外文翻译--生态景观设计的原则
外文文献翻译景观设计
景观设计•介绍:住宅绿色绿色就是城市得重要组成部分,最接近居民,与居民日常生活最密切相关得,它提高生活质量得环境,提高居民得身心健康至关重要。
绿色住宅面积水平,体现城市现代化得一个重要标志。
小区在城市绿地系统中分布最广,就是普遍绿化得重要方面,城市生态学就是一个重要得系统得一部分。
得推进城市现代化、绿色住宅面积也应该相应得提高水平,更好地满足了不同需求得环境质量。
因此,加强住宅绿色建筑设计得主要任务就是做一个好工作。
改善设计应该尊重传统、尊重科学基础上得原始背后得拒绝环境,关注生态与景观设计、绿色住宅区域,使工作到一个新得水平。
下面从生态设计与景观设计来探讨设计得新思路。
•关键词:景观、景观设计绿色居住区就是城市绿化得重要组成部分,最近得居民,居民日常生活最密切相关得,它提高生活质量得环境,提高居民得身心健康至关重要。
绿色住宅面积水平,体现城市现代化得一个重要标志。
小区在城市绿地系统中分布最广,就是普遍绿化得重要方面,城市生态学就是一个重要得系统得一部分。
得推进城市现代化、绿色住宅面积也应该相应得提高水平,更好地满足了不同需求得环境质量。
因此,加强住宅绿色建筑设计得主要任务就是做一个好工作。
改善设计应该尊重传统、尊重科学基础上得原始背后得拒绝环境,关注生态与景观设计、绿色住宅区域,使工作到一个新得水平。
下面从生态设计与景观设计来探讨设计得新思路。
1。
生态设计绿化得居民区,必须基于城市生态系统,关注生态效率,改善环境质量,维护与保留居住区城市得生态平衡。
法位于贵州省中部,位于云贵高原东部隆起区边坡中部、西南得贵州梯子一般地形得特点就是高与低东北从西南到东北。
大波浪起伏得地形,最高海拔1705、2米,最低海拔506、5米,高山与深谷,沟壑方面,切削锋利,形成一个积极得环境多样性打开。
年平均气温为12、8℃,极端最高温度为35、4℃, 极端最低温度为-10、1℃,年平均降雨量1258、8毫米。
总之,开太阳,气候温与,雨量丰富,冬天冷,夏天热,适合各种园林植物得生长与繁殖。
生态景观设计
生态景观设计生态景观设计是一种将自然生态系统与人类生活环境相结合的设计方法，旨在创造一个既美观又可持续的自然环境。
这种设计理念强调人与自然和谐共生，通过模拟自然生态系统的结构、功能和过程，实现景观的可持续发展和生态平衡。
生态景观设计不仅关注景观的视觉效果，更注重其生态价值和社会功能的发挥。
1. 生态景观设计的原则生态景观设计遵循以下原则：（1）尊重自然：充分了解和尊重当地的自然条件、生物多样性和文化传统，避免破坏原有生态系统。
（2）可持续性：采用可再生资源和环保材料，减少能源消耗和废物排放，实现景观的可持续利用。
（3）多功能性：满足人们的多种需求，如休闲、教育、文化等，提高景观的使用价值。
（4）参与性：鼓励公众参与景观设计和建设过程，提高人们对生态环境的认识和保护意识。
2. 生态景观设计的方法和技巧生态景观设计的方法和技巧包括：（1）生态修复：对受损生态系统进行修复和重建，恢复其原有的生态功能和生物多样性。
（2）生态廊道：建立生态廊道，连接不同的生态斑块，促进生物种群的交流和扩散。
（3）生态水景：利用雨水收集、净化和循环利用技术，打造生态水景，提高水资源的利用效率。
（4）生态植被：选择适应当地气候和土壤条件的植物种类，构建多层次、多样化的植被结构。
（5）生态道路：采用透水铺装、绿化带等措施，降低道路对生态环境的影响。
3. 生态景观设计的实践案例以下是一些生态景观设计的实践案例：（1）新加坡滨海湾花园：通过生态修复、生态廊道和生态水景等手段，打造了一个集休闲、教育和科研于一体的综合性生态公园。
（2）美国纽约高线公园：将废弃的铁路线改造成一条空中绿色走廊，连接了曼哈顿的两个社区，成为市民休闲娱乐的好去处。
（3）中国北京奥林匹克森林公园：采用了生态修复、生态廊道和生态植被等方法，打造了一个具有丰富生物多样性和优美景观的城市森林公园。
总之，生态景观设计是一种以人为本、尊重自然的设计方法，旨在创造一个既美观又可持续的自然环境。
生态景观设计原则
生态景观设计原则第一部分生态优先 (2)第二部分整体规划 (4)第三部分生物多样性保护策略 (9)第四部分水资源的合理利用与管理 (12)第五部分可持续材料的选择与应用 (15)第六部分生态恢复与土壤保持技术 (19)第七部分人类活动对景观的影响评估 (21)第八部分景观设计中的文化融入 (25)第一部分生态优先生态景观设计原则：生态优先，尊重自然规律一、引言生态景观设计是一种综合性的设计方法，旨在通过创造和维护人类与自然之间的和谐关系来改善环境质量。
在这一过程中，“生态优先，尊重自然规律”的原则至关重要。
本文将探讨这一原则的重要性及其在实际应用中的体现。
二、生态优先原则生态优先原则强调在设计过程中优先考虑生态环境的保护和恢复。
这意味着设计师需要深入了解项目所在地的生态系统特征，包括生物多样性、水文循环、土壤类型等，以确保设计方案能够最大程度地减少对环境的负面影响。
三、尊重自然规律尊重自然规律意味着在设计过程中要充分考虑自然界的内在规律，如物种的迁徙习性、生态系统的自我修复能力等。
这要求设计师不仅要关注景观的美学价值，还要关注其生态功能和社会价值。
四、案例分析以某城市湿地公园的生态景观设计为例，该项目在规划阶段就充分考虑了当地的生态环境特点，如湿地的水文循环、生物多样性和土壤条件。
设计师通过对这些因素的分析，提出了一个既能保护现有生态系统，又能满足公众休闲需求的方案。
该方案包括恢复湿地植被、建立鸟类栖息地和设置生态教育展示区等多个方面。
五、结论生态景观设计作为一种新兴的设计理念和方法，越来越受到人们的关注和重视。
在实施过程中，坚持“生态优先，尊重自然规律”的原则，不仅能够保护和恢复生态环境，还能为人们提供一个健康、舒适的生活空间。
因此，这一原则应成为生态景观设计的核心指导思想。
第二部分整体规划生态景观设计原则：整体规划，景观与环境的和谐生态景观设计是一种综合性的设计方法，它强调在规划和设计过程中，将自然环境和人造环境融为一体，以实现人与自然的和谐共生。
景观生态设计原则
景观生态设计原则景观生态设计原则是指在设计和规划城市和自然环境时，考虑到生态系统的复杂性和生态过程的重要性，以及人类与环境的互动关系，从而提供可持续的生态系统服务和改善人类福利的方法。
以下是景观生态设计的几个原则：1. 生态系统服务：景观生态设计应该优先考虑生态系统服务，包括水循环、空气质量、土壤保持、生物多样性和景观美观等。
设计应该尽可能地模拟和增强自然生态系统的功能和过程，以提供可持续的生态系统服务。
2. 多样性和复杂性：景观生态设计应该尽量增加生物多样性和景观复杂性。
这可以通过种植多样性的植物、创造多样性的生境和增加景观元素的数量和类型来实现。
多样性和复杂性可以提高生态系统的稳定性和弹性。
3. 人与自然的互动：景观生态设计应该考虑到人类与自然的互动关系。
设计应该尽可能地满足人类的需求，同时尊重和保护自然环境。
例如，设计可以提供可持续的交通方式、公共空间和自然体验，以促进人类与自然的互动。
4. 可持续性：景观生态设计应该是可持续的，即能够满足当前需求，同时不损害未来世代的需求。
设计应该考虑到资源的使用和管理，以及对环境的影响。
例如，设计可以使用可再生能源、减少能源消耗和废弃物的产生，以及最小化对自然环境的破坏。
5. 社区参与：景观生态设计应该鼓励社区参与和合作。
设计应该尽可能地反映社区的需求和价值观，并提供机会让社区成员参与到设计和规划过程中。
社区参与可以提高设计的可持续性和社区的凝聚力。
总之，景观生态设计原则是为了提供可持续的生态系统服务和改善人类福利的方法。
这些原则可以帮助设计师和规划者在设计和规划城市和自然环境时，考虑到生态系统的复杂性和生态过程的重要性，从而创造出更加可持续和美丽的环境。
生态城市规划中景观设计的原则
生态城市规划中景观设计的原则景观设计在生态城市规划中起着至关重要的作用，它不仅能提升城市的美观度和景观价值，还能营造出独特的生态环境。
在进行景观设计时，需遵循以下原则：1.生态优先原则：生态城市规划的核心是可持续发展，因此景观设计应以生态优先为原则。
该原则强调在设计中充分考虑自然生态系统的保护和恢复，促进城市与自然环境的和谐共生。
景观设计应尽量减少土地开发，并保留原有的生态系统，如湿地、森林和河流。
同时，应合理利用雨水、太阳能等自然资源，并采用生物滤池、绿色植物和生物多样性增加等手段来改善环境质量。
2.人文关怀原则：生态城市规划的目标是提高居民的生活质量和幸福感，因此景观设计应注重人文关怀，以满足人们对美的追求和情感需求。
设计师应通过合理的布局、绿化和景观元素的运用来提供舒适的生活环境，营造出具有人文特色的公共空间，如公园、广场和步行街等。
同时，应考虑到不同年龄段和群体的需求，提供多样化的休闲娱乐设施，促进社交互动和文化交流。
3.可持续发展原则：景观设计应符合可持续发展的原则，既要满足当前需求，也要考虑未来的发展。
设计师应挖掘和利用可再生的材料和能源，减少资源消耗和环境污染。
同时，应注重景观的可维护性和成本效益，选择适合当地气候和土壤条件的植物和材料，降低维护和管理的成本。
此外，景观设计中还应考虑交通、排水和能源系统等基础设施的规划和布局，以提高城市的整体效能。
4.创新性原则：生态城市规划要求景观设计具有一定的创新性和前瞻性。
设计师应结合当地的自然和文化特色，融入创意和艺术元素，打造独具特色的景观形象。
同时，应引入新的技术和理念，推动景观设计的发展和创新，如利用垂直绿化和屋顶花园改善空气质量和声环境，采用可降解的材料来减少废物产生等，以实现生态城市的可持续发展。
5.参与性原则：生态城市的建设需要广泛的参与和合作，而景观设计是一个多学科交叉的领域。
设计师应与城市规划师、环境科学家、社会学家等专业人士紧密合作，共同研究和解决问题。
生态城市规划中景观设计的原则
生态城市规划中景观设计的原则1.生物多样性保护原则：景观设计应重视保护城市内外的自然生态系统，增加绿色空间，并采用多样的植被和栖息地类型，以提供适合不同生物物种生存的环境。
例如，可以设置湿地、森林、草地等多样的生态区域，以增加植物和动物的多样性。
2.水资源保护原则：景观设计应注重保护水资源，合理利用和管理水资源。
可以通过建设湖泊、河流和水田等水体，提供自然水循环和净化功能，促进水资源的保护和恢复。
3.循环利用原则：景观设计应注重资源的循环利用，减少资源的浪费和污染。
可以采用生态池塘和湿地等景观设计，实现水资源的循环利用；采用生态廊道和垂直绿化等设计，增加城市植被覆盖率，促进空气净化和气候调节。
4.社区互动原则：景观设计应注重社区居民的互动和参与，提供人与自然之间的连结。
可以设置休闲设施和运动场所，促进人们的健康和生活质量；设置庭院和公园等休闲空间，增加社区居民的活动区域。
5.可持续发展原则：景观设计应注重可持续发展，提高城市生态和社会经济的可持续性。
可以采用自然材料和可再生能源等设计，减少能源和资源的消耗；采用可回收和可再利用的材料，减少废弃物的产生和对环境的影响。
6.灾害防控原则：景观设计应考虑城市自然灾害的防控，提高城市的生态抵抗力。
可以采用防护设施和绿色基础设施，减轻自然灾害对城市的影响；设置相应的疏散通道和避难设施，保障居民的安全。
7.文化传承原则：景观设计应注重城市的文化传承和历史遗产的保护。
可以设计文化广场和纪念碑等，弘扬城市的文化和传统；保护和修复历史建筑和古迹，增加城市的历史魅力和吸引力。
8.生态评估原则：景观设计应进行生态评估，评估设计方案的生态效益和环境影响。
可以评估景观设计对水资源的利用效率、植被覆盖率的提高和空气质量的改善等，为设计提供科学依据。
综上所述，生态城市规划中景观设计的原则涵盖了生物多样性保护、水资源保护、循环利用、社区互动、可持续发展、灾害防控、文化传承和生态评估等方面，旨在实现城市与自然的和谐发展，为居民提供舒适宜居的生活环境。
外文翻译 园林设计
外文资料翻译Shady Attia.The role of landscape design in improving the microclimate in traditional courtyard-buildings in hot arid climates[C].PLEA2006 - The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland,2006,6-8.英文原文（节选）AbstractArab Islamic landscape design forms a unique source of inspiration for landscapearchitecture in barren open spaces in the Middle East. Arab Islamic gardens adopted a systemmarked by perfect responsiveness to the environment. The design of urban landscapes and gardens in Arab Islamic culture was similarly guided by the dictation of aridity. The need to provide shade, to prevent dust and to conserve water meant that urban open spaces and gardens were sheltered and enclosed. Alhambra in Moorish Spain and the Al-Suhaymi House in Islamic Cairo are two useful historical references for vernacular Islamic landscape designs. This paper presents an overview of landscape design considerations for the composition of vegetation and water and initial observations of their influence in controlling and improving the microclimate in courtyard buildings as a way of passive cooling in the Middle East region. This paper is a part of a Master’s thesis in the field of passive landscape strategies at Wageningen University. The objective is to identify the comfort improvements potential of successfully-planned and integrated landscape design in traditional courtyard buildings. The layout and plant material of Alhambra, Generalife courts and Al-Suhaymi court in Islamic Cairo are examined and evaluated. This study demonstrates that in arid environments, the landscape planning, the composition of vegetation and water and choice of planting material all have important consequences in creating thermally-pleasant environments.1. INTRODUCTIONIn most Islamic designs, the role of landscape design is highly appreciated. In examining traditional courtyard gardens, it is clear that the role of urban landscape design was not only restricted to a purely ornamental or theological function. It was additionally used to control and improve the microclimate around and inside the building. This paper attempts to present the role of landscape in traditional Islamic garden courtyards by analysing the design characteristics of Al Suhaymi house courtyards in Cairo and the layout of three courtyard gardens in Alhambra and Generalife palaces in Granada, Spain. Some physical parametermeasurements regarding temperature and humidity were made, in addition to a shade study. In fact, shades in courtyard-buildings were insufficient in improving the microclimate during hot summers. Therefore, vegetation and water were used to compensate for the lack of improvement provided by the shade.2. AL SUHAYMI HOUSE:Bayt al Suhaymi is one of the most important examples of a Cairene traditional courtyard house representing the Islamic landscape design around the 16th and 17th centuries. This house stands in El Darb EL Asfar alley and is directly located off the famous Fatimid street called El Moez street. The house witnessed several building phases before reaching its final layout, which covers 2000 square meters and includes 115 spaces distributed on five levels. The house is marked by perfect responsiveness to the environment and contains architectural elements of the traditional Cairean house. The bent entrance, which assures privacy to the house, leads to an inner courtyard surrounded by rooms and is overlooked by a maqaad (a roofed balcony facing the cool northern breeze) and a takhtaboosh (a space annexed by the court for receiving male visitors during the summer).2.1 The House layoutBy analysing the Al Suhaimy house layout, we find that this house layout was based on creating a passive ventilation system in order to ameliorate the microclimate. The passive ventilation system was created by locating two inner courtyards with two different pressures within the house. The north courtyard (Fig. 1c), called the rear garden, was a large open space and was meant to have low surrounding walls in order to keep the space sunny and relatively hot. The rear garden was designed to occupy 28 percent of the total plot area of the house with a 2.6:1.3:0.5 ratio (l:w:h). On the other hand, the south courtyard (Fig. 1b), simply called the courtyard, was a rectangular courtyard covering only 200 square meters and was designed to occupy only 10 percent of the total house area with a 1.8:1:1.3 ratio (l:w:h).This passive ventilation design solution is confirmed by comparing the shade in the rear garden to the courtyard. During winter (21 December, 2:00 p.m.) I found that the amount of shade in the rear garden was more than 53% compared to 100% in the courtyard space. During summer (21 June, 2:00 pm), the amount of shade in the rear garden is more than 12% compared to 40% in the courtyard space . Moreover, measurements have proved that when temperatures rise in the rear garden of the Al Suhaymi house, the air flows against the north prevailing wind directions during most daily hours. The wind flows from the south entrance, passing the courtyard and then into the takhtaboosh, with wind speeds of 1.3 m/s, and finally reaching the rear garden . On the other hand, during the stillness of the previously mentionedwind movement, the prevailing wind flows from the rear garden when the sun drops down after noon through the takhtaboosh to the courtyard with wind speeds reaching 0.7 m/s.2.2 Landscape design in Al Suhaymi house:Based on the previous design theory, we find that the role of landscape architecture in this design was essential. By analysing the plan, we find that the landscape design aimed to emphasize the passive ventilation in the Al Suhaymi house. The Islamic landscape design considerations for the composition of vegetation and water included the following environmental-responsive design principals:Quadripartite layoutReferences to the quadripartite design occurred more than once in the Koran; therefore, Islamic gardens adopted the geometrical and often symmetrical layout. Planning the layout was based on creating two axes perpendicularly crossing each other in the middle. The quadripartite layout was also considered as an environmental landscape design principle because the axes were planned as narrow water canals or walkways while the left rectangles were planted or used as water ponds. The quadripartite layout assured a combination between plant materials, water and pavement in courtyards, all of which improved the microclimate in the buildings.In the Al Suhaymi house, the courtyard had a quadripartite layout with slightly raised narrow walkways leading to the focal fountain at the centre of the courtyard. The walkways created four relatively large planted rectangular shapes , while the rear garden had two different planned layouts. The left part of the garden followed a quadripartite layout, while the right part of the garden had circular planning with a well in the centre. The quadripartite design helped the designer to manipulate the site and create a variety for the water, vegetation and pavement composition.Use of waterThe Al Suhaymi house had a focal fountain in the courtyard and some other fountains in the halls. The focal fountain was located at the centre of the courtyard. Next, a water wheel in the north-east corner of the house supported the fountains and house dweller with water. Using the fountain inside the courtyards helped to create a cold air reservoir, in addition to humidifying Cairo’s dry air. Using the fountains in the halls also helped in soothing the internal climate of the halls, reflecting the importance of having elements from the natural environment, such as water inside the house.Vegetation and shadeThe courtyard and rear garden were both planted, but to serve the passive ventilationconcept and create a relatively hot open area, the rear garden was mainly paved and planted with some flowers, medicinal herbs and palms. On the other hand, the courtyard was mainly planted with ground covers, evergreen trees and fruitful trees to provide maximum shade for the ground within the inner courtyard walls . Moreover, greenery inside the courtyard and rear garden absorbed dust and dirt in the atmosphere in addition to reducing the amount of glare. This study measured the differences in temperature between the planted courtyard and the house roof and it was found that the temperature was between 4oC to 7oC lower in the planted courtyard. Furthermore, by comparing the relative humidity in the house inner courtyard with El Darb EL Asfar alley, the humidity in the house inner courtyard ranged between 11 to 19 percent lower than in the alley.Walls and pavilionsIn the Koran, paradise is described as an enclosed garden, surrounded by “walls” and accessible through “gates”. In Al Suhaymi House, the courtyard was surrounded with thick high walls to achieve protection from the hot, dusty, and noisy environment, and to provide a refreshing shade and cool air, all of which are essential for human comfort. Moreover, the rear garden was surrounded by low walls in order to minimize shade and to create a hot open space. The surrounding walls of Al Suhaymi gardens are considered as part of an environmental landscape design element of the Islamic garden.译文摘要阿拉伯伊斯兰园林设计的独特灵感源于中东地区的贫瘠而又开放的景观空间。
生态景观设计理念
生态景观设计理念生态景观设计理念在当今社会中显得尤为重要，随着城市化进程的加速和人们生态意识的增强，人们对于环境友好、生态健康的生活方式迫切需要。
生态景观设计以绿色、可持续、生态友好为原则，注重与自然环境的协调，追求人与自然和谐共处。
本文将从生态景观设计的定义、原则和实践三个方面进行深入探讨。
一、生态景观设计的定义生态景观设计是指在自然、社会和文化环境的基础上，通过科学的手段和技术手段，利用植物、土壤、水和微生物等自然要素，打造一个生态良好、功能完善、具有公共价值的户外环境。
生态景观设计注重通过绿化、水景、地形、材料等手段，使人们在空间中感受到自然、平衡和和谐。
生态景观设计的核心是生态系统，其目的是建立一个生态平衡、美观宜人且对整个生态系统有益的场所，以满足人们的生活和休闲需求，并增强生态系统的稳定性和可持续性。
二、生态景观设计的原则1. 生态原则：生态景观设计必须遵循自然生态系统的运行规律，以自然为师，尊重自然，依循自然，实现人与自然的和谐共生。
在设计过程中，要尽可能地保留和恢复自然植被和动物栖息地，尊重植物生长规律，避免环境破坏和生态破坏。
在植物选择、绿化配置等方面，要注重引入具有本地特色的植物，提高植被的原生性和多样性。
2. 可持续发展原则：生态景观设计必须注重可持续性，即在满足当前需求的不损害未来世代的生活质量。
要采用环保、节能、资源循环利用的设计手段和技术，注重植物的生长适应性和节水性，保障景观的长期维护和发展。
3. 社会原则：生态景观设计应充分考虑社会需求，满足人们对于美好生活的追求，尊重人文精神，为人们提供休闲、娱乐、社交等功能场所。
要结合当地文化和历史特色，为人们提供具有文化底蕴的宜居环境，促进社会和谐与进步。
4. 艺术原则：生态景观设计要追求美学价值，注重景观布局的美感和艺术性，创造出具有观赏价值的景观。
要注重景观的色彩、形态、空间、光影等艺术因素，使设计成果符合审美需求，激发人们的美感和创造力。
生态景观设计的原则与方法研究
生态景观设计的原则与方法研究生态景观设计是一种以自然生态系统为基础、以人与环境为核心的设计方法。
它着重于保护环境、提高生态效益，将景观设计与生态学、环境科学等学科相结合，可以为人们提供舒适的生活环境，同时实现生态效益与经济效益的双赢。
在这篇文章中，我们将探讨生态景观设计的原则和方法。
一、生态景观设计的原则1. 生态原则生态原则是生态景观设计的核心原则，主要包括：生态系统保护与再生、生态平衡、生态多样性、生态可持续性等。
首先，生态系统保护与再生是保证生态景观健康发展的前提，也是优化人类生存环境，促进经济社会可持续发展的基础。
其次，生态平衡体现了生态系统内部各个要素之间的相互作用与制约关系。
生态多样性反映着生物种类与数量的纷繁多样性，是生态系统健康发展的重要保障。
最后，生态可持续性从长远的角度看，不能让生态景观设计短期内获得经济效益，而对生态环境造成不可逆转的损坏。
2. 文化原则文化原则包括了丰富的文化内涵的融入、历史的渊源的保护、自然与文化的和谐、互相促进和共存、人文环境的提升等。
生态景观设计应当在保护自然环境的同时，还要充分融合地域文化、历史文化等多元文化，形成具有地方特色的景观，在其基础上实现自然与文化的有机结合。
3. 经济原则经济原则是在生态保护的前提下，实现经济效益最大化，从而达到持续发展的原则。
生态景观设计应当在不破坏生态系统的前提下，尽可能发挥经济效益。
二、生态景观设计的方法1. 生态规划生态规划是生态景观设计的核心方法之一。
它是一种综合性的规划，其基本要素包括土地利用、道路交通、公共服务、绿地系统、生态保护、生活用水等。
生态规划应当充分考虑生态系统的保护、生态效益的传递、生态环境的改善，确保规划落实过程中实现生态、经济、社会的全面协调发展。
2. 生态设计生态设计是一种基于生态系统与环境的要素，实现生态环境可持续发展的设计过程。
它充分考虑自然灾害预防、污染防治等。
生态设计不仅对景观元素的选择方面有要求，还要求设计时充分考虑环境的生物学、化学、物理学特征。
园林景观生态设计的原则及要点
园林景观生态设计的原则及要点园林景观生态设计的原则及要点园林景观生态设计综合考虑了生态效益、经济效益、社会效益和美学原则，其目标是改善人居生活品质、提高生态环境质量，并最大程度减少人类对场地生态环境的干涉和影响。
园林景观生态设计的原则(1)生态性原则，生态设计要求园林的规划应充分的发挥景观植物的生态功能，实现其调节气候、防风固沙、净化空气、涵养水源、改良土壤、吸声降噪的作用，在美化城市环境，带给人们审美体验的同时，满足园林景观生态效益的需要。
为了保证风景园林景观生态效益的最大化，在进行园林的设计时，应根据不同植物生态功能和生活习性上的差异，合理的进行规划。
(2)因地制宜，尊重地形，维护场地完整性，一切园林景观建设活动都应当建立在正确的人与自然关系的基础上，尊重自然，保护环境，对生态环境产生尽可能小的影响，达到人与自然和谐相处的目的，实现可持续发展。
因而在园林设计中，应尊重原有的地形地貌以及各种设施，甚至利用原有的自然地形特点和废弃设施重塑新的园林景观，既保留了原有基地的历史文化，又满足人们需求。
如对于原有的植被、地形、水系应加以保护利用，而不是一味推平重建。
保持场地的自然风情与原始而貌成为律设园林城市的前提与基础。
(3)高效性原则，当今地球资源严重短缺，主要是由于人类长期利用资源和环境不当所造成的。
而要实现人类生存环境的可持续，必须高效利用能源，充分利用和循环利用资源，尽可能减少包括能源、土地、水、生物资源的使用和消耗，提倡利用废弃的土地、原材料包括植被、土壤、砖石等服务于新的功能，循环使用。
可以大大减少资源的消耗和降低能耗，还可节约财力、物力，减少扔向自然界的废弃物。
园林景观生态设计的要点(1)在园林景观设计中应处理好园林景观要素的空间关系。
园林景观特别重视景观要素的空间关系，如形状和大小、密度和容量、连接和隔断、区位和层序等，如同它们所含有的物质和自然资源质量一样重要。
如城市景观规划要注意合理安排城市空间格局，相对集中开敞空间。
外文文献翻译景观设计
景观设计•介绍:住宅绿色绿色就是城市得重要组成部分,最接近居民,与居民日常生活最密切相关得,它提高生活质量得环境,提高居民得身心健康至关重要。
绿色住宅面积水平,体现城市现代化得一个重要标志。
小区在城市绿地系统中分布最广,就是普遍绿化得重要方面,城市生态学就是一个重要得系统得一部分。
得推进城市现代化、绿色住宅面积也应该相应得提高水平,更好地满足了不同需求得环境质量。
因此,加强住宅绿色建筑设计得主要任务就是做一个好工作。
改善设计应该尊重传统、尊重科学基础上得原始背后得拒绝环境,关注生态与景观设计、绿色住宅区域,使工作到一个新得水平。
下面从生态设计与景观设计来探讨设计得新思路。
•关键词:景观、景观设计绿色居住区就是城市绿化得重要组成部分,最近得居民,居民日常生活最密切相关得,它提高生活质量得环境,提高居民得身心健康至关重要。
绿色住宅面积水平,体现城市现代化得一个重要标志。
小区在城市绿地系统中分布最广,就是普遍绿化得重要方面,城市生态学就是一个重要得系统得一部分。
得推进城市现代化、绿色住宅面积也应该相应得提高水平,更好地满足了不同需求得环境质量。
因此,加强住宅绿色建筑设计得主要任务就是做一个好工作。
改善设计应该尊重传统、尊重科学基础上得原始背后得拒绝环境,关注生态与景观设计、绿色住宅区域,使工作到一个新得水平。
下面从生态设计与景观设计来探讨设计得新思路。
1。
生态设计绿化得居民区,必须基于城市生态系统,关注生态效率,改善环境质量,维护与保留居住区城市得生态平衡。
法位于贵州省中部,位于云贵高原东部隆起区边坡中部、西南得贵州梯子一般地形得特点就是高与低东北从西南到东北。
大波浪起伏得地形,最高海拔1705、2米,最低海拔506、5米,高山与深谷,沟壑方面,切削锋利,形成一个积极得环境多样性打开。
年平均气温为12、8℃,极端最高温度为35、4℃, 极端最低温度为-10、1℃,年平均降雨量1258、8毫米。
总之,开太阳,气候温与,雨量丰富,冬天冷,夏天热,适合各种园林植物得生长与繁殖。
生态景观设计需要遵循的几项原则
生态景观设计需要遵循的几项原则生态景观设计是当今景观设计发展的一个重要方向，也是未来景观设计的一个必然发展趋势。
景观设计的生态性促使人们站在科学的角度上重新审视景观行业，景观设计师们也开始将自己的使命与整个地球生态系统联系起来，生态主义已经成为景观设计师内在的和本质的考虑。
所谓生态设计就是在景观设计时，使其对环境的破坏尽量达到最小的限度。
这种协调意味着设计要尊重物种的多样性，减少对资源的剥夺，保持水循环，维持植物生活环境和动物栖息地的质量，以有助于改善人居环境及生态系统的健康。
评价一个景观设计是否符合生态景观设计的原则可以看它是否遵循了一下几点。
1、生态美学生态美学是从生态哲学的视野、生态科学的原理、生态伦理学的情怀和自然美学的方法研究人与自然、社会、艺术的审美关系，强调生克互济、形神和谐的整体美，对环境开拓适应、协同进化的共生美，物质循环、信息反馈的动态美的一门学科。
生态美学是生态学与美学的有机结合，实际上是从生态学的方向研究美学问题，将生态学的重要观点吸收到美学之中，从而形成一种崭新的美学理论形态。
生态美学从广义上来说包括人与自然、社会及人自身的生态审美关系，是一种符合生态规律的当代存在论美学。
2、自然资源的节约和保护地球上的自然资源分可再生资源，如水、森林、动物等可再生和不可再生资源（如石油、煤等），要实现人类生存环境的可持续，必须对不可再生资源加以保护和节约使用。
即使对可再生资源也要尽可能地节约使用。
3、整体设计景观生态设计是对人类整体生态系统进行全面的设计，而不是孤立地对某一景观元素进行设计。
景观是一个综合的整体，景观设计的目标是整体优化和可持续发展，它是在一定的经济条件下实现的，必须满足社会的功能，也要符合自然的规律，遵循生态原则，同时还属于艺术的范畴，缺少了其中任何一方，设计就存在缺陷。
景观生态设计是对人类生态系统整体进行全面设计，而不是孤立地对某一景观元素进行设计，是一种多目标设计，为人类需要，也为动植物需要，为高产值需要，也为审美需要。
环境艺术设计外文翻译—Beshghardash景观生态公园中的设计模式
Beshghardash景观生态公园中的设计模式A Pattern for Eco-park design in Beshghardash landscapeMojgan Ghorbanzadeh1, Seyed Hasan Taghvaei21伊朗博琼德大学建筑系讲师2伊朗德黑兰沙希德·贝赫什提大学景观建筑系副教授摘要如今，受到国家人口增长和发展进程影响，设计师要注意的主要问题之一是在自然环境适宜的条件下，注重环境问题和促进环境质量。
在以此为重点的情况下提出的功能性和生物多样性以及怎么样在国内应用。
生态园的设计目标要追随以下功能：保护环境和提高保护环境技术的进步，游览和观光，公众学习关于自然和人类之间的统一关系的知识以及促进人类与自然之间的相互关系的知识。
本文的作用是关于调查和认知，怎样创造合适的场所改变区域生态公园。
研究的案例是距离博琼德（北呼罗珊省的中心）5公里被命名为“Beshghardash”的景观生态公园。
该地区大约380公顷，气候寒冷干燥，这里是本地区具有吸引力的旅游中心之一。
这项研究是基于四个原则：保护原则，发展原则，目前和未来的原则，适应原则。
最终Beshghardash生态公园体现了可持续发展的设计模式，可以说Beshghardash生态公园是一个自然的环境，实现了环境价值，体现了可持续发展，比如提高人类生活质量。
关键词：生态公园，Beshghardash，可持续性，半干旱的风景线。
1.引言据显示，地球正经历环境危机。
这场危机的三大主题是：·人类人口的迅速增长及其相关的经济活动；·不可再生和可再生资源的枯竭；·对生态系统和生物多样性造成广泛和严重的伤害。
[1][2][3][4]在这种危急的情况下，科学和艺术的学科有责任提新的方法来解决或至少减少这方面的问题。
如今建筑和景观建筑艺术的知识与众多学科跨越连接，虽然景观设计可以是一个焦点，但同样的环境保护学家、生物学家、艺术家和环境设计师的方法往往是同样有效。
景观设计外文翻译--基于绿色建筑设计理论的绿色社区的景观设计方法(译文)
中文4172字出处：Guo H F, Jian G, Miao Y, et al. Landscape design method for a green community based on green building design theory[J]. 浙江大学学报(英文版)(a辑:应用物理和工程), 2010, 11(9):691-700.中文译文基于绿色建筑设计理论的绿色社区的景观设计方法摘要：绿色社区景观设计应该对周围生态环境和优化当地居住空间气候与居民环境质量都有利。
本文提出了考虑到减少噪音、降低热岛效应、优化通风效果的植物造景设计的最佳方式。
这些方法通过基于不同植物的配置方式和各种发光环境，如经过外发光模拟后的外界阳光和阴影区以及通过 ECOTECT, CADNA/A,和PHEONICS软件模拟的居住区的声和热环境。
模拟的住宅建筑包括三种不同类型：分别是浙江大学西溪校区教师公寓、华清别墅和港湾家园教师公寓，这些建筑设计都基于绿色设计理论。
另外，这些绿色社区的创建方法也体现了外部物理环境的重要性。
关键词：景观设计；绿色社区；绿色建筑；外部物理环境1.前言经过环境监测数据统计，在过去的100年里，人类活动是造成气候变化的大部分原因。
在工业革命之前，大气中二氧化碳浓度为 280.0×10−6，但是到了2007年，这个数字已经增长为383.1×10− 6。
全球平均气温在同一时期升高了0.74摄氏度。
全球百分之五十的能源消耗在建筑施工与运营上，其中百分之三十四与建筑有关。
人类破坏环境的行为必须被制止并且建立一个更加生态自然的环境。
从二十世纪七十年代开始，西方国家便着手于抑制能源消耗的活动中。
经过40年对于建立舒适建筑环境的实践，在一些发展中国家，新建筑单位面积耗能减少到30年前的三分之一到五分之一。
在中国，高能源消耗建筑达到城市总建筑的百分之98，超过4×1010㎡。
景观设计外文文献翻译--城市景观设计中的生态规划
城市景观设计中的生态规划Ecological planning in the urban landscape design Abstract: This article discusses the urban landscape from the relation of the following three concepts: the landscape, the city and the ecology. This paper mainly discusses how the landscape influences the city's living environment.The landscape is a stigma in the land, which is of the relationship between human and human, between man and nature. There exists some subtle relationship among landscape, city and humanized design.key word：Urban landscape、Living environment、HumanizationI. City and The Landscape(1) Overview of Landscape DesignLandscape design, first, is a people's thinking activity, performed as an art activity.Diversified thoughts formed complex diverse landscape art style. Contemporary landscape design apparently see is the diversity of the landscape forms,in fact its essence is to keep the closing up to the natural order system, reflected the more respect for human beings, more in-depth perspective of the nature of human's reality and need, not to try to conquer the nature.it is not even imitating natural, but produce a sense of belonging. Landscape is not only a phenomenon but the human visual scene. So the earliest landscape implications is actually city scene. Landscape design and creation is actually to build the city.(2) The Relationship Between Landscape and UrbanCity is a product of human social, economic and cultural development, and the most complex type. It is vulnerable to the artificial and natural environmental conditions of interference. In recent decades, with worldwide the acceleration of urbanization, the urban population intensive, heavy traffic, resource shortage, environment pollution and ecology deterioration has become the focus of attention of the human society. In the current environment condition in our country, the problem is very serious. and in some urban areas, the pollution has quite serious, and greatly influenced and restricts the sustainable development of the city.Landscape is the relationship between man and man, man and nature. This is, in fact, a kind of human living process. Living process is actually with the powers of nature and the interaction process, in order to obtain harmonious process. The landscape is the result of human life in order to survive and to adapt the natural. At the same time, the living process is also a process of establishning harmonious coexistence. Therefore, as a colony landscape, it is a stigma of the relationship between man and nature.II the city landscape planning and design(1) city landscape elementsThe urban landscape elements include natural landscape and artificial landscape. Among them, the natural landscape is mainly refers to the natural scenery, such as size hills, ancient and famous trees, stone, rivers, lakes, oceans, etc. Artificiallandscape are the main cultural relics, cultural site, the botanical garden afforestation, art sketch, trade fairs, build structure, square, etc. These landscape elements must offer a lot of examples for creating high quality of the urban space environment. But for a unique urban landscape, you must put all sorts of landscape elements in the system organization,and create an orderly space form.(2)the urban landscape in the planningThe city is an organic whole, which is composed with material, economy, culture, and society.To improve the urban environment is a common voice.The key of the urban landscape design is to strengthen urban design ideas, strengthen urban design work. and blend urban design thought into the stages of urban planning. The overall urban planning in the city landscape planning is not to abandon the traditional garden, green space planning, but the extension and development of it.Both are no conflict, but also cannot be equal.In landscape planningof city planning, we should first analysis the urban landscape resources structure, fully exploit landscape elements which can reflect the characteristics of urban.Consider carefully for the formation of the system of urban landscape.III ecological planning and urban landscape (1) the relationship of urban landscape and ecological planning Landscape ecology is a newly emerged cross discipline, the main research space pattern and ecological processes of interaction, its theme is the fork the geography and ecology. It's with the whole landscape as the object, through the material flow, energy flow and information flowing the surface of the earth and value in transmission and exchange, through the biological and the biological and the interaction between human and transformation, the ecological system principle and system research methods of landscape structure and function.the dynamic change of landscape has interaction mechanism, the research of the landscape pattern, optimizing the structure, beautify the reasonable use and the protection, have very strong practicability. Urban ecological system is a natural, economic and social composite artificial ecosystem, it including life system, environment system, with a complex multi-level structure, can be in different approaches of human activity and the mutual relationship between the city and influence. Urban environment planning guidance and coordination as a macro department interests, optimizing the allocation of land resources city, reasonable urban space environment organization the important strategic deployment, must have ecological concept. Only to have the ecological view, to guide the construction of the city in the future to ecological city goal, to establish the harmonious living environment. In recent years, landscape planning in urban landscape features protection and urban environment design is wide used.(2) landscape in the living environment of ecological effectLandscape as a unit of land by different inlaid with obvious visual characteristics of the geographic entities, with the economic, ecological and aesthetic value, the multiple value judgment is landscape planning and management foundation. Landscape planning and design always is to create a pleasant landscape as the center. The appropriate human nature can understand the landscape for more suitable for human survival, reflect ecological civilization living environment, includinglandscape, building economy, prudent sex ecological stability, environmental cleanliness, space crowded index, landscape beautiful degree of content, the current many places for residential area of green, static, beauty, Ann's requirement is the popular expression. Landscape also paid special attention to the spatial relationship landscape elements, such as shape and size,density and capacity, links, and partition, location and of sequence, as their content of material and natural resources as important as quality. As the urban landscape planning should pay attention to arrange the city space pattern, the relative concentration of the open space, the construction space to density alternate with; In artificial environment appeared to nature; Increase the visual landscape diversity; Protect the environment MinGanOu and to promote green space system construction.(3) the urban landscape and ecological planning and design of the fusion of each other.The city landscape and ecological planning design reflects human a new dream, it is accompanied by industrialization and after the arrival of the era of industrial and increasingly clear. Natural and cultural, design of the environment and life environment, beautiful form and ecological functions of real comprehensive fusion, the landscape is no longer a single city of specific land, but let the ablation, to thousands; It will let nature participate in design; Let the natural process with every one according to daily life; Let people to perception, experience and care the natural process and natural design.(4) the city landscape ecological planning the humanized design1. "it is with the person this" design thought Contemporary landscape in meet purpose at the same time, more in-depth perspective on human of the nature of reality and needs. First performance for civilian design direction, application of natural organic materials and elastic curve form rich human life space. Next is the barrier-free design, namely no obstacle, not dangerous thing, no manipulation of the barrier design. Now there have been the elderly, the disabled, from the perspective of the social tendency, barrier-free design ideas began to gain popularity, at the same time for disadvantaged people to carry on the design also is human nature design to overall depth direction development trend. "It is with the person this" the service thoughts still behave in special attention to plant of bright color, smell good plant, pay attention to ZuoJu texture and the intensity of the light. The detail processing of considerate more expression of the concern, such as the only step to shop often caused visual ignored and cause staggered, in order to avoid this kind of circumstance happening, contemporary landscape sites do not be allowed under 3 steps; And as some residential area and square in the bush set mop pool, convenient the district's hygiene and wastewater recycling water. "It is with the person this" the service thoughts in many ways showed, the measure of the standard is human love.1. 1 human landscape design concept is human landscape design is to point to in landscape design activity, pay attention to human needs, in view of the user to the environment of the landscape of a need to spread design, which satisfied the user "physiological and psychological, physical and mental" multi-level needs, embodies the "people-oriented" design thought. Urban public space human landscape design, from the following four aspects to understand:1. 1.1 physical level of care. Human landscape design with functional and the rationality of design into premise condition, pay attention to the physical space reasonable layout and effective use of the function. Public space design should not only make people's psychology and physiology feel comfortable, still should configuration of facilities to meet people's complex activities demand1. The level of caring heart 1.2 Daniel. In construction material form of the space at the same time, the positive psychology advocate for users with the attention that emotion, and then make the person place to form the security, field feeling and belonging.1. 1.3 club will level of care. Emphasizes the concern of human survival environment, the design in the area under the background of urban ecological overall planning and design, to make the resources, energy rationally and effectively using, to achieve the natural, social and economic benefits of the unity of the three.1. 1.4 to a crowd of segmentation close care. Advocate barrier-free design, and try to meet the needs of different people use, and to ensure that the group of mutual influence between activities, let children, old people, disabled people can enjoy outdoor public the fun of life.1. 2 and human landscape design related environmental behavior knowledge the environment behavior is human landscape design, the main research field, pay attention to the environment and people's explicit behavior and the relationship between the interaction, tried to use the psychology of the some basic theory, methods researchers in the city and architecture in activities and to the environment of the response, and the feedback the information can be used to guide the environment construction and renovation. Western psychologist dirk DE Joan to put forward the boundary effect theory. He points out that the edge of space is people like to stay area, also is the space of the growth of the activity area [3]. Like the urban space, the margin of the wood, down the street, and the rain at the awning, awnings, corridor construction sunken place, is people like the place to stay. At the edge of space, and other people or organizations to distance themselves are is better able to observe the space of the eyes and not to be disturbed. "Man seeth" is the person's nature. A large public space are existing "the man seeth" phenomenon: the viewer consciously or unconsciously observation, in the space in front of the all activities. At the same time, some of the people with strong performance desire, in public space in various activities to attract the attention of others, so as to achieve self-fulfillment cheerful. The seemingly simple "man seeth" phenomenon, but can promote space more activities production. For example, for a walk of pedestrians may be busy street performance and to join the ranks of the show attracts, with the strange because the audience is the sight of the activities of the wonderful and short conversation, art lovers of the infection by environmental atmosphere began to sketch activities. Environmental design, according to environmental behavior related knowledge, actively create boundary space provide people stay, rest, the place of talking to facilitate more spaceThe Landscape Urbanism exhibition contained an international survey of public urban spaces by designers including Adriaan Geuze/West 8, Michael Van Valkenburgh,Patrick Schumacher, Alex Wall, and several Barcelona landscape architects (such as Enric Batlle and Joan Roig, who completed Trinitat Cloverleaf Park in a highway intersection for the 1992 Olympics). American exhibitors included Corner and Mathur, Waldheim’s teachers from Penn, Mapillero/ Pollack from New York, Conway-Schulte of Atlanta Olympics fame, and Jason Young/Omar Perez/Georgia Daskalakis/Das: 20 from Detroit. Corner’s premiated but sadly unbuilt Greenport Harborfront, Long Island Project (1997), stood out in this show. His office, Field Operations, proposed creating a sense of urban activity around the annual raising and lower-ing of the town’s ancient sailing ship Stella Maris up and down a newly created slip, with a historic, children’s carousel housed in an adjacent band shell. Corner envisioned this staged, biannual event as an attractor for peo-ple, the press, and media, who would flock to the town in its off season, inhabiting the newly created commons on the harbor front to watch the ship’s spectacular movements. In the winter, the ship would become a monumental, sculptural presence lit at night in the center of the small port’s commons; in the summer it would return to its accustomed quayside, where its masts would tower above the rooftops. 21Corner’s project in the Landscape Urbanism exhibition illustrates his concept of a “performative” ur banism based on preparing the setting for programmed and unprogrammed activi-ties on land owned in common. The three projects presented in Stalking Detroit provide further insights into this emerging strategy, and each is paired with a commentary by a landscape architect. 22 The Waldheim and Marli Santos-Munne Studio proposes the most comprehensive of landscape urbanism practices in “Decamping Detroit” (104–122). They advocate a four-stage decommissioning of land from the city’s legal control: “Dislocation” (disconnection of services), then “Erasure” (demolition and jumpstarting the native landscape ecology by dropping appropriate seeds from the air), then “Absorption” (ecological reconstitution of part of the Zone as woods, marshes, and streams), and then “Infiltration” (the recolonization of the landscape with heteropic village-like enclaves). As Corner writes in his commentary, this project “prompts you to reflect on the reversal of the traditional approach to colonization, from building to unbuilding, removal, and erasure” (122). This reversal of normal processes opens the way for a new hybrid urbanism, with dense clusters of activity and the reconstitution of the natural ecology, starting a more ecologically balanced, inner-city urban form in the void.All of Landscape Urbanism’s triumphs so far have been in such marginal and “unbuilt” locations. These range from Victoria Marshall and Steven Tupu’s premiated design for ecological mudflats, dunes, canals, and ramps into the water in the Van Alen East River Competition (1998), which would have simultaneously solved the garbage disposal problem of New York and reconstituted the Brooklyn side of the East River as an ecology to be enjoyed as productive parkland. 23 In the Downside Park, Toronto Competition (2000), Corner, with Stan Allen, competed against Tschumi, Koolhaas (who won), and two other teams, pro-viding a showcase for their “Emerging Ecologies” approach. 24 This was further elaborated in the Field Operations’ design that won first place in the Freshkills Landfill Competition, StatenIsland (2001). Together with Stan Allen (now Dean at Princeton), Corner analyzed the human, natural, and technological systems’ interaction with characteristic aerial precision. Field Operations presented the project as a series of overlaid, CAD-based activity maps and diagrams, that stacked up as in an architect’s layered axonometric section. These layered drawings clearly showed the simultaneous, differentiated activities and support systems planned to occupy the site over time, creating a diagram of the complex settings for activities within the reconstituted ecology of the manmade landfill. 25 In the Freshkills competition, Mathur and da Cunha’s used a similar approach but emphasized the shifting and changing eco-logical systems of the site over time, seeking suitable places for human settlements including residences. In the first conference on Landscape Urban-ism at the University of Pennsylvania in April 2002, Dean Garry Hack (who coauthored Kevin Lynch’s 1984 third edition of Site Planning) questioned the interstitial and small-scale strate-gies of participants (asking, “Hyper-urbanization: Places of Landscape Architecture?”). Mohsen Mostafavi, the Chairman of the AA, delivered the keynote speech, “Landscape as Urban-ism,” showing the Barcelona-style, large-scale, infrastructural work of the first three years of the AA Landscape Urbanism program. 26Dean Hack identified a key problem for landscape urbanists as they face the challenge of adapting to complex urban morphologies beyond that of an Anglo-Saxon village and its commons. Rifle ranges, the spectacle of the “Devil’s Night,” and the “Staging of Vacancy” suggested in Stalking Detroit may prove to be inadequate responses in an age when many Europeans and Americans live in idyllic, landscaped suburbs. Suburbanites are willing to pay a premium to visit staged urban spectacles. These spectacles can take the form of the Palio annual horse race in Siena, a parade on Disneyworld’s Main Street, or a week-end in a city-themed Las Vegas casino like The Venetian, with its simulation of the Grand Canal as a mall on the third floor above the gaming hall. The desire for the city as compressed hustle and bustle in small spaces remains strong. Even in ruined downtown Detroit, small ethnic enclaves like “Greek Town” or “Mexico Town” satisfy this demand, in the midst of the void. Commercial interests like Disney clearly understand how to stage an event and create an urban street spectacle based in a village-like setting. As yet, the dense urban settings of Hong Kong or New York, or even mid-rise urban morphologies like Piano’s eco-logically sensitive Potsdam Platz, Berlin (1994–1998), do not feature as part of this performative urbanism. Stalking Detroit does not begin to deal with the issue of urban morphologies or the emergence of settlement patterns over time. It concentrates on their disappearance and erasure. The problem of this approach is its amnesia and blindness to preexisting structures, urban ecologies, and morphological patterns. A common ground is useless without people to activate it and to surround it, to make it their commons. Housing, however transient or distant, is an essential part of this pattern of relationship, whether connecting to a village green or a suburban mall. With this logic, the International Building Exhibition in Berlin of 1984–1987 sponsored the recolonization of vacant inner-city lots with high-density, low-rise infill blocks in anticipation of the construction of Potsdamer Platz and the demolition of the Berlin Wall. Adaptive reuse, as in the conversion of dockland warehouses ormulti-story factories to lofts and apartments, is another successful strategy that has provided housing and workplaces to activate inner-city areas. These approaches have been slowly applied with some success in other American empowerment zones, such as those in the South Bronx and Harlem. Chicago, also a viciously segregated city, is rising slowly from its ashes; North Michigan Avenue functions as a great urban boulevard, comparable to Fifth Avenue in New York, populated with many strange hybrid skyscraper towers containing malls, department stores, hotels, offices, apartments, and parking lots (a form pioneered there by Skidmore Owings and Merill’s mixed-use Hancock Tower in 1966). Even in Detroit, Henry Ford’s grand-son is rebuilding the Ford River Rouge Plant as a model, hybrid, “green” facility. 27Landscape urbanists are just beginning to battle with the thorny issue of how dense urban forms emerge from landscape and how urban ecologies support performance spaces. The lin-ear organization of the village main street leading to a common space, with its row-house typology and long thin land subdivisions, is one of the oldest global urban patterns, studied by the pioneer urban morphologist Michael R.G. Conzen in the 1930s. 28 Urban morphologists look for the emergence of such characteristic linkages between activity and spatial patterns in human settlements. Such linkages, when repeated over time, form islands of local order structuring the larger pat-terns of global, ecological, and economic flows. 29 The pattern of the town square and approach street is another, more formal example of an urban morphology, focusing on a sin-gle center, setting up the central agora or forum as in a Greek or Roman city grid (and echoed in the courtyard-house typology). The Islamic city, with its irregular cul-de-sac structure, accommodating the topography, emerged as a variation on this classical model, with the mosque, bazaar, school, and baths replacing the forum and temples at the center. 30 Medieval European cities, also with cul-de-sacs, but based on a row-house typology, formed another morphological variation of the classical city, with market halls and cathedrals on the city square. In The Making of the American Landscape (1990), edited by Michael P. Conzen of the University of Chicago, contributors illustrate how the morphology of the city shifted from a dense single center to a “machine city.” This bipolar structure was based on railways creating a regional division between dense center and suburban villa edge (involving the separation of consumption from production, industry from farmland, rich from poor, etc.). In the second phase, the “machine city” of the Modernists (best exemplified by the morphology of Le Corbusier’s Ville Radieuse (1933) with its slab blocks and towers set in park-land) replaced the old, dense Industrial City. With the advent of the automobile, a third morphology emerged in a multi centered pattern and isolated, pavilion, building typologies, a pattern that was further extended by airports on the regional periphery. Joel Garreau identified this as the postmodern “Edge City” morphology of malls, office parks, industrial parks and residential enclaves in 1991. 31In Europe Cedric Price jokingly described these three city morphologies in terms of breakfast dishes. There was the traditional, dense, “hard-boiled egg” city fixed in concentric rings of development within its shell or walls. Then there was the “fried egg” city, where railways stretched the city’s perimeter in linear, accelerated,space-time corridors out into the landscape, resulting in a star shape. Finally there was the postmodern city, the “scrambled egg city,” where everything is distributed evenly in small granules or pavilions across the landscape in a continuous network. Koolhaas and the younger Dutch groups like MVRDV continue this tra-dition of urban, morphological analysis with a light, analogical touch. The organizing group of the 2001 International Conference of Young Planners meeting in Utrecht, for instance, used Price’s metaphors to study the impact of media and communications on the city.32 Franz Oswald , from the ETH Zurich Urban Design program, also examines the “scrambled egg” network analogy in the Synoikos and NEt city Projects . These projects study the distribution of urban morphologies in central Switzerland as layers in a cultural, commercial, industrial and informational matrix within the extreme Alpine topography and its water-sheds. 33 Schumacher, at the AA’s Design Research Laboratory, has also extended his work from Stalking Detroit into an investigation of the role of personal choice in a dynamic, typo-logical, and morphological matrix forming temporary housing structures in the city. 34 His colleagues in the Landscape Urbanism program have also shifted to a more urban orient-tion, studying Venice and its lagoon.This rationalist, morphological and landscape tradition seems to be centered in Venice. Here Bernardo Secchi and Paola Viganò continue the typo-logical analysis begun in the 1930s, but now applied to the voids of the post-modern city-region, the “Reverse City.” Viganò’s La Città Elementare (The Elementary City, 1999; it deserves translation into English) is exemplary of this larger European Landscape Urbanism movement. For Viganò, large landscape infrastructures form the basis for later urbanization. Le Corbusier’s work at the Agora in Chandigarh is exemplary in its monumental manipulation of the terrain, orientation to the regional landscape, and attempt to form an urban space. Xaveer de Geyter Architects’ After Sprawl (2002), with its fifty-by-fifty kilometer “Atlases” of European cities made by various university groups, gives an easily accessible cross section of a wider landscape urbanism and morphological network linked to Venice. In America, Carol Willis in Form Follows Finance (1995) and my colleague at Columbia Urban Design, Brian McGrath, have created a portrait of one building ecology, the sky-scraper, and its typological evolution in the flows of New York in Time formations(2000), viewable at the Sky-scraper Museum website.Activities of generation, the rich visitors sensory experiences2. The design of the sustainable developmentSustainable development principle, it is the ecology point of view, to the city system analysis, and with the minimum the minimal resource consumption to satisfy the requirements of the human, and maintain the harmony of human and the natural environment, guarantee the city several composition system-to protect natural evolution process of open space system and the urban development system balance. People are to landscape 'understanding of the contemporary landscape design and the function to reflect, have been completely out of the traditional gardening activities, the concept of landscape art value unconsciously and ecological value, the function value, cultural value happened relationship, landscape art category than before morepointed to the human is closely linked with the various aspects, become more profound and science. Contemporary landscape also actively use new technology to improve the ecological value. Such as the use of solar energy for square garden, lighting and sound box equipment supply electricity; The surface water "cycle" design concept, collecting rainwater for irrigation and waterscape provides the main resources; Using the principle of the construction of the footway, buoys that environmental protection level a kiss and interesting. And by using water scene drought, landscape water do ecology (ecological wetland), ecological XiGou "half natural change" landscape humanized waterscape design, avoid the manual water scene is the difficulty of the later-period management, but in the water since the net, purifying environment and promote biodiversity play a huge role. Therefore, to experience the landscape will surely is contained to nature and the tradition, to human compatibility.The urban landscape the principles of sustainable development and implementation details:2.1 the efficiency of land use principle for land to the survival of humans is one of the most effective resources, especially in China's large population, land resources are extremely deficient, urbanization rapidly increase background, the reasonable efficient use of land, is that we should consider an important issue. For the city landscape is concerned, how to productive use of the land? Three-dimensional is efficient land use is the most effective means. The urban landscape "three-dimensional to take" ideas contains the following six aspects of meaning. (1) in the limited on land, as much as possible to provide activity places, form the three-dimensional multi-layer activities platform landscape environment. (2) improve afforestation land use efficiency, in the same land, adopt appropriate to niche by, shrubs and trees of co-existence and co-prosperity between three-dimensional planting layout. (3) to solve the good man, for the contradiction in green, the green space and human activity space layout of the interchanges. (4) the up and down or so, all sides three-dimensional view observation, increased the landscape environment the visual image of the visual rate. (5) from the static landscape to dynamic landscape. 6 not only from the traditional technology of modern technology to introduce more (such as crossing bridge, light rail, electric rail, etc), show a colorful three-dimensional space.2.2 energy efficiency principle along with the rapid development of urbanization, China's energy demand is more and more big, the energy gap also more and more big. In recent years, China's major cities have put forward the "light" project, the public area lighting consumption in the great power. For energy efficiency in the understanding, first from the consideration on the energy saving should be not only, and should stand in the higher of the environmental protection high to know, meaning that more extensive, and more far-reaching. (for more than 70% of generating capacity in China at present still by coal, exist for SO2, CO2 and nitric oxide and other harmful gas emissions and coal dust emissions and a series of environmental problems)2.3 plant with an ecological principle city system, the green space system is perfect or。
城市生态修复与景观设计(英文中文双语版优质文档)
城市生态修复与景观设计（英文中文双语版优质文档）I. IntroductionWith the continuous development of urbanization, the urban environment is getting more and more attention. The quality of the urban environment has a significant impact on human health and socio-economic development. Urban ecological restoration and landscape design are one of the effective ways to solve urban environmental problems. This article will discuss the concepts, importance and methods of urban ecological restoration and landscape design.2. Urban Ecological RestorationUrban ecological restoration refers to the process of improving the urban environment, restoring the ecosystem, and enhancing the ecological functions of the city through a series of measures and means. Urban ecological restoration is one of the important ways to solve urban environmental problems.The importance of urban ecological restoration is that it can improve the urban environment, restore natural ecosystems, and enhance urban ecological functions. Urban ecological restoration can promote sustainable urban development, protect natural ecosystems, enhance the stability and resilience of urban ecosystems, reduce the impact of urban environmental pollution and climate change, and enhance the attractiveness and competitiveness of cities.Methods of urban ecological restoration include: restoring natural wetlands, planting vegetation, restoring river ecosystems, improving urban water environment quality, reducing land development, and improving air quality, etc. These methods can restore urban natural ecosystems, enhance the stability and resilience of urban ecosystems, reduce urban environmental pollution and the impact of climate change, and improve the livability and attractiveness of cities.3. Landscape DesignLandscape design refers to the process of creating beautiful, practical and reasonable urban landscape space through design means. Landscape design is an important part of urban environment construction, which can improve the ecological quality and living environment of the city.The importance of landscape design is that it can improve the ecological quality and living environment of the city, and at the same time, it can also enhance the cultural and artistic atmosphere of the city, and enhance the attractiveness and competitiveness of the city. Landscape design can create a beautiful urban landscape space, so that people can better enjoy the good life in the city.The methods of landscape design include: creating good urban visual effects, creating eco-friendly urban landscape space, improving the cultural atmosphere of the city, improving the quality of public space in the city, etc. These methods can improve the living environment and ecological quality of the city, make people more willing to live and work in the city, and enhance the attractiveness and competitiveness of the city.4. The relationship between urban ecological restoration and landscape designUrban ecological restoration and landscape design are inseparable. Urban ecological restoration can provide an ecosystem basis for landscape design and create a more eco-friendly urban landscape space. Landscape design can provide a beautiful form of expression for urban ecological restoration and make the urban environment more pleasant.The integration of urban ecological restoration and landscape design can make the urban environment more beautiful and pleasant, and at the same time improve the ecological quality and living environment of the city. The integration of urban ecological restoration and landscape design needs to pay attention to various factors such as ecology, culture, and art, and create a more beautiful, ecologically friendly, and culturally diverse urban landscape space.V. ConclusionUrban ecological restoration and landscape design are one of the important ways to solve urban environmental problems. Urban ecological restoration can provide an ecosystem basis for landscape design and create a more eco-friendly urban landscape space. Landscape design can provide a beautiful form of expression for urban ecological restoration and make the urban environment more pleasant. The integration of urban ecological restoration and landscape design needs to pay attention to ecological, cultural, artistic and other factors to create a more beautiful, ecologically friendly and culturally diverse urban landscape space, making positive contributions to urban environmental construction and sustainable development.一、引言随着城市化的不断发展，城市环境也越来越受到关注。
当代城市生态景观设计原则之4R原则【奥雅专题文章）
当代城市⽣态景观设计原则之4R原则【奥雅专题⽂章）当代城市⽣态景观设计原则之4R原则 “4R”即Reduce，Reuse、Recycle和Renewable“Reduce”,减少对各种资源尤其是不可再⽣资源的使⽤；“Reuse”，在符合⼯程要求的情况下对基地原有的景观构件进⾏再利⽤；“Recycle”，建⽴回收系统，利⽤同收材料和资源；“Renewable”，利⽤可再⽣资源、可回收材料。
“Reduce”再减少 “Reduce”再减少即指减少对⾃然的破坏，减少能源的消耗和减少对⼈体的不良影响。
减少对⾃然的破坏，这就要求景观设计师避免在⽣态敏感地带进⾏⼤规模的改造。
在设计过程中，应尽量减少各种景观建筑物和设施⼩品的占地⾯积，达到节约⽤地的⽬标。
对于建造景观过程及⽇后使⽤可能排放出的废⽓、废⽔等需采取各种有效措施加以控制。
对于特殊⾃然景观如湿地景观、⾃然林地景观的保护尤显重要。
湿地⽣态景观系统的恢复，可以达到净化⽔质、创造⽣物的⽣息空间、改善景观环境的⽬的。
⽽⾃然林地的保护，可以使⼟地沙化得到有效治理，⽔⼟流失得到基本控制，⽣态环境和⼈民群众的⽣产⽣活条件从根本上得到改善。
能源的消耗必将产⽣不同程度的污染，那么就意味着将给⼈类和⾃然带来不同程度的危害。
在现代社会中使⽤的⼤多数能源都是由煤、电等材料燃烧产⽣，这⼀过程是必将产⽣⼀定的废⽓物。
即便⼀直被认为是“清洁能源”的⽔电，由于⽔利设施的兴建对⽣态环境带来的破坏，也变得“不清洁”了。
在景观创建的过程中，如何将这种危害程度降到最低，是值得我们思考的。
遵循“Reduce”原则，要求设计师在设计中尽量减少对各种资源尤其是不可再⽣资源的使⽤，尽可能减少包括能源、⼟地、⽔、⽣物资源的使⽤，提⾼使⽤效率，取⽽代之的应尽量结合⾃然因⼦，采⽤风能、光能、热能、太阳能等可再⽣⽆污染能源，达到减少能源的消耗和减少对⼈体的不良影响的⽬标。
所以，景观设计师必须通过科学合理的设计与计算，合理地利⽤⾃然的过程如光、风⽔等，基于现有的技术，⼤⼤提⾼能源和资源的利⽤率，并减少不可再⽣资源的使⽤，特别是作为⾃然遗产，不在万不得⼰，不予以使⽤。
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生态景观设计的原则Principles of Ecological LandscapeDesign学部（院）：建筑与艺术学院专业：艺术设计（环境艺术设计）学生姓名：学号：指导教师：完成日期：4ComplexCreations:Designing and ManagingEcosystemsA dragonflyflitsoverthesun-mirroredsurfaceofapond,snappingathatchingmosquitoesbeforecom- ing to rest on an overhanging rush. This is an ecosystem: animals, plants, and theirphysicalenviron- mentlinked together in the exchange of energy and materials. If this were our pond,ourecosystem,wewouldhaveitall:abeautifullandscapefeature,enlivenedbycreaturesweneve rhadto carefor,andhassle-freepestcontrol.Ecosystemslikethisponddoquiet,crucialwork,keepingalivethebiosphereofwhichweareapart.W heresuchanaturalpond,oraforestorfloodplain,exists,itbehoovesustoprotectit.Whereonehasbeen degraded,wewouldbewellservedtorestoreit(seechap.10).Butwheresuchecosystemshavebeenplo wedunderorpavedover,wecanendeavortoreplacethembyfillingthebuiltenvironmentnot justwithlaw nsandplazasandfountainsbutwithecosystems.Anecosystemconsistsofallofthelivingorganismsinanareaalongwiththeirphysicalenviron-ment,anditspropertiesarisefromtheinteractionsbetweenthesecomponents.Anoceanbayisanecos ystem,asisanalpinemeadoworagreenroof.Perhapsbecauseoftheirclearboundaries,lakes andstreams wereimportantobjectsofstudyinthedevelopmentofecosystemecology.Wherebound- ariesarelessdistinct,thelimitsofanecosystemcanbe defined,evenarbitrarily,basedonthequestionanecol ogistisstudyingortheboundariesofa designer’s site.Designedlandscapesalreadybringtogetheramanipulatedphysicalenvironmentandlivingor-ganisms.Theydonotnecessarilyfunctionasnaturalecosystemsdo,however.Theyaredisconnect-ed,toooftenwastefulanddemanding,orelsetheysimplyfailtothrive.Whenwesucceedincreat-ingintegratedecosystems,theresultscanberemarkable.Lifecanspringforth,almostunbidden.Waste scanbetransformedintoresources.Thevariousmembersofalivingcommunitycanreacha tentativebalance.Thebuiltenvironmentcanpurifywater,protectusfromfloods,andstrengthenour sense ofwell-being.T.Beck,PrinciplesofEcologicalLandscapeDesign,DOI10.5822/978-1-61091-199-3_4,©2013TravisBeckComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingTHE ECOSYSTEMCONCEPTTheideathatplantsandanimalsandtheirenvironmentformanintegratedwholeisattherootofthedi sciplineofecology,althoughittookdecadestoarticulateinitsmodernform.In1887,inanaddresstothe Peoria ScientificAssociation,StephenForbesdescribedthelakeas“amicrocosm.”In orderforascientisttounderstandanyonespecies,heargued,Hemustevidentlystudyalsothespeciesuponwhichitdependsforitsexistence,andthevariouscondi tions upon which these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comesincompetition,andtheentiresystemofconditionsaffectingtheirprosperity;andbythetimehe has studiedallthese sufficiently hewillfindthathehasrunthroughthewholecomplicatedmechanismofthe aquaticlifeofthelocality,bothanimalandvegetable,ofwhichhisspeciesformsbutasingleelement. (Forbes 1887:537)Theterm microcosm didnotenterintowiderecologicaluse.However,theideaofmanyorganisms formi ngalargerentitygainedexpressionintheturn-of-the-centuryconceptoftheclimaxcommu-nity(seechap.2).ThisconceptwassingledoutbyBritishecologistArthurTansleyina1935articleprovoca tively titled“TheUseandAbuseof VegetationalConceptsand Terms.”Theabusetowhichhereferredwas theinsistenceofClementsandotherecologistsonapplyingtheterm organism tothe climaxcommunity.“Thereisnoneedtowear ythe reader,”hewrote,“withalistofthepointsinwhichthebiotic communitydoes n ot resemblethesingleanimal orplant”(Tansley1935:290).However,hedidnot holdbackfrommentioningtha ta community’sprocessofdevelopmentisverydifferentfromthelife cycle of animals and plants. At best, Tansley offered, vegetation might resemble a“quasi-organism,”thoughonenotnearlysowellintegratedasahumansocietyorahiveofbees.Thisacceptance ofa quasi-organismalstatusforcommunitiesdifferentiatesTansley’s criticismofClementsianecology fromGleason’s purelyindividualisticfocus.Thereisacertaintruthtotheideaoftheclimaxcommunitybeing wellintegrateda ndself-regulating,Tansleyargued,butitcouldbestatedmoreaccuratelyanotherway.Tansleypreferredtothinkintermsofintegratedsystems.Hisnotionofsystemswasborrowedfrom thephysical sciences.“These ecosystems,aswemaycall them,”hewrote,“areofthemost variouskinds andsizes.Theyformonecategoryofthemultitudinousphysicalsystemsoftheuniverse,whichrange from the universe as a whole down to the atom” (Tansley1935: 299). An essential partof T ansley’sdescriptionoftheecosystemisthatheincludedinitnotonlyalloftheplantsandanimalsandoth erlivingthingsinagiven“weboflife”butalsothe entiretyofthephysicalcomponentsoftheir environmen t,suchassoil,sunlight,andwater.CREATEECOSYSTEMSBuiltlandscapesalsohavephysicalandbiologicalcomponents:crudely,inindustryterms, hardscapeandsoftscape.Toooften,thesecomponentsarefarfromintegrated.Thehardscapeissetin respo nse to programmatic needs, and plants are tucked into the remaining spaces. If thephysicalenvironmentisnotrightforthebiologicalcomponents,thenitisaltered,byprovidingirrigati on,forinstance (seechap.1).Complex Creations: Designing and Managing Consideratypicallandscapepond.Anestateownermightpayacontractortoclearanarea,ex-cavateahole,lineit,fillitfullofwaterfromawell,andtrimthewholesetupneatlywithrocksorlawnandpe rhapsafewaquaticplantsonaplantingshelf.Aswaterevaporatesfromtheunshadedpond,thewellpum pkicksinandtopsoffthepond.Evensuburbanhomeownerswanttheirownpondsandwaterfalls,fullofmunicipalwaterandlinedwithdwarfconifersorJapaneseiris(Irisensata)sittinglike rockyp uzzlepiecesontheirlawns.Thesesystemsare fullyartificial,rely onsupplementalwater,and often require filtration or even sterilization to remain aesthetically acceptable. Physical andbiological elements are divorced from each other and from theirsurroundings.Bycontrast,apondthatisconceivedofasanecosystemfusesphysicalandbiologicalelements intoawholethatintegrateswith,ratherthansitsapartfrom,ndscapearchitectsAndropogonAssociatescreatedsuchapondonapropertyinGreenwich,Co nnecticut.Naturally,throughout NewEngland’s forests,inthespringsmalldepressionsintheland-scapefillwithwater,which infiltrates asgroundwaterlevelsdropinthesummer.Thesevernalpoolsprovid eimportanthabitatforamphibianssuchassalamandersandfrogs.Onthispropertysuchadepressionexi sted,setagainstagraniticoutcrop,onlyithadlongbeenfilledwithbranches,leaves,andothergreenwast ebygenerationsofgardeners.WhenColinFranklin,foundingprincipalatAndro-pogon,discoveredtherockydellandthesmallspringatitsbase,hesawanopportunity.AndropogonAssoci ates’design philosophy haslongbeentobuild“d ynamic,holisticsystems,”thatis,ecosystems.Franklin’s approachwastolinethecenterofthedepressioninordertomaintainaminimumwaterlevelbutleavethe edgesunlined.Waterfromthespringiscollectedinasumpbeneaththepondandpumpedviaaslenderw aterfallofftherockoutcropandintothepond.Inspringthepond overflows,recharginggroundwaterinthe area(fig.4.1).Themarginsareplantedwithtreesandotherplantsthatareadaptedtothisseasonalflooding.Betweentheopenwater,theplantedwetlandatthepond’sedge,a ndtheseasonalwetlandbeyond,thedesignprovidesdiversehabitat(seechap.7).When waterlevelsdroptotheleveloftheliner,thewettedmarginsdry,mimickingthecycleofvernalpools.Ifwa terlevelsdropfurther,thesumppumpandwaterfallcanmakeupthedifferencefromthe rechargedgroundwater.Becausethepondisintheforest,however,evaporationandthe needformakeupwaterareminimal.Thisforestedpondisnowahuboflifeandthecenteroftheentirelandscape.Ratherthancreatea sterilewaterfeatureofdissociatedelements,Andropogoncreatedanecosystem,withnaturalphysicalcycle sandplantsandanimalsadaptedtothem. ECOSYSTEMSARECOMPLEXADAPTIVESYSTEMSEcologists’ understanding of the multitudinous systems of the universe has evolved since Tansleywrote hiscritiqueofClementsin1935.Mostrecently,ecosystemshavebeenregardedascomplex adap-tivesystems.SimonLevin(1998,1999),abiologistatPrinceton,isachiefproponentofthisview.Incompl exadaptivesystems,asexplainedbyLevin,heterogeneousindividualagentsinteractlocallytocreatelar gerpatterns,andtheoutcomeofthoselocalinteractionsaffectsthefurtherdevelopmentofthesystem(fig.4.2).Itiseasytoseehowthisappliestoecosystems.Theplantsandanimals,rocks andwateranddetrit usthatmakeupapondarealldifferent,yettheyinteracttocreatearecognizableComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.1SchematicdesignoftheAndropogon-designedpondecosystem.Duringnormaldryweatherconditions(a)alinerandgroundwaterpumpmaintainaper manentwaterlevel.Duringnormalwetseasonconditions (b) overflow enters peripheral seasonal wetlands and recharges groundwater. (Drawing byColinFranklin.)systemwithpropertiesofitsown.Ifaplantthatproducesmorebiomasscompetitivelyexcludesothe rs alongthe pond’s margins,thentheaccumulationofdetritusinthepond,thepopulationsof bottomfeeders,andotherecosystempropertieswillallbeaffected.Levinfurtherdescribedfourcharacteristicsofcomplexadaptivesystems.Theyarediverse,ag-gregated,nonlinear,andconnected byflows.Ecosystemsincludeindividualorganismswithdiversechar acteristics.Throughtheirinteractions,theindividualagentsinanecosystembecomegrouped intolargerorganizationalentities.Forexample,populationsaregroupsofinteractingindividualsofthe sames pecies(seechap.2).Themostaccuratewaytoviewaggregationisthroughthecompositionofahierarchy (seechap.9).Nonlinearitymeansthatsmallchangesinanecosystemcanleadtooutsizedeffects.Remov alofasinglekeystonespecies,forinstance,canchangethecompositionofanentire community(seechap.7).Nonlinearityalsoreferstothefactthatecosystemsareaffectedbyhistoryas muchasbypresentconditio ns.Finally,asweshallseeinthefollowingsections,ecosystemsclearly exhibitflowsofenergyandmaterial sthatconnectalltheirindividualparts.LET CONSTRUCTED ECOSYSTEMSSELF-DESIGNIf ecosystems are complex adaptive systems that develop from the interaction oftheir componentsandtheeventsofhistory,thensuccessfulecosystemsareunlikelytospringforthfromour headsfullyformedbutshouldemergeinsteadthroughaprocesswemightcallself-design.Complex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.2Turingpatterns,likethisone,areanexampleofacomplexsystemformedfromlocalinteractions.Inthisc ase,each pixel’s colorisdeterminedbythecolorofthesurroundingpixelsaccordingtoacomputer algorithm.Startingfromarandomi nitialstate,thepatterncontinuestoevolve.(ImagebyJonathanMcCabe,underCreativeCommons2.0GenericLicense.) BillMitschandhiscolleaguesexploredself-designattheWilmaH.SchiermeierOlentangyRiver WetlandResearchParkinColumbus,Ohio(Mitschetal.1998).Theyintentionallyleftoneoftwobasinsintheir newlycreatedexperimentaloxbowunvegetated.Theyknewthatwind,water,andanimalswould bringinne wplantssoonenough,andtheywantedtoseehowcloselytheunplantedwetlandwouldresembletheon etheyplanted.Within3years,thetwowetlandswereremarkablysimilarintermsofvegetativecover,dive rsityofplants,waterchemistry,andseveralothermeasuresofecologicalfunc-tion(fig.4.3).Thiscongruenceresultsnotsimplyfromtheunplantedwetlandcomingtoresemblethepla ntedonebutfrombothwetlandschangingto reflect siteconditionsandmigrations.Ofthethirteenorigin alspeciesintheplantedwetland,fourdiedoff.Thesurvivingspecieswerejoinedbyanaddi-tionalfifty-twounplantedspecies.BecausethewetlandswereconnectedhydrologicallytothenearbyOlentangyRi ver,thenatural inflow ofspecieshadamuchgreater influence onthemakeupoftheplant communitiesinthetwowetlandsthandidtheinitialplantingofonebasin.Thesuccessofthetwobasinsasself-designedecosystemsisindicatedbytheOlentangyRiver Wetland’s designation under the RamsarConvention as a Wetland of International Importance.Complex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.3AerialviewofthetwoOlentangyRiverWetlands.(CourtesyofWilliamJ.Mitsch,WilmaH.Schierm eierOlentangy River Wetland ResearchPark.)ECOSYSTEMSAREORGANIZEDINTROPHICLEVELSAs complex adaptive systems, ecosystems are animated by the interactions betweentheirconstituentpartsandtheflowsthatconnectthem.Inthe1940sayoungAmericanecologi st,RaymondLindeman, suggestedawayofanalyzingecosystemsintermsofenergyflow.AswithForbesbeforehim,Linde-man’s focuswasonlakes.After5yearsoffieldworkonthesmallCedarBogLakeneartheUniversityofMin nesota,LindemansignedupforapostdoctoralyearatYaleUniversitywithG.EvelynHutchinson (wholateradvisedRobertMacArthuronhisstudyofresourcepartitioninginwarblers)(seechap.3).Duri ngthatyearheandHutchinsonworkedonthearticlethatwas tobecome“The Trophic–DynamicAspectof Ecology”(Lindeman1942).Tragically,Lindemandiedattheageof27,afewmonthsbe forehisarticle,whichwasinitiallyrejectedasbeingtootheoretical,wasfinallypublishedintheflagshipj ournaloftheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.Theideasheputforthhavehadalastingimpactonthefieldofecosystemecology.Lindeman’s focus was on the trophic, or “energ y-availing,” relationships within an ecosystem.Bor- rowingfromGermanlimnologistAugustThienemann,heabstractedthefamiliarfoodwebsthatnatural-istsandecologistshadproducedforlakesandothersystemsintotrophiclevels:Producersareorgan-ismssuchasplantsandphytoplanktonthatobtaintheirenergyfromthesun,consumersareorganisms suchaszooplanktonandfishthatobtaintheirenergyfromeatingproducers,anddecomposersarethe bacteriaandfungithatobtaintheirenergyfrombreakingdowntheorganicsubstancesinthewastes and remainsofotherorganisms.Byabstractinganecosystemtotrophiclevels,Lindeman sacrificed aComplex Creations: Designing and Managingcertainamountofbiologicalreality.Healsocreatedtheproblemofhowtoclassifyorganismsthateat both producers and consumers. There can be several levels of consumers in anecosystem,although earlier ecologists had noted that rarely are there more than five trophic levels intotal.Lindeman’s analysisexplainedthisphenomenon.Unlikethechemicalelements,whichcan cycleindefinitely inanecosystem(seechap.6),energy flow sthroughanecosysteminonedirectiononly:fromthesuntoproducerstoconsumerstosecond-aryconsumerstodecomposers.Ateachtransferofenergybetweentrophiclevels,Lindemannoted,a certainamountislost (fig.4.4).Primaryconsumerssuchasbrowsingsnailsexpendacertainamountofenergyjustlivingand findingproducerstoeat.Someofthemdiebeforetheyareeatenbybenthic predat ors.SomeoftheenergycontainedinthebodiesofthosethatareeatenistiedupintissuessuchFigure4.4Lindeman’s diagramofthefoodwebanddifferenttrophiclevelsinageneralizedlake.Energyandnu trientsenterthesystemfromtheoutside.Thesearecapturedandtransformedbybothmicroscopicand macrosco pic producers (phytoplanktersand pondweeds, A 1). Primary consumers (zooplankters and browsers, A 2)eattheproducersandinturnareeatenbysecondaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpre dators,A 3).Tertiaryconsumers(planktonpredatorsandbenthicpredators,A 4)areatthetopofthe foodchain.Alltheorganicmatterinthesystemultimatelycyclesthroughthebacterialdecomposersintheoozeatthebottomofthelake,whichinturnfeedszooplanktersandbrowsers.(FromLindeman,R.L.Copyright©1942,Ecolo gicalSocietyofAmerica.Thetrophic –dynamicaspectofecology.Ecology 23:399–417.WithpermissionfromtheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.)Complex Creations: Designing and Managingλasshellsthatare difficult todigestandwhoseenergyisnotpassedalong.Theavailableenergyineacht rophiclevel,then,islessthanthatintheprecedinglevel.Lindemanexpressedthisrelationship usingthep roductivitysymbollambda(λ):0 >λ1 >λ2 . . . >λn .Aswemovetohigherandhighertrophiclevels,lessandlessenergyisavailable.Becausehigher-orderconsumersalsoneedever-greaterlevelsofenergytoseekouttheirprey,atsomepointin everyecosystem,thereisnolonger sufficientenergy tosupportanothertrophiclevel.Lindemancalculatedtheproductivityand efficiency ofenergytransferbetweentrophiclevelsforse verallakesforwhichhehaddataanddrewsomepreliminaryconclusions.This prefigured themore precisemodelingofecosystemsthatwastocomeinthenextphaseofecosystemecology.INTEGRATEPRODUCERS,CONSUMERS,ANDDECOMPOSERSAllecosystemsaregovernedbytherulesofenergy flowthatLindemanoutlined.Aswemanageexisti ngecosystemsandstrivetocreatefunctioningecosystemsofourown,weneedtobesurethedifferenttr ophiclevelsarerepresentedintheirproperratios.Ifalevelismissingortherearetoofeworganismsattha tlevel,energy,intheformoforganicmatter,willaccumulateaswaste,orundesirableorganismsmaytakea dvantageofthebounty.Iftherearetoomanylevelsortoomanyorganisms,theywill need supplemental inputs to survive, or else they will die or move away. Using anecosystemapproach,wecancreateamorebalanceddesignedlandscapeinwhichvariouscomponen tssupport eachotherandproducelittlewaste.AtElMonteSagrado,anecologicallymindedluxuryresortinTaos,NewMexico,alinkedseriesofcaref ullydesignedaquaticecosystemsprovidewastewatertreatmentandanessentialpartofthelandscape.The systems’ability to filterwaterdependsontheintegrationofdifferenttrophiclevels.Attheheartofth ewastewater filtrationprocessisaLivingMachine.LivingMachineswereoriginallydeveloped by ecological designer John Todd in the 1970s and 1980s (Todd and Todd 1993).Theyhavesincebeen refined andarenowdesignedandsoldbyLivingMachineSystems.Inthewor dsofgeneralmanagerEricLohan,oneofthedesignersofthesystematElMonteSagrado,theyworkby tak ingnaturalecosystemprocessesand “turbo -charging”them.Inthewastewater system,muchoftheinitialenergycomesnotfromsunlightbutfromthewa steproductsthemselves,whichareconsumedby bacterialdecomposers.Thusfartheprocessresembles aconventionalsepticsystem,inwhichexcessbacterialbiomasssettlesoutassludgethateventuallyhast oberemoved.IntheLivingMachine,the bacteriathatperformtheinitialdecompositionarecentraltoanen tireecosystem(justasbacteriaarein Lindeman’s diagramofalakeecosystem),inwhichtheyareconsumed byprotozoans,microcrusta-ceans,andsnails.Plants floatingabovethewastewaterasitistreatedtakeupaportionofthenewly availa blenutrientsandprovideintheirrootsalivingsubstrateforthisdiversecommunity.Afterdisinfectionand finalpolishinginanoutdoorwetland,thenowclearwaterentersindoordis-playpondsandanotheraquaticecosystem.Hereproducersincludeavarietyoftropicalplants,phyto-plankton,andalgae,and fishplaytheroleofconsumers.Resortguestsalsoserveasconsumerswhen they enjoystarfruit(Averrhoacarambola )andkumquatfromtheplantsthatareirrigatedbythetreatedwastewa ter.Byincludingallthetrophiclevels,thissystemfullyusestheenergyandnutrientspresentComplex Creations: Designing and Managing inthewastewatergeneratedbyresortguests,resultinginclearwaterandvaluableendproductsrath erthanmurkygraywaterandsewagesludge.Ontopofthis,thankstothe efficient reuseofwater thatthea quaticecosystemsallowandtheircentralitytotheoveralldesignoftheresort,eveninthehigh desertElMont eSagradohasalushambiencethatinvitesgueststorelaxandfeelthemselvesapartof living processes (fig.4.5).Figure4.5TreatedwaterfromtheLivingMachineentersanindoordisplaypondatElMonteSagrado resortinTao s,NewMexico.(PhotocourtesyofWorrellWaterTechnologies.)NEGATIVEFEEDBACKLOOPSHELPECOSYSTEMSMAINTAINSTABILITYOne of the aspects of ecosystems that fascinated the early ecologists who studied themwas that ecosystems can demonstrate, in Arthur Tansley’swords, a “relatively stabledynamic equilibrium.”Fifteenyears afterthepublicationofLindeman’sarticleontrophic dynamics,HowardOdum(1957)am assedlargeamountsofdataintoamuchmoreexactpictureofthesurgingdynamics behind such apparentstability.TheecosystemOdumstudiedwastheheadwatersofSilverSprings,Florida.Sincethenineteenth cen turySilverSpringshasbeenatouristattractiontowhichvisitorsflocktoadmirethecrystalclearwa-ter,schoolsoffish,andwavingfreshwatereelgrass(Sagittariasubulata)(fig.4.6).Theglass-bottomed boatwasinventedatSilverSprings,infact,andtothisdayonecantakeaboatridearoundthethr ee quartermilesofwateryattractionswithfolksynamessuchasFishReceptionHall.SilverSpringsmadeComplex Creations: Designing and ManagingFigure4.6ResearchdiversinmainboilofSilverSpringsholdherbivorousturtlesamidalgae-coveredeelgrass.(FromOdum,H.T.Copyright©1957,EcologicalSocietyofAmerica.Trophicstructureandproducti vityofSilver Springs,Florida.EcologicalMonographs27:55–112.WithpermissionfromtheEcologicalSocietyofAmerica.)an excellent natural laboratory for Odum because of the constancy of its flow, temperature,and chemi-calproperties.Odumnotedthatthesprings’“hydrographicclimate”wasata steadystateand thatalong-standingclimaxcommunityhadresulted.Odumandhisteamofresearcherswenttoremarkablelengthstocapturedataoneveryaspectofthe SilverSpringsecosystem.Bendingoverthebowofamotoringboat,theymeasuredthetempera-turechangesinwaterasitflowedoutofthemainboilanddownstream.Byharvestingandweighingsampl esofeelgrassandthealgaethatcoveredit,theydeterminedthebiomassoftheseproducers.Theygrews nailsincagesonthebottomofthestreamandmeasuredtheirincreaseinweight.Theysnuckuponquadr atsmarkedintheeelgrassandpartedtheleavestocountatypeof sunfishcalled stumpknockers(Lepomisp unctatus)wheretheyhid.Cleverly,Odumandhisteamwereabletomeasuretheoverallmetabolismofthecommunitybycomparingoxygen levels in the water during the day and at night. The regular flow of SilverSprings carried all the “waste products” of the ecosystem past the measuring station three quarters of amiledownstreamfromtheboil.Atnightalltheorganismsinthecommunityrespired,loweringoxygenlevelsto apoint that reflected their cumulative metabolism. During the day, respiration continued, butthe photosyntheticproducersalsogaveoffoxygen.Thedifferencebetweendaytimeandnighttimeoxygenlevel s,multipliedbythevolumeofthecurrent,thereforeprovidedameasureofthedifferencebetweenphotosynthesisand respiration, which is the ecosystem’s net primaryproduction.Combiningallthesemeasurements,Odumwasabletocreateadetaileddescriptionoftheflowofenergyin the entire ecosystem. This analysis also allowed him to explain how Silver Springs maintained itself inaseeminglyunchangingstate.Basedontheratioofcommunityproductivitytostandingbio-mass,Odum estimatedthattheentirecommunityturnedover(diedandwasreplaced)eighttimesperyear.Clearly,smaller organi smsturnedovermanytimesmorethantheaverageandlargerlonger-livedorganismsless.Becauseofthedifferentamountofsunlightreachingtheprimaryproducersinwinterands ummer,therewasanaturalpulseinproductioninthesystem.Onemightexpectthisburstofproductivitytober eflected inaflushofnewgrowthintheeelgrassoranincreaseinthepopulationofprimaryconsumers.Infact,sta ndingbiomassandpopulationlevelswerestablethroughouttheyear.Odumevenreportedanoldboatcaptain askinghim whethertheeelgrassevergrew.Seasonalspikesinconsumer reproduction seemedto betimedto matchtheincreasedproductivity,andtheextrayounginonetrophiclevelwerequicklyeatenbytheextrayounginthenext,so thatalthoughmoreenergymayhavebeenflowingthrough,standingbiomassintheecosystemremained const ant.Negativefeedbackloopssuchasanincreaseinconsumptionthatabsorbsanincreaseinproduction helpecosystemsre-mainstable.Wherenegativefeedbackloopsmeetaconstantenvironment,asatSilver Springs,overall stabilitycanbemaintainedforanextendedperiod.第4章复杂的作品:生态景观设计的原则Principles of Ecological LandscapeDesign设计和管理生态系统一只蜻蜓掠过波光粼粼的池塘表面,抓住孵化后的蚊子之前在一个悬臂冲旁休息。