第二语言学习者个体差异因素研究ppt课件
第二语言习得-971PPT课件
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“习得”与“学习”的定义
“习得”是指在自然状态下下意识地、非正式 地学习语言。毫不费力地获得第二语言。
“学习”是指有意识地、正式地学习语言。 这种状态下的学习获得的是一种“元语言知 识 ”(metalanguage knowledge)。即学习 者有意识地学习语言的规则，如语法规则等。 这种学习相对于习得来说，需要耗费时力。
现在人们开始转向课堂教学环境的第二语 言习得，并试图说明教学对第二语言习得 的影响。目的是为了提高语言教学的效率。
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第二语言习得常见概念
1、母语与目的语 2、第一语言与第二语言 3、习得与学习 4、第二语言习得与外语习得 5、语言能力和交际能力 6、中介语
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1.母语与目的语塞林克：中源自语Selinker (1972)“Interlanguage”
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三 第二语言习得主要解决的问题
1. 学习者在L2习得过程中获得了什么 为了弄清楚这个问题，学者们收集了大
量的学习者的语言材料，并对这些材料 进行系统的描写，试图发现学习者习得 第二语言的规律。 早期的第二语言习得研究主要集中在学 习者的语言系统的描写上。
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一 第二语言习得研究的内容
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二 学科建立的标志
有学者把拉多“跨文化语言学”
（Lado (1957)”Linguistics Across Culture”）
一书看作第二语言习得的开始。
大多数学者认为以下两篇论文是学科建立的标志。
科德：学习者语言偏误的意义
Corder (1967 ) “The significance of learners’ errors”
第二语言学习者语言系统变异研究页PPT文档
• 语言风格的变异（随便体——严谨体）由 言语情景造成。
• 语言变异现象（即“语体变换”）：说话 人在注意程度比较高的语体形式中，更频 繁地使用享有声望的语音；而在注意程度 比较低的语体形式中，更频繁地使用不那 么有声望的语音。
• Examples?
语言变异的基本含义与研究范式
• 语言变异的含义 • 第二语言学习者语言变异的分类 • 第二语言学习者语言变异的研究方式
语言变异的含义
• 学习者用两种以上的语言形式表达目的语 中一种形式表达的意义和功能。
• 指说话者的语言表达系统由于社会因素 （社会等级、职业等）、社会心理因素、 心理语言因素而产生的语言形式变化。
第二语言学习者的语言变异
• 第二语言学习者的语言变异与母语者的语 言变异存在异同点——前者遵循语言变异 的一些共同规律，但有其自身特点；
• 第二语言学习者的语言变异大致有两类： “系统变异”与“非系统变异”；
• 系统变异：指第二语言学习者的语言变异 随情景的变化而变化；言语情景是其主要 原因。
• 如：(1a) He plays basketball.
• 第二语言学习者的语言变异是造成其中介 语系统不稳定的一个重要原因，同时也是 促进其中介语系统不断发展的动因。
第二语言学习者语言变异的分类
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共时变异
学习者自身的变异 学习者之间的变异
上下文语境 系统变异 情景语境
心理语言语境 非系统(自由)变异
历时变异
(Ellis, 1994)
第二语言学习者语言变异的 研究范式
• 三个研究模式：拉波夫学派的研究模式、动态研 究模式、社会心理研的方法来解释产生变异的原因； • 采用这种范式的学者认为，某些因素影响了学习
第五讲第二语言习得与学习策略PPT课件
两种语言习得都是为了培养言语交际能力。
（一）第一语言习得与第二语言习 得的相同之处：
两种语言习得都必须掌握语音、词汇、语 法等要素和受文化制约的语用规则，都必 须形成听说读写的技能。
第五讲：第二语言习得与学习策略
一、第一语言习得与第二语言学习对比 二、第二语言习得理论和假说 三、学习者的个体因素 四、语言学习环境
整体概述
概述一
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概述二
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概述三
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一、第一语言习得与第二语言学习 对比
（一）第一语言习得与第二语言习得的相同 之处：
（二）第一语言习得与第二语言习 得的不同点
5、主体的生理、心理特点不同。
这是最基本的不同，是由儿童和成人的年 龄差异决定的。
可见，第一语言的习得过程伴随着学习者 人之常情、情感、生理等方面的发展变化， 而第二语言习得则是在上述变化基本完成 以后进行的。
二、第二语言习得理论和假说
第二语言习得研究的历史及范围的大概情况如 何？
（一）对比分析假说
拉多在上世纪50年代中期行为主义鼎盛时 期提出的。
1、第二语言的获得是通过刺激-反应-强化形 成习惯的结果。
2、正迁移与负迁移 3、只强调学习者通过刺激反应被动地养成一
定的语言习惯，否认学习者语言习得的认 知过程。忽视人的能动性和创造力。 4、是视听法和听说法的理论根据。
（二）中介语假说
造成过滤的是一些心理因素，如学习的动 力、对所学语言的态度、自信心、是否紧 张焦虑，是否处于防卫状态，怕出丑等。 这是对第二语言学习具有深远意义的假说。
第二语言习得研究概述精品PPT课件
第一语言习得与第二语言习得 的差异
• 习得方式的差异：母语习得者先口语后 书面语；二语习得者常口头语言和书面 语言同时起步，增加了学习难度。
• first language, mother tongue, native language共 同特点：1）最早习得，常在家庭环境中习得； 2）熟练程度高，语言直觉强。Second
language, foreign language, non-native language 共同特点：1）都是一种双语现象；2）在掌 握时间顺序上次于第一语言；3）熟练程度一 般不如第一语言；4）习得方式一般是在学校、 家庭教育或自学。
performance） • 语言系统中的用法与具体用法（usage /use）
母语、第一语言
Steinberg(1982): 母语通常指本民族的语言， 与外族语或外国语相对。发育正常的儿 童、最初习得的语言、通常是抚养人使 用的语言；一般情况下与其民族、国籍 不一定有必然的联系，但与社会环境、 家庭环境密切相关。如：跨国婚姻家庭。 第一语言往往就是母语。
• 文秋芳.2010.二语习得重点问 Nhomakorabea研究.外语教学 与研究出版.
第二语言习得研究的基本概念
第二语言习得研究的基本概念
• 母语、第一语言、外语、第二外语 • 习得与学习 • 第一语言习得与第二语言习得的异同 • 第二语言习得与外语学习 • 自然的第二语言习得与有指导的第二语言习
得 • 语言能力与语言表达（competence /
区别第二语言与外语对引进国外外语教学 理论及我国的外语教学有非常重要的意 义。
• 第一语言和外语在学习环境方面存在差异；
• 两者学习过程的情感因素方面存在本质区别；
第二语言习得PPT
I. IntroductionII. Individual differences in SLAIII. Input and inter-languageIV. Contrastive analysis and error analysisV. Foreign language teaching approachesI. IntroductionThe term Applied Linguistics (AL) is an Anglo-American coinage.AL in the past based itself mainly on the findings of theoretical linguistics especially in language teaching.1.1 Definition of Applied LinguisticsCorder 1974---Crystal 1985---Richards 1985---Steven 1992Corder 1974:AL is the utilization of the knowledge about the nature of language achieved by linguistic research for the improvement of the efficiency of some practical task in which language is a central component.Crystal 1985: AL is a branch of linguistics where the primary concern is the application of linguistic theories, methods and findings to the elucidation of language problems which have arisen in other areas of experience.Richards et al. 1985: AL covers two main points:1.The study of second and foreign language learning and teaching.2.The study of language and linguistics in relation to practical problems.Steven 1992:AL is a multidisciplinary approach to the solution of language-related problems.The problems it attempts to solve include speech pathology, machine translation, national language planning policy, various facets of communication research and many others.HU Zhuang Lin 2004:Applied Linguistics (AL) serves as a mediating area which interprets the results of linguistic theories and makes them user friendly to the language teacher and learner.1.2 EFL and ESL(EFL) ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE : Learning English in a community that doesn’t speak English.(ESL) ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE: Leaning English in a place where it is the spoken language.According to UNESCO, second language is a language acquired/learned by a person in addition to his mother tongue.1.3 Learning and AcquisitionLearning is a deliberate, conscious attempt to master a language, while acquisition is a less deliberate, subconscious process of mastering language.As a L2 learner, you can hardly speak in the same way as a native speaker. Phonologically, morphologically, syntactically, semanticallyand pragmatically, there bound to be some differences.1.4 First and Second Language AcquisitionThink about a baby acquiring his first language.Think about a person acquiring a second language.What similarities and differences are there in the two processes? Second language learning :painstaking unsuccessfulFirst language acquisition: unconscious successfulFeature 1: Commandchildren normally achieve perfect L1 masteryadult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery Feature 2: Successsuccess guaranteed complete success rareFeature 3: Intuitionschildren develop clear intuitions about correctnessL2 learners are often unable to form clear grammaticality judgments (The house is easy to catch fire.)Feature 4: Negative evidencecorrection not found and not necessarycorrection generally helpful or necessaryFeature 5: GoalsTarget language competenceL2 learners are more concerned with fluency than accuracy, as targetlanguage competence is too difficult to achieve.II. Individual differences in SLAIndividual differences: Age, Personality traits, Cognitive style, Learning strategies, Motivation, Language aptitude2.1 Age and Second Language AcquisitionIs it better to learn a second language when one is young or when one is older? Why?Lenneberg (1967) stated that L2 is best learned between age 2 and puberty.Case studyDo we actually find such a critical period for L2 acquisition?What would a critical period for L2 acquisition look like?Do late learners ever attain nativelikeness?Critical period for L2 acquisitionGeometric features”Heightened sensitivity at beginningClear point where offset (decline) beginsFlat period when critical period is overTemporal features”Heightened sensitivity through early childhoodSensitivity bottoms out when full neurocognitive maturity is reached Continued low sensitivity throughout adulthoodTentative conclusionsIs there a sharp cutoff point where sensitivity begins to decline? NO Does sensitivity flatten out in adulthood? NOIs there a significant change in sensitivity when maturation is reached? NOAdvantages to being a younger learnerMore likely to develop a native-like accentLess to learn to be considered proficientMore likely to receive comprehensible inputAdvantages to being an older learnerCan consciously use strategies to aid learningHas knowledge from L1 to draw fromHas greater control over inputGrammatical CompetenceMastery of language code: Lexicon (vocabulary), Word formation rules, Sentence formation rules, Pronunciation rules, Spelling rules Sociolinguistic CompetenceMastery of appropriate language use in different contextsHow to speak to a friendHow to speak to someone in authorityHow to speak socially vs. ProfessionallyDiscourse CompetenceMastery of how to combine meanings and forms to create a text in different modesExamples: Telephone inquiry ,Narrative text, Oral reportStrategic CompetenceMastery of verbal and non-verbal strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communicationExamples: How to ask for help How to rephrase a statement2.2 MotivationThere isn’t much theory that “provides an all-round explanation of what we do and why.”(Dörnyei 2003:1)“Motivation is a multifaceted construct, and the exact nature of the constituent components activated in a particular situation depends greatly on contextual factors.”(Dörnyei 2003:1) Instrumental motivation--- Immediate achievement Go abroad Social responsibility Individual development----Instrumental motivationCultural motivation---Intrinsic interest Go abroad Social responsibility Information medium---Integrative motivation Interest motivationSituational motivation---Learning situation---Situational motivation Metacognitive strategiesA. Centering your learningB. Arranging and planning your learningC. Evaluating your learningAffective strategiesA. Lowering your anxietyB. Encouraging yourselfC. Taking your emotional temperatureSocial strategiesA. Asking questionsB. Cooperating with othersC. Empathizing with othersResearch has demonstrated(1) Learners are actively involved in their learning.(2) Learners use different kinds of strategies(3) Learners have different beliefs about strategy use and learning approaches(3) Several factors have powerful influence on strategy choice/use: motivation, proficiency, years of study,sex, major, if requirementThe good language learner:(1) is guesser, but an accurate guesser!(2) has a strong drive to communicate.(3) is not often inhibited (a risk-taker).(4) focuses on communication, but also attends to form.(5) practices—and creates opportunities to do so.(6) knows what is appropriate.(7) monitors his own and the speech of others.(8) attends to meaning.(9) Actively participates (aloud and silently).III. Input and Inter-language3.1 Input theory by Krashen Interaction theory by Long Output theory by Swain3.2 InterlanguageDefinition of inputQuestion：Could you explain “input”in second language acquisition？Learners' most direct source of information about the target language is the target language itself. When they come into direct contact with the target language, this is referred to as "input." (/wiki)Stephen Krashen (University of Southern California) is an expert in the field of linguistics, specializing in theories of language acquisition and development. Much of his recent research has involved the study of non-English and bilingual language acquisition. During the past 20 years, he has published well over 100 books andarticles and has been invited to deliver over 300 lectures at universities throughout the United States and Canada.3.1 Krashen’s Input HypothesisKrashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:1) the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis,2) the Monitor hypothesis,3) the Natural Order hypothesis,4) the Input hypothesis,5) the Affective Filter hypothesis.Input Hypothesis"The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language.This hypothesis claims that “humans acquire language in only one way-by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensibleinput’”（Krashen, 1985:2)Comprehensible input: i+1; output plays little role.Comment on Input theoryInfluential: application in SLT, Types of input, Ways of input, Variety of input, Sufficiency of input, Efficiency of input Controversial:How to quantify and qualify the “i”and “1”in “i+1”Ignorance of outputViews diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be provided for language learners.Authentic input, Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input, Interactively modified inputInput-based teachingDirect method, Natural approach, Total physical response, Communicative approach, Community language learning (CLL) , Suggestopedia, Silent wayLong’s Interaction HypothesisLong's interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is strongly facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction. In particular, the negotiation of meaning has been shown to contribute greatly to the acquisition of vocabulary (Long, 1990).Study: NSs-NNSs, negotiation for meaning---comprehensible inputThe Interaction Hypothesis highlights the role of social interaction in increasing the amount of comprehensible input that students receive. This interaction includes students asking for help when they do not understand input. Perhaps, the collaborative setting in groups and the trust that can grow among groupmates make it more likely that students will have opportunities to repair comprehension breakdowns.Swain’s Output HypothesisMerrill Swain(Ph.D., University of California)She is Professor in the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning department at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) at the University of Toronto. website: http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/mlc/swain.htmThe output hypothesis claims that the act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language learning.It states that while comprehensible input is necessary for L2 learning, learners also need to speak and to write, i. e., produce output, in their L2.Three functions of output in second language learning:1) the noticing/triggering function 发现所想与所能之间的差别2) the hypothesis-testing function 测试语言假设3) the metalinguistic (reflective) function.增加元语言知识没有输出需要的输入不易转化为程序性知识没有输入帮助的输出不利于语言体系的拓展输出-输入结合的教学活动更具有交际的真实性（文秋芳,2008）3.2 InterlanguageThe type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.It is often understood as a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.E.g. data from SWECCLInterlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-like level.Can be done in two ways:investigating the psychological, biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguage, the following questions can be asked:Linguistically, how is interlanguage in general different from the target language or the native language?In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher levelinterlanguage?How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?IV. Contrastive Analysis and Error AnalysisWe assume that the student who comes into contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and others extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult. Lado, 1957, 24.1 Contrastive Analysis (1940s ---1960s)Paul Nation is Professor in Applied Linguistics at the School of Linguistics and Applied Language Studies (LALS) at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand.“Research shows that the first language has a small but important role to play in communicating meaning and content.”(Paul Nation, in his article, The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language)4.1.1 Definition of Contrastive Analysis (CA)A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not in a second language learning situation. (Gass & Selinker, 2001:72) An approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 todetermine similarities and differences”(Saville-Troike, 2006: 34) 4.1.2 Objectives of CAProviding insights into similarities and differences between languages;Explaining and predicting problems in L2 leaningDeveloping course materials for language teaching4.1.3 Contrastive Analysis HypothesisMain assumptions1) L2 learning involves overcoming difficulties in the linguistic systems of the target language;2) The main difficulties in learning a L2 are caused by interference from the L1;3) Contrastive analysis can predict, or at least account for, difficulties in L2 learning, so teaching materials based on contrastive analysis can reduce the effects of interference and difficulties, and facilitate L2 learning.Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis"Where two languages were similar, positive transfer would occur; where they were different, negative transfer, or interference, would result." (Larsen-Freeman & Long 1991: 53)3 versions of the CA hypothesisThe Strong Version: Fries & LadoIt (a priori) claimed that prediction of difficulties in learning L2 could be made based upon a comparison of two languages. This starts with a crosslinguistic analysis and then attempts to predict trouble spots.The Weak Version: Wardhaugh (1970)It (a posteriori) claimed that cross-linguistic comparison could help to explain learner errors. This starts with learner errors and attempts to account for them with cross-grammatical comparisons.The Moderate Version: Oller & ZiahosseinyIt differs from the above two in that it emphasizes the significance of minimal distinctions, which may actually cause the greatest interferences and difficulties.4.1.4 Procedures of CA2 principles of CA as proposed by Halliday:Describe before comparingComparing patterns, not whole languagesSteps:The separate description of the relevant features of each language; The establishment of comparability;The comparison and contrast.4.1.5 Evaluation of CAHA. Application, Prediction & Diagnosis of errorsTesting, Course design, Selection, Grading,Contrastive teaching B. Problems with contrastive analysisProblem #1The predictions made by proponents of the CAH were often inaccurate, or even false.There was underprediction (i.e. the CAH failed to predict some errors).There was overprediction (i.e. the CAH predicted errors that did not materialize).French object pronouns precede the verb: Je les vois "I them see." English L1 learners of French will say:*"Le chien a mange les" instead of "Le chien les a mange*"Il veute les encore" instead of "Il les veut encore"" (Ervin-Tripp, 1974)But, French L1 learners of English do not say"I them see." (Je les vois) instead of "I see them"Why does it work one way but not the other?Problem #2It is not true that similarity always equals ease of learning and difference always equals difficulty; (sometimes it’s the other way round)Problem #3L1 transfer is effected by other factors, e.g. the amount and type of TL exposure learners receive.Problem #4Many studies have shown SLLs from very different L1 backgrounds make similar errors.This suggests that many of the most common learner errors are not due to interference of native language.See Ortega, 2009. Section 3.1 p. 310nly about 30% of errors have been attributed to L1. This ranges from 3% for child Spanish learners of English (Dulay & Burt, 1973) to 50% for adult Chinese ESL (Tran Chi Chau 1975)ConclusionWhile interference plays a role in SLA, so do many other factors and thus the role of the first language is less than what was thought by proponents of CA.4.2 Error AnalysisEA refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners.Purposes of EA:1) identify strategies which learners use in language learning;2) identify the causes of learner errors;3) obtain information on common difficulties in language learning,as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.4.2.1 Error and mistakeError: Systematic deviation by learners who have not yet mastered the rules. More difficult to correct. Indication of learner’s attempt to figure out the L2 systemMistake: Random performance slip caused by fatigue, excitement, etc. Readily self-corrected.4.2.2 Types of errorsStructural errors (breaking of a rule)e.g. (1) The fast economic growth causes people’s living condition has improved.(2) The job is fit me very well.(3) 报有希望carry the hope; entertain the hope(4) 找借口look for an excuse; make an excuse(5) rather proud, good, young, fresh, practicalquite annoyed, nervous, wrong, serious, limited, difficult, common Non-structural errors,deviations from some kind of norm ('breaches of code') quantitative differences (overuse, underuse)E.g. No smoking, please.Overuse of “make”, “happy”, “glad”.Underuse synonyms of “happy”such as cheerful, light-hearted,delighted etc.Interlingual errors (transfer errors): misuse of an item because of L1 influence. based on cross-linguistic comparisonsIntralingual errors (developmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgeneralization) based on language being learned4.2.3 Procedure of error analysis1. Collection of samples of learner language2. Identification of errors3. Description of errors4. Explanation of errors (Ellis 1994)4.2.4 Problems with Error Analysis1) Focus on errors mean that researchers ignored what the learner did right.2) Empirically it was difficult to identify the source of many errors.3) It doesn't account for all the problems that learners have, e.g. Avoidance. Learner avoids a certain word or structure.V. Foreign Language Teaching MethodologyDiscussion:What teaching method do you know in ELT?On which theory is it founded?A Retrospective of Foreign Language Teaching Methodology Traditional gramma: Classical language teaching (before 1880)Grammar- Translation MethodStructuralism: Beginning of Modern Language Teaching (from 1880 to the 1st world war): Direct methodMentalism: Development of Modern Language Teaching (from the 1st World War to ’70) : Cognative MethodFunctionalism: Intensification of Modern Language Teaching (after ’70): Communicative MethodConstructivism: Improvement of Modern Language Teaching( after 1980’s) : Constructivist MethodPost-modernism : Perfection of Modern Language Teaching(after1990’s): Post-method1) Traditional grammar---Grammar-Translation Method Correctness, literary excellence, the use of Latin models, the priority of the written languageTextbook takes prominent writers as language models.Teaching involves the presentation of numerous definition, rules and explanations.2) Structuralist linguistics---Direct methodThe spoken language in people’s communication.The focus on the grammatical structures of a language.A pattern drill technique aiming at the learner’s automatisms for language forms.3)Mentalism/Transformational-GenerativeLinguistics---Audio-lingual Method把语言看成一个内在的规则系统( a system of innate rule)，认为语言学习者有一种普遍的语言知识(linguistic competence)。
语言学视角下的二语习得研究PPT课件
语言学视角下的二语习得研究
• 语言学中不同的理论思路: • 1 内在论 • 内在论十分关注普遍语法在二语习得中
是否仍然可及、中介语发展的关键等问 题，研究者们对二语习得者差异也有一 些新的猜测。
语言学视角下的二语习得研究
• 2 外在论 • 外在论指的是功能主义(Functionalism)
思路。功能主义的研究重点是真实环境 中的语言使用，它认为掌握语言是为了 交际，而语言发展也需要交际。二语习 得过程就是学习者在交际中创造性地使 用二语的过程。 • （Saville-Troikel, 2005）
…mainly based on the
following books
• Schumann, J. et al. 2004. The Neurobiology of Learning: Perspective from second language acquisition.
• Gullberg, M., & Indefrey, P. (Eds.) (2006). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Second Language Acquisition.
心理语言学视角下 的二语习得研究
• 心理语言学研究人们语言习得和掌握、 言语生成和理解时的心理机制。同时研 究二语语言习得和掌握、言语生成和理 解时的心理机制。
神经语言学视角下 的二语习得研究
• 神经语言学研究语言与大脑的关系，研 究产生、接收、分析和储存语言的神经 机制，以及这一机制与语言的关系。解 释语言的生成，理解的过程。形式主义 语言学与之有着密不可分的联系。
A Neurological Perspective on SLA Study
第二语言习得研究(对比分析)PPT课件
一、第二语言习得研究的开端
1.有的学者从科德（Corder）1967年发表的《学生偏误的意义》 一文算起，把该文和塞林克(SelinKer)1972年发表的《中介语》 一文看做是第二语言习得研究的开端。
2.另一部分学者认为把以拉多(Lado)于1957年发表的《跨文化语 言学》为标志的对比分析研究，作为第二语言习得研究的起点。 这样算来，第二语言习得的研究已有40年的历史。
⑴母语的语言形式、意义及其分布、文化迁移到第二语言系统中去。
⑵目的语与母语结构特征相似时，产生正迁移，学起来容易。 “我学习法语。/I study French.”
反之，产生负迁移，学起来困难。母语干扰是引起困难和偏误的 主要原因或者唯一原因。二语学习者的任务就是克服母语的干扰， 即克服来自母语的负迁移。
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二.对比分析的背景
语言学家们试图为语言教师提供一种比较的方法来预测和 预防学习者在语言表达中经常出现的错误。对比分析方法正是 基于这一期望应运而生的。
时间： 产生于20世纪50年代，兴盛于60年代。
目的：预测两种语言之间的差异所造成的学习难点，从而在教学中
采取预防性措施，建立有效的第二语言教学法。（Lado）
理论基础：（ （12））心语理言学学基理础论：基行础为：主结义构心主理义学语和言迁学移。理论；
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三.对比分析的基本内容
01 基本假设：语言迁移（Language Transfer） 02 分析方法：对比和分析 03 两个观点（两个流派）
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1.基本假设：语言迁移（Language Transfer）
1.意 义：
⑴有利于确定教学中的重点和难点； ⑵有利于预测学生可能犯的错误； ⑶有利于选择测试项目； ⑷有利于发现在单语研究中发现不了的问题； ⑸有利于不同国家的教材编写和教学。
二语习得者个体差异因素
学 习风格
＂
风格 冲突（ｔ ｅ ａ） ｓ ｌ ｗ ｒ 研究 、ａ ｅ 的相关性研究 （ ｏ ｅ ｔｎ ｙ Ｂｉｙ ｌ ｃｒ ｌ ｏ． ｒａ ｉ
ａ ｓ ｄ ） 以及美 国心理 学家 Ｋ ｔｅ ｎ ｏｋＢｉ ｓ ｌｔ ｙ ， ｕ ａ ｒ ｅＣｏ ｒ ｇ 和她 的 ｈｉ ｇ ：Ｊ ａｅ ｒ ｇ ｅ Ｄ Ｌ ｓｂｌ ｉ ｓ ｃ Ｉ Ｂ ｇ Ｍｙｒ ｓ根据荣格 的心 理类型 理论而创立 的类 型指示器 理论 （ ｅ Ｍｙｒ ｓ—Ｂｉ ｓｔ ｅｉｄ ａ ｒ 等 （ ｒ ｇ ｙ ｎｉ ｔ ） 参见 ｇ ｐ ｃｏ
ＶＯ
一 －寸者 二 语 习得 个 体 差 异 因素 日—’ Ｊ Ｉ
刘 克静
（ 湖南信息职业技术学院， 湖南 长沙 ４０ ０ ） １２０
摘
教学。
要： 个体差异是客观存在的个体 因素， 个体 差异 因素主要有学 习风格、 学习策略和情感变量 ， 这些 因素都在很大程
响 了二 语 习 得 （ ｈｍ ｎ ｅ １． ０ ３ 。 Ｅｒ ａ ， ｔ ．ａ ２ ０ ）
一
学习风格 的研究模式也有很 多 ， 中较有影响的是早 其 期的场独立和场依赖研究 、 左脑和右脑学 习风格研究 、 ｅ Ｒｉ ｄ 的感知学 习风格 （ ｅｃｐ ａ ｌ ｒｉｇｓ ｌ） 究 、 ｌｎ ｐｒｅｔｌ ｅ ｎｎ ｔ ｅ 研 ｕ ａ ｙ Ｗｉｉｇ的 ｌ 分析 型和整体 型（ｎｌｔ ｎ ｜ｂ ｔ ｅ 研 究、 ｉ ｓａ的 ａａ ｉ ａｄｓ ａ ｓ ｌ） ｙｃ ｏｌ ｙ Ｋｎ ｌ ｅｌ
ｅ ｄ １９ ： ６ 。学习风格 的类 型也 因理论框架的不同 Ｒ ｉ， ９ ８ ５— ） 而有很大差异 ， 但仍以 Ｒ ｉ １８ ， ９５ 的“ ｅ ｄ（９ ７ １９ ） 二维三分法 ”
第二语言习得研究概述PPT课件
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语言能力与语言表达 （competence / performance）
• Competence: (in Transformational
Generative Grammar) a person’s
internalized grammar of a language. This
means a person’s ability to create and
understand sentences, including sentences
they have never heard before. It also
includes a person’s knowledge of what are
and what are not sentences of a particular
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19ห้องสมุดไป่ตู้
自然的第二语言习得与有指导 的第二语言习得
• Naturalistic SLA: It may happen in natural settings, as when children acquire their mother tongue: no one teaches children any grammar rules, but by age five or six, they are said to be in good command of almost all the basics of their mother tongue.
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第一语言习得与第二语言习得 的差异
• 习得方式的差异：母语习得者先口语后 书面语；二语习得者常口头语言和书面 语言同时起步，增加了学习难度。
二语习得中的个体差异
三、学习者个体差异与二语习得 的关系
学习者个体差异对二语习得的影响主要体现在以下几个方面：
1、学习速度：不同学习者学习第二语言的速度可能存在差异。有些学习者 可能很快就能掌握第二语言，而有些学习者则需要更长时间。这种差异可能与学 习者的年龄、智力、学习风格等因素有关。
2、学习方式：不同学习者偏好的学习方式可能不同。例如，有些学习者可 能更喜欢通过视觉学习，而有些学习者则更喜欢通过听觉学习。这种学习方式的 差异可能会影响学习者的学习效果。
五、总结
学习者个体差异和二语习得之间的关系是一个复杂而又重要的主题。了解学 习者个体差异及其对二语习得的影响，有助于教师更好地应对不同学习者的需求， 制定个性化的教学策略，从而提高教学效果和学习者的学习效果。也希望广大教 育工作者能够这个主题的研究和发展，为推动二语习得研究做出更多的贡献。
引言：
2、合作学习：教师可以将不同特点的学习者分组合作，通过合作学习的方 式促进彼此之间的交流和理解。这有助于提高学习者的学习效果，同时也可以培 养其团队协作能力。
3、激励和评估：教师需要给予学习者足够的激励和评估，以帮助他们保持 学习的积极性和动力。评估不仅可以帮助教师了解学习者的学习情况，还可以帮 助学习者了解自己的学习进度和不足之处。
2、增强学习动机：学习者可以通过设定明确的学习目标、寻找学习的乐趣 和挑战等方式来增强自己的学习动机。
3、调整自己的认知方式：学习者可以尝试调整自己的认知方式，以更好地 适应不同的学习任务和环境。例如，对于一些需要记忆的知识点，可以尝试采用 归纳整理的方式来提高记忆效果。
4、创造个性化的学习环境：学习者可以通过与他人合作学习、利用技术手 段等方式来创造适合自己的学习环境，以更好地应对个体差异带来的挑战。例如， 可以使用在线学习平台、教育软件等工具来辅助学习。
第二语言习得与个体差异因素及其效果研究课件
The research of Individual Factors Influencing Second Language Acquisition and Their ConsequencesAspects of SLA influenced by individual learner factorsThere are two basic possibilities regarding which aspect of SLA is affected by individual learner factors. One is that differences in age , learning style, motivation, and personality result in differences in the route along which learners pass in SLA. The other is that these factors influence only the rate and ultimate success of SLA. These are separateissues. To claim that individuals vary in the rate at which they learn or the level of competence they eventually attain is not controversial. Indeed it is part of most language learners’ and teachers’ experience.However, to claim that individual differences influence the sequence or order in which linguistic knowledge is acquired is far more controversial. It runs counter to the arguments and evidence in favour of the ‘natural’route of development.Aa will be seen in the discussion of each individual learner factor, the effect on the route of SLA has not been seriously investigated. Nearly all the research into learner variables has involved either investigating their effect on the proficiency levels achieved by different learners, or describing how they affected an individual learner’s response to the task of learning a L2. Neither proficiency nor learning response provides any insights about the route of acquisition.There are stark disagreements about the role of individual differences in SLA. As fillmore (1979) points out, on the one hand individual differences are seen as an all-important factor, which on the other hand they are treated as relatively insignificant. Research which has concentrated on accounting for differences in the proficiency levels of learners has tended to emphasize the importance of individual learner factors. Research which has tried to examine the process of SLA has tended to play down their importance.Identification and classification of learner factorsThe Identification and classification of the different individual factors has proved to be problematic. The main difficulty is that it is not possible to observe directly qualities such as aptitude, motivation or anxiety. These are merely labels for clusters of behaviors and, not surprisingly, different researchers have these labels to describe different sets of behavioral traits. As a result, it is not easy to compare and evaluate the results of their investigations. It is, therefore, not surprising to find that a host of terms have been employed to describe the phenomenona hawkey（1982）lists some of these : ‘affective, congnitive, and social factors’(tucker et al.1976), ‘affective and ability factors’(Chastain 1975),and ‘attitudinal /motivational characteristics’(gardner et al.1979).In an attempt to impose some order on this plethora of terms and concepts, I suppose to make an initial distinction between personal and general factors. Personal factors are highly idiosyncratic features of each individual’s approach to learning a L2. some examples are provided by Schumann and Schumann(1977) in a report of their own language learning experiences. They include ‘nesting patterns’(the need for a secure and orderly home base before learning can effectively begin), ‘transition anxiety’(the stress generated by moving to a foreign place), and the desire to maintain a personal language learning agenda. The Schumanns found that such factors strongly influenced their SLA. Thegeneral factors are variables that are characteristics of all learners. They differ not in whether they are present in a particular individual’s learning , but in the extent to which they are present , or the manner in which they are realized. General factors can be further divide into those that are modifiable (i.e. are likely to change during the course of SLA), such as motivation, and those that are unmodifiable (i.e. do not change in strength or nature as SLA takes place ) ,such as aptitude.Personal and general factors have social , cognitive, and affective aspects. Social aspects are external to the learner and concern the relationship between the learner and native speakers of the L2 and also between the learner and other speakers of his own language. Cognitive and affective factors aspects are internal to the learner. Cognitive factors concern the nature of the problem-solving strategies used by the learner, which affective factors concern the emotional responses aroused by the attempts to learn a L2. Different personal and general factors involve all three aspects in different degrees. Aptitude, for instance, is thought of a primarily cognitive in nature, but also involves affective and social aspects. Personality is primarily affective, but also has social an cognitive sides. Age is a factor that may involve all three aspects fairly equally. It is because the personal and general factors that make up an individual’s language learning style are composed of social, cognitive, and affective features that they are so complex, and, as a result, often rather vaguelydefined. Nevertheless, as the subsequent discussion will show, they play an important role in SLA.Personal factors are difficult to observe by a third person. This methodological problem has been solved in two ways. First, through the use of diary studies. The second solution to the methodological problem is to use questionnaires and interviews with individual learners, but there are so many difficulties in the course of collecting information about individual responses in this way. One is that subjects tend to say what they think the researcher wants to hear, or indulge in self-flattery. Another is that such techniques can reveal only those factors of which the learner is conscious. Nevertheless both the diary studies and the questionnaires/interviews have provided insights into the personal nature of language learning, particularly classroom language learning. Personal factors are by definition heterogeneous. However, they can be grouped together under three headings: (1) group dynamics,(2) attitudes to the teacher and course materials, and (3) individual learning techniques.Rod EllisUnderstanding second language acquisition 第二语言习得概论上海外语教育出版社99-126。
语言学习的个体差异
语言学习（二语习得）的个体差异（一）情感因素作为一个统括概念最先出现在美国南加州大学Krashen 的监控模式( the Monitor Model) 理论中, 该理论就语言习得提出了五大假说: 习得—学习假说( the Acquisition—Learning Hypothesis) ; 自然顺序假说( the Natural Order Hypothesis) ; 监控假说( the monitor Hypothesis) ; 输入假说( the Input Hypothesis) ;情感过滤假说( the Affective Filter Hypothesis) , 总结出语言习得与学习的区别, 以及影响语言学习的诸多因素。
在其情感过滤假说中, Krashen 率先将情感作为影响第二语言习得的一个重要因素单独罗列并加以探讨, 认为情感作为学习者内部的心理因素, 对语言输入有着过滤性作用, 该过滤作用直接制约着学习者接收输入的多少。
而且, 情感的过滤作用有大有小, 如果学习者的学习动力大, 自信心很强, 对第二语言的态度是积极的, 其学习情绪相对稳定, 那么情感对语言输入刺激的过滤作用就小, 学习者所获得的输入就越多; 相反, 则情感的过滤作用就大, 而学习者获得的输入就少。
依Krashen 的观点,这些作用对语言学习的影响无论大小, 都只是负面性的, 但同时它只影响语言发展的速度, 而不影响语言发展的道路。
这些情感因素包括学习的动机、对第二语言的态度、学习者的自信心与情绪等等。
对第二语言习得而言, 影响语言学习的情感因素则主要包括动机(motivation)、焦虑(anxiety)、自尊(self-esteem)、抑制(inhibition)、忍耐心( mind of endurance)、移情(empathy)、冒险心(mind of adventure)等等, 在语言学习中, 这些因素对语言学习者的影响并非孤立的, 它们往往相互交织, 共同作用于学习者的语言学习。
第二语言习得PPT课件
六、“语言能力”与“语言表达”
• “语言能力”（competence）： • 反映交际双方语言知识的心理语法。 • 母语使用者对句子的合语法性的直觉判断所依据的隐性语言知
识。 • “语言表达”（performance）： • 交际双方在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在语法的运用。 • 区别：语言能力是关于语言的知识，语言表达是关于语言运用
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第 要•• 一二三回、十第世节顾二纪语6第0言年二习代语得末研：言究习的发得端研究的发端与发展的简
• 1. Corder：《学习者偏误的意义》 • 2. Selinker：《中介语》 • 二、第二语言习得研究发展的途径 • 1. 50-60年代：理论初创 • 2. 70年代：理论大发展 • 3. 80年代中期至今：新兴研究领域与方法 • 三、汉语作为第二语言习得的研究 • 80年代、90年代和90年代后
• 描写（Description)：对两个语音系统进行细 致描写。
• 选择(selection): 结合偏误找出困难语项。 • 比较（comparison）：对选定语项进行分析对
比，寻找共同处与不同处。 • 预测（prediction）：在对比基础上预测可能
出现的错误。 • 2、难度等级：根据相同与不同点难度上的差异
进行了分级。认为差异越大难度越大，其实也 不尽然。
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四、对比分析的局限
对比分析在60年代盛行，在70年代衰落。 对比分析的局限性主要表现在： 1、心理学基础为行为心理学，其核心思想“刺激—反应”理论受到乔姆斯基的猛
烈抨击和批判。 2、结构主义语言学并没有为对比分析找到解决问题的出路。（有共同范畴与否） 3、将“差异”等同于“难度”是不符合逻辑的。 4、其他理论假设也受到来自实验研究和教学实践的挑战和质疑。
6.4 学习者个体差异因素
4. 年龄影响第二语言习得的原 因
（1）生理原因 即依据“关键期假说” 来解释年龄对第二语言习 得的影响。 （2）社会原因 一是外界压力，儿童没有外界压力，容易接受外 部信息。成人由于外界压力较大而影响语言习得；
4. 年龄影响第二语言习得的原 因
二是情感因素，儿童的情感屏障（affective filter） 没有成人高，一般不过于计较他人对自己的态度， 愿意练习使用所学的语言。 （3）认知原因 儿童和成人的二语习得可能涉及不同过程，前者 使用语言习得机制，第二语言习得如同母语习得， 后者使用一般的问题解决能力。
2. 年龄对熟练程度的影响
学习者第二语言的熟练程度与“关键期”有关。 Lenneberg（1967）认为，自然语言习得的关键期 是2岁---12/ 13岁之间，即青春期到来之前。 这段时间，人的大脑具有可塑性，语言习得能够 自然而轻松地进行。 这一结论得到Johnson和Newport（1989）的实验 的支持。
2. 融合型动机和工具型动机
“融合型动机”是指学习者对目标语社团有所了 解或有特殊兴趣，希望与之交往或亲近，或期望 参与、融入该社团的社会生活。 “工具型动机”是指学习者的目的在于获得经济 实惠或其它好处，如通过一次考试，获得奖学金， 胜任一份工作，提职晋升、出国、在学业上进一 步深造等。
第六节 学习者的策略
二、动机对第二语言习得的影响
动机是内驱力，如本能、意志、意愿和精神力量 的反射，或是由刺激和强化决定的，通常被理解 为完全静态的心理、情感状态，或某一个目标。
1. 内在动机和外在动机
“内在动机”是为了从参与活动本身获得愉快和 满足，它取决于外语学习者个体的内在需要。 “外在动机”则是达到某一目标的途径，如获得 外在奖励（父母的赞同、奖赏，考试取得高分 等），以及避免惩罚。 相对而言，内在动机与长远成功有联系，外在动 机与短期成功相关。
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第二语言学习者的个体差异表现在方方面面： ❖ 在语言水平上有高有低； ❖ 在语言技能上，听说读写技能各不相同； ❖ 在认知风格上，各有特点； ❖ 在态度、动机上百花齐放； ❖ 在学习策略上，各有所长。
诸如此类的因素，构成了第二语言学习者语言习得 的个体差异。
第一节 影响L2学习者个体差异的一般因素
❖ 在性格因素中诸如焦虑、抑制、自尊、冒险精神等 会对二语习得有一定影响，它们使学习速度以及最 终获得的外语水平产生差异。
二、性格
❖ 心理学把性格分为“外向型”和“内向型”。 ❖ 相关的假说有两个： 一是外向型学习者在交际能力上优于内向型学习者。 二是内向型学习者在认识、学术语言能力上优于外
向型学习者。 ❖ 究竟哪一类型的学习者习得效果更好，至今尚无
❖ 认知方式的不同类型包括：“场依存”型与“场独 立”型；“审慎型”与“冲动型”。
1. “场依存”型与“场独立”型
❖ 倾向“场独立型”认知方式的人，认识事物时， 很少受环境和他人影响；
❖ 倾向“场依存型”认知方式的人，认识事物时， 受环境和他人影响较大。
❖ 换句话说，场独立的个体，倾向于以分析方式看 待事物；场依存的个体，则倾向于以整体方式看 待事物。
❖ 见Snow等的实验研究：
Snow等的实验研究
❖ 调查对象： 96名荷兰语学习者 ❖ 调查时间：10个月 ❖ 被试按年龄分为三组：
儿童（8-10岁），青少年（12-15岁），成人 ❖ 测验时间：3个月、6个月、9-10个月 ❖ 测试内容：发音、形态、模仿、翻译
Snow等的实验研究
研究结果： ❖ 词法和句法方面：青少年学得最好，成人次之，
然而轻松地进行。 ❖ 这一结论得到Johnson和Newport（1989）的实验的
支持。
Johnson和Newport（1989）的实验
❖ 研究对象： 46名不同年龄段开始学习英语的中国人 和朝鲜人
❖ 对照组：23名英语母语者 ❖ 实验内容：语法判断，如动词时态、名词复数、动
词一致等 ❖ 测试方法：听录音并指出句子是否正确。 ❖ 测试材料：播放的句子一半合语法，一半不合语法
4. 年龄影响第二语言习得的原因
（3）认知原因 儿童和成人的二语习得可能涉及不同过程，前者 使用语言习得机制，第二语言习得如同母语习得， 后者使用一般的问题解决能力。
二、性格
❖ “性格”，一般指人对现实的态度和行为方式中， 稳定并具有核心意义的个性心理特征。
❖ 许多人认为第二语言习得者成功与否与他们的性格 特点有很大关系。
❖ 二者在学习方法和策略上也存在较大差异。
1. “场依存”型与“场独立”型
❖ 在实际语言习得过程中，场依存者，较容易接受 别人的暗示，学习努力程度往往受外来因素影响， 诱因来自外部时学得得更好。
定论。
三、焦虑
❖ 焦虑也是影响二语习得的重要性格因素。 ❖ 焦虑是由外在模糊的危险刺激引起的一种强烈、
持久的消极情感，由期待、烦乱、恐惧等感受组 成的不愉快的情绪体验。
三、焦虑
焦虑与二语学习之间的关系：
（1）适当焦虑促进学习，过分焦虑阻碍学习。
（2）处理焦虑的方式因人而异。在二语学习中，有 的人产生促进性焦虑，有的则产生退缩性焦虑。
一、年龄
年龄对第二语言习得的影响表现在三方面： （1）语言习得速度的影响。 （2）对语言熟练程度的影响。 （3）对发音准确性的影响。
1. 年龄对习得速度的影响
❖ Krashen，Long和Scarcella（1979）认为成 人在第二语言习得速度方面优于儿童，年长 儿童优于年少儿童。
❖ 这些结论得到Snow和Hoefnagel-Höhle（1978） 的研究的支持。
（3）焦虑对二语学习的影响程度随着二语水平的变 化而变化。 对于二语水平不高的学习者，焦虑阻碍学习。但 是对优秀的二语学习者，焦虑反而会促进学习。
四、认知方式
❖ 认知方式，是指人们对信息和经验进行加工时表现 出来的个别差异，是个人在感知、记忆和思维过程 中经常采用的态度和方式。
❖ 具有不同认知方式的学习者在语言学习中往往采取 不同的方式，因而最终的学习结果也有很大差异。
3. 年龄对发音准确性的影响
Oyama（1976）调查研究 ❖ 研究对象：60名移居美国的意大利男性移民； ❖ 移民年龄：6-20岁 ❖ 居住时间：5-18年 ❖ 实验任务：大声朗读和自由谈话 ❖ 测量方法：抽取45秒录音片段，由两位英语母语
者评判其地道性
❖ 结论： （1）12岁前移民美国讲话带美国人口音； （2）年龄最小的移民对语音的掌握与母语者完全一
样； （3）在美国居住时间长短对口音无影响。
反对关键期假说 P287
4. 年龄影响第二语言习得的原因
（1）生理原因 即依据“关键期假说” 来解释年龄对第二语言习 得的影响
（2）社会原因 一是外界压力，儿童没有外界压力，容易接受外部 信息。成人由于外界压力较大而影响语言习得； 二是情感因素，儿童的情感屏障没有成人高，一 般不过于计较他人对自己的态度，愿意练习使用 所学的语言。
Johnson和Newport（1989）的实验
❖ 被试：第一组3到15岁；第二组17到39岁移民美国。 ❖ 结论： （1）年龄大小与英语最终获得水平密切相关； （2）15岁或10岁以前学习英语的被试与母语者的语
言能力几乎没有差异； （3）年龄较大的被试最终获得的英语水平参差不齐，
而且也很难达到母语者的水平。
❖ 按照Ellis（1994）的观点，影响第二语言学习者个 体差异的一般因素可以看作是由不变因素和可变因 素构成的连续体。
❖ 不变因素：那些不被外部环境控制的因素，如第二 语言学习者的年龄、性格、语言学能等；
❖ 可变因素：那些由外部因素影响而变化的因素，如 第二语言学习者的态度、动机等。
❖ 介于二者之间的因素：如第二语言学习者的认知风 格。
儿童最差； ❖ 发音方面：差异很小； ❖ 语法方面：成人开始学习时有优势，但一段时间
后儿童会赶上来。 其他人的实验
2. 年龄对熟练程度的影响
❖ 学习者第二语言的熟练程度与“关键期”有关。 ❖ Lenneberg（1967）认为，自然语言习得的关键期
是2岁---12/ 13岁之间，即青春期到来之前。 ❖ 这段时间，人的大脑具有可塑性，语言习得能够自