里的场景，如果你能想象如此场景，那是因为你将自己当做了与所依肉体分离的心理实体；我们相信许多人是能够“灵魂附体”的，这是滑稽戏剧的一贯伎俩;同样也出现在经典电影《衰鬼上错身》中史蒂芬.马丁和莉莉.汤普林主演大力推荐，但很多人认为这种事情是真实存在的，对多重人格障碍的一种解释就是在你的身体中存在着多个心灵争夺对身体的控制权；我们将在本学期结束之前探讨多重人格障碍，到时大家会发现，事情要远比这复杂得多，但我想说的并非多重人格障碍究竟是什么，而是我们如何看待它，普通观点告诉我们，你的身体里可以拥有不止一个的心灵，这种普遍观点出现在许多不同的故事之中，也包括恶灵附体；许多信任系统都相信，个体行为，尤其是那些邪恶或非理性行为之所以会出现，是因为某种事物占据了他们的身体。
最新yale university耶鲁大学介绍PPT课件
用睫狀肌鬆弛劑來治療，但若因視軸過長所引起的近視，點睫狀肌鬆弛劑無法使眼軸
縮短回去，此時配眼鏡乃是改善視力的唯一選擇。
戴了眼鏡後近視會不會愈來愈深呢？基本上近視加深的原因相當複雜，跟先天遺
傳、後天環境、種族因素都有關，反而與眼鏡無直接關係。
Байду номын сангаас
為何多數人都會有眼鏡愈戴愈深的錯覺呢？第一個原因為先天體質的因素，或因
眼球越長，就好像把一個氣球越吹越大，氣球就越來越危
險。事實上在國內的研究顯示，視網膜剝離已逐漸成為國
內新增失明主因之一。而視網膜剝離和高度近視又有相當
密切的關係，所以對於近視不可掉以輕心。預防近視，對
於已發生近視者預防它發展成高度近視，都是相當重要的
當務之急。
5 近視該不該戴眼鏡
近視該不該戴眼鏡，一直是許多父母親心中的疑問。他們最常見的疑慮是戴了眼鏡度 數愈來愈深且再也拿不掉眼鏡了。
大部分因為斜視與白內障等問題引起的弱視，其治療必須依賴開刀。屈光異常引起的弱視則不同，一定要透過配戴 眼鏡來治療。視力的發育要好（還記得嗎？視力的發育是包括眼球與大腦的），必須依賴看東西時視網膜上有清楚 的影像，才能刺激眼球與大腦視覺系統的正常發育。屈光異常的小孩在看東西時視網膜上的影像是模糊的（他看的 東西當然也是模糊的），因此沒有辦法發展出精細的視力，所以視力會不好。針對這樣子的小孩，唯一讓視網膜有 清晰影像的方法就是戴上正確度數的眼鏡，透過眼鏡讓影像可以聚焦在視網膜上，進而刺激他們的眼球與大腦發育。 治療的時機也很要緊，因為如果小朋友有嚴重的屈光異常，而且視力不好沒有被發現，超過六到八歲才要來治療， 其效果通常不好。這一點很重要，因為這樣子的小朋友，並不像一般有度數的大人，只要戴上正確度數的眼鏡就可 以看得清楚；一旦錯過視力發育期，長大了之後即使戴上眼鏡也看不清楚了。
耶鲁大学文学理论公开课
乔姆斯基的转换生成语法理论摘要：乔姆斯基的生成语法理论建立在20世纪中期的新的哲学基础上，它批判了结构主义的方法论，否定了结构主义的认识论，运用笛卡尔等人的理性主义，对语言现象做出了系统完整的解释，认为语言反映了心理，人类的语言能力包含天赋成份。
熟悉了解乔姆斯基的生成语法理论的哲学基础，有助于语言学中在其他问题的分析与研究。
关键词：生成语法；语言习得机制；认知理论；理性主义；经验主义无论是分析哲学还是欧洲大陆哲学，都重视研究语言，这是当代西方哲学的一个重要特征，语言不能脱离世界，语言只有表现世界才有它正真的存在。
当代美国语言大师乔姆斯基首创了转换生成语法理论，正是这种转换生成语法在语言中挑起了一场革命。
它标志着西方语言学的研究，尤其是美国的语言学界研究进入了一个崭新的时代，即乔姆斯基时期。
一、乔姆斯基“革命”乔姆斯基的转换生成语法所研究的不是语言现象，也不是人们的语言运用，而是人们的语言能力，这种做法是对当时美国占统治地位的布龙菲尔德的结构主义语言学理论的否定。
上世纪50年代，统治美国的语言学界是以布龙菲尔德为代表的结构主义语言学。
这一学派的主要实践活动是研究印第安少数民族语言。
面对这些陌生的语言，他们不得不白手起家，先从收集语言索材做起，然后制定分析和描写这些语言材料的原则和方法。
这种特殊的实践加上行为主义影响，在很大的程度上决定了布龙菲尔德学派在语言理论和研究方法上的特征和局限。
他们研究语言主要是采用归纳的方法，对语言材料进行静态的描写。
他们强调每一种语言的独特性，不相信有所谓的人类共同的普遍语法。
受心理学行为主义的影响，他们认为人的语言行为不是先天就有的，而是后天习得的。
他们也用“刺激-反应”来解释语言的形成。
他们十分注意感性经验对于人们获得认识，形成语言的重要性。
但是，由于机械狭隘的经验主义观点，造成了对语言上的一些问题不能解决的困难，暴露了经验主义的局限性。
因此，受到乔姆斯基为首的转换生成语法学派的强烈反对。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第3课 中文课件
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第3课中文课件上堂课我们探讨了大脑及其功能,接下来我们将进一步学习一些基础理论,所以在今天和星期一,我们将学习两大心理理论,其代表人物分别是,西格蒙特•弗洛伊德和,伯尔赫斯•弗雷德里克•斯金纳,这两个理论便是精神分析理论,和行为主义理论,今天我们先来讲讲精神分析理论,下周再谈行为主义理论,这些理论广阔的适用范围,则是它们能够吸引大家关注的原因之一.本课程中所学习的大部分理论,大部分学术观点,它们的应用范围都是狭隘的.我们会谈到某人所提出的,关于种族偏见的理论,但它却并不是语言获得的理论,我们会讲到关于精神分裂症的理论,但它们却并不能用来解释性吸引,大多数理论的适用范围都是有所限定的,但这两个理论则是大理论,它们试图对世间的一切做出解释,包括了日常生活,儿童发展心理疾病,宗教战争及爱情,弗洛伊德和斯金纳的理论解释了上述一切.当然这里并不是历史课堂,给你们介绍这两位心理学泰斗,并不只是想让大家了解心理学史,我想要向你们讲述的是他们的理论,因为它们是众多理论的基石,更重要的是,其中的很多观点对于我们如何理解当下,具有决定性的影响.就是这张,无论如何,弗洛伊德都深深的影响着我们的生活,如果我让大家选出一位,不是说出一位著名心理学家的名字,你们大家多数人会回答.弗洛伊德.他是史上最著名的心理学家,对20世纪与21世纪,的心理学界都有着深远的影响.据其传记记载,他生于19世纪50年代,他的大半生都是居住在奥地利的维也纳,却在伦敦去世,二战伊始随着纳粹侵占其家乡,他被迫背井离乡,后来逃到伦敦在那里终其余生,他也是史上最著名的学者之一,但他不是因为某一项发现而名扬四海,相反他却因为提出了极具包容性的,心理理论而闻名天下,这个理论是他通过数十年的研究才提出的,弗洛伊德在世时远近闻名,是个家喻户晓的名人纵观他的一生,他还是一个精力充沛的高产学者,部分原因是他是个十足的瘾君子,但总体而言,他是一个精力旺盛的人,他曾获得过诺贝尔医学奖和文学奖的提名,但却都未能最终获奖,没能获得诺贝尔医学奖则是因为爱因斯坦,大家都喜欢爱因斯坦,当时爱因斯坦确实写过一封信,因为大会曾征求其他获奖者的意见,爱因斯坦在信中写到,"请别把奖项颁发给弗洛伊德,他不配获得诺贝尔奖,他不过是个心理学家",事情就是这个样子,好了,他被公认为,极为重要的知识分子,但同时他也成为了别人唾弃的对象,这在一定程度上是由他的性格造成的,他的许多做法都有失妥当,他雄心勃勃,想要壮大精神分析,想要向世人展示他的观点,想要为其观点进行辩护,他还经常说谎,对朋友蛮不讲理,对竞争对手也毫不留情,他这人很有意思,我最喜欢的关于弗洛伊德的故事是这样的,他在纳粹兴起之际逃离欧洲,他正准备逃到英格兰去,我想应该是从德国或者是奥地利出发,盖世太保逼迫他签署了一份文件,盖世太保们拦住了他,要求他签署一份文件上面写着,他绝没有受到盖世太保的威胁或骚扰,他签署了文件并在下面写到,"盖世太保从不曾伤害我,实际上我要向大家强烈推荐他们",这里他表现出了一定的攻击性他还因其观点而遭到唾弃受到憎恨,他被认为是支持性本能论的,其观点试图毁掉,人是善良理性而又纯粹的这一概念,上世纪30年代纳粹势力崛起时,他被认为是一个,致力于摧毁基督教之中,最神圣的观念的犹太人,在某种程度上这是很多人对他的看法,而这一指责在某程度上,也的确是有几分道理的,弗洛伊德发表了许多关于人性的言论,很多人都并不愿相信他的这些言论,那他究竟说了些什么呢?,如果你去询问某个厌恶弗洛伊德言论的人,他们定会告诉你一些弗洛伊德说过的蠢话,而事实上弗洛伊德发表过很多言论,只是其中的部分言论不太合理而已,比如,他因对性器表征的解释而为人熟知,他认为某些建筑纪念碑,是潜意识中阴茎表征的展现,与此有关的是他提出了,臭名昭著的阴茎嫉妒论,根据弗洛伊德的理论,阴茎嫉妒是对女性所经历的,某一发展状态的解释,这个观点认为,女性会在发育的某个时期,发现自身缺少阴茎,这无疑是一场灾难,因此这个时候,女性便猜测自己是被阉割了,她们本来是拥有阴茎的,但却被某人夺去了,随后她们开始关注父亲,并爱上自己的父亲,因为父亲拥有阴茎,从此他成为了阴茎的替代品,同时女性会排斥母亲,原因是母亲没有阴茎所以也是卑贱的,女性的性心理发展随之成形.如果大家对于弗洛伊德的了解仅限于此,一定不会对他及其学说给予太高的评价,不过弗洛伊德理论的核心,也是更有价值的观点,是一系列关于人类理性的主张.其中的两个主要观点如图所示,这两个观点涉及了无意识动机的存在,以及导致心理疾病梦境,口误等心理过程的,无意识动力或无意识冲突的概念.第一个观点即关于无意识动机的观点The first idea – the idea of unconscious motivation –,拒绝承认人类行为受到意识的支配,假设你爱上了某人,想要与对方一同步入婚姻的殿堂,要是有人问你为什么想要与对方共度余生,你大概会说,"现在我已准备好要开始婚姻生活了",或"我真心的爱着他",或"他聪明有魅力","我想要小孩了" 等等,或许这是你的心里话,但精神分析的支持者会说,即使你是如实作答,并未向他人撒谎,但却依然存在着支配你行为的欲望和动机–still, there are desires and motivations that govern your behavior,只是你没有意识到罢了,所以事实上你想与约翰结婚,可能是因为他让你想起了你的父亲,或是因为你想要报复曾经背叛了你的人,如果有人这样对你说,你定会说"一派胡言",但精神分析的支持者并不会就此打住,他会说这些心理过程都是无意识的,所以你当然意识不到,由此引出的一个偏激的观点,你根本不知道自己为何要这么去做,这有点像我们获得视觉感知的过程,当我们环顾四周便会产生感知觉,明白这是一辆车,那是一棵树那边有一个人,你根本没有意识到知觉过程是如何发生的,但当你将无意识概念应用到很多事情中时,你便会感到不悦和恐惧,比如你为什么会来耶鲁求学,你为什么会觉得应当这样,去对待你的朋友和家人婚姻是一个极端的例子,但弗洛伊德还举了很多简单点的例子,来阐释无意识动机是如何发挥作用的,例如你是否曾经毫无理由地,喜欢或厌恶过某个人,你是否曾发现自己,在没有充分的理由的情况下做出某事,为某事争论或是做出了某个决定,你是否曾在最不应该的时候,忘掉了某人的姓名,你是否曾在与爱人激情时喊错了名字,这全都属于精神分析中的无意识范畴,所以这些事情可以通过,我们无法觉察到的认知系统,予以解释,如果无意识是台理智的计算机,它非常聪明,总在为你寻求最佳利益,那其实也倒没什么,但弗洛伊德告诉我们事实并非如此根据弗洛伊德的理论,在你的头脑中存在着,三种截然不同的人格结构,它们之间存在着强烈的内部冲突,你的行为模式与你的思维方式,并不是单一理性存在的产物,而是一系列冲突事件的产物,这三种结构分别是本我自我,和超我,它们随着个体的发展而逐渐出现弗洛伊德认为本我是与生俱来的,是自性中生物性的一面,本我追求吃喝拉撒保暖,和性欲的满足,它是盲目的,遵循弗洛伊德所说的"快乐原则" It works on what Freud called, "The Pleasure Principle.”,本我追求快乐的即时满足,根据弗洛伊德的理论,刚出生的婴儿就是这个样子,也就是说婴儿只有本我,弗洛伊德美其名曰"多形性反常",即追求纯粹的快乐,但不幸的是现实是残酷的,世事总难以尽如人意,快乐并不总是在你想要的时候得到满足,你只能通过设法满足欲望,或设法抑制欲望,来应对这样的事实,这个结构被称为自我或是自性,它所遵循的是"现实原则",它试图在现实中找到,满足本我要求的方法,找到追求快乐的方法,有时是去找寻放弃的方法,因而在弗洛伊德的理论中,自我的出现象征着意识的起源,最后如果只存在自我和本我,那么事情会简单得多,但弗洛伊德又提出了第三种结构超我,超我是社会家庭规范的内化,因此在成长过程中,你试图在现实中满足本我的要求,满足自己的欲望,但有时也会因此而受到惩罚,有些欲望是不适当的,有些行为是错的你会因此而受到惩罚,因为在你的脑海里会闪现出超我,一种道德良知,就像是电影里那些盘旋在头上的小天使,告诉你什么是不应该做的,而基本上自性或者说自我,是介于本我与超我之间的,需要注意的是,我之前说过本我是盲目的,它只知道"饿要吃饭性欲要满足,冷了要穿衣服" oh, let’s get warm, oh.”,但其实超我也是盲目的,超我并不是一位能够教你明辨是非的,伟大的道德哲学家,它只懂得说"你该为自己感到羞耻","你真恶心","别再那样做了","天啊" Oh.”,在这两个争执的声音之间的结构,一种声音要你去满足欲望,另一种声音却说"你应该感到羞耻",就是你就是自我,根据弗洛伊德的理论,人格结构的大部分是无意识的,我们可以看到,上面的部分是我们的感受,我们的经历,本我的驱力,本我和超我的力量,都存在于我们无法觉察的无意识之中,这就像是我们无法察觉,肾和胃的活动一样,你无法通过自省而感受到它们的存在,相反它们的活动都是无意识的,这就是弗洛伊德提出的理论,这就是弗洛伊德理论的大体框架,他在此基础上扩展并提出了,性心理发展理论,所以正如之前所说,弗洛伊德的理论不仅解释了日常生活,决策失误以及恋爱等现象,还解释了儿童的发展弗洛伊德认为人格发展,分为五个阶段,且每个阶段都与特定的动欲区有关,弗洛伊德还认为,如果你在某一阶段遇到了阻碍,没能得到满足你就会停留在这个阶段,所以根据弗洛伊德的理论,在座各位之所以展示出不同的人格,是因为你们停留在了口腔期或肛门期,这可不是什么好事第一阶段是口腔期,快乐来源于口腔的动作,包括吮吸咀嚼等活动,在弗洛伊德看来,问题就出在孩子过早断奶上面,过早断奶,会对他的人格发展造成严重影响,会使孩子形成所谓的口腔期人格,口唇期人格有一些具体的表现,弗洛伊德用口腔期人格,来解释为什么会有人暴饮暴食,嚼口香糖或是抽烟,他们想通过这种口腔运动,来获得本该在口腔期获得的满足感,口腔期人格也有一些抽象的表现,如果你的室友很依赖他人很粘人,你可以去告诉他,"你具有口腔期人格,你在出生的第一年里过的并不好"更为人所熟知的一个阶段则是肛门期,它出现在口腔期之后,如果没能正确掌握如厕训练,那么问题便出现了,据弗洛伊德的理论,如果你在那几年里你出了问题,那么你就会形成肛门期人格,你的室友会说"你就是肛门期人格" and your roommate could say, "Your problem is you’re too anal.”,根据弗洛伊德的理论,这就表示,你不愿意排泄粪便,书上就是这么写的,也确实就是这样的,这种人格表现为,强迫有洁癖和吝啬,这些都可从人们谈话方式看出,这就是肛门期人格接下来的阶段就稍微复杂点了,下一个阶段是性器官期,实际上这个阶段也并不是非常复杂,性器官成为了快乐的主要来源,固着在此阶段会导致女性或男性,过分男性化,或是导致女性产生对于关注或控制的欲求,这个时期会出现一个有趣的现象,叫做"俄狄浦斯情结" [恋母情结],名字来自于一个故事,一则国王弑父娶母的希腊神话,据弗洛伊德的理论,我们所有人都会产生这个情结,所有人,不过弗洛伊德指的是所有的男人,俄狄浦斯情结是这样的,你到了三四岁的年龄,处于性器官期,你会对什么感兴趣呢,你会对自己的性器官产生兴趣,之后你会去寻求外部客体,弗洛伊德对此描述的有些模糊,但其实你是在寻求某种满足,但全世界又有谁,是温柔体贴而又慈爱美丽的呢,妈妈,所以小男孩会推断,"妈妈很好我爱妈妈",到目前为止一切尚算正常,小男孩爱上了他的母亲,问题是父亲妨碍了他,现在事情变得越来越诡异,但我要说,我是两个儿子的父亲,我的两个儿子在性器官期时,都曾明确地说过要娶他们的妈妈,对我来说如果真有什么不幸And me – if something bad happened to me,也没有比儿子们弑父娶母更糟糕的事情了,就是这样,但这时会出现一些攻击性,男孩决心要去杀掉父亲,每个三四岁大的男孩都这么想过,但是据弗洛伊德的理论,由于儿童无法很好地,在心理和现实之间划清界限,这就是个问题which is a problem –the problem is they don’t –,即他们认为自己的父亲,能够看出他们在密谋弑父,而且他们还认为父亲非常生他们的气,之后他们会问自己,"爸爸对我施加的最坏的惩罚会是什么",答案就是阉割,所以他们最终总结出,父亲会因为他们对母亲,抱有非分之想而阉割他们,然后他们向父亲投降"爸爸赢了",随后几年他们不再对性感兴趣,也就是来到了潜伏期在潜伏期阶段,儿童不再纠缠于恋父或恋母情结,从"爱上母亲想要弑父,父亲要阉割我" 过渡到,"不再恋母不再对性感兴趣",在进入性器期之前,性欲一直是被压抑着的,性征期是我们大家都会经历的阶段And the genital stage is the stage we are all in –,它延续至成年,现在你成年了,经历了所有的发展阶段,那你现在又是处于什么阶段呢,你并没有脱离险境,因为无意识机制依然存在,即使你并没在任何阶段里发生固着,你的行为仍然会一直受到本我,自我和超我的驱使,大家记住你的超我是盲目的,超我不仅要求你别干坏事,还要求你不要有做坏事的想法,而你的本我则由赤裸裸的原始欲望构成,包括了疯狂的性欲和攻击欲,如"我要杀了他","我要那样做爱",或"我要再吃一份餐后甜点",超我则在打压这些欲望"不行",所以欲望受到了抑制,这个过程并不会出现在意识层面之中,问题在于,弗洛伊德用所谓的液压理论,解释了发生的事情,有些受到压抑的欲望,会通过梦境和口误而表现出来,在某些特殊情况下,受压抑的欲望,会通过特定的临床症状而表现出来弗洛伊德描述了,很多我们会在日常生活中使用的方法,我们用这些方法,来阻止来自本我的原始欲望,进入到意识之中,他把这些方法称为"防御机制",你通过抵制不适当的原始欲望来保护自己,其中有些防御机制是很有意义的,用并不专业的非精神分析的话语来表述,就是我们并不想知道某些事情的存在,有些欲望我们并不想承认,我们会设法将这些欲望隐藏起来,例如有一种叫做升华的防御机制,升华是你有很多的能量,可能是性能量也可能是攻击能量,但你并未将它们指向性目标或攻击目标,而是将这些能量以其他方式进行了释放,你可以想象像毕加索这样的艺术大师,通过绘画来释放他的性能量,还有移置,移置是你将自己某些不道德的想法或欲望,以安全的方式释放出去,屈于父亲权威下的男孩,可能会憎恨他的父亲想要伤害父亲,但这个想法是可耻的也是难以实现的,孩子可能会去踢狗觉得狗很可恨,因为狗是可以接受的替代性目标,还有投射机制,投射是指人们将自己不想拥有的,某种令自己不能容忍的冲动,投射到别人的身上,弗洛伊德举出的一个典型例子,就是同性恋的欲望,我对你产生了强烈的性欲,比如你们所有人你们三个,我为这种性欲感到羞耻,所以我会说,"你们干嘛色眯眯地看着我,你在对我暗送秋波吗太恶心了",因为我这样说不仅满足了自我欲求,还把想法投射到别人身上,弗洛伊德认为这或许不难理解,迷恋,迷恋其他男人性征的男人们,把他们自己的性欲投射到了别人的身上,还有合理化,是指当你做坏事或有不良想法时,你会将行为合理化,为行为寻找一个更为社会接受的解释,比如喜欢打孩子的父母,一般不会说"我就是喜欢打孩子",而是说"这都是为了孩子好,我只是想做一位好家长而已",最后来说说退行,意思是回归到发展的某个早期阶段,孩子们经常使用这种防御机制,在他们感到压力和受伤的时候,他们回到更加年幼的阶段,表现出年幼时的行为,他们可能会哭,吮大拇指或是去寻找毯子之类的弗洛伊德认为所有的机制,都绝非病态的表现,它们是日常生活的组成部分,一般来说我们会运用这些机制,去维持无意识系统的平衡,但有时防御机制也会不起作用,当防卫机制不起作用时,就会造成一种病症,其名称在如今的心理学领域已经不常用到,但在弗洛伊德的时代,这是个非常流行的名称,这就是癔症[歇斯底里症],癔症的临床表现包括,癔症性失明和癔症性失聪,它们是指你在并无器质性损伤的情况下,目不能视耳不能闻even though there’s nothing physiologically wrong with you –,此外还有瘫痪震颤恐慌症,健忘症之类的记忆缺失等等,上述这些都是实实在在的症状,这些就是试图将欲望抑制在无意识之中的,防御机制所产生的症状,电影中有很多这样的例子,电影中常见的情节是,有人会求助于精神分析师,他们都有一些严重的问题,比如失忆了或是意识丧失什么的,精神分析师会向他们进行解释,最后他们会理解这样的想法,明白自己为何会失明或失忆,对弗洛伊德来说事情就是这个样子弗洛伊德起初试图通过催眠,来唤起这些遗忘的记忆,但随后改用了自由联想机制,弗洛伊德认为,病人会抗拒自由联想,而精神分析学家的作用,则是克服病人的抗拒,帮助病人理解他们的内在想法,精神分析的关键假设在于,你所遇到的问题,实际上反映出了更深层次的冲突,这些冲突被你压抑起来,一旦你理解了更深层次的冲突究竟是什么,你的问题便会得到解决,现在我举一个心理辅导的例子,这并不是精神分析取向的心理治疗,稍后的课程我们会详细讨论,什么才是精神分析取向的心理治疗,该例子不是纯粹的精神分析取向心理治疗,在精神分析取向的心理治疗中,来访者躺在沙发上,看不到他们的心理治疗师,而心理治疗师也不会有任何暗示性的话语,但我之所以要举出这个例子,是因为它展示了大量精神分析理论的主题,特别是关于梦境梦的重要性,梦的压抑及其隐含意义这样的主题,例子摘自一段电视剧,在座可能已经有人看过,很多人可能还没看过,片中人物饱受恐慌症折磨,保罗•布罗姆教授曾在《黑道家族》中客串演出,尤其是在恐慌症发作的时候,他的首次恐慌症来自于这样一件事,他来到泳池边,看到鸭群飞离游泳池,他就这样患上了恐慌症,心脏剧烈跳动出汗,脸红几乎晕厥过去,恐慌症造成的压力越来越大,直到他去见了心理医生,进行了药物治疗恐慌症才得以治愈,这是他和心理医生的,一次会面弗洛伊德的贡献并不只是局限于,个体心理学和个体病理学的研究方面,正如幻灯片所示,弗洛伊德对梦境做了大量阐释,他认为梦是具有显性梦境的,"显性"是指醒后所能记忆的梦境,但梦还具有潜性梦境,潜性梦境是指梦所隐藏的含义,他认为所有的梦境都是愿望的满足,你做的每一个梦都是你所抱有愿望的展现,即使这是个你并不想拥有的,被禁止的愿望,在弗洛伊德之前就有观点指出,梦具有象征意义,梦境中的事物往往并不像,它们看上去那样的简单,它们通常是其他事物的象征,弗洛伊德认为文学作品童话故事,儿童读物之类的东西,都含有某个一般性的主题,某些方面的无意识冲突,以及某种无意识偏见,弗洛伊德还为宗教给出了大量解释,例如,他认为大部分人,想要寻求一位全知全能的神,其实质是在寻找在发展阶段,所缺失的父亲形象的替代品下面的课我想着重谈谈,对弗洛伊德的科学评价,前面我对弗洛伊德的理论进行了概述,接下来的时间我想来和大家讨论一下,弗洛伊德的理论是否可信,以及弗洛伊德的理论,在多大程度上是符合现代科学的,但在开始之前,先给大家几分钟的提问时间,你们对弗洛伊德,或是他的理论有什么问题吗你来,这问题不错,他提的问题是,弗洛伊德在描述性心理发展过程中,存在的冲突时,总是假设孩子是拥有父母的,是处于特定的家庭结构之中的,问题是,"要是孩子成长于单亲家庭会怎样",如果孩子从未接受过母乳喂养,而是从小就用奶瓶喂养那又会怎样,即便弗洛伊德的支持者们也对此存有疑问,弗洛伊德非常关注,与他接触之人的家庭生活,也就是一些欧洲的贵族们,对于这类问题,相信弗洛伊德本人也很难作答,我猜精神分析的支持者会说,你会看到系统的差异,你会看到由单身母亲抚养长大的孩子,或由单身父亲抚养长大的孩子,在某种意义上,会因此而形成心理创伤,从而无法正常地经历所有的性心理阶段下一个问题,这个问题是,"现代精神分析学家们仍然会认为,女性没有超我吗",正如你刚才指出的,弗洛伊德因一个观点的提出而臭名远扬,他认为与男性相比,女性在道德上是不成熟的,我想弗洛伊德会说女性也是有超我的,但她们的超我并没有男性的超我强大,我认为当今的精神分析学家们,和精神分析的学者们,对此的看法更为多元,有些人会坚持性别差异是根深蒂固的,其他人则想要抛弃精神分析理论,在这个方面的内容下一个问题,升华和移置相同吗,升华是否属于移置的一种形式,升华是指,这是一个好问题,这个问题其实在问什么是升华,它和其它防御机制有什么关系,很多的防御机制都涉及欲望和欲望的转换,移置是指将自己的欲望投放到他人身上,比如我在生你的气,但是可能由于某种原因我无法向你发脾气,所以我就迁怒到她身上,投射是指个体否认自己的欲望,并认为他人拥有此欲望,升华是指你放弃了具体对象,保存了能量,比如说你的室友通宵复习,你会对他说,"你是因为太久没做爱,却又很想做爱,所以你才会将全部的精力,都投入到数学考试之中",然后你总结一句"这叫升华,我在心理学导论课上学到的" I learned that in Intro Psych.”,想。
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论 第2课中文课件
耶鲁大学公开课-心理学导论第2课中文课件耶鲁大学开放课程心理学导论第2课基础：这是你的大脑今天我们开始正式上课，心理学导论，我们首先要来探讨的是大脑；我想先提到一种观点，这种观点的提出者是位诺贝尔奖得主,生物学家、费兰西斯.克里克；他将这种观点称为“惊人的假说”，这一惊人的假说大致观点如下：正如他在其著作《惊人的假说》中写道“你、你的喜悦、悲伤、回忆、抱负，你对人格同一性的感知、你的自由意志；事实上这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已；正如刘易斯.卡罗尔在《爱丽斯》中所描述的“你不过是一堆神经元罢了”，用“惊人”来形容这个观点是贴切的，这是个古怪又反常的观点：我并不奢望大家在一开始就能接受这个观点，即使到课程结束时能否接受这个观点，依然是你们的自由；相反、你们要现在就能接受，倒是会让我感到很奇怪，我知道多数人接受不了。
实际上、他们持有另外一种观点，大多数人都是二元论者，二元论则是一种截然不同的假说，你能够在有史以来的所有宗教和绝大多数哲学体系中找到这个假说，比如、柏拉图就曾明确提出过；但是最著名最有影响力的二元论拥护者则非哲学家勒奈.笛卡尔莫属，勒奈.笛卡尔明确地提出了一个问题“人类是否仅仅是生理机器、是生理客体而已”他的答复是“不”，他认为动物都是机器，实际上他将动物称之为“野兽机器”；他认为非人类动物全是机器人，但人类是不同的、人类具有二元性；我们和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但与动物不同，我们的本质却并非是生理的，我们是拥有生理客体的无形心灵，我们的心灵占据着生理客体，寄居其中与其形成紧密的联系，这便是二元论，因为它主张至少对于人类而言存在两种独立的成分，即有形的生理客体与无形的心理；笛卡尔为二元论提出了两点论据：第一点是基于对人类行为的观察，笛卡尔生活在一个人类社会发展相对成熟的时代，在他生活的年代已经出现了机器人，当然不是我们现代的电动机器人，当时的机器人需要用水力来带动，笛卡尔曾经在法国皇家园林中散步，当时的法国皇家园林被建造得犹如17世纪的迪斯尼乐园一般，园林中有很多人偶造型可以运用水流来控制他们的动作；当你踏上相应的踩踏板，一个剑客便会跳出来向你挥剑，如果你踩到了另一块，一个正在沐浴的美女便会藏到树丛里去；因此笛卡尔说“天呐、这些机器可以对特定的动作做出特定的反应，原来机器也是可以完成某些动作的”；实际上他说道“我们的身体也是这样运作的，如果你轻击某人的膝盖，小腿就会弹出去，或许这就是我们的本质”但是笛卡尔否定了这一观点，因为有些事情人类可以做到，机器永远不可能做到；人类的行为不光只有反射，相反、人类拥有协调能力、创造力以及发起自发性行为的能力；例如我们能够运用语言，当然有时我说出的话会是反射性的，比如有人问我“你好吗？”我会说“很好、你呢？”但有时、我可以选择那些我想要说的话“你好吗”“非常好”我完全可以进行选择;笛卡尔认为机器无法做出这种选择，因此我们不仅仅只是机器；当然、他的第二个论据非常的有名，在这里他用到了怀疑方法，他首先问自己一个问题“我究竟能够确信什么呢”之后他自答到“我相信上帝、但说实话、我不能确定上帝的存在，我相信我生活在一个富有的国度，但我可能是被愚弄了”；他甚至说“我相信我拥有朋友与家人，但或许我只是他们的一颗棋子罢了，或许是有个恶魔在戏弄我，让我产生错觉感受到了一些并不存在的东西”；《黑客帝国》便是这些怀疑的现代版演绎，《黑客帝国》的创意完全基于笛卡尔的哲学，笛卡尔对于恶灵的忧虑，或许你现在所经历的一切都不是真实的，而是某种邪恶生物制造出的幻觉；笛卡尔甚至同样怀疑自己身体的存在，事实上他注意到疯子有时会相信自己有额外的四肢或者相信他们的大小与形状是与实际不同的，笛卡尔问道“我如何让才能确定我不是个疯子，疯子们都认为自己是正常的，所以我觉得自己不是疯子，我又如何能确定我现在不是在做梦呢”；但迪卡尔认为有一点是他无法质疑的，那就是他无法怀疑自我思考的存在，而这又成为了对自己的反驳；因此、笛卡尔运用怀疑方法得出与拥有不可确定的身体不同、拥有心理是肯定的；他用这一论据来支持二元论、来支持身心二元的观点；因此他总结到“我知道我是个实体、是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在，无需任何空间，也不依赖与任何有形实体；也就是说我的心灵、我的本质完全不同于我的身体”；我之前说过这是个普通观点，现在我要从几个方面来说明这个普遍观点：首先、二元论镶嵌于我们的语言之中，我们对我们所拥有的或是与我们有关的事物有着特定的表述模式，比如“我的胳膊、我的心脏、我的孩子、我的爱车”但我们对自己身体和大脑的表述，却也是如此在我们谈及我们拥有大脑时，似乎大脑是与我们相分的;二元论揭示了直觉上的人格同一性，这也就是在说普通观点告诉我们，一个人、即使经历了身体上的巨变也依旧是原先的那个人，很多虚构的故事非常能说明这个道理；我们完全能够看懂电影中，一个少女睡去一觉醒来却变成了詹妮弗.加纳一个成年人，没人会说“这就是纪录片、我相信这些全部是真的”但同时无论大人、青少年还是孩子、没有人会选择中途离开，说“我完全不知道电影在讲些什么”；相反、我们能够理解电影中的故事情节，我们也能理解很多包含更大转变的故事；比如某人死后又转世投胎到新生儿的身上，你可能有些不同的观点是关于对于转世投胎是否真的存在，在座的各位可能会有很多不同的看法；但我们可以想象一下，我们可以想象有这么个一个人死了，然后出现在另一个身体里；这并非是好莱坞首创上世纪最伟大的短篇小说之一，弗郎茨.卡夫卡所写的名篇是这样开头的“一天早晨，格里高尔.萨姆沙从不安的睡梦中醒来发现自己躺在床上变成了一只巨大的甲虫”这里卡夫卡再带次领我们去想象一觉醒来却变成一只甲虫的场景，而我们是可以想象到的；还有一个古老的例子，在公元前几百年荷马这样描述奥德赛的几个同样的命运，一个女巫将它们变成了猪，实际上这么说并不准确，他并未将它们变成猪，他的做法更加过分，女巫将它们封锁在猪的身体里，他们拥有猪的脑袋、声音、鬃毛和身体，但他们的心里却从未改变，他们被关在猪圈里轻声哭泣，在这里、作者再次邀请我们去想象，我们自己被困在其他动物身体里的场景，如果你能想象如此场景，那是因为你将自己当做了与所依肉体分离的心理实体；我们相信许多人是能够“灵魂附体”的，这是滑稽戏剧的一贯伎俩;同样也出现在经典电影《衰鬼上错身》中史蒂芬.马丁和莉莉.汤普林主演大力推荐，但很多人认为这种事情是真实存在的，对多重人格障碍的一种解释就是在你的身体中存在着多个心灵争夺对身体的控制权；我们将在本学期结束之前探讨多重人格障碍，到时大家会发现，事情要远比这复杂得多，但我想说的并非多重人格障碍究竟是什么，而是我们如何看待它，普通观点告诉我们，你的身体里可以拥有不止一个的心灵，这种普遍观点出现在许多不同的故事之中，也包括恶灵附体；许多信任系统都相信，个体行为，尤其是那些邪恶或非理性行为之所以会出现，是因为某种事物占据了他们的身体。
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑
心理学导论（耶鲁大学公开课）第二讲大脑诺贝尔得主生物学家Francis Crick有一个“惊人的假说”：你，你的喜悦，悲伤，回忆，抱负，你对人格同一性的感知，你的自由意志，事实上，这一切都不过是大量神经细胞集与其缔合分子的生理反应而已。
你不过是一堆神经元而已。
这个观点很多人接受不了，因为很多人都是二元论者Dualist. 二元论在所有的宗教和很多哲学体系里都有，历史久远。
最著名的二元论者是笛卡尔。
他认为动物是野兽机器，但人类是二元的，人和动物一样拥有有形的生理客体，但是与动物有着本质区别的是，人类是非物理性的，人类是拥有物理身体的无形心灵。
心理占据着身体，形成紧密的联系。
既人类有2部分组成，有形的物质的身体和无形的心灵。
笛卡尔的二元论基于二个论据：1. 基于对人类行为的观察笛卡尔观察了那个时代的机器人，他们可以根据设定完成一些动作，但笛卡尔认为人类的行为不光只有反射，人类更具有协调，创造及自发性行为能力2. 用怀疑的方法来证明Ø “我信仰上帝，但无法证明上帝的存在“；Ø “我有亲朋好友，但也许这只是一个幻像”（电影黑客帝国就说基于笛卡尔的这一学说，你所经历的一切都非真实的）Ø “我如何证明我不是疯子”笛卡尔通过这些疑问和思考，能够确认的是“自我思考的存在”，所以他能够确定的是“心灵的存在”，从而也就证明心灵和身体是分离的。
我知道我是个实体是思考主体的本质或本性，而这种思考主体的存在无需任何空间，也不依赖于任何有形的实体，我的心灵，我的本质完全不同于我的身体二元论被广泛的接受：1. 存在与日常语言当中，我们常说我的汽车如何如何，我的孩子如何如何，同样我们也会说我的心如何如何2. 存在与各种文艺作品中，小说（卡夫卡《变形记》），电影，传说3. 人们普遍相信灵魂附体或者死后灵魂会进天堂/地域，既灵魂不灭4. 对于多重人格障碍，有一种解释就是身体存在多个心灵，在争夺对身体的控制而科学早已证明二元论是错误的，不存在与身体相分离的另一个你！心理是大脑活动的产物，心理反应大脑的活动，就像运算结果反应了计算机的运行一样。