研究生学术英语写作教程Unit 4 Describing Methodology
研究生英语教程(上Unit 4 Love and Romance
Unit 4 Love and RomanceText A We Lave Who We Lave( I )Dr. Joyce Brothers1 I know of one couple; He is burly ex-athlete who, in addition to being a successful salesman, coached a children ’ s softball team, was active in his; Rotary Club and played golf every Saturday with friends. Meanwhile, his wife is petite, quiet and a complete homebody. She doesn’t even like to go out If dinner.我认识一对夫妇,他魁梧的前退役运动员,除了作为一个成功的推销员,一个孩子的垒球教练团队,积极活跃在;扶轮社,每个星期六和朋友打高尔夫球。
与此同时,他的妻子是娇小的,安静,是一个不折不扣的家庭主妇。
她甚至不喜欢外出如果晚餐。
2 What mysterious force drives us into the arms of one person, while pushing us away from another who might appear equally desirable to any unbiased observer?是什么神秘力量使我们投入到某个人的怀抱,而推动我们远离那些可能出现另一个旁观者眼里同样可取的?3 Of the many factors influencing our idea of the perfect mate, one of the most telling, according to John Money, a Professor Emeritus of Medical Psychology and Pediatrics in the United States, is what he calls our “love map”— a group of messages encoded in our brains that describes our likes and dislikes. It shows our preferences in hair and eye color, in voice, smell, and body build. It also records the kind of personality that appeals to us, whether i t’s the warm and friendly type or the strong, silent type.许多因素影响我们心目中的完美伴侣,其中最有力的,根据约翰金钱名誉教授,儿科医学心理学在美国,是他所谓的“爱情地图”——一群消息编码在我们的大脑,它描述了我们的好恶。
学术英语理工unit4 Abstract & literature review
Thank
you
purpose or objective
human beings are exposed to different source of radiation every
day
the radiation is not so terrible as they expected
methods & principal process
1)the probability of real reactor accident
2)the radioactive
3)other radiation problem
nuclear power radiation will cause much fewer cancer and death than coal burning
Susan Blumenthal
Radiation and Health:The Aftershocks of Nunclear Disaster(2011) contexts: 1)the duration
2)strength of the exposure
only exposure to high dose of radiation or long-term low dose exposure could lead to acute health problems
put forward the point
discusse different source of nuclear power risks
compare artificial radiation and natural radiation
analyze their impact
最新研究生学术英语写作教程Unit-8-Writing-Abstract
Unit 8 Writing AbstractObjectives- Learn the purpose of writing an academic abstract- Get to understand different types of abstracts and the abstract elements- Understand features of academic English in writing an abstract- Learn how to write an academic abstract- Learn how to write key wordsContents- Teacher’s introduction- Reading and discussion:What is an academic abstract?What are the elements of an abstract?- Language focus: commonly used verbs and tenses; sentence patterns- Rewriting practice: understand different styles of academic abstracts- Rewriting practice: understand the elements of an academic abstract- Writing practice: write an abstract and key words based on the given material1.Reading Activity1.1 Pre-reading TaskAbstract is an important part of academic assignments, most often, reports and research papers. The abstract is the last item that you write, but the first thing people read when they want to have a quick overview of the whole paper. We suggest that you leave abstract writing to the end, because you will have a clearer picture of all your findings and conclusions.Before you learn the detailed steps to write an abstract, please discuss the following questions:What is the purpose of writing an abstract?What are the basic elements for an academic abstract?What language problems may you have in abstract writing? (For example: the wording problem, the tense problem and the voice problem, etc.)1.2Reading PassageSample Abstract 1This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, the writer clarifies the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. Two major research strategies were used: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to bear by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.(Kenneth Tait Andrews, “‘Freedom is a constant struggle’: The dynamics and consequences of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984″ Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 What does the abstract talk about?1.3.2Decide how many elements this sample includes and how they function.2Language Focus2.1 Commonly used verbs and tenses in abstractsRead the following sample abstract and pay attention to the verbs used in it. Sample abstract 2Cybercrime –crime on the Internet –is of growing concern in the business community. Despite UK Government initiatives (such as BS7799) and growing sales in software solutions (e.g. anti-virus software), cyber attacks are on the increase. This dissertation focuses on ways to assess the effectiveness of current preventative measures to cybercrime and to understand why organizations continue to be vulnerable to cybercrime. This dissertation met these twin research aims through an extensive study of relevant literature and the implementation of practical research. The latter was carried out through a Case Study with Company XXX using semi-structured interviews with key I.T. security personnel. This research produced a number of key findings: recent surveys confirm a significant increase in the incidences of cybercrime and their impact on the business community but also the types of cybercrime (viruses, hacking, spam, identity theft, fraud, privacy issues, web vandalism, etc.); organizations lacked the security expertise to deal with cybercrime and so depended too much on readily available technical ways to combat cybercrime (and failing); organizations were not aware of Government recommendations on how to address Internet-based security issues; and Governments and law enforcement agencies tended to localize cybercrime, allocating scant resources to contributing to a global solution. The main conclusions drawn from this research were that current approaches to fighting cybercrime are deficient because they fail to embrace a holistic approach, instead opting for a narrow local software-based focus, and that a lack of communication between major stakeholders at local, national and international level has hindered security development. This research argues for a multi-pronged model to reduce incidences of cybercrime. It takes into account Risk-Assessment models, local management of company policies, implementation issues (including proper resourcing and review policies), the need for global support infrastructures, and a means of fostering communication networks.(/Dissertation_Abstract.htm)2.2 More verbs and sentences patterns2.2 Verb tenses in abstractsRead the abstract above again and check the tenses in the abstract.3Writing Practice3.1 Abstract writing practice3.1.1 Why do we care about the problem and the results? If the problem is not obviously "interesting", it might be better to put motivation first; but if your work is incremental progress on a problem that is widely recognized as important, then it is probably better to put the problem statement first to indicate which piece of the larger problem you are breaking off to work on. This section should include the importance of your work, the difficulty of the area, and the impact it might have if successful. Read the following paragraph and write down the Motivation in the blank.A review of groundwater remediation in use today shows that new techniques are required to solve the problems of pump and treat, containment and in-situ treatment. One such technique is the method that involves the use of permeable treatment walls. These methods use a reactive medium such as iron to remediate contaminated groundwater.3.1.2 What problem are you trying to solve? What is the scope of your work (a generalized approach, or for a specific situation)? Be careful not to use too much jargon. In some cases it is appropriate to put the problem statement before the motivation, but usually this only works if most readers already understand why the problem is important. Read the following paragraph and write the problem (aim) in the blank.Several methods of implementing this remediation strategy have been described. These methods include injection and trenching. The use of a funnel and gate system via a trench has been examined in detail using a groundwater modeling option of the FLAC program.3.1.3 How did you go about solving or making progress on the problem? Did you use simulation, analytic models, prototype construction, or analysis of field data for an actual product? What was the extent of your work (did you look at one application program or a hundred programs in twenty different programming languages?) What important variables did you control, ignore, or measure? Read the following paragraph and write the approach in the blank.The use of a funnel and gate system via a trench has been examined in detail using a groundwater modeling option of the FLAC program. The modeling involved an analysis of the effect of changing the lengths of the walls and gate, varying the permeability, and varying the number of gates.3.1.4 What is the answer? Specifically, most good computer architecture papers conclude that something is so many percent faster, cheaper, smaller, or otherwise better than something else. Put the result there, in numbers. Avoid vague, hand-waving results such as "very", "small", or "significant." If you must be vague, you are only given license to do so when you can talk about orders-of-magnitude improvement. There is a tension here in that you should not provide numbers that can be easily misinterpreted, but on the other hand, you do not have room for all the caveats. Read the following paragraph and write the result in the blank.The results showed that increasing the wall length, gate length and permeability increases the size of the plume captured. An important factor in designing the walls is the residence time of the water in the gate or the contact time of the contaminant with the reactive media.3.1.5 What are the implications of your answer? Is it going to change the world (unlikely), be a significant "win", be a nice hack, or simply serve as a road sign indicating that this path is a waste of time (all of the previous results are useful). Are your results general, potentially generalizable, or specific to a particular case? Read the following and write the conclusion in the blank:A sensitivity analysis has been conducted that shows that increasing the size of the capture zone decreases the residence time which will limit the design. The results of the modeling and sensitivity analysis are presented so that they can be used as an aid to the design of permeable treatment walls.3.2 The following is a structured abstract from a report examining the network legitimacy in China telecommunication market (Low, Johnston, and Wang 97). Read it and transfer it into an informative abstract.Abstract structurePurpose – The purpose of this paper is to establish the importance and approaches in securing an organization’s legitimacy from the network community of customers, suppliers and manufacturers, including private investors and state-owned institutions when marketing their products.Design/methodology/approach –The paper presents an inductive interpretative approach complemented by action-based research founded on inquiry and testing.Findings –The paper finds that the key to legitimacy success involves using legitimacy orientations to demonstrate commitment to the interests of constituents, acquiring legitimacy from them, but concurrently considering the central government’s influence on a firm’s legitimacy performance.Research limitations/implications –The multiple interactions proposed in this paper remain untested and might have to be modified pending further empirical testing and analysis.Practical implications –In China’s telecommunication market, a company’s legitimacy emanates first and foremost from the development and commercialization of innovative and creative technological solutions. This requires good, creative management of technological resource and activity links, connecting the company’s technology to network constituents which include local manufacturers, carriers, software developers, investors.Originality/value – This is the first published paper that examines the proposed interactions among legitimacy orientations, alignments, and performances from a “market-as-network” perspective in a dynamic, transitional Chinese telecommunication market.3.3Writing keywordsKeywords often stand alone after the Abstract. In choosing the key words, a wide choice of keywords increases the probability that a paper will be retrieved and read, thereby potentially improving citation counts and journal impacts. To ensure that your paper can be found and cited by as many readers as possible, as suggested by James Hartley, it might be worth considering selecting keywords from a series of categories such as Discipline (e.g. economic, chemistry, biomedical), Methods (e.g. experiment, case study, questionnaire, grounded theory), Data source (e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary students, senior citizens), Location (e.g. country, city, town, institution), Topic (e.g. air pollution, super-virus, earthquake). Such a selection of keywords allows the search engine, such as Google Advanced Scholar, to list your paper in the results no matter which of the above keywords the reader types in.The researchers sometimes have to trade-off between the keywords, particularly when they write for the journals that bound the number of keywords in the limit of 3~5. In this situation, choose the keywords from recent or often-cited titles close to your contribution. If you pick your keywords in this way, the searches that retrieve these articles will also retrieve yours. Consequently, the chances of your paper being read will increase. Read the above sample abstracts and write down the key words:4. Writing project4.1 Get prepared for writing an abstractBefore you write the Abstract section of your research paper, you need to make everything ready for your writing. The following steps may be helpful for your preparation.1) Identify the major objectives and conclusions.2) Identify phrases with keywords in the methods section.3) Identify the major results from the discussion or results section.4) Assemble the above information into a single paragraph.5) State your hypothesis or method used in the first sentence.6) Omit background information, literature review, and detailed description ofmethods.7) Remove extra words and phrases.8) Revise the paragraph so that the abstract conveys only the essential information.9) Check to see if it meets the guidelines of the targeted journal.10) Give the abstract to a colleague (preferably one who is not familiar with yourwork) and ask him/her whether it makes sense.Work in groups and discuss what other preparations you can make for writing an abstract section of your research paper.4.2 Outline an abstractWhen we outline an abstract, there are usually five major aliments to follow. The following sample paper is finished without the abstract and key words. Read the paper, find the statements concerned and fill in the blank after it.Sample paperGLOBAL MEGACITIES AND LOW CARBON: FROM CONCEPT PLANNING TO INTEGRATED MODELLINGPhil Jones, Simon Lannon, Robbert van Nouhuys, Hendrik RosenthalMega citiesIn 1950, 30% of the world’s population lived in cities. In 2000, it was 47%. By 2010 more than half of the world’s population will be living in cities. The total may even reach 60% by 2030 and possibly 85% by the middle of this century. Such rapidly increasing urbanization, particularly in developing countries, creates many opportunities and challenges.We are living in a globalized and changing world whereby increasingly we require wise use of human and natural resources. At the same time, we need to reduce the risk urbanization poses and enhance the quality of life for all those who live in, or are impacted by Megacities. Megacities are more than just large cities with populations of 10 million inhabitants or more. They are critical to national economies. Their scalecreates new dynamics, new complexity and new simultaneity of events and processes –physical, social and economic. They host highly efficient economic activities utilizing intense and complex interactions between different demographic, social, political, economic and ecological processes.Nations undergoing economic progress often generate rapid urbanization linked with considerable opportunities, as well as strong pressures for change accompanied by environmental degradation. In current times in the developing world, Megacities grow faster than ever before and much faster than their infrastructure can support. Traditionally this results in uncontrolled urban sprawl, high traffic volumes and congested transport systems, high concentrations of industrial production, ecological overload, unregulated and disparate land and property markets, insufficient housing development, excessive waste generation, loss of productivity, general economic constipation, degradation and decline.Over the past decades traditional Megacities have been suffering from inadequate representative governance, inhibiting spatial planning, building control, delivery of services (such as water supply, sewage disposal and energy distribution), and the establishment of general order (including security and disaster prevention). Existing administrations and their organizational structures may have been outgrown by the rapidly expanding city and may simply be unable to cope with the huge scale of their new responsibilities. On the other hand, megacities contain a rich mix of coexisting people and support systems when properly planned and managed. Groups with their own distinctive ethnic, community, cultural roots, lifestyles and social surroundings have opportunity to thrive and develop. Differences in economic development, social polarization, quality of infrastructure and governance are recognized and taken into account. The scale and dynamism of Megacities, coupled with complex interacting processes and the sheer concentration of human capital make them incubators of huge growth and innovation. Megacities are the focal points of globalization as well as the driving forces for development; they harbor a wide spectrum of human skill and potential, creativity, social interaction and cultural diversity.For Hanoi to develop within a rapid urbanization scenario it must look far ahead –not 20 years, not 50 years but 100 years –into the 22nd Century. The use of conventional planning and economic development guidelines have proven to be outdated, resulting in the risk of harboring pronounced poverty, social inequality, and aggravating rapid environmental degradation. Population density, if not managed, increases vulnerability to natural and man-made hazards. Thus, Megacities are both victims and producers of risk, if unmanaged and exposed to the global environmental, socio-economic and political changes to which they contribute.Megacities will be essential and efficient drivers of a nation’s gross domestic product, processes and activities. Megacities will be ideal places to drive activities and innovation to solve social, environmental, medical, socio-economic and political issues. For these reasons, Megacities are necessary and have potential to substantially contribute towards global justice and peace – and thereby prosperity.Low Carbon and Energy ModelingAspects of sustainable master planning that impact carbon and energy implications need to be understood to help inform concepts at the earliest stage of the design process. For example, the full benefits of reducing operating energy demand of buildings can only be realized if the energy supply can respond to the reduced demand, which includes the additional benefits of reducing the energy supply infrastructure, which in turn reduces its embodied energy. Likewise, if a low (or zero) carbon energy supply is to be used, for example, renewable energy, this is easier to achieve if first the energy demand is reduced. Also, as the operating energy performance of buildings is improved the carbon dioxide emissions associated with the operation of the building, for heating, cooling, lighting, etc., becomes of the same order as the embodied energy used in construction and fit-out of the building and its infra-structure. So a balanced approach across energy demand and supply infrastructure, operating energy and embodied energy, is needed to achieve optimum performance.This paper describes how the aspects of low carbon planning and design (i.e. operating energy use, embodied energy associated with buildings, energy supply infrastructures, and other infrastructures such as transport, waste, water, sewage, etc.) can be assessed using urban scale modeling, namely EEP-Urban, at a whole city and building plot level. In particular, it explores how the reduction in energy supply infrastructure together with reduced energy demand can lead to reductions in carbon dioxide emissions associated with both operating and embodied energy. The concept of the Megacity in the context of Hanoi in 2110 is used to illustrate the model.The Concept of Metabolic Super ClustersHanoi in 2110 will feature super tall skyscrapers, elevated connectors and railways, nodal communication networks, as well as electrical and energy corridors. Vertical neighborhoods, where people live, shop, relax and work, are built on and above this surface. Built structures are not just individual towers standing independent from another but instead are interlinked and inter-dependent to form an urban spatial organization that allows for vertical connectivity.The urban model proposes 1 million people on a 1 square kilometer floor plate, hence called a Super Cluster. Under current suburban density standards a similar population would require in the order of 100 square kilometers. Thus, this vision for Hanoi in 2110 saves 99% of land for other uses, most notably conservation of ecological functions and provides food, leisure, material and energy support systems for the city thereby localizing the ecological footprint of the city.Another distinct aspect of Hanoi in 2110 is that it does not have static building functions. Instead, land use layers, building envelopes and orientations change over time – hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly – to optimize performance efficiencies, therefore becoming a Metabolic Super Cluster. It is envisaged that Hanoi by the end of this century will consist of 30 metabolic super clusters in addition to its traditional urban city centre.Concentrated compact development will enhance the quality of life for urban dwellers because all infrastructures, environmentally damaging and other undesirablesurface activities are located underground or integrated into the vertical structure, thereby significantly improving the quality of living space at the ground, open-air level. Underground space may also provide a safer environment for some public and commercial activities as well as providing shelter from inclement weather conditions. This may prove to be essential for infrastructure in particular, given the predicted impacts associated with climate change. Elevated multi-level connectors between building clusters are converted into common corridors with public amenities, farms and open space.Quality of life depends on individual perceptions, attitudes, aspirations and value systems. These differ with age, ethnicity, culture and religion, as well as lifestyles, education and cultural background. An individual’s priorities and attitudes to life depend heavily upon socio-economic background and cultural environment. Historic places, cultural sites or public spaces may give Megacities a certain unique identity, heritage, and authenticity. As a result, such spatial capital contributes to social cohesion and makes people feel at home.Nevertheless, the general opinion may be that the quality of life for many residents in Megacities would be low – for rich and poor alike. Air, water and soil pollution, water and energy supply shortages, traffic congestion, environmental health problems, limited green spaces, poverty and malnutrition, social security and public safety problems place many burdens and restrictions on people.The Megacity of the future has adapted to greater diversity in socio-cultural circumstances by including and enhancing the often widespread and dynamic informal activities that enrich such communities. Further development of new visions and innovative management tools are now urgently needed in order to enhance quality of life and create cohesive communities.Urban governance and management is one of the key success factors of any global Megacity. As society and aspirations evolve over time, the city has to be designed to adapt to change. Utopian cities built around fixed ideologies have never worked. Megacities need to be versatile in order to adapt.The main challenges for a Megacity in terms of urban governance are: dealing with the speed of change with intelligent urban infrastructure systems; eradicating social exclusion; and introducing proper forms of urban governance.Way ForwardWhether or not 1 million people are appropriate for a 1 km2 super cluster remains to be seen. The optimum density for sustainability, land use and quality of life may be less and will vary with global location. The above approach is essential to inform the design of high rise high density Megacities if they are to realize their full potential for providing sustainable healthy zero carbon cities of the future that can co-exist in a sustainable way with their neighboring rural areas.4.3 According to the above table, draft an abstract and keywords for the sample paper. Abstract:Key words:5.Final Checklistbackground, purpose, findings, conclusions, recommendations and follow strictly the chronology of the report/papers.∙Avoid excessive use of jargon, and exaggerative language∙Keep within the specified word limit. Most institutions will have their own "house rules" as to the length of the abstract. The abstract should stand alone and be able to be understood without reference to citations,∙Ensure the abstract contains all your key words (for the searchable databases). ∙Add no new information but simply summarize the report/papers. Be intelligible to a wide audience。
学术英语(人文社科类)Unit-4
Unit 4
The Study of Society and People
Text A
Suggested answers
Language building-up
Task 1 Specialized vocabulary
1 Translate the following sociological terms from English into Chinese or vice versa.
4 Why did men and women marry in the Middle Ages? Mainly in order to keep property in the hands of family or to raise children to work the family farm.
Unit 4
The Study of Society and People
Text A
Suggested answers
Critical reading and thinking
Task 2 Answer the following questions.
5 Where did romantic love make its first appearance? Its first appearance made in courtly circles.
2 Why does the author raise the three questions in Paragraph 2? The author wants to show us what is the prime concern of sociology.
3 Why do people fall in love according to the authors? Because love expresses mutual physical and personal attachment two individuals feel for one another.
研究生英语写译写作 Chapter Four
Understanding Paragraph
Paragraph The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people’s bodies by making mummies of them. In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox,
研究生英语学术论文与写作课件Unit4冯
研究生英语学术论文与写作课件Unit4冯Unit 4. Introduction （4hs）Topical HighlightsGeneral Functions of Introduction:introducing the subject, limiting the research scope, stating the general purpose, showing the writing arrangement Structural Features of Introduction and Some Idiomatic Expressions: starting with the research background, transiting to the existing problem, focusing on the present research Special Attention: sentence structureindicative sentences, imperative sentences, complex sentences, “It + be + adj./participle + that clause…”Theme Presentation1. General Functions of IntroductionEvery professional paper should have at least one or two introductory paragraphs with or without a particular subtitle. The length or the degree of formality of a paper may decide whether the introduction should be a separate-labeled section. Regarding the function of an introduction, a well-known professional writer once said that it “may be thought of as a preliminary conference in which the writer and prospective reader …go into a huddle? 1 and agree in advance on the exact limits of the subject, the terms in which to discuss it, the angle from which to approach it, and the plan of treatment that will be m ost convenient to both.” (J. Raleigh Nelson, Writing the Technical Report, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952, p. 36) This gives us a vivid illustration of the function an introduction performs.Generally speaking, the successful introduction of a paper should have the following four functions to facilitate thecommunication process.1.1 Introducing the SubjectWhen retrieving information, a reader always first skims the title, the abstract and the introduction of a paper to determine whether or not the document is worth reading. The author is here to supply sufficient background information to relieve the readers who are not well-informed in this field of troubles in understanding and evaluating the results of the given study without referring to previous publications on the topic. Since the topic in this section is what the paper is going to deal with, the readers, then, can get a preliminary but overall impression before going on with the full text of the paper.1.2 Limiting the Research ScopeOnly when an introduction clearly defines the limits of the research scope (the limits within which you treat the subject) can readers retrieve the information efficiently provided that the subject is introduced correctly. Since there are so many perspectives to be dealt with2 and your research could proceed in any one of them, narrowing down the scope of work and delimiting the boundary of your study3 becomes entirely necessary. The definition of scope may include such items as the range of parameters dealt with, the exact sphere of the general subject covered by the paper, and whether the work described is experimental or theoretical, etc. The readers, thus, can be directed to a specific focus.There are a number of expressions used to limit the scope of work:●The problem is within the scope of...●The problem under discussion is within the scope of...●Studies of these effects covered various aspects of...●Our studies with this technique are confined to only one particular aspect...●The problem described previous ly was directed to the example off.., which differsfrom...●This subject is concerned chiefly with the study of...●The author has limited his studies to the related aspects of...●The approach under study is only applied to...●The problem I have referre d to falls within the field of...●The problem we have just outlined seems to be inside of the province of...●The theory can not apply to other cases of...●The emphasis of this paper is to survey...1.3 Stating the General PurposeIf the first two functions of introduction, i. e. introducing the subject and limiting the researchscope, are to usher the reader where to start and what to talk about in the paper, then the function of stating the general purpose is aimed at telling the reader why to where to start or where to guide. Here the task of the abstract drafter is to inform the reader of the general purpose of the paper and illustrate the primary objectives of his research. In doing so, he can guide his reader to avoid any misunderstanding of his inclination and make clear what the reader himself can expect to gain from the abstract drafter.1.4 Showing the Writing ArrangementThe logical arrangement of the writing enables the reader to understand the paper more easily when further reading is necessary. The best place for this information can be found at the end of the introduction. In very short papers, such information iseasy to grasp. In papers of any appreciable length or complexity, however, it has the advantage of enabling the reader to know in advance of information to expect and in what order to get it. Thus a clear arrangement of your paper will make the reader feel convenient and active in their further reading.Expressions used to indicate the organization of the information include:●This pa per is divided into five major sections as follows...●Section one of this paper opens with...●Section three develops the second hypotheses on...●In this paper, data and results are presented under the major heading of...●Section four shows (introduces,reveals, treats, develops, deals with, etc.)...●The result of... is given in the last section.●The 5th section provides an exposition that places the primary emphasis on...●In the following, a wide range of test data is reported...Notes1. go into a huddle: discuss something privately so that others cannot hear2. so many perspectives to be dealt with: so many points of view ahead to be treated properly in the front3. delimiting the boundary of your study: defining your sphere of research2. Structural Features of Introduction and Some Idiomatic Expressions2.1 Starting with the Research BackgroundTo orient the reader, the pertinent literature should be reviewed in writing a professional paper. The researchbackground is usually given in the section of introduction accompanied by the recent development in this field. That is to answer the question, “What have been done?” The best way to present this information depends on what the reader already knows. For example, it may or may not be necessary to include historical background, definition of certain terms, data, etc. Let us take a paper in the field of translation for example. The author starts the introduction with the following:Ex. 5-1The Behavior Translating English-to-Chinese Machine Translation System is the first of its kind in Taiwan. And it is also among the first commercialized E-to-C systems in the world. The research began as a joint effort.., in May 1985...Further examples can be seen from the sections of introduction of the two complete papers attached in the Appendixes.Here are some expressions used to introduce the background of the subject in an introduction:●Over the past several decades....●Somebody reported...●The previous work on... has indicated that...●Recent experiments by... have suggested...●Several researchers have theoretically investigated...●In most studies of ....... has been emphasized with attention being given to...●Industrial use of... is becoming increasingly common.●There have been a few studies highlightin g...●It is well known that...2.2 Transiting to the Existing ProblemAuthors usually transit to the main problems to be discussedor weak points remaining in the previous work to be further studied and/or improved. That is to answer the question: “What ha ve not been done?” The existing problems or weak points of such nature may be something that has not yet been found before, the methods that have not been adopted so far, materials that have not yet been discovered in the past, and/or the factors that were previously ignored, and so on. Let ustake a paper published in the journal of Physics Review Letter as an example:Ex. 5- 2Research on the mobility and diffusion of ions in neutral gases began more than 75 years ago but very accurate data on these quantities have appeared only since about 1960...Recent experiments by Grover and by V olk, Kwon, and Mark have suggested that large nuclear-spin polarization can be produced in Xe nuclei by spin polarization with optically pumped rubidium atoms. However, no direct measurements of the xenon spin polarization have been reported as yet...The following are a number of expressions used to present existing problems:●Great progress has been made in this field, but (however, nevertheless, etc.)...●Also, the consideration of... alone cannot explain the observed fact that...● A part of the explanation could lie in... However ....●The study of... gives rise to two main difficulties: one is...; the other is...●Despite the recent progress reviewed in .... there is no generally accepted theoryconcerning...●From the above discussion, it appears that at present neither.., nor.., are known.● A major problem.., is the harmful effect exerted by...●An experiment of the kind has not been made.●The kind of experimen t we have in mind has not been carried out until now.●Until now no field experiments of... have been reported.●Not any experiment in this area has suggested that...●More than one experiment must be initiated to substantiate...●The method we used differ s greatly from the one reported ten years ago.●The method of making.., was not invented till the existence of...●No clear advancement has so far been seen in...●No direct outcome was then reported in...●No such finding could be available in...●So far there is not enough convincing evidence showing...●The data available in literature failed to prove that...●The theory of... did not explain how much modifications arose.2.3 Focusing on the Present ResearchOn the basis of reviewing the previous research, especially unfolding or displaying the weak points of the previous work to be overcome or existing problems to be solved, the author may gradually an d naturally turn the reader?s attention to the present research, by stating his primary research objectives, novel ideas, advanced methods, new materials, fresh factors, etc. That is to answer the question: “What I am going to do?” For example: Ex. 5- 3... In this paper, a simplified state selector is considered, both theoretically and experimentally, for use in a molecular beam ammonia maser system. 3Ex. 5- 4... Then, we shall focus both analytically and numerically on the following topics: (1) the influence of polarization gradients on the behavior of surface modes in the vicinity of the limiting surface; (2) the existence of a coupling between displacement components and electric-polarization components; (3) ...Sometimes, a specific study on a certain subject itself can imply the existing problem to be solved. In this case, the specific problems may not be literally mentioned. (See Introduction 3 of Exercises 1I in Reflections and Practice (1) below)Putting together the structure and content mentioned above, you must form general picture of an introduction. Now, let us look at a sample introduction of a paper entitled Innovation and the materials revolution by Felix H. A. Janszen and Marc P. F. Vloemans, published in Technovation V ol. 17 No. 10, 1997 pp.549-556.Ex. 5-5IntroductionThe present literature on strategy and innovation pays a considerable amount of attention to industrial competition within a specific industry, between several industries and even between geographical areas (Porter, 1990; Hamel and Prahalad, 1994; Kodama, 1991). Each author emphasizes the importance of technological development but quite often uses the cases taken from relatively new so-called high-tech industries, such as telecommunications, information technology and biotechnology. However, the result of this bias is a certain lack of attention to theinformation of the technological developments of more mature industries. A likely explanation could be that asubstantial amount of strategic research has been conducted by technologists themselves. Faced with less visible developments in mature industries as well as the requirements of a deeper understanding of the underlying technologies, this last group seems rather well equipped for the task. Ultimately a more technological approach would enable stakeholders to acquire a more complete picture as well as an increased understanding of the management of innovation. Those in mature industries especially could benefit from this approach.Mature industries are those products, markets and possibly-underlying technologies are more or less at the end of their life cycle. Competition is conducted mainly on price. As a result the innovative activities deal principally with process technologies to arrive at higher levels of efficiency (Abemathy and Utterback, 1975). Examples of mature industries are the construction, petrochemical, metals, car and ship building industries. From this list it can be concluded that this group consists of a wide variety of industries, more often than not characterized by an emphasis on so-called economies of scale. This is largely dependent on the characteristics of process technologies in use, existing market infrastructure 4 and market conditions. This phase of maturity can vary in length, but will often last for several decades. The relatively stable business environment of such a mature industry creates a sense of security within, with myopic tendencies and a heavy reliance on problem solving murines that proved successful in the past. Core competences have become core rigidities5 (Leonard Barton, 1992). As a result, new technological developments are discerned 6 too late, which can have disastrouseffects for the industry (Foster, 1986). The commercial battlefield is littered with companies that could not adapt quick enough--for example, the shipbuilding industry in the 19th century which ignores the electronics industry in the 1950s that was superseded 7 by the transistor (1947) and ICs (1959). The American electronics industry and the Swiss watch industry have found this out to their detriment. 8 During the second half of this century, within the basic materials industries, a new form of competition has emerged, an inter-material competition (Kaounides, 1990). Instead of companies competing within a certain material?s sector, now the whole sectors compete directly with one another. In various markets the traditional metals are under the threat from polymers, composites and ceramics. This has considerably increased the scale and scope of strategic behavior within the basic materials industries.In this article we will systematically survey and clarify several changes in the businessenvironment of these industries. On the basis of a survey of developments in materials technology we will explain the effects these changes have on intra- and inter-industrial competition. On the basis of changing materials design in the car industry we will draw a dynamic picture of the aforementioned developments in mature industries as well as explain the interaction of the various rivers behind the developments.There are also a number of expressions used to introduce the present work:●In this paper .... is investigated (studied, discussed, presented, etc.)●The present work deals mainly with...●We report here.., in the presence of...●This paper reports on...●On the basis of existing literature data, we carried out studies in an effort to...●The present study will therefore focus on...●The primary goal of this research is...●The purpose of this paper (study, thesis, etc.) is...●In this paper, we aim at...Notes1. the mobility and diffusion of ions in neutral gases: 在中和气体中粒子的运动和扩散2. large nuclear-spin polarization: 大的核自旋极化偏振3. a molecular beam ammonia maser system: Maser (激射器) is the short form of thelong compound word microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.So the whole phrase can be translated as 激射：分子射束铵激射器4. existing market infrastructure: 市场现有的基础设施5. Core competences have become core rigidities: 关键性的能力已经变成了关键生的6. discern: to see, notice, or understand, esp. with difficulty7. supersede: (often pass.) to take place of8. detriment: (finl.) the condition of suffering harm or damage9. aforementioned: mentioned above or before. This is an academic word.3. Reflections and Practice (1)3.1. Work with your partner to discuss the answers to the following questions.3.1.1. What are the general functions of an introduction?3.1.2. What is your understanding of the structural features of an introduction?3.1.3. How do you write an introduction?3.2. Analyze the following introductions, following the directions if possible.3.2.1. Underline the part stating the research background.3.2.2. Parenthesize the part pointing to the existing problem.3.2.3. Draw a box around the part focusing on the present research.Introduction 1According to Hannagan (1995: 18), “Modem management is essentially about managing people as well as processes, in a rapidly changing environment.” This seems especially important for a British Airways office set in a different culture, which is largely due to the fact that given the variety of cultural inheritance people under differentCultures may behave in diverging ways. The human behaviors affect the performance of people at work, as shown by the Hawthorne effect, and a careful analysis of such behavior under a multicultural context will be beneficial to the overall performance of the department as well as that of each individual.In this paper, I shall undertake an analysis of an issue. The department where I work is British Agency China, based in Beijing. In this place a British manager has to deal with over 20 Chinese employees. During the time that we have worked together, it has seemed to me (and the Manager) that there exists such a cultural difference and in many cases the communication between the employer and the employee cannot get through, thereby influencing the overall performance of the department. I shall analyze the issue in this context and attempt to formulate certainpossible procedures to tackle the task.Introduction 2In this paper I attempt to show how a number of related concepts in Cognitive Grammar (Fillmore, 1982; Lakoff, 1982, 1987; Langacker, 1987,1988, 1990, 1991) can be applied to the analyses of discourse. Cognitive Grammar (CG) is well adapted not only to addressing issues concerning the relationship between language and cognition but also to constituting a potentially powerful sociolinguistic tool. I will focus on two related concepts: “profiling” (Langacker, 1990) and “radial category structure” (Lakoff, 1987; Br ugman, 1988; Taylor, 1989).AbstractIt has been more than fifty years since its appearance of the ligand theory (配位场理论). It was initiated in 1931 when Bethe?s crystal field theory (晶体场理论) was proposed. The theory of complex spectra for atoms contributed by Racah has had an important effect on the development of the ligand field theory as it has influenced that of nuclear and elementary particle theories.In this article, the extension of the irreducible tensor method (不可约张量方法) to the ligand field theory which was originally performed by Tang Aoqing and his collaborators, is simplified by introducing the quasi-spin group (准自旋群) to give a theoretical analysis of the spectra of TbPsOl4. The theoretical analysis is in good agreement with the experimental result.As an example, the energy matrix elements of ground states terms (基态谱项的能量矩阵元) of TbPsOl4 crystal are calculated by the application of this theory, a serial spectrum data published by Bai Yubai are to be fitted by the use of five crystal-field parameters and eight relativistic parameters. The fitted resultsare satisfactory with 8 cm-1 at mean square root error and 17 cm-1 at the maximum absolution error of energy levels.3.3 Revise an introduction written prior to this unit by using the skills learned so far, and then give your comparison.4. Special Attention: Sentence StructureThe linguistic features of sentence structure in professional papers, is one of the key points for successful writing. Generally speaking, sentence structure of professional papers is comparatively monotonous and grammatically rigorous, which means that only certain sentence structures are preferable. The sentence structures often used in professional writing are summarized as follows:4.1. Indicative SentencesIn professional papers, authors often have to describe experiments or investigations conducted, state the quality or property of the matter used, confirm laws or principles they have worked out. For this purpose, they prefer to use indicative sentences rather than interrogative sentences, and exclamatory sentences are seldom used. For example:4.1.1 L stands for length, while W represents weight.4.1. 2 Distillation is helpful to separating water from dissolved salts and other substances.4.1.3 Computer language may range from detailed low level close to that immediately understood by the particular computer, to the sophisticated high level which can be automatically accepted by a wide range of computers.4.1.4 Gathering facts, confirming them, assuming theories, testing them, and organizing findings -- this is all the work of science.4.2 Imperative SentencesLook at the examples below:(1) Now let K equal to Zero, and then we obtain the following equation.(2) Fill in a tube with cold water, and then heat the tube to 100℃.(3) See Table 4.(4) To put into full play the incubation function of the high-tech development zone, we should pay enough attention to the following: First, cultivate a number of new high-tech enterprises; Second, promote a number of new high-tech products; Third, train a group of entrepreneurs.4.3 Complex SentencesAs we know, scientific research is a kind of activity aiming to disclose the law of nature, the change of natural objects and their applications. Such processes are complicated and mutually related. In order to reflect the complicated interrelations accurately, it is necessary more often than not to use various complex sentences.Now, analyze the following examples.(1) An electric current which reverses its direction at regular intervals, and which is constantly changing in magnitude is called an alternating current, which is usually abbreviated asa.c ....(2) Because nonverbal behavior is regarded as a more accurate measure of how an individual actually feels than what is said, it is reasonable to assume that the individual in conflict with the woman in the above example will respond to her gestures instead of to her words.In example (1), there are three subordinate clauses, while example (2) contains five subordinate clauses. They are bothcomplex sentences though not very complicated ones.4) “It + be + adj. / participle + that clause...”In order to keep a sentence balanced, and avoid subjective coloring, the sentence structure “It+ be + adj. / participle + that clause” can often be encou ntered in professional writing. In this structure, “it” is the formal subject, and s “that clause” the real subject. For example:(1) It is evident from the foregoing discussion that basic research is applicable to the facts upon which a science is developed, and the principle or laws of science as compared to applied research directed toward using knowledge gained by basic research to make things that will servea practical purpose.(2) It is concluded that the behavior of a fluid flowing through a pipe is affected by a number of factors, including the viscosity of the fluid and the speed at which it is pumped.(3) It has been shown through the experiment that the charges of the nucleus and electrons are equal so that the atom is electrically neutral.5. Reflections and Practice (2)5.1. Translate the following sentences into Chinese, paying attention to thesentence structure of each.5.1.1. Strategy is an art of planning the best way to gain an advantage or to achieve success.5.1.2. Here the point of view is the term generally used to indicate the point from which the paper is written.5.1.3. Subordination is the technique of placing the less important thought in a subordinate position.5.1.4. This formula is developed on the basis of the previouslydiscussed theory.5.1.5. It is concluded that some of the parameters cannot be obtained by using the method shown in Section IV.5.1.6. Connect the equipment to the machine. Turn off the switch. Adjust input voltage to 10V. And note down the output current.5.1.7. Such evidence of a positive effect in the Northern Hemisphere is something that all satellite observing system experiments still lack.5.1.8. Potentially more useful data have been flowing down from weather satellites for 25 years, but only recently have researchers been able to show that such data improve forecasts made by computers, the backbone of modem weather forecasting.5.1.9. Other technologies that have made slow progress are modem windmills and photo-voltaic cells that convert sunlight directly to electricity.5.1.10. Heaviside (海维赛) was not only a wonderful electrical engineer but also a mathematical genius. Owing to deafness he had to leave the telegraph office where he first worked and retired to Paignton (牌恩顿) in Devon (丹佛), where he lived alone. He wrote a number articles which were no doubt hard enough to understand before his editors made him condense them. They are far harder now.5.2. Put the following into English.5.2.1．从上例可以看出，作者通过气侯和地理方面的比较，客观地描述了这两个试验现场。
研究生学术论文英文写作技巧与评估
研究生学术论文英文写作技巧与评估Graduate Academic Paper Writing Skills and EvaluationIntroductionWriting academic papers in English is a significant aspect of graduate studies. This requires mastering certain skills and adhering to specific guidelines to produce high-quality research papers. In this article, we will discuss essential techniques for writing academic papers in English at the graduate level, as well as methods for evaluating the quality of these papers.I. Understanding the RequirementsBefore embarking on writing an academic paper, it is crucial to carefully read and comprehend the requirements provided by your university or academic institution. The requirements typically outline the formatting style, word limit, citation guidelines, and specific sections to include in your paper (e.g., introduction, literature review, methodology, results, and conclusion). Adhering to these requirements ensures that your paper meets the necessary standards.II. Conducting Thorough ResearchA fundamental aspect of academic paper writing is conducting thorough research on the chosen topic. This includes consulting reputable sources such as academic journals, books, and scholarly databases. It is essential to critically analyze and synthesize information from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and well-supported argument in your paper.Addressing both primary and secondary sources adds credibility to your research.III. Developing a Clear StructureA well-structured paper enhances readability and helps convey your ideas effectively. It is advisable to divide your paper into sections, each with a clear objective. Typically, an academic paper consists of an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section should flow logically and smoothly, enabling readers to follow your thought process. Utilize appropriate headings and subheadings to provide clarity and coherence throughout your paper.IV. Writing Style and LanguageWhen writing an academic paper, using a formal and concise writing style is crucial. Academic writing demands clarity and precision in expressing ideas and arguments. Avoid using excessive jargon and technical terms that may confuse your readers. Instead, aim for clear and straightforward language that allows your arguments to be easily understood. Paying attention to grammar, punctuation, and spelling is equally important to maintain the professionalism of your paper.V. Citing and ReferencingProper citation and referencing are essential in academic writing to acknowledge the work of other researchers and avoid plagiarism. Follow the designated citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, or Chicago) recommended by your institution. Ensure that all sources referenced within your paper are cited correctly in the chosen citation style. Failing to give credit to theoriginal authors can result in severe consequences and damage your academic integrity.VI. Peer Review and RevisionBefore submitting your paper, it is advisable to have it peer-reviewed by colleagues or professors. Peer review provides valuable feedback on the clarity, structure, and coherence of your paper. Consider and incorporate the suggestions and improvements given by reviewers into your final draft. Additionally, revise your paper multiple times to eliminate grammatical errors, improve sentence structure, and enhance the overall flow and organization.Evaluation of Academic PapersTo evaluate the quality of graduate academic papers, multiple factors are considered. These include:1. Originality and Contribution: The extent to which the paper presents new insights, discoveries, or theories in the chosen field of study.2. Clarity and Coherence: The overall effectiveness of the paper in presenting ideas, arguments, and evidence in a clear and concise manner.3. Research Depth: The thoroughness and comprehensiveness of the literature review and the depth of research conducted.4. Methodology: The appropriateness and soundness of the research design and methodology employed.5. Analytical Skills: The ability to critically analyze and interpret research findings and draw meaningful conclusions.6. Citation and Referencing: The accuracy and consistency of citation and referencing throughout the paper.7. Writing Style and Language: The clarity, precision, and professionalism of the writing style and language used in the paper.8. Organization and Structure: The logical flow and organization of the paper, including the coherence of ideas and the effectiveness of section divisions.ConclusionWriting academic papers in English as a graduate student requires mastering specific skills and adhering to established guidelines. By understanding the requirements, conducting thorough research, developing a clear structure, utilizing appropriate writing style and language, and properly citing and referencing sources, students can produce high-quality papers. Evaluating these papers involves considering factors such as originality, clarity, research depth, methodology, analytical skills, citation and referencing, writing style and language, and organization. By continuously honing these skills and receiving feedback, graduate students can enhance their academic paper writing abilities.。
研究生学术英语写作教程Unit 3 Reviewing Literature
Unit 3 Reviewing LiteratureObjectives:- Learn how to formulate a research problem- learn how to cite other people‟s previous work- Try to be critical and related in your reviewing- Avoid plagiarismContents- Reading and discussion: sample introduction and elements in literature review.- Language focus: tense in citation and citing verbs- Writing practice: information prominent citation, author prominent citation, and weak author prominent citation- Literature reviews related to your research- No plagiarism- Classroom extension: literature review of the social effects of tourism on developing countries1.Reading Activity1.1 Pre-reading TaskA literature review is not just a summary of what you have read. It focuses on a specific topic of interest to you and includes a critical analysis of relationship among different opinions and then relates this review to the work of your own. It may be written as a stand-alone paper or to provide a theoretical framework and rationale for a research study to become a part of the introduction section, especially in term papers or journal articles. However, in a thesis or dissertation it will be an entire chapter.Read the sample introduction below and think about the following questions:What is the purpose of writing a literature view?What elements does an introduction include?How do we relate other people‟s previous work to our present research?How do we cite other people‟s previous work?1.2 Reading PassageIntroductionThe poor have traditionally t aken the brunt of the blame for causing society‟s many problems including, more recently, environmental degradation. There is a general consensus that poverty is a major cause of environmental degradation. For example, in one of the conclusions of the Bruntland Commission Report, which incidentally has been accepted as the blue print for environmental conservation, it was explicitly stated that poverty is a major cause of environmental problems and amelioration of poverty is a necessary and central condition of any effective programs addressing the environment. Following similar lines, Jalal (2010), the Asian Development Bank's chief of the environment department says, "It is generally accepted that environmental degradation, rapid population growth and stagnant production are closely linked with the fast spread of acute poverty in many countries of Asia". The World Bank joined the consensus when in the 2011 World Development Report, the Bank explicitly stated that, “poor families who have to meet short term needs mine the natural capital by excessive cutting of trees for firewood and failure to replace soil nutrients ” (World Bank 2011).However, there has been a rising trend in the economic literature which disputes the conventional theory and argues that simple generalizations of this multi-dimensional problem are erroneous and that a more complex set of variables are in play (Leach and Mearns, 2012). These studies point to demographic, cultural, and institutional factors as important variables in the poverty-environmental degradation nexus. An intricate web of factors plus the existence of feedback loops from environmental degradation to poverty makes the process of identifying causality links,if any, between environmental degradation and poverty a difficult exercise. However, these studies have been few and isolated and it is interesting to note that until recently, there has been very little in-depth coordinated empirical research in the economics of environmental degradation-poverty causality relationships.This brings to the purpose of this study. Both poverty and environmental degradation have been increasing in many developing countries; hence there is a pressing need first to evaluate and analyze the poverty-environmental degradation nexus, and second, to prescribe policy options to mitigate or eradicate these two problems.The primary objective of the paper is to analyze critically the existing literature on the poverty-environmental degradation nexus and try to make "some order out of the chaos" inherent in this complex and difficult subject. For this paper, our analysis is limited to the following four main natural resources which are under serious threat of degradation in many developing countries: i) forests; ii) land; iii) water; and iv) air. Biodiversity is excluded at this point because the preliminary literature search found only scattered and inconclusive information. However, it should not be inferred that biodiversity is less important than the four resources chosen; indeed it is an area which needs particular attention in the future.Once the natural resource sectors have been identified, a cause, impact and feedback analysis is carried out. In this manner, we hope first to identify the main agents and the degree of their contribution towards the destruction of the environment and second, the incentives or motivating factors encouraging their unsustainable activities. The impact and feedback analysis should highlight the main impacts arising from the degradation activities and the socio-economic effect these impacts have across the various income groups in the economy.1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 List different opinions on poverty and environmental degradationnguage Focus2.1Tense in citationPresent tense - Authors mostly use the present tense verbs to show their opinion on another person's research, relate what other authors say or discuss the literature, theoretical concepts, methods, etc. However, the simple past and present perfect are also possible verb forms in this case. Look at these examples in the present tense: ∙Nelson (1995) remarks∙Jones (2005) stresses∙Morison (2000) advocates∙Zhang (2007) claims∙Zhambhi (2008) arguesPast tense- When you use the past tense, the reporting verb often occurs as an integral citation. In other words, citations with past tense verbs and named researchers as subject seem to have the discourse role of providing particulars for recounting events, results found or a preceding generalization or the basis for a claim, etc. In the example below, the citation reports the results of a single study.Carlson and Benton (2007) found that as they increased the participants‟stress levels, the results of their performance deteriorated.Common verbs in the past tense are: investigated, studied, compared, analyzed, found, and examined.Present perfect - The present perfect tense can be used to state that the research results are recent, expressing what has been found over an extended period in the past and up to the present to highlight the direct relevance of previous studies to the writer's own research. Look at the following example:Although the results of pervious studies showed that further research was warranted in this area, recent studies have demonstrated that educational methodology is now moving in a new direction (Jones, 2007; Karstal, 2008).2.1.1 Check the sample introduction and complete the following table.2.2Citing verbsIt is important that you learn how to cite information in a correct way. There are certain conventions to follow when citing someone‟s work. Words like “say”,“tell”, and “ask” are normally used in oral conversation s but are not appropriate in formal academic writing. The following table illustrates some appropriate words to use for reporting the work of others.Verbs for sayingJalal (1993) claimsbelievesthinksassumesindicatesnotesremarksstatesshowspoints outthat …More V erbs for sayingJalal‟s (1993) study suggestsconsidershypothesizesconcludescommentsemphasizesillustratesproposesestablishesmaintainsthat…Verbs responding to others’opinionsThe analysis of the Jalal‟s report acceptsadmitsagreesdoubtsthat …deniesarguescomments Verbs for saying a second timeJalal (1993) further/additionally assertsexplainsconfirmsmaintainsadvocatesthat …Poor patterns show that the writer has a mere grasp of the literature:Jalal (1993) says that …The Asian Development Bank (1992) states that … Leach and Mearns (1995) argue that …Better sample shows some critical thinking and sentence variety:Jalal (1993) reports that his study of …shows …The findings are supported by the Asian Development Bank (1992) replication of … Although both these studies focus on …. They have ignored … According to Leach and Mearns (1995), …2.2.2 Read three extracts on the issue of poverty and crime. Use the verbs above to cite opinions on poverty and crime.3. Writing Practice3.1 Using referencesUse citation to develop your own argument.Below are examples of parts of paragraphs using three different citation methods (The references cited have been invented for demonstration purposes only). Thesemethods can be called information prominent, where the focus of the sentence is only on the information being presented; author prominent, where the name of the author of the information is given prominence in the sentence; and weak author prominent, where the ideas of author(s) are given prominence, but authors‟names do not appear in the main part of the sentence. Observe how the different methods contribute to the way in which the writer‟s argument is developed.Information prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. The wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers (Smith, 2000).This is the default style in many areas of science. However, there are two other options, which should also be part of a writer‟s repertoire, for use when appropriate. Author prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. Smith (2000) argued that the wool industry was experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers. However, Jones et al. (2004) found that industry difficulties were more related to quality of supply than to demand issues. It is clear that considerable disagreement exists about the underlying sources of these problems.Weak author prominent citationShrinking markets are also evident in other areas. As Smith (2000) pointed out, the wool industry is experiencing difficulties related to falling demand worldwide since the development of high-quality synthetic fibers.3.1.1 The following is a chart describing people living on less than 1.25 dollars.Look at the following chart and practice citing these figures by using three different types of citation.Figure: Poverty headcount ratio at $1.25 a day (% of population)Created By Swati Revankar from World Bank, 2012 Information prominent citationAuthor prominent citationWeak author prominent citation3.2 Relating literature to your researchIt is easy to write a bad literature review and difficult to write a good one. The main mistake that a lot of people make is to write a literature review that looks like this:LITERATURE REVIEWUntil recently many researchers have shown interest in the field of coastal erosion and the resulting beach profiles. They have carried out numerous laboratory experiments and field observations to illuminate the darkness of this field. Their findings and suggestions are reviewed here.JACHOWSKI (2008) developed a model investigation conducted on the interlocking precast concrete block seawall. After a result of a survey of damages caused by the severe storm at the coast of USA, a new and specially shaped concrete block was developed for use in shore protection. This block was designed to be used in a revetment type seawall that would be both durable and economical as well as reduce wave run-up and overtopping, and scour at its base or toe. It was proved that effective shore protection could be designed utilizing these units.HOM-MA and HORIKAWA (2008) studied waves forces acting on the seawall which was located inside the surf zone. On the basis of the experimental results conducted to measure waves forces against a vertical wall, the authors proposed an empirical formula of wave pressure distribution on a seawall. The computed results obtained by using the above formula were compared well with the field data of wave pressure on a vertical wall.SELEZOV and ZHELEZNYAK (2009) conducted experiments on scour of sea bottom in front of harbor seawalls, on the basis of the theoretical investigation of solitary wave interaction with a vertical wall using Boussinesque type equation. It showed that the numerical results were in reasonable agreement with laboratory experimental data.3.2.1 Consider again the purposes of writing a literature review. See if you can answer the following questions about the literature review above:1. What questions does this literature review answer?2. What questions doesn't it answer?3. Which method has the writer used to organize the literature review?4. Is it a good literature review? Why?3.3 Avoiding plagiarism3.2.1 Below are two versions of the same information, adapted from the Introduction by McNeill et al. (2007). Decide which version has the problem of plagiarism and identify where the writer has plagiarizedVersion 1:Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions, but they indicated that the technique was not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.Version 2:Russell and Fillery (2006), using a stem-feeding technique, have shown that in situ 15N-labelling of lupin plants growing in soil cores enabled total belowground N to be estimated under relatively undisturbed conditions. However, this technique is not adaptable to all plants, particularly pasture species.4. Writing ProjectWrite a literature review for your research by the following steps:1. Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?2. Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored3. Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic4. Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature5. Relate the review to your research topicYou are preparing to write an essay ent itled “The social effects of tourism on developing countries”. Read the following abstract and then try to write a literature review relating to the topic according to the above mentioned steps:AbstractTourism is the fastest growing industry internationally. Popular areas of study are the economic, environmental and sociocultural impacts of tourism in developing countries. Very few studies have been conducted on the impact of tourism on the hosts‟ health status. Nowadays, the emergence of new infectious diseases or there-emergence of diseases are causing concern and travel is a major contributor to their spread. The objectives of this study were: to review literature related to the topic as a background for future research; to explore if findings from a field trip to Easter Island/Chile and Peru support the hypotheses derived from the analysis of publications; to recommend a range of research topics based on the outcome of this study; and to propose elements of a framework for the assessment of health impacts of tourism. The findings suggest that there are considerable gaps in the current knowledge on tourism‟s health impacts. Potential indirect and direct health impacts have been identified. Workplace health and safety concerns in relation to local tourism employees have been raised. A wide range of research topics has been suggested based on these findings. Finally, elements of a possible framework for understanding tourism‟s health impacts and their interrelationships have been identified.Sources from: Irmgard Bauer, THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 10, No. 1, MAY …99 115. Final ChecklistHere is a final checklist for writing Introduction (including literature review). Use it to check what you have written in the previous task.。
学术英语(教师资料)_Unit4
Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review
2 Writing a self-contained
literature review
• There are two types of literature reviews. One is an independent, self-contained report, and the other is a part of an academic essay. A self-contained literature review reports the past research activities on the topic being investigated, especially their studies and findings. To some extent the literature review itself is an essay. Hence it should be written in detail, including the methods apart from findings and conclusions. The steps of writing a self-contained literature review are the followings: • 1) write a summary of each article you have gathered for your literature review; • 2) combine the summaries logically, by using connective phrases or sentences; • 3) write an introductory paragraph, including the definition of the topic and its background information; • 4) make your comments, if necessary, on the past studies.
研究生学术英语写作教程Unit 4 Describing Methodology
Unit 4 Describing MethodologyObjectives─ Be clear about t he significance of this section─ Try to understand the importance of pa ssive voice in academic writing─ Learn to be skilled in using sequential markers in writing a pro cess─ Be fam iliar with proof-reading skills─ Learn to design a questionnaireContents─ Brief introduction to this section─ Reading & Discussion: What information elements are usually involved in writing a methodology section?─ Language Focus: Passive voice and sequential markers─ Writing Practice: Understanding the sentence patterns and sent ence order in writing a process─ Writing Project: How to design a questionnaire1.Reading ActivityIn natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is divided in two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?2) How has one formulated a research problem?3) What types of data have been collected?4) What particular methods have been used?5) Why is a particular technique of analysis of data used?1.1Pre-reading TaskThe following is the method section of a research article in the field of applied linguistics. Think about the following questions before reading the text and then havea discussion with your classmates:1) What is the function of the method section?2) What information elements does a method section include?3) What verb tenses are mainly used in the text? What is the proportion of activevoice verbs to passive voice verbs in this method section?1.2 Reading PassageEnglish for College Students in Taiwan:A Study of perceptions of English Needs in a Medical ContextThe experiment was initiated to investigate perceptions of English needs in a medical context among college students in Taiwan.The subjects were 341 medical students in the Department of Medicine, including 97 freshmen, 74 sophomores, 90 juniors, and 80 seniors, and 20 faculty members in the medical program at Chung Shan Medical College in Taichung, Taiwan, China.Two questionnaires were developed for the survey, based on two earlier survey instruments by Taylor & Hussein (1985) and Guo (1989). The questionnaires were translated into Chinese, piloted, and modified according to the feedback from l0 respondents: six medical students and four faculty members from Chung Shan Medical College. The questionnaire given to the medical students consisted of five sections of 23 questions, the topics of which were the importance of English incollege and professional careers, perceived language skill needs and problems, the activities needed in a freshman language course, and suggestions for development of course content and materials as well as demographic information. The faculty questionnaire consisted of four sections of l6 questions, which were parallel to those in the version given to the students except no demographic information was gathered (see Appendix).One of the authors, a faculty member at Chung Shan Medical College, selected one required class for each group of students (freshmen sophomores, juniors and seniors). Copies of the student questionnaire for administration to the students were then sent to cooperating instructors teaching these courses; copies of the faculty questionnaire were given to 20 teachers who were willing to complete the survey.The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program: in the questionnaire, percentages were determined for all questions except 8 and 13 for which means were computed. Chi-square, t-tests, and ANOV A analyses (方差分析) were conducted in order to determine the perceptions of English language needs of medical college students and their faculty and to compare the perceptions held by the various groups.( Pang, 2008)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage.1.3.2 Understand more about the method section of this research. Whatdo you know about the questionnaires used in the survey?2. Language Focus2.1 Passive voiceThe passive voice is usually used in academic writing, because passive structures have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When describing a process or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do this, you can use passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is recommended: 1) when we do not know or do not care about who has performed the action; 2) when we focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and 3) when we would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. More examples from the methodology section are as follows:1) The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given at the end of the semester. ( procedure )2) In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads on the south end of the building. ( specially designed material )3) The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A&B Sales Company of Wheeling, Leeds, UK. ( instrument )4) In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited from diverse fields of study. ( sampling )5) The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD). ( statistical analysis)2.1.1 Go over the Reading Passage and mark verbs inthe passive voiceand then complete the following table:2.1.2 Rewrite the following text with passive voice.Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all. Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.2.2 Sequential markersA process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process paragraphs are usually developed step-by-step in a chronological or logical sequence. The following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a process or to divide a process into steps:● Firstly … To begin with … First of all … etc.● Secondly … Next … After that … In addition … etc.● Finally … Lastly …The following sentences describe a process of making paper. Use sequential words and rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.1) The logs are placed in the shredder.2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.6). Sheets of wet paper are produced.7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried and refined and the finished paper is produced.3. Writing PracticeA well organized, logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes the thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes:1) Overview of the experiment: one sentence briefly tells what was done (like a topicsentence);2) Population: state the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;3) Location : where the study took place;4) Restriction/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data are valid;5) Sampling Techniques : describe how the subject are selected for the study;6) Materials : describe the materials used to conduct the study or experiment;7) Procedures : State the steps of the experiment in a chronological order;8) Statistical Treatment: describe how the statistics are examined.Of all the items on this list, the only items that are always included in the method section are the materials and procedures.3.1 Read the following sentences. They are all taken from method sections from different research articles. In each case, determine which information element is represented.(1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montrealregion.(2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20engineering journals.(3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves asstudents from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would accept to participate in a short study on facial expressions.(4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence ofteaching effectiveness in tertiary education.(5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests ofreliability and significance using SPSS.(6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business managerof each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the chosen workers.(7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languagesat a major university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a convenience sample.(8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a researchcenter for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.3.2 Completing sentencesThe following words and phrasal verbs are more commonly used in Method SectionComplete the following paragraph by translating Chinese into English.A group of MBA students from a major metropolitan state university were recruited as participants for the investigation. （1）（问卷调查实施）after the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial accounting course ( 2 ) （完成了此次问卷. _( 3 )_（表2给出了这些参与者的背景信息）. As is shown, the majority of participants are male. _( 4 )_（参与者的平均年龄约29岁）, _( 5 )_（平均工作经历约6年）, and the mean number of accounting classes was approximately four.(Liu, 2008)1)_________________________________________________________________2)_________________________________________________________________3)_________________________________________________________________4)_________________________________________________________________5)_________________________________________________________________3.3 Reordering sentencesThe following is the method section of a research article from the field of engineering with sentences in a scrambled order. Please rearrange them in a more conventional order. Write the sequential number in the box on the right side of the table below.3.4 Rewriting sentencesThe following sentences are taken from method sections of different published articles. Rewrite each sentence to make it more acceptable.(1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 language backgroundswhich are represented.__________________________________________________________________ (2) Two questionnaires which were administered respectively to the personnel officersand business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of English in their firm.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered forstatistical analysis._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2006Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (5) Gray (1998) studied the effectiveness of the new schedule. He used scores on theStanford Achievement Test as the measure.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (6) Having explained the directions, the students began to write.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (7) The schedule was in effect only 1 year, with students achieving better results.__________________________________________________________________ (8) The teacher put the assignment on the board, and then she checked the roll andfound that three students were absent.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________(9) School administrators who are interested in making changes that are not tooexpensive or too complex for the most part have been overly receptive to simplistic solutions.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (10) One of the obstacles that deter the installation of solar energy systems that aredesigned to achieve the savings that are important to all people is the reluctance of those same individuals to make large capital investments.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________3.5 Turning notes into a passageYou are required to write the method section of a research paper about the experiment to investigate into students’ preferences and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages. Pay particular attention to the choice of tense and voice.4. Writing Project4.1 Gathering information for a method section.You are required to write the method section of a research paper in the field of English language class attendance with the information elements given below. Gather information for your research.4.2 Designing a questionnaireThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).A good questionnaire is one that: 1) enables collection of accurate data in a timely manner; 2) facilitates the work of data collection, data processing and the tabulation of data; 3) ensures that there is no collection of non-essential information; and 4) permits comprehensive and meaningful analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected to ensure that the technical task of the questionnaire receives the various input that it requires.Types of questionsThere are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the respondents to use their own words to answer, e. g., “What do you think are the main causes of racism?” A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g., “Which of the following do you think are the main causes of racism: a, b, c, d”.The pros and cons of each are given in the following table.Rating design in a questionnaire: Look closely at the following example of a rating design.Please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.□Poor □Fair □GoodThere are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:1. Decide the information required;2. Define the target respondents;3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;4. Decide on question content;5. Develop the question wording;6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format;7. Check the length of the questionnaire;8. Pre-test the questionnaire;9. Develop the final survey form.Now work in groups of four, and design a questionnaire to obtain information about students’ attendance and causes for their absence.4.3 Drafting your method sectionBegin your writing now with the information you have just obtained from your survey.5. Final ChecklistRevision gives you an opportunity to take another look at what you have written. Therefore, you have to do some extra work to revise your draft. Here are some general rules for your check.。
学术论文写作-Unit4
observation
Qualitative Data
II. Sample Reading
1. What information elements does this method section include? Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage.
I. Warm-up
1. What is the function of the method section?
The method section is the most important aspect of a research paper because it provides the information by which the validity of a study is ultimately judged. Therefore, the researcher must provide a clear and precise description of how an experiment is to be carried out, and the rationale for the specific experimental procedures chosen. It must be written with enough information so that: (1) the experiment could be repeated by others to evaluate whether the results are reproducible, and (2) the readers can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid.
最新研究生学术英语写作教程Unit-4-Describing-Methodology
Unit 4 Describing MethodologyObjectives─ Be clear about t he significance of this section─ Try to understand the importance of pa ssive voice in academic writing─ Learn to be skilled in using sequential markers in writing a pro cess─ Be fam iliar with proof-reading skills─ Learn to design a questionnaireContents─ Brief introduction to this section─ Reading & Discussion: What information elements are usually involved in writing a methodology section?─ Language Focus: Passive voice and sequential markers─ Writing Practice: Understanding the sentence patterns and sent ence order in writing a process─ Writing Project: How to design a questionnaire1.Reading ActivityIn natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is divided in two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?2) How has one formulated a research problem?3) What types of data have been collected?4) What particular methods have been used?5) Why is a particular technique of analysis of data used?1.1Pre-reading TaskThe following is the method section of a research article in the field of applied linguistics. Think about the following questions before reading the text and then havea discussion with your classmates:1) What is the function of the method section?2) What information elements does a method section include?3) What verb tenses are mainly used in the text? What is the proportion of activevoice verbs to passive voice verbs in this method section?1.2 Reading PassageEnglish for College Students in Taiwan:A Study of perceptions of English Needs in a Medical ContextThe experiment was initiated to investigate perceptions of English needs in a medical context among college students in Taiwan.The subjects were 341 medical students in the Department of Medicine, including 97 freshmen, 74 sophomores, 90 juniors, and 80 seniors, and 20 faculty members in the medical program at Chung Shan Medical College in Taichung, Taiwan, China.Two questionnaires were developed for the survey, based on two earlier survey instruments by Taylor & Hussein (1985) and Guo (1989). The questionnaires were translated into Chinese, piloted, and modified according to the feedback from l0 respondents: six medical students and four faculty members from Chung Shan Medical College. The questionnaire given to the medical students consisted of five sections of 23 questions, the topics of which were the importance of English incollege and professional careers, perceived language skill needs and problems, the activities needed in a freshman language course, and suggestions for development of course content and materials as well as demographic information. The faculty questionnaire consisted of four sections of l6 questions, which were parallel to those in the version given to the students except no demographic information was gathered (see Appendix).One of the authors, a faculty member at Chung Shan Medical College, selected one required class for each group of students (freshmen sophomores, juniors and seniors). Copies of the student questionnaire for administration to the students were then sent to cooperating instructors teaching these courses; copies of the faculty questionnaire were given to 20 teachers who were willing to complete the survey.The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program: in the questionnaire, percentages were determined for all questions except 8 and 13 for which means were computed. Chi-square, t-tests, and ANOV A analyses (方差分析) were conducted in order to determine the perceptions of English language needs of medical college students and their faculty and to compare the perceptions held by the various groups.( Pang, 2008)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage.1.3.2 Understand more about the method section of this research. Whatdo you know about the questionnaires used in the survey?2. Language Focus2.1 Passive voiceThe passive voice is usually used in academic writing, because passive structures have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When describing a process or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do this, you can use passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is recommended: 1) when we do not know or do not care about who has performed the action; 2) when we focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and 3) when we would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. More examples from the methodology section are as follows:1) The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given at the end of the semester. ( procedure )2) In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads on the south end of the building. ( specially designed material )3) The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A&B Sales Company of Wheeling, Leeds, UK. ( instrument )4) In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited from diverse fields of study. ( sampling )5) The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD). ( statistical analysis)2.1.1 Go over the Reading Passage and mark verbs inthe passive voiceand then complete the following table:2.1.2 Rewrite the following text with passive voice.Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all. Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.2.2 Sequential markersA process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process paragraphs are usually developed step-by-step in a chronological or logical sequence. The following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a process or to divide a process into steps:● Firstly … To begin with … First of all … etc.●Secondly … Next … After that … In addition … etc.● Finally … Lastly …The following sentences describe a process of making paper. Use sequential words and rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.1) The logs are placed in the shredder.2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.6). Sheets of wet paper are produced.7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried and refined and the finished paper is produced.3. Writing PracticeA well organized, logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes the thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes:1) Overview of the experiment: one sentence briefly tells what was done (like a topicsentence);2) Population: state the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;3) Location : where the study took place;4) Restriction/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data are valid;5) Sampling Techniques : describe how the subject are selected for the study;6) Materials : describe the materials used to conduct the study or experiment;7) Procedures : State the steps of the experiment in a chronological order;8) Statistical Treatment: describe how the statistics are examined.Of all the items on this list, the only items that are always included in the method section are the materials and procedures.3.1 Read the following sentences. They are all taken from method sections from different research articles. In each case, determine which information element is represented.(1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montrealregion.(2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20engineering journals.(3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves asstudents from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would accept to participate in a short study on facial expressions.(4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence ofteaching effectiveness in tertiary education.(5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests ofreliability and significance using SPSS.(6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business managerof each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the chosen workers.(7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languagesat a major university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a convenience sample.(8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a researchcenter for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.3.2 Completing sentencesThe following words and phrasal verbs are more commonly used in Method SectionComplete the following paragraph by translating Chinese into English.A group of MBA students from a major metropolitan state university were recruited as participants for the investigation. （1）（问卷调查实施）after the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial accounting course ( 2 ) （完成了此次问卷. _( 3 )_（表2给出了这些参与者的背景信息）. As is shown, the majority of participants are male. _( 4 )_（参与者的平均年龄约29岁）, _( 5 )_（平均工作经历约6年）, and the mean number of accounting classes was approximately four.(Liu, 2008)1)_________________________________________________________________2)_________________________________________________________________3)_________________________________________________________________4)_________________________________________________________________5)_________________________________________________________________3.3 Reordering sentencesThe following is the method section of a research article from the field of engineering with sentences in a scrambled order. Please rearrange them in a more conventional order. Write the sequential number in the box on the right side of the table below.3.4 Rewriting sentencesThe following sentences are taken from method sections of different published articles. Rewrite each sentence to make it more acceptable.(1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 language backgroundswhich are represented.__________________________________________________________________ (2) Two questionnaires which were administered respectively to the personnel officersand business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of English in their firm.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered forstatistical analysis._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2006Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (5) Gray (1998) studied the effectiveness of the new schedule. He used scores on theStanford Achievement Test as the measure.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (6) Having explained the directions, the students began to write.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (7) The schedule was in effect only 1 year, with students achieving better results.__________________________________________________________________ (8) The teacher put the assignment on the board, and then she checked the roll andfound that three students were absent.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________(9) School administrators who are interested in making changes that are not tooexpensive or too complex for the most part have been overly receptive to simplistic solutions.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (10) One of the obstacles that deter the installation of solar energy systems that aredesigned to achieve the savings that are important to all people is the reluctance of those same individuals to make large capital investments.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________3.5 Turning notes into a passageYou are required to write the method section of a research paper about the experiment to investigate into students’ preferen ces and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages. Pay particular attention to the choice of tense and voice.4. Writing Project4.1 Gathering information for a method section.You are required to write the method section of a research paper in the field of English language class attendance with the information elements given below. Gather information for your research.4.2 Designing a questionnaireThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).A good questionnaire is one that: 1) enables collection of accurate data in a timely manner; 2) facilitates the work of data collection, data processing and the tabulation of data; 3) ensures that there is no collection of non-essential information; and 4) permits comprehensive and meaningful analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected to ensure that the technical task of the questionnaire receives the various input that it requires.Types of questionsThere are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the respondents to use their own words to answer, e. g., “What do you think are the main causes of racism?” A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g., “Which of the following do you think are the main causes of racis m: a, b, c, d”.The pros and cons of each are given in the following table.Rating design in a questionnaire: Look closely at the following example of a rating design.Please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.□Poor □Fair □GoodThere are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:1. Decide the information required;2. Define the target respondents;3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;4. Decide on question content;5. Develop the question wording;6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format;7. Check the length of the questionnaire;8. Pre-test the questionnaire;9. Develop the final survey form.Now work in groups of four, and design a questionnaire to obtain information about students’ attendance and ca uses for their absence.4.3 Drafting your method sectionBegin your writing now with the information you have just obtained from your survey.5. Final ChecklistRevision gives you an opportunity to take another look at what you have written. Therefore, you have to do some extra work to revise your draft. Here are some general rules for your check.。
研究生英文作文模板范文
研究生英文作文模板范文Research Postgraduate English Essay Template Sample。
As a research postgraduate student, it is essential to be able to write high-quality essays that effectively communicate research findings and insights. In this essay, we will provide a template for writing a research postgraduate English essay, along with a sample essay to illustrate the use of the template.Template for Research Postgraduate English Essay:1. Introduction。
Introduce the topic of the essay and provide background information.Clearly state the research question or thesis statement.Outline the structure of the essay.2. Literature Review。
Review relevant literature and provide a critical analysis of existing research.Identify gaps in the literature that the current research aims to address.3. Methodology。
Describe the research methods and techniques used to collect and analyze data.Justify the choice of methodology and discuss any limitations.4. Findings。
研究生学术英语写作教程Unit4DescribingMethodology
Unit 4 Describing MethodologyObjectives─ Be clear about the significance of this section─ Try to understand the importance of passive voice in academic writing─ Learn to be skilled in using sequential markers in writing a process─ Be familiar with proof-reading skills─ Learn to design a questionnaireContents─ Brief introduction to this section─ Reading & Discussion: What information elements are usually involved in writing a methodology section?─ Language Focus: Passive voice and sequential markers─ Writing Practice: Understanding the sentence patterns and sentence order in writing a process─ Writing Project: How to design a questionnaire1.Reading ActivityIn natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is divided in two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?2) How has one formulated a research problem?3) What types of data have been collected?4) What particular methods have been used?5) Why is a particular technique of analysis of data used?1.1Pre-reading TaskThe following is the method section of a research article in the field of applied linguistics. Think about the following questions before reading the text and then havea discussion with your classmates:1) What is the function of the method section?2) What information elements does a method section include?3) What verb tenses are mainly used in the text? What is the proportion of activevoice verbs to passive voice verbs in this method section?1.2 Reading PassageEnglish for College Students in Taiwan:A Study of perceptions of English Needs in a Medical ContextThe experiment was initiated to investigate perceptions of English needs in a medical context among college students in Taiwan.The subjects were 341 medical students in the Department of Medicine, including 97 freshmen, 74 sophomores, 90 juniors, and 80 seniors, and 20 faculty members in the medical program at Chung Shan Medical College in Taichung, Taiwan, China.Two questionnaires were developed for the survey, based on two earlier survey instruments by Taylor & Hussein (1985) and Guo (1989). The questionnaires were translated into Chinese, piloted, and modified according to the feedback from l0 respondents: six medical students and four faculty members from Chung Shan Medical College. The questionnaire given to the medical students consisted of five sections of 23 questions, the topics of which were the importance of English incollege and professional careers, perceived language skill needs and problems, the activities needed in a freshman language course, and suggestions for development of course content and materials as well as demographic information. The faculty questionnaire consisted of four sections of l6 questions, which were parallel to those in the version given to the students except no demographic information was gathered (see Appendix).One of the authors, a faculty member at Chung Shan Medical College, selected one required class for each group of students (freshmen sophomores, juniors and seniors). Copies of the student questionnaire for administration to the students were then sent to cooperating instructors teaching these courses; copies of the faculty questionnaire were given to 20 teachers who were willing to complete the survey.The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program: in the questionnaire, percentages were determined for all questions except 8 and 13 for which means were computed. Chi-square, t-tests, and ANOVA analyses (方差分析) were conducted in order to determine the perceptions of English language needs of medical college students and their faculty and to compare the perceptions held by the various groups.( Pang, 2008)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage. Research objectiveResearch subjectsResearch locationMaterialsProcedureStatistical analysis1.3.2 Understand more about the method section of this research. Whatdo you know about the questionnaires used in the survey?2. Language Focus2.1 Passive voiceThe passive voice is usually used in academic writing, because passive structures have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When describing a process or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do this, you can use passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is recommended: 1) when we do not know or do not care about who has performed the action; 2) when we focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and 3) when we would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. More examples from the methodology section are as follows:1) The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given at the end of the semester. ( procedure )2) In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads on the south end of the building. ( specially designed material )3) The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A&B Sales Company of Wheeling, Leeds, UK. ( instrument )4) In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited from diverse fields of study. ( sampling )5) The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD). ( statistical analysis)2.1.1 Go over the Reading Passage and mark verbs in the passive voiceand then complete the following table:2.1.2 Rewrite the following text with passive voice.Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all. Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.2.2 Sequential markersA process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process paragraphs are usually developed step-by-step in a chronological or logical sequence. The following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a process or to divide a process into steps:● Firstly … To begin with … First of all … etc.● Secondly … Next … After that … In addition … etc.● Finally … Lastly …The following sentences describe a process of making paper. Use sequential words and rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.1) The logs are placed in the shredder.2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.6). Sheets of wet paper are produced.7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried and refined and the finished paper is produced.3. Writing PracticeA well organized, logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes the thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes:1) Overview of the experiment: one sentence briefly tells what was done (like a topicsentence);2) Population: state the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;3) Location : where the study took place;4) Restriction/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data are valid;5) Sampling Techniques : describe how the subject are selected for the study;6) Materials : describe the materials used to conduct the study or experiment;7) Procedures : State the steps of the experiment in a chronological order;8) Statistical Treatment: describe how the statistics are examined.Of all the items on this list, the only items that are always included in the method section are the materials and procedures.3.1 Read the following sentences. They are all taken from method sections from different research articles. In each case, determine which information element is represented.(1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montrealregion.(2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20engineering journals.(3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves asstudents from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would accept to participate in a short study on facial expressions.(4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence ofteaching effectiveness in tertiary education.(5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests ofreliability and significance using SPSS.(6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business managerof each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the chosen workers.(7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languagesat a major university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a convenience sample.(8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a researchcenter for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.3.2 Completing sentencesThe following words and phrasal verbs are more commonly used in Method Section Subjects / participants choose, include, recruit,volunteered / paid to participate, …Materials be composed of, be located, be installed,be equipped with, obtain, supply, …Research designapply, employ, develop, resort to, use, …Procedurecarry out, follow, perform, propose, …Complete the following paragraph by translating Chinese into English.A group of MBA students from a major metropolitan state university were recruited as participants for the investigation. （1）（问卷调查实施）after the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial accounting course ( 2 ) （完成了此次问卷. _( 3 )_（表2给出了这些参与者的背景信息）. As is shown, the majority of participants are male. _( 4 ) _（参与者的平均年龄约29岁）, _( 5 )_（平均工作经历约6年）, and the mean number of accounting classes was approximately four.(Liu, 2008)1)_________________________________________________________________2)_________________________________________________________________3)_________________________________________________________________4)_________________________________________________________________5)_________________________________________________________________3.3 Reordering sentencesThe following is the method section of a research article from the field of engineering with sentences in a scrambled order. Please rearrange them in a more conventional order. Write the sequential number in the box on the right side of the table below.a The data was rank-ordered from the lowest X value of 1.2 tothe highest of 3.8--- see Table 2 below.b The SD scores show to what extent the teachers agreedamong themselves when judging the gravity of each error.c The survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire, inwhich the errors appeared in a random order.d The assessors were instructed to view each error in itscontext and determine to what extent it deviated fromnormal English.e The questionnaire included the context in which each errorhad occurred and a marking scale ranging from 0 for "noerror” to 5 for “the most severe error".f After scoring, the assessors were given the option to writedown the principles that guided them in their scoring.g The scores were computed into mean averages (X) andstandard deviations (SD).h Unless otherwise indicated, the numerical data in the textrefer to the mean average scores.i The higher the SD score, the more diverse the assessors'opinions regarding the gravity of the item.3.4 Rewriting sentencesThe following sentences are taken from method sections of different published articles. Rewrite each sentence to make it more acceptable.(1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 languagebackgrounds which are represented.__________________________________________________________________(2) Two questionnaires which were administered respectively to the personnel officersand business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of English in their firm.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered forstatistical analysis._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2006Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (5) Gray (1998) studied the effectiveness of the new schedule. He used scores on theStanford Achievement Test as the measure.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (6) Having explained the directions, the students began to write.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (7) The schedule was in effect only 1 year, with students achieving better results.__________________________________________________________________ (8) The teacher put the assignment on the board, and then she checked the roll andfound that three students were absent.____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ (9) School administrators who are interested in making changes that are not tooexpensive or too complex for the most part have been overly receptive to simplistic solutions.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (10) One of the obstacles that deter the installation of solar energy systems that aredesigned to achieve the savings that are important to all people is the reluctance of those same individuals to make large capital investments.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________3.5 Turning notes into a passageYou are required to write the method section of a research paper about the experiment to investigate into students’ preferences and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages. Pay particular attention to the choice of tense and voice.Aim of research To determine student’s preferences and attitudestoward sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetenedbeverages.Research subjects Ten people, five male and five female students, froma Science English class 1, chosen at random Materials Thirty straws, two cups, one blindfold, and twocontainers of Kool-Aid, a popular drink in the UnitedStates, one container with four cups of orange Kool-Aid sweetened with one half cup of sugar, the othercontainer with four cups of orange Kool-aidsweetened with 9 packets of Nutrasweet brandartificial sweetener.Procedure Ten volunteer students, five males, into two lines, one for males and the other for females. Alternately, men and women test, a blindfold over the eyes of the tester, he/she could not see, the two cups filled with beverage, one with artificially-sweetened Kool-Aid and the other with sugar-sweetened Kool-Aid. Then three questions asked from a survey and the answers tabulated. Next, use a straw, a sip from each cup.Data treatment The final two questions on the survey and the answers tabulated; finally, the remaining drink thrown away, and the next tester came forward, repeated the process.4. Writing Project4.1 Gathering information for a method section.You are required to write the method section of a research paper in the field of English language class attendance with the information elements given below. Gather information for your research.Aim of research To investigate into the status quo of your group ofstudents’ attendance in English classroom andreasons for absence.Research subjectsSampling techniquesMaterials mProceduresData treatment4.2 Designing a questionnaireThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).A good questionnaire is one that: 1) enables collection of accurate data in a timely manner; 2) facilitates the work of data collection, data processing and the tabulation of data; 3) ensures that there is no collection of non-essential information; and 4) permits comprehensive and meaningful analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected to ensure that the technical task of the questionnaire receives the various input that it requires.Types of questionsThere are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the respondents to use their own words to answer, e. g., “What do you think are the main causes of racism?” A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g., “Which of the following do you think are the main causes of racism: a, b, c, d”.The pros and cons of each are given in the following table.Rating design in a questionnaire: Look closely at the following example of a rating design.Please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.□ Poor □ Fair □ GoodThere are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:1. Decide the information required;2. Define the target respondents;3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;4. Decide on question content;5. Develop the question wording;6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format;7. Check the length of the questionnaire;8. Pre-test the questionnaire;9. Develop the final survey form.Now work in groups of four, and design a questionnaire to obtain information about students’ attendance and causes for their absence.4.3 Drafting your method sectionBegin your writing now with the information you have just obtained from your survey.5. Final ChecklistRevision gives you an opportunity to take another look at what you have written. Therefore, you have to do some extra work to revise your draft. Here are some general rules for your check.。
研究生学术论文英文写作技巧
研究生学术论文英文写作技巧Research Paper Writing Techniques for Graduate StudentsAs graduate students, it is essential for us to develop strong skills in academic writing, particularly when it comes to writing research papers. Not only does effective writing contribute to our success in our academic endeavors, but it also plays a crucial role in our future careers as scholars. Therefore, in this article, we will explore some useful techniques in academic writing for graduate students, with a specific focus on English language papers.1. Understanding the Research Paper StructureA well-structured research paper is the foundation of effective academic writing. It is crucial to familiarize ourselves with the typical structure of a research paper, which includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Each section serves a specific purpose and must be carefully written to ensure clarity and coherence.2. Developing a Clear Thesis StatementAt the core of any research paper lies a well-defined thesis statement. A thesis statement outlines the main argument or purpose of the paper and guides the entire writing process. It should be concise, specific, and capable of being supported by evidence. To create a strong thesis statement, one must thoroughly understand the research topic and formulate an original perspective.3. Conducting Thorough Literature ReviewsA comprehensive literature review is essential for situating our research within the existing academic discourse. It involves examining relevant scholarly articles, books, and other sources to identify gaps, controversies, and trends in the chosen field. A well-conducted literature review not only demonstrates our knowledge of the subject but also helps us develop a solid theoretical framework for our research.4. Utilizing Academic Language and VocabularyFluency in academic English is crucial for conveying our ideas effectively. It is important to use appropriate academic language and vocabulary, as well as maintain a formal and objective tone throughout the paper. Avoiding excessive jargon and providing clear explanations of technical terms ensures that our research is accessible to a broader audience.5. Organizing Ideas and Developing Coherent ArgumentsA well-organized research paper presents ideas in a logical and coherent manner. To achieve this, it is advisable to create an outline before starting the actual writing process. The outline allows us to structure our thoughts, identify the main points, and ensure a smooth flow of ideas. Each paragraph should be focused and contribute to the overall argument of the paper.6. Properly Integrating and Citing SourcesAccurate and consistent citation is crucial to maintain academic integrity and avoid plagiarism. Familiarize yourself with the citation style required by your institution or discipline, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. Whenever we use information or ideas from external sources, be it direct quotations orparaphrased content, it is important to provide proper in-text citations and include the full reference in the bibliography or reference list.7. Editing and ProofreadingThe final step in research paper writing is editing and proofreading. A well-edited paper demonstrates professionalism and ensures that our ideas are conveyed clearly. It is important to carefully review the paper for grammatical errors, sentence structure, clarity, and coherence. Peer feedback and consultations with faculty members can be extremely helpful in identifying areas for improvement.In conclusion, mastering the art of academic writing is crucial for graduate students, and it requires time, practice, and attention to detail. By familiarizing ourselves with the structure of research papers, developing clear thesis statements, conducting thorough literature reviews, utilizing academic language, organizing ideas coherently, properly citing sources, and engaging in meticulous editing and proofreading, we can enhance the quality and impact of our research papers. These techniques not only contribute to our success as graduate students but also lay the foundation for our future careers in academia.。
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Unit 4 Describing MethodologyObjectives─ Be clear about t he significance of this section─ Try to understand the importance of pa ssive voice in academic writing─ Learn to be skilled in using sequential markers in writing a pro cess─ Be fam iliar with proof-reading skills─ Learn to design a questionnaireContents─ Brief introduction to this section─ Reading & Discussion: What information elements are usually involved in writing a methodology section?─ Language Focus: Passive voice and sequential markers─ Writing Practice: Understanding the sentence patterns and sent ence order in writing a process─ Writing Project: How to design a questionnaire1.Reading ActivityIn natural sciences the method section is often called Materials and Methods. In social sciences it is common to introduce a section called Theory and Methods. Sometimes it is divided in two sections: Theoretical Framework and Methods.Research methodology is mainly concerned with the answers to the following questions:1) Why is a particular research study undertaken?2) How has one formulated a research problem?3) What types of data have been collected?4) What particular methods have been used?5) Why is a particular technique of analysis of data used?1.1Pre-reading TaskThe following is the method section of a research article in the field of applied linguistics. Think about the following questions before reading the text and then havea discussion with your classmates:1) What is the function of the method section?2) What information elements does a method section include?3) What verb tenses are mainly used in the text? What is the proportion of activevoice verbs to passive voice verbs in this method section?1.2 Reading PassageEnglish for College Students in Taiwan:A Study of perceptions of English Needs in a Medical ContextThe experiment was initiated to investigate perceptions of English needs in a medical context among college students in Taiwan.The subjects were 341 medical students in the Department of Medicine, including 97 freshmen, 74 sophomores, 90 juniors, and 80 seniors, and 20 faculty members in the medical program at Chung Shan Medical College in Taichung, Taiwan, China.Two questionnaires were developed for the survey, based on two earlier survey instruments by Taylor & Hussein (1985) and Guo (1989). The questionnaires were translated into Chinese, piloted, and modified according to the feedback from l0 respondents: six medical students and four faculty members from Chung Shan Medical College. The questionnaire given to the medical students consisted of five sections of 23 questions, the topics of which were the importance of English incollege and professional careers, perceived language skill needs and problems, the activities needed in a freshman language course, and suggestions for development of course content and materials as well as demographic information. The faculty questionnaire consisted of four sections of l6 questions, which were parallel to those in the version given to the students except no demographic information was gathered (see Appendix).One of the authors, a faculty member at Chung Shan Medical College, selected one required class for each group of students (freshmen sophomores, juniors and seniors). Copies of the student questionnaire for administration to the students were then sent to cooperating instructors teaching these courses; copies of the faculty questionnaire were given to 20 teachers who were willing to complete the survey.The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program: in the questionnaire, percentages were determined for all questions except 8 and 13 for which means were computed. Chi-square, t-tests, and ANOV A analyses (方差分析) were conducted in order to determine the perceptions of English language needs of medical college students and their faculty and to compare the perceptions held by the various groups.( Pang, 2008)1.3 Reading Comprehension1.3.1 Fill in the following table with relevant details from the passage.1.3.2 Understand more about the method section of this research. Whatdo you know about the questionnaires used in the survey?2. Language Focus2.1 Passive voiceThe passive voice is usually used in academic writing, because passive structures have less subjective coloring in most cases than active ones. When describing a process or a scientific experiment, it is important to write in a neutral style, as an observer. To do this, you can use passive voice. There are three instances in which the passive voice is recommended: 1) when we do not know or do not care about who has performed the action; 2) when we focus on the receiver instead of the performer of the action; and 3) when we would like to remain in a neutral or objective position in writing. More examples from the methodology section are as follows:1) The study was conducted at the beginning of the semester and the final one was given at the end of the semester. ( procedure )2) In summer, the greenhouse was cooled by pulling in air through water saturated pads on the south end of the building. ( specially designed material )3) The quartz reactors tested for this work are fabricated by the A&B Sales Company of Wheeling, Leeds, UK. ( instrument )4) In order to provide a broad sampling of college students, respondents were recruited from diverse fields of study. ( sampling )5) The final scores were computed into mean averages (X) and standard deviations (SD). ( statistical analysis)2.1.1 Go over the Reading Passage and mark verbs inthe passive voiceand then complete the following table:2.1.2 Rewrite the following text with passive voice.Some people consider a poison ivy infection to be humorous. But it is not funny at all. Contact with the plant causes a rash that has the intensity of a fresh mosquito bite and lasts for several days. Scientists have studied poison ivy infection for centuries, but they have found no preventive pill or inoculation. The poisonous substance in the plant is called urushiol. After urushiol has touched the skin, blisters and weeping sores will soon cover the exposed area.2.2 Sequential markersA process paragraph explains how to do something or how something works. Process paragraphs are usually developed step-by-step in a chronological or logical sequence. The following sequencing expressions are more frequently used to link steps in a description of a process or to divide a process into steps:● Firstly … To begin with … First of all … etc.● Secondly … Next … After that … In addition … etc.● Finally … Lastly …The following sentences describe a process of making paper. Use sequential words and rewrite them into a cohesive paragraph.1) The logs are placed in the shredder.2) They are cut into small chips and mixed with water and acid.3) They are heated and crushed to a heavy pulp which is cleaned.4) It is chemically bleached to whiten it.5) It is passed through rollers to flatten it.6). Sheets of wet paper are produced.7) The water is removed from the sheets which are pressed, dried and refined and the finished paper is produced.3. Writing PracticeA well organized, logically ordered and easily understandable chapter on methodology makes the thesis a really outstanding work. Normally, a method section includes:1) Overview of the experiment: one sentence briefly tells what was done (like a topicsentence);2) Population: state the people/subjects studied, or the things tested;3) Location : where the study took place;4) Restriction/Limiting conditions: precautions taken to make sure that the data are valid;5) Sampling Techniques : describe how the subject are selected for the study;6) Materials : describe the materials used to conduct the study or experiment;7) Procedures : State the steps of the experiment in a chronological order;8) Statistical Treatment: describe how the statistics are examined.Of all the items on this list, the only items that are always included in the method section are the materials and procedures.3.1 Read the following sentences. They are all taken from method sections from different research articles. In each case, determine which information element is represented.(1) A total of 369 participants of European origins (52.7% female) with a mean age of27.2 years were recruited by research assistants in public places in the Montrealregion.(2) The data used for the current analysis consists of 60 texts taken from 20engineering journals.(3) Experimenters approached potential participants by introducing themselves asstudents from the University of Quebec in Montreal and then asked if they would accept to participate in a short study on facial expressions.(4) The study aims to examine the use of SEF as a tool for providing evidence ofteaching effectiveness in tertiary education.(5) The results of the two questionnaires were subjected to statistical tests ofreliability and significance using SPSS.(6) Envelopes containing the survey materials were sent to the local business managerof each union. In the envelopes, there was a cover letter explaining the project, the questionnaire itself, and a pre-paid return envelope. The union business manager was contacted and asked to select workers from his union and to send the envelopes to the chosen workers.(7) The participants were 90 first-year students from the School of Foreign Languagesat a major university in Nanjing. Their average age was 18 years old. They constituted a convenience sample.(8) The investigation was performed in a national laboratory affiliated to a researchcenter for industrial automation in Nanjing, Jiangsu Province.3.2 Completing sentencesThe following words and phrasal verbs are more commonly used in Method SectionComplete the following paragraph by translating Chinese into English.A group of MBA students from a major metropolitan state university were recruited as participants for the investigation. （1）（问卷调查实施）after the topic of the BSC had been discussed in the course. 136 students enrolled in a managerial accounting course ( 2 ) （完成了此次问卷. _( 3 )_（表2给出了这些参与者的背景信息）. As is shown, the majority of participants are male. _( 4 )_（参与者的平均年龄约29岁）, _( 5 )_（平均工作经历约6年）, and the mean number of accounting classes was approximately four.(Liu, 2008)1)_________________________________________________________________2)_________________________________________________________________3)_________________________________________________________________4)_________________________________________________________________5)_________________________________________________________________3.3 Reordering sentencesThe following is the method section of a research article from the field of engineering with sentences in a scrambled order. Please rearrange them in a more conventional order. Write the sequential number in the box on the right side of the table below.3.4 Rewriting sentencesThe following sentences are taken from method sections of different published articles. Rewrite each sentence to make it more acceptable.(1) Table 5 shows the number of students per level and their L1 language backgroundswhich are represented.__________________________________________________________________ (2) Two questionnaires which were administered respectively to the personnel officersand business employees show a similar result in terms of their perception of the use of English in their firm.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (3) The scores of the two raters were averaged and all the data were entered forstatistical analysis._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (4) The model which was used in the experiment was a modified version of the 2006Test package, which was originally developed by the Morrison Research Institute._________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________ (5) Gray (1998) studied the effectiveness of the new schedule. He used scores on theStanford Achievement Test as the measure.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (6) Having explained the directions, the students began to write.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (7) The schedule was in effect only 1 year, with students achieving better results.__________________________________________________________________ (8) The teacher put the assignment on the board, and then she checked the roll andfound that three students were absent.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________(9) School administrators who are interested in making changes that are not tooexpensive or too complex for the most part have been overly receptive to simplistic solutions.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ (10) One of the obstacles that deter the installation of solar energy systems that aredesigned to achieve the savings that are important to all people is the reluctance of those same individuals to make large capital investments.__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________3.5 Turning notes into a passageYou are required to write the method section of a research paper about the experiment to investigate into students’ preferences and attitudes towards sugar-sweetened and artificially-sweetened beverages. Pay particular attention to the choice of tense and voice.4. Writing Project4.1 Gathering information for a method section.You are required to write the method section of a research paper in the field of English language class attendance with the information elements given below. Gather information for your research.4.2 Designing a questionnaireThe design of a questionnaire will depend on whether the researcher wishes to collect exploratory information (i.e. qualitative information for the purposes of better understanding or the generation of hypotheses on a subject) or quantitative information (to test specific hypotheses that have previously been generated).A good questionnaire is one that: 1) enables collection of accurate data in a timely manner; 2) facilitates the work of data collection, data processing and the tabulation of data; 3) ensures that there is no collection of non-essential information; and 4) permits comprehensive and meaningful analysis as well as purposeful utilization of the data collected to ensure that the technical task of the questionnaire receives the various input that it requires.Types of questionsThere are many different types of questions you can use to get the information that you need. In the main, these fall into open and closed questions. An open question allows the respondents to use their own words to answer, e. g., “What do you think are the main causes of racism?” A closed question gives them pre-defined options, e.g., “Which of the following do you think are the main causes of racism: a, b, c, d”.The pros and cons of each are given in the following table.Rating design in a questionnaire: Look closely at the following example of a rating design.Please rate the quality of the medical insurance of this company.□Poor □Fair □GoodThere are nine steps involved in the development of a questionnaire:1. Decide the information required;2. Define the target respondents;3. Choose the method(s) of reaching your target respondents;4. Decide on question content;5. Develop the question wording;6. Put questions into a meaningful order and format;7. Check the length of the questionnaire;8. Pre-test the questionnaire;9. Develop the final survey form.Now work in groups of four, and design a questionnaire to obtain information about students’ attendance and causes for their absence.4.3 Drafting your method sectionBegin your writing now with the information you have just obtained from your survey.5. Final ChecklistRevision gives you an opportunity to take another look at what you have written. Therefore, you have to do some extra work to revise your draft. Here are some general rules for your check.。