曼昆-微观经济学-第六版-第八章答案
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第1章经济学十大原理)】class=txt>第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
自从凯恩斯的名著《就业、利息和货币通论》于1936年发表之后，西方经济学界对经济学的研究便分为两个部分：微观经济学与宏观经济学。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解第一篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、概念题1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有限性与人类的欲望无限性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
其中微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定资源约束时如何进行选择的科学；宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于经济总量的研究。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或者是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或收益大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.平等平等是指人与人的利益关系及利益关系的原则、制度、做法、行为等都合乎社会发展的需要，即经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
它是一个历史范畴，按其所产生的社会历史条件和社会性质的不同而不同，不存在永恒的公平；它也是一个客观范畴，尽管在不同的社会形态中内涵不同对其的理解不同，但都是社会存在的反映，具有客观性。
5.机会成本机会成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其他用途所放弃的最大预期收益。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源具有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人，是经济研究中所假设的、在一定条件下具有典型理性行为的经济活动主体。
7.边际变动边际变动是指对行动计划的微小增量调整。
8.激励激励是指引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和企业在市场上的相互交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置实际上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
10.产权产权是指个人拥有并控制稀缺资源的能力，也可以理解为人们对其所交易东西的所有权，即人们在交易活动中使自己或他人在经济利益上受益或受损的权力。
曼昆微观经济学课后标准答案
曼昆微观经济学课后答案————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：21.Consider the market for DVD movies,TV screens,and ticket at movie theaters. A．对每一对物品，确定它们是互补品还是替代品·DVD 和电视·DVD 和电影票·电视和电影票As: complements substitutes substitutesB．假设技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本。
画一个图说明电视机市场会发生什么变动。
As: demand curve不变supply curve向右移。
技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本，使电视机的供给曲线向右移动。
电视机的需求曲线不变。
电视机的均衡价格下降，均衡价格上升。
C．再画两个图说明电视机市场的变动如何影响DVD 市场和电影票市场。
答：DVD：demand curve不变supply curve向右移。
由于电视机和DVD 是互补品，电视机价格的下降使DVD 的需求增加。
需求增加引起DVD 均衡价格上升，均衡数量增加。
Movie tickets：supply curve不变demand curve向左移。
由于电视机和电影票是替代品，电视机价格的下降使电影票需求减少。
需求的减少使电影票的均衡价格下降，均衡数量减少。
2.Over the past 20 years,technological advance reduces the cost of computer chips.How do you think this affected the market for computers?For computer software?For typewriters?As: computer : supply curve向右移price 下降computer software: supply curve向右移price 下降typewriters : demand curve向左移3.Consider total cost and total revenue given in the following table:A．计算每种产量时的利润。
曼昆-微观经济学-第六版-第八章答案
第八章应用:赋税的代价复习题1．当对一种物品征税时,消费者和生产者剩余会发生什么变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动?解释原因.答：当对一种物品征税时,消费者和生产者剩余都会减少。
消费者剩余和生产者剩余的减少大于税收收入的增加。
税收扭曲了消费者和生产者的激励，引起市场配置资源时的无效率。
2．画出有物品销售税的供求图。
在图上标注无谓损失,标明税收收入。
答:如P163图8－3所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余(面积B+C表示减少量)和生产者剩余（面积D+E表示减少量）。
生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税收收入（用面积B+D表示),税收引起了无谓损失(用面积C+E表示).3．供给与需求弹性如何影响税收的无谓损失？为什么有这种影响?答：供给与需求曲线的弹性越大，税收的无谓损失越大；供给与需求曲线的弹性越小,税收的无谓损失越小。
因为供给和需求弹性衡量买者和卖者对价格变动的反应程度，决定了税收扭曲会使市场结果有多大变动。
4．当税收增加时，无谓损失和税收收入有什么变动?答：当税收增加时，无谓损失增加，并且无谓损失的增加要快于税收规模的增加。
税收增加时，税收收入先增加,然后随着税收规模越来越大,市场收缩非常之大，以至于税收收入开始减少。
问题与应用1．比萨饼市场的特征是需求曲线向右下方倾斜，供给曲线向右上方倾斜.A．画出竞争市场均衡图。
标出价格、数量、消费者剩余和生产者剩余.存在无谓损失吗？解释原因。
答：没有无谓损失。
自由竞争市场使供给与需求达到均衡点,在均衡状态下，总剩余达到最大，如图8－2。
图8－2 比萨饼市场均衡图B．假设政府令每个比萨饼店每卖出一个比萨饼交纳1美元税。
说明这种比萨饼税的影响，确定并标出消费者剩余、生产者剩余、政府收入以及无谓损失.每块面积与税前相比有何变动?答：这种比萨饼税使卖者得到的价格降低，买者支付的价格增加，销售量从Q1减少到Q2 。
消费者剩余由税收前的面积A+B+E 减少为税收后的面积A;生产者剩余由税收前的面积C+D+F 减少为税收后的面积D。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第8章 应用：赋税的代价)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第8章应用：赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题无谓损失（deadweight loss）（北京师范大学2006、2009研；深圳大学2008研）答：无谓损失指税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
如图8-1所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动？解释原因。
答：（1）当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。
（2）与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。
对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）。
由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
（3）税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本，使资源配置无效率，进而使社会总剩余减少。
市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第6章--供给、需求与政府政策)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第6章供给、需求与政府政策课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．价格上限（price ceiling）答：价格上限又称限制价格，指可以出售一种物品的法定最高价格。
如果价格上限高于均衡价格，这种价格上限对价格或销售没有影响，被称为没有限制作用的价格上限；如果价格上限低于均衡价格，则价格上限会导致经济偏离均衡状态，使得需求量大于供给量，引起短缺，这种价格上限属于有限制作用的价格上限。
政府解决供给不足主要有两种方法：配给制和排队。
在实行价格上限时还必然出现黑市交易。
在这样的政策下，得益的是能以低廉的价格买到商品的消费者，而生产者和买不到商品的消费者的利益则受到损害。
2．价格下限（price floor）答：价格下限又称支持价格，指可以出售一种物品的法定最低价格。
如果价格下限低于均衡价格时，这种价格下限对价格或销售量没有影响，可以称为没有限制作用的价下限；如果价格下限高于均衡价格时，价格下限会使得经济偏离均衡状态，最终价格等于价格下限规定的水平，供给量大于需求量，引起过剩，这种价格下限被称为有限制作用的价格下限。
许多国家实行的农产品支持价格和最低工资都属于价格下限。
就农产品支持价格而言，目的是稳定农业生产和农民的收入，有其积极意义，但这也导致了农产品过剩，不利于市场调节下的农业结构调整。
3．税收归宿（tax incidence）（深圳大学2009研）答：税收归宿是指税收负担的最终归属点或税负转嫁的最后结果。
它是关于税收负担分配的问题，指税收最终导致哪些人的福利损失，也就是税收最终由哪些人负担了。
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解（1~2章）
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解（1~2章）第一篇：曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》第6版课后习题详解(1~2章)曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》第6版课后习题详解第一篇导言第1章经济学十大原理一、概念题 1.稀缺性稀缺性是指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有限性与人类的欲望无限性之间的矛盾。
2.经济学经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
其中微观经济学是以单个经济主体为研究对象，研究单个经济主体面对既定资源约束时如何进行选择的科学；宏观经济学则以整个国民经济为研究对象，主要着眼于经济总量的研究。
3.效率效率是指人们在实践活动中的产出与投入比值或者是效益与成本比值，比值大效率高，比值小效率低。
它与产出或收益大小成正比，与投入或成本成反比。
4.平等平等是指人与人的利益关系及利益关系的原则、制度、做法、行为等都合乎社会发展的需要，即经济成果在社会成员中公平分配的特性。
它是一个历史范畴，按其所产生的社会历史条件和社会性质的不同而不同，不存在永恒的公平；它也是一个客观范畴，尽管在不同的社会形态中内涵不同对其的理解不同，但都是社会存在的反映，具有客观性。
5.机会成本机会成本是指将一种资源用于某种用途，而未用于其他用途所放弃的最大预期收益。
其存在的前提条件是：①资源是稀缺的；②资源具有多种用途；③资源的投向不受限制。
6.理性人理性人是指系统而有目的地尽最大努力去实现其目标的人，是经济研究中所假设的、在一定条件下具有典型理性行为的经济活动主体。
7.边际变动边际变动是指对行动计划的微小增量调整。
8.激励激励是指引起一个人做出某种行为的某种东西。
9.市场经济市场经济是指由家庭和企业在市场上的相互交易决定资源配置的经济，而资源配置实际上就是决定社会生产什么、生产多少、如何生产以及为谁生产的过程。
曼昆-微观经济学-第八章PPT课件
可编辑
税收规
模
29
税收收入与税收规模
P
税收小时，增
PB
税使税收收入
PB
增加
PS
PS
2T T
可编辑
Q2 Q1
S D Q
30
税收收入与税收规模
P
PB
PB
税收大时，增 税使税收收入 减少
3T 2T
PS PS
Q3 Q2
可编辑
S D Q
31
税收收入与税收规模
拉弗曲线：揭示 了税收规模与税 收收入之间的关 系
支出。为达到这个目的，政府既可以对普通食品 征税也可以对高档餐馆的用餐征税
▪ 应该对哪个征税？
应用：赋税的代价
22
政府应该多大？
▪ 一个更大的政府能提供更多的服务，但这需要更高
的税收，而税收会带来无谓损失
▪ 税收带来的无谓损失越大，对小政府的呼声就越大
▪ 对劳动收入征收尤其重要：它是政府收入的最大来
本章我们将探索这些问题答案：
▪ 税收怎样影响消费者剩余，生产者剩余和总剩余？ ▪ 什么是税收的无谓损失？ ▪ 决定无谓损失大小的因素有哪些？ ▪ 税收规模如何影响税收收入？
应用：赋税的代价
1
复习第六章
▪ 税收
▪ 在买者支付的价格和卖者得到的价格之间打入一
个契子
▪ 提高了买者为该物品支付的价格，降低了卖者从
源
▪ 对一个典型的工作者而言，边际税率（对最后一美
元收入的征税）高达40%.
▪ 这种税收的无谓损失有多大？它取决于弹性……
可编辑
23
政府应该多大？
▪ 如果劳动的供给是缺乏弹性的，那无谓损失比较
小
曼昆微观经济学课后标准答案
曼昆微观经济学课后答案作者: 日期:1 .C on sider the market for DVD movies,TV scree ns,a nd ticket at movie theaters.A •对每一对物品，确定它们是互补品还是替代品・DVD和电视・DVD和电影票・电视和电影票As: compleme nts substitutes substitutesB •假设技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本。
画一个图说明电视机市场会发生什么变动。
As: dema nd curve不娈supply curve向右移:技术进步降低了制造电视机的成本，使电视机的供给曲线向右移动。
电视机的需求曲线不变。
电视机的均衡价格下降，均衡价格上升。
C .再画两个图说明电视机市场的变动如何影响DVD市场和电影票市场。
答：DVD : dema nd curve不变supply curve向右移。
由于电视机和DVD是互补品，电视机价格的下降使DVD的需求增加。
需求增加引起DVD均衡价格上升，均衡数量增加。
Movie tickets : supply curve不变dema nd curve向左移。
由于电视机和电影票是替代品，电视机价格的下降使电影票需求减少。
需求的减少使电影票的均衡价格下降，均衡数量减少。
2.Over the past 20 years,tech no logical adva nee reduces the cost of computer chips.How do you think this affected the market for computers?For computer software?For typewriters?As: computer: supply curve 向右彳多price 卜降3.Consider total cost and total revenue given in the following table:产量01234567总成本89101113192737总收益08162432404856computer software: supply curve 向右彳多price 卜•降软件厂、・i) o _—八j IX2I uWhen MR=MC profit maximum 即Q=6 TC=27B・计算每种产量时的边际收益和边际成本。
曼昆微观经济学课后练习英文答案
✍ how to define and measure consumer surplus.✍ the link between sellers’ costs of producing a good and the supply curve.✍ how to define and measure producer surplus.✍ that the equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes total surplus in a market. CONTEXT AND PURPOSE:Chapter 7 is the first chapter in a three-chapter sequence on welfare economics and market efficiency. Chapter 7 employs the supply and demand model to develop consumer surplus and producer surplus as a measure of welfare and market efficiency. These concepts are then utilized in Chapters 8 and 9 to determine the winners and losers from taxation and restrictions on international trade.The purpose of Chapter 7 is to develop welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. Chapters 4 through 6 employed supply and demand in a positive framework, which focused on the question, “What is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market?” This chapter now addresses the normative question, “Is the equilibrium price and quantity in a market the best possible solution to the resource allocation problem, or is it simply the price and quantity that balance supply and demand?” Students will discover that under most circumstances the equilibrium price and quantity is also the one that maximizes welfare.KEY POINTS:? Consumer surplus equals buyers’ willingness to pay for a good minus the amount they actually pay for it, and it measures the benefit buyers get from participating in a market.Consumer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the demand curve and above the price.? Producer surplus equals the amount sellers receive for their goods minus their costs of production, and it measures the benefit sellers get from participating in a market. Producer surplus can be computed by finding the area below the price and above the supply curve.? An allocation of resources that maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus is said to be efficient. Policymakers are often concerned with the efficiency, as well as the equality, of economic outcomes.? The equilibrium of supply and demand maximizes the sum of consumer and producer surplus.That is, the invisible hand of the marketplace leads buyers and sellers to allocate resources efficiently.? Markets do not allocate resources efficiently in the presence of market failures such as market power or externalities.CHAPTER OUTLINE:I. Definition of welfare economics: the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being.A. Willingness to Pay1. Definition of willingness to pay: the maximum amount that a buyer will pay for a good.2. Example: You are auctioning a mint-condition recording of Elvis Presley’s first album. Four buyers show up. Their willingness to pay is as follows:for John. Because John is willing to pay more than he has to for the album,he derives some benefit from participating in the market.3. Definition of consumer surplus: the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it.4. Note that if you had more than one copy of the album, the price in the auction would end up being lower (a little over $70 in the case of two albums) and both John and Paul would gain consumer surplus.B. Using the Demand Curve to Measure Consumer Surplus1. We can use the information on willingness to pay to derive a demand curve for the rare2. . Because the demand curve shows the buyers’ willingness to pay, we can use the demand curve to measure consumer surplus.C. How a Lower Price Raises Consumer Surplusare paying less for the product than before (area A on the graph).b. Because the price is now lower, some new buyers will enter the market and receive consumer surplus on these additional units of output purchased (area B on the graph).D. What Does Consumer Surplus Measure?1. Remember that consumer surplus is the difference between the amount that buyers are willing to pay for a good and the price that they actually pay.2. Thus, it measures the benefit that consumers receive from the good as the buyers themselves perceive it.III. Producer SurplusA. Cost and the Willingness to Sell1. Definition of cost: the value of everything a seller must give up to produce a good .2. Example: You want to hire someone to paint your house. You accept bids for the work from four sellers. Each painter is willing to work if the price you will pay exceeds her opportunity cost. (Note that this opportunity cost thus represents willingness to sell.) The costs are: ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price ceilings from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for two-bedroom apartments in your town. Draw in a price ceiling below the equilibriumprice.Then go through:✍ consumer surplus before the price ceiling is put into place.✍ consumer surplus after the price ceiling is put into place.You will need to take some time to explain the relationship between the producers’ willingness to sell and the cost of producing the good. The relationship between cost and the supply curve is not as apparent as the relationship between the demand curve and willingness to pay. It is important to stress that consumer surplus is measured in monetary terms. Consumer surplus gives us a way to place a monetary cost on inefficient market outcomes (due to government involvement or market failure).except for Grandma. Because Grandma receives more than she would require to paint the house, she derives some benefit from producing in the market.4.Definition of producer surplus: the amount a seller is paid for a good minus the seller’s cost of providing it.5. Note that if you had more than one house to paint, the price in the auction would end up being higher (a little under $800 in the case of two houses) and both Grandma and Georgia would gain producer surplus.B. Using the Supply Curve to Measure Producer Surplus1. We can use the information on cost (willingness to sell) to derive a supply curve for2. marginal seller . Because the supply curve shows the sellers’ cost (willingness to sell), we can use the supply curve to measure producer surplus.are receiving more for the product than before (area C on the graph).b. Because the price is now higher, some new sellers will enter the market and receive producer surplus on these additional units of output sold (area D on the graph).D. Producer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of producers, much like consumer surplus is used to measure the economic well-being of consumers.ALTERNATIVE CLASSROOM EXAMPLE:Review the material on price floors from Chapter 6. Redraw the market for anagricultural product such as corn. Draw in a price support above the equilibriumprice.Then go through:✍ producer surplus before the price support is put in place.✍ producer surplus after the price support is put in place.Make sure that you discuss the cost of the price support to taxpayers.IV.Market EfficiencyA. The Benevolent Social Planner1. The economic well-being of everyone in society can be measured by total surplus, which is the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus:Total Surplus = Consumer Surplus + Producer SurplusTotal Surplus = (Value to Buyers – Amount Paid by Buyers) +(Amount Received by Sellers – Cost to Sellers)Because the Amount Paid by Buyers = Amount Received bySellers:2. Definition of efficiency: the property of a resource allocation of maximizing the total surplus received by all members of society .3. Definition of equality: the property of distributing economic prosperity uniformly the members of society .a. Buyers who value the product more than the equilibrium price will purchase the product; those who do not, will not purchase the product. In other words, the free market allocates the supply of a good to the buyers who value it most highly, as measured by their willingness to pay.b. Sellers whose costs are lower than the equilibrium price will produce the product; those whose costs are higher, will not produce the product. In other words, the free market allocates the demand for goods to the sellers who can produce it at the lowest cost.to the marginal buyer is greater than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output increases.b. At any quantity of output greater than the equilibrium quantity, the value of the product to the marginal buyer is less than the cost to the marginal seller so total surplus would rise if output decreases.3. Note that this is one of the reasons that economists believe Principle #6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity.It would be a good idea to remind students that there are circumstances whenthe market process does not lead to the most efficient outcome. Examplesinclude situations such as when a firm (or buyer) has market power over priceor when there are externalities present. These situations will be discussed inlater chapters.Pretty Woman, Chapter 6. Vivien (Julia Roberts) and Edward (Richard Gere)negotiate a price. Afterward, Vivien reveals she would have accepted a lowerprice, while Edward admits he would have paid more. If you have done a goodjob of introducing consumer and producer surplus, you will see the light bulbsgo off above your students’ heads as they watch this clip.C. In the News: Ticket Scalping1. Ticket scalping is an example of how markets work to achieve an efficient outcome.2. This article from The Boston Globe de scribes economist Chip Case’s experience with ticket scalping.D. Case Study: Should There Be a Market in Organs?1. As a matter of public policy, people are not allowed to sell their organs.a. In essence, this means that there is a price ceiling on organs of $0.b. This has led to a shortage of organs.2. The creation of a market for organs would lead to a more efficient allocation of resources, but critics worry about the equity of a market system for organs.V. Market Efficiency and Market FailureA. To conclude that markets are efficient, we made several assumptions about how markets worked.1. Perfectly competitive markets.2. No externalities.B. When these assumptions do not hold, the market equilibrium may not be efficient.C. When markets fail, public policy can potentially remedy the situation. SOLUTIONS TO TEXT PROBLEMS:Quick Quizzes1. Figure 1 shows the demand curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the consumer surplus that results from that price is denoted CS. Consumer surplus is the amount a buyer is willing to pay for a good minus the amount the buyer actually pays for it. It measures the benefit to buyers of participating in a market.Figure 1 Figure 22. Figure 2 shows the supply curve for turkey. The price of turkey is P1 and the producer surplus that results from that price is denoted PS. Producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers’ cost of providing it (measured by the supply curve). It measures the benefit to sellers of participating in a market.Figure 33. Figure 3 shows the supply and demand for turkey. The price of turkey is P1, consumer surplus is CS, and producer surplus is PS. Producing more turkeys than the equilibrium quantity would lower total surplus because the value to the marginal buyer would be lower than the cost to the marginal seller on those additional units.Questions for Review1. The price a buyer is willing to pay, consumer surplus, and the demand curve are all closely related. The height of the demand curve represents the willingness to pay of the buyers. Consumer surplus is the area below the demand curve and above the price, which equals the price that each buyer is willing to pay minus the price actually paid.2. Sellers' costs, producer surplus, and the supply curve are all closely related. The height of the supply curve represents the costs of the sellers. Producer surplus is the area below the price and above the supply curve, which equals the price received minus each seller's costs of producing the good.Figure 43. Figure 4 shows producer and consumer surplus in a supply-and-demand diagram.4. An allocation of resources is efficient if it maximizes total surplus, the sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. But efficiency may not be the only goal of economic policymakers; they may also be concerned about equity the fairness of the distribution of well-being.5. The invisible hand of the marketplace guides the self-interest of buyers and sellers into promoting general economic well-being. Despite decentralized decision making and self-interested decision makers, free markets often lead to an efficient outcome.6. Two types of market failure are market power and externalities. Market power may cause market outcomes to be inefficient because firms may cause price and quantity to differ from the levels they would be under perfect competition, which keeps total surplus from being maximized. Externalities are side effects that are not taken into account by buyers and sellers. As a result, the free market does not maximize total surplus.Problems and Applications1. a. Consumer surplus is equal to willingness to pay minus the price paid. Therefore, Melissa’s willingness to pay must be $200 ($120 + $80).b. Her consumer surplus at a price of $90 would be $200 ? $90 = $110.c. If the price of an iPod was $250, Melissa would not have purchased one because the price is greater than her willingness to pay. Therefore, she would receive no consumer surplus.2. If an early freeze in California sours the lemon crop, the supply curve for lemons shifts to the left, as shown in Figure 5. The result is a rise in the price of lemons and a decline in consumer surplus from A + B + C to just A. So consumer surplus declines by the amount B + C.Figure 5 Figure 6In the market for lemonade, the higher cost of lemons reduces the supply of lemonade, as shown in Figure 6. The result is a rise in the price of lemonade and a decline in consumer surplus from D + E + F to just D, a loss of E + F. Note that an event that affects consumer surplus in one market often has effects on consumer surplus in other markets.3. A rise in the demand for French bread leads to an increase in producer surplus in the market for French bread, as shown in Figure 7. The shift of the demand curve leads to an increased price, which increases producer surplus from area A to area A + B + C.Figure 7The increased quantity of French bread being sold increases the demand for flour, as shown in Figure 8. As a result, the price of flour rises, increasing producer surplus from area Dto D + E + F. Note that an event that affects producer surplus in one market leads to effects on producer surplus in related markets.Figure 84. a.Figure 9b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Bert buys two bottles of water. His consumer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He values his first bottle of water at $7, but pays only $4 for it, so has consumer surplus of $3. He values his second bottle of water at $5, but pays only $4for it, so has consumer surplus of $1. Thus Bert’s total consumer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2, Bert buys three bottles of water, an increase of one. His consumer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase in the amount of area B. He gets consumer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($7 value minus $2 price), $3 from the second bottle ($5 value minus $2 price), and $1 from the third bottle ($3 value minus $2 price), for a total consumer surplus of $9. Thus consumer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water falls from $4 to $2.5. a.Figure 10b. When the price of a bottle of water is $4, Ernie sells two bottles of water. His producer surplus is shown as area A in the figure. He receives $4 for his first bottle of water, but it costs only $1 to produce, so Ernie has producer surplus of $3. He also receives $4 for his second bottle of water, which costs $3 to produce, so he has producer surplus of $1. Thus Ernie’s total producer surplus is $3 + $1 = $4, which is the area of A in the figure.c. When the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6, Ernie sells three bottles of water, an increase of one. His producer surplus consists of both areas A and B in the figure, an increase by the amount of area B. He gets producer surplus of $5 from the first bottle ($6 price minus $1 cost), $3 from the second bottle ($6 price minus $3 cost), and $1 from the third bottle ($6 price minus $5 price), for a total producer surplus of $9. Thus producer surplus rises by $5 (which is the size of area B) when the price of a bottle of water rises from $4 to $6.6. a. From Ernie’s supply schedule and Bert’s demand schedule, the quantityequilibrium quantity of two.b. At a price of $4, consumer surplus is $4 and producer surplus is $4, as shown in Problems 3 and 4 above. Total surplus is $4 + $4 = $8.c. If Ernie produced one less bottle, his producer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 4 above. If Bert consumed one less bottle, his consumer surplus would decline to $3, as shown in Problem 3 above. So total surplus would decline to $3 + $3 = $6.d. If Ernie produced one additional bottle of water, his cost would be $5, but the price is only $4, so his producer surplus would decline by $1. If Bert consumed one additional bottle of water, his value would be $3, but the price is $4, so his consumer surplus would decline by $1. So total surplus declines by $1 + $1 = $2.7. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for stereos results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 11. As a result, the equilibrium price of stereos declines and the equilibrium quantity increases.Figure 11b. The decline in the price of stereos increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D. Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above the supply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus is areas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, which may be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus, while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplus rises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises by C + D + F + G.c. If the supply of stereos is very elastic, then the shift of the supply curve benefits consumers most. To take the most dramatic case, suppose the supply curve were horizontal, as shown in Figure 12. Then there is no producer surplus at all. Consumers capture all the benefits of falling production costs, with consumer surplus rising from area A to area A + B.Figure 128. Figure 13 shows supply and demand curves for haircuts. Supply equals demand at a quantity of three haircuts and a price between $4 and $5. Firms A, C, and D should cut the hair of Ellen, Jerry, and Phil. Oprah’s willingness to pay is too low and firm B’s costs are too high, so they do not participate. The maximum total surplus is the area between the demand and supply curves, which totals $11 ($8 value minus $2 cost for the first haircut, plus $7 value minus $3 cost for the second, plus $5 value minus $4 cost for the third).Figure 139. a. The effect of falling production costs in the market for computers results in a shift to the right in the supply curve, as shown in Figure 14. As a result, the equilibrium price of computers declines and the equilibrium quantity increases. The decline in the price of computers increases consumer surplus from area A to A + B + C + D, an increase in the amount B + C + D.Figure 14 Figure 15Prior to the shift in supply, producer surplus was areas B + E (the area above thesupply curve and below the price). After the shift in supply, producer surplus isareas E + F + G. So producer surplus changes by the amount F + G – B, whichmay be positive or negative. The increase in quantity increases producer surplus,while the decline in the price reduces producer surplus. Because consumer surplusrises by B + C + D and producer surplus rises by F + G – B, total surplus rises byC +D + F + G.b. Because typewriters are substitutes for computers, the decline in the price of computers means that people substitute computers for typewriters, shifting the demand for typewriters to the left, as shown in Figure 15. The result is a decline in both the equilibrium price and equilibrium quantity of typewriters. Consumer surplus in the typewriter market changes from area A + B to A + C, a net change of C – B. Producer surplus changes from area C + D + E to area E, a net loss of C + D. Typewriter producers are sad about technological advances in computers because their producer surplus declines.c. Because software and computers are complements, the decline in the price and increase in the quantity of computers means that the demand for software increases, shifting the demand for software to the right, as shown in Figure 16. The result is an increase in both the price and quantity of software. Consumer surplus in the software market changes from B + C to A + B, anet change of A – C. Producer surplus changes from E to C + D + E, an increase of C + D, so software producers should be happy about the technological progress in computers.Figure 16d. Yes, this analysis helps explain why Bill Gates is one the world’s richest people, because his company produces a lot of software that is a complement with computers and there has been tremendous technological advance in computers.10. a. With Provider A, the cost of an extra minute is $0. With Provider B, the cost of anextra minute is $1.b. With Provider A, my friend will purchase 150 minutes [= 150 – (50)(0)]. WithProvider B, my friend would purchase 100 minutes [= 150 – (50)(1)].c. With Provider A, he would pay $120. The cost would be $100 with Provider B.Figure 17d. Figure 17 shows the friend’s demand. With Provider A, he buys 150 minutes andhis consumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(3)(150) – 120 = 105. With Provider B, hisconsumer surplus is equal to (1/2)(2)(100) = 100.e. I would recommend Provider A because he receives greater consumer surplus.11. a. Figure 18 illustrates the demand for medical care. If each procedure has a price of $100, quantity demanded will be Q1 procedures.Figure 18b. If consumers pay only $20 per procedure, the quantity demanded will be Q2 procedures. Because the cost to society is $100, the number of procedures performed is too large to maximize total surplus. The quantity that maximizes total surplus is Q1 procedures, which is less than Q2.c. The use of medical care is excessive in the sense that consumers get procedures whose value is less than the cost of producing them. As a result, the economy’s total surplus is reduced.d. To prevent this excessive use, the consumer must bear the marginal cost of the procedure. But this would require eliminating insurance. Another possibility would be that the insurance company, which pays most of the marginal cost of the procedure ($80, in this case) could decide whether the procedure should be performed. But the insurance company does not get the benefits of the procedure, so its decisions may not reflect the value to the consumer.。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第8章--应用：赋税的代价)(精选.)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第8章应用：赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题无谓损失（）（北京师范大学2006、2009研；深圳大学2008研）答：无谓损失指税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
如图8-1所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入（面积+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
B D图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动？解释原因。
答：（1）当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。
（2）与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。
对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
（3）税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本，使资源配置无效率，进而使社会总剩余减少。
市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详细讲解(第8章__应用_赋税的代价)
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第8章应用：赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题无谓损失（deadweight loss）（北京师范大学2006、2009研；深圳大学2008研）答：无谓损失指税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
如图8-1所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动？解释原因。
答：（1）当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。
（2）与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。
对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税收收入（面积B D+）。
+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E（3）税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本，使资源配置无效率，进而使社会总剩余减少。
市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第8章应用：赋税的代价)剖析
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第8章应用：赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题无谓损失（deadweight loss）（北京师范大学2006、2009研；深圳大学2008研）答：无谓损失指税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
如图8-1所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+代表）。
由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动？解释原因。
答：（1）当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。
（2）与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。
对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）。
由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
（3）税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本，使资源配置无效率，进而使社会总剩余减少。
市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
(NEW)曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解
目 录第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理第2章 像经济学家一样思考第3章 相互依存性与贸易的好处第2篇 市场如何运行第4章 供给与需求的市场力量第5章 弹性及其应用第6章 供给、需求与政府政策第3篇 市场和福利第7章 消费者、生产者与市场效率第8章 应用：赋税的代价第9章 应用：国际贸易第4篇 公共部门经济学第10章 外部性第11章 公共物品和公共资源第12章 税制的设计第5篇 企业行为与产业组织第13章 生产成本第14章 竞争市场上的企业第15章 垄 断第16章 垄断竞争第17章 寡 头第6篇 劳动市场经济学第18章 生产要素市场第19章 收入与歧视第20章 收入不平等与贫困第7篇 深入研究的论题第21章 消费者选择理论第22章 微观经济学前沿第1篇 导 言第1章 经济学十大原理一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
时下经常见诸国内报刊文献的“现代西方经济学”一词，大多也都在这个意义上使用。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第8章 应用：赋税的代价)概要
曼昆《经济学原理（微观经济学分册）》（第6版）第8章应用：赋税的代价课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题无谓损失（deadweight loss）（北京师范大学2006、2009研；深圳大学2008研）答：无谓损失指税收（或其他某种政策）扭曲了市场结果时所引起的总剩余的减少。
如图8-1所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E+），所以，+代表）。
由于生产者剩余和消费者剩余的减少量大于税收收入（面积B D税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
图8-1 无谓损失二、复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余会发生怎样的变动？与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动？解释原因。
答：（1）当对一种物品征税时，消费者剩余和生产者剩余都会减少。
（2）与税收收入的比较具体如图8-1所示。
对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余（用面积B C+代表）。
由于生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税+代表）和生产者剩余（用面积D E收收入（面积B D+），所以，税收引起了无谓损失（面积C E+）。
（3）税收引起无谓损失的原因是收扭曲了消费者的支付意愿和生产者的生产成本，使资源配置无效率，进而使社会总剩余减少。
市场通常可以有效地配置稀缺资源。
这就是说，供求均衡使市场上买者和卖者的总剩余最大化。
但是，当税收提高了买者的价格而降低了卖者的价格时，它对买者的激励是比没有税收时少消费，而对卖者的激励是比没有税收时少生产。
当买者和卖者对这些激励做出反应时，市场规模缩小到其最优水平之下。
微观经济学习题答案曼昆
微观经济学习题答案曼昆微观经济学习题答案曼昆微观经济学是经济学的一个重要分支，研究个体经济单位（如家庭、企业）的经济行为和市场的运行机制。
在学习微观经济学的过程中，我们常常遇到一些复杂的问题和难题。
而曼昆（N. Gregory Mankiw）的《宏观经济学原理》和《微观经济学原理》是许多经济学学生的必读教材。
下面，我将为大家提供一些微观经济学习题的答案，希望对大家的学习有所帮助。
1. 什么是边际成本和边际效益？为什么边际原理在经济学中如此重要？在经济学中，边际成本指的是增加或减少一个单位产量或消费量所增加或减少的总成本。
边际效益则是指增加或减少一个单位产量或消费量所带来的总效益。
边际原理认为，个体应该在边际成本等于边际效益的情况下做出决策。
边际原理在经济学中非常重要，因为它能够帮助我们理解个体在面对有限资源时做出的最优决策。
通过比较边际成本和边际效益，我们可以确定是否继续增加产量或消费量，以及何时停止增加。
这种理性决策可以最大程度地满足个体的需求，同时也有助于优化资源配置。
2. 什么是需求曲线和供给曲线？它们是如何影响市场价格和数量的？需求曲线是描述消费者在不同价格下购买某种商品或服务的数量关系的一条曲线。
需求曲线通常呈现出向下倾斜的形状，即价格越高，需求量越低；价格越低，需求量越高。
供给曲线则是描述生产者在不同价格下提供某种商品或服务的数量关系的一条曲线。
供给曲线通常呈现出向上倾斜的形状，即价格越高，供给量越高；价格越低，供给量越低。
市场价格和数量由需求曲线和供给曲线的交点确定。
当市场价格高于均衡价格时，供给量超过需求量，市场出现供过于求的情况，价格会下降。
相反，当市场价格低于均衡价格时，需求量超过供给量，市场出现需求过于供给的情况，价格会上升。
只有在市场价格等于均衡价格时，供给量和需求量达到平衡。
3. 什么是弹性需求和供给？它们对价格变化的反应有何不同？弹性需求是指消费者对价格变化的敏感程度。
曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解
第2篇市场如何运行第4章供给与需求的市场力量4.1 复习笔记跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
1．市场与竞争市场（market）是某种物品或劳务的一群买者与卖者组成的一个群体。
买者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的需求，而卖者作为一个群体决定了一种物品或劳务的供给。
（1）市场类型的划分与特征市场类型的划分与特征如表4-1所示：表4-1 市场类型的划分和特征（2）完全竞争市场完全竞争市场指竞争不存在任何阻碍和干扰因素的市场情况，亦即没有任何垄断因素的市场结构。
完全竞争市场有两个主要特征：①用于销售的物品是完全相同的。
②买者和卖者如此之多，以至于没有一个买者或卖者可以影响价格。
由于完全竞争市场上的买者与卖者必须接受市场决定的价格，所以，他们被称为价格接受者。
2．需求（1）定义一种商品的需求指消费者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格水平愿意而且能够购买的该商品的数量。
（2）需求定理在其他条件相同时，一种物品价格上升，该物品需求量减少；价格下降，需求量增加。
（3）需求的表示需求表：表示一种物品价格与需求量之间关系的表格。
需求曲线：表示一种物品与需求量之间关系的图形。
根据需求定理，需求曲线向右下方倾斜。
（4）市场需求与个人需求市场需求是所有个人对某种物品或劳务需求的总和，把个人需求曲线水平相加可以得出市场需求曲线。
市场需求曲线表示在所有其他影响消费者需求的因素保持不变时，一种物品的总需求量如何随该物品价格的变动而变动。
（5）影响需求曲线移动的因素当人们改变他们在每种价格上希望购买的量时，需求曲线移动。
曼昆经济学原理英文第六版答案
曼昆经济学原理英文第六版答案【篇一：曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案8章】ation a new in the news box on ―the tax debate‖ has been added.by the end of this chapter, students should understand:? how taxes reduce consumer and producer surplus.? the meaning and causes of the deadweight loss from a tax. ? why some taxes have larger deadweight losses than others. ? how tax revenue and deadweight loss vary with the size of a tax.chapter 8 is the second chapter in a three-chapter sequence dealing with welfare economics. in theprevious section on supply and demand, chapter 6 introduced taxes and demonstrated how a tax affects the price and quantity sold in a market. chapter 6 also described the factors that determine how the burden of the tax is divided between the buyers and sellers in a market. chapter 7 developed welfare economics—the study of how the allocation of resources affects economic well-being. chapter 8 combines the lessons learned in chapters 6 and 7 and addresses the effects of taxation on welfare. chapter 9 will address the effects of trade restrictions on welfare. the purpose of chapter 8 is to apply the lessons learned about welfare economics in chapter 7 to the issue of taxation that was addressed in chapter 6. students will learn that the cost of a tax to buyers and sellers in a market exceeds the revenue collected by the government. students will also learn about the factors that determine the degree by which the cost of a tax exceeds the revenue collected by the government.144? a tax on a good reduces the welfare of buyers and sellers of the good, and the reduction in consumer and producer surplus usually exceeds the revenue raised by the government. the fall in total surplus—the sum of consumer surplus, producer surplus, and tax revenue—is called thedeadweight loss of the tax.taxes have deadweight losses because they cause buyers to consume less and sellers to produce less, and these changesin behavior shrink the size of the market below the level that maximizes total surplus. because the elasticities of supply and demand measure how much market participants respond to market conditions, larger elasticities imply larger deadweight losses.as a tax grows larger, it distorts incentives more, and its deadweight loss grows larger. because a tax reduces the size of a market, however, tax revenue does not continually increase. it first rises with the size of a tax, but if the tax gets large enough, tax revenue starts to fall. ? ?i. the deadweight loss of taxationa. remember that it does not matter who a tax is levied on; buyers and sellers will likely share inthe burden of the tax.b. if there is a tax on a product, the price that a buyer pays will be greater than the price the sellerreceives. thus, there is a tax wedge between the two prices and the quantity sold will be smaller if there was no tax.c. how a tax affects market participants1. we can measure the effects of a tax on consumers by examining the change in consumersurplus. similarly, we can measure the effects of the tax on producers by looking at the change in producer surplus.then the benefit from the tax revenue must not be ignored.3. welfare without a taxa. consumer surplus is equal to: a + b + c.b. producer surplus is equal to: d + e + f.c. total surplus is equal to: a + b + c + d + e + f. 4. welfare with a tax a. consumer surplus is equal to: a.b. producer surplus is equal to: f.5. changes in welfare a. consumer surplus changes by: –(b +c). b. producer surplus changes by: –(d + e). c. tax revenue changes by: +(b + d). d. total surplus changes by: –(c + e). 6. definition of distortion, such as a tax. d. deadweight losses and the gains from tradec. tax revenue is equal to: b +d. d. total surplus is equal to: a +b + d + f.1. taxes cause deadweight losses because they prevent buyers and sellers from benefiting fromtrade.2. this occurs because the quantity of output declines; trades that would be beneficial to both the buyer and seller will nottake place because of the tax.3. the deadweight loss is equal to areas c and e (the drop intotal surplus).4. note that output levels between the equilibrium quantity without the tax and the quantitywith the tax will not be produced, yet the value of these unitsto consumers (represented by the demand curve) is larger than the cost of these units to producers (represented by the supply curve).ii. the determinants of the deadweight lossa. the price elasticities of supply and demand will determinethe size of the deadweight loss that occurs from a tax. 1. givena stable demand curve, the deadweight loss is larger when supply is relatively elastic.2. given a stable supply curve, the deadweight loss is larger when demand is relatively elastic. b. case study: the deadweight loss debate1. social security tax and federal income tax are taxes onlabor earnings. a labor tax places a tax wedge between thewage the firm pays and the wage that workers receive.2. there is considerable debate among economists concerning the size of the deadweight lossfrom this wage tax.3. the size of the deadweight loss depends on the elasticity of labor supply and demand, andthere is disagreement about the magnitude of the elasticity of supply.【篇二：曼昆经济学原理英文版文案加习题答案31章】basic conceptsthere is a new in the news feature on the changing nature of u.s. exports and an updated presentation of the u.s. trade deficit.by the end of this chapter, students should understand:??how net exports measure the international flow of goodsand services.??how net capital outflow measures the international flow of capital.??why net exports must always equal net foreign investment.??how saving, domestic investment, and net capital outflow are related.??the meaning of the nominal exchange rate and the real exchange rate.??purchasing-power parity as a theory of how exchange rates are determined.chapter 18 is the first chapter in a two-chapter sequence dealing with open-economy macroeconomics. chapter 18 develops the basic concepts and vocabulary associated with macroeconomics in an international setting: net exports, net capital outflow, real and nominal exchange rates, and purchasing-power parity. the next chapter, chapter 19, builds an open-economy macroeconomic model that shows how these variables are determined simultaneously.the purpose of chapter 18 is to develop the basic concepts macroeconomists use to study open economies. it addresses why a nation’s net exports must equal its net capital outflow. it also addresses the concepts of the real and nominal exchange rate and develops a theory of exchange ratedetermination known as purchasing-power parity.298??net exports are the value of domestic goods and services sold abroad (exports) minus the value offoreign goods and services sold domestically (imports). net capital outflow is the acquisition of foreign assets by domestic residents (capital outflow) minus the acquisition of domestic assets by foreigners (capital inflow). because every international transaction involves an exchange of an asset for a good or service, an economy’s net capital outflow always equals its net exports.an economy’s saving can be used to finance investment at home or buy assets abroad. thus, national saving equals domestic investment plus net capital outflow.the nominal exchange rate is the relative price of the currency of two countries, and the real exchange rate is the relative price of the goods and services of two countries. when the nominal exchange rate changes so that each dollar buys more foreign currency, the dollar is said to appreciate or strengthen. when the nominal exchange rate changes so that each dollarbuys less foreign currency, the dollar is said to depreciate or weaken.according to the theory of purchasing-power parity, a dollar (or a unit of any other currency) should be able to buy the same quantity of goods in all countries. this theory implies that the nominal exchange rate between the currencies of two countries should reflect the price levels in those countries. as a result, countries with relatively high inflation should have depreciating currencies, and countries with relatively low inflation should have appreciating currencies. ?? ?? ??i. we will no longer be assuming that the economy is a closed economy.a. definition of in the world.b. definition of around the world.ii. the international flows of goods and capitala. the flow of goods: exports, imports, and net exports1. definition of abroad.2. definition of domestically.imports, also called the trade balance.4. definition of : the value of a nation’s exports minus the value of its imports, also called net exports.5. definition of .6. definition of .7. definition of .8. there are several factors that influence a country’s exports, imports, and net exports:a. the tastes of consumers for domestic and foreign goods.b. the prices of goods at home and abroad.c. the exchange rates at which people can use domestic currency to buy foreign currencies.d. the incomes of consumers at home and abroad.e. the cost of transporting goods from country to country.f. government policies toward international trade.9. case study: the increasing openness of the u.s. economy a. figure 1 shows the total value of exports and imports (expressed as a percentage of gdp) for the united states since 1950. b. advances in transportation, telecommunications, and technological progress are some of the reasons why international trade has increased over time. c. policymakers around the world have also become more accepting of freetrade over time. 10. in the news: the changing nature of u.s. exports a. growing u.s. exports include entertainment royalties, tourism, travel, and services. b. this article from the wall street journal describes the growth in new exports. b. the flow of financial resources: net capital outflow1. definition of residents minus the purchase of domestic assets by foreigners.2. the flow of capital abroad takes two forms. a. foreign direct investment occurs when a capital investment is owned and operated by a foreign entity.b. foreign portfolio investment involves an investment that is financed with foreign money but operated by domestic residents.3. net capital outflow can be positive or negative.a. when net capital outflow is positive, domestic residents are buying more foreign assets than foreigners are buying domestic assets. capital is flowing out of the country.b. when net capital outflow is negative, domestic residents are buying fewer foreign assets than foreigners are buying domestic assets. the country is experiencing a capital inflow. 4. there are several factors that influence a country’s net capital outflow:a. the real interest rates being paid on foreign assets.b. the real interest rates being paid on domestic assets.c. the perceived economic and political risks of holding assets abroad.d. the government policies that affect foreign ownership of domestic assets.c. the equality of net exports and net capital outflow1. net exports and net capital outflow each measure a type of imbalance in a world market.a. net exports measure the imbalance between a country’s exports and imports in world markets for goods and services.b. net capital outflow measures the imbalance between the amount of foreign assets bought by domestic residents andthe amount of domestic assets bought by foreigners inworld financial markets.2. for an economy, net exports must be equal to net capital outflow.3. example: you are a computer programmer who sells some software to a japanese consumer for 10,000 yen. a. thesale is an export of the united states so u.s. net exports increase.b. there are several things you could do with the 10,000 yenc. you could hold the yen (which is a japanese asset) or use it to purchase another japanese asset. either way, u.s. net capital outflow rises.d. alternatively, you could use the yen to purchase a japanese good. thus, u.s. imports will rise so the net effect on net exports will be zero.e. one final possibility is that you could exchange the yen for dollars at a bank. this doesnot change the situation though, because the bank then must use the yen for something.alternative classroom example: assume that u.s. residents do not want to buy any foreign assets, but foreign residents want to purchase some stock in a u.s. firm (such as microsoft). how are the foreigners going to get the dollars to purchase the stock? they would do it the same way u.s. residents would purchase the stock—they would have to earn more than they spend. in other words, foreigners must sell the united states more goods and services than they purchase from the united states. this leads to negative net exports for the united states. the extra dollars spent by u.s. residents on foreign-produced goods and services would be used to purchase the stock in microsoft. 4. this example can be generalized to the economy as a whole.a. when a nation is running a trade surplus (nx 0), it must be using the foreign currencyto purchase foreign assets. thus, capital is flowing out of the country (nco 0).b. when a nation is running a trade deficit (nx 0), it must be financing the net purchase of these goods by selling assets abroad. thus, capital is flowing into the country (nco0).5. every international transaction involves exchange. when a seller country transfers a good orservice to a buyer country, the buyer country gives up some asset to pay for the good or service.6. thus, the net value of the goods and services sold by a country (net exports) must equal thenet value of the assets acquired (net capital outflow).d. saving, investment, and their relationship to the international flows1. recall that gdp (y ) is the sum of four components: consumption (c ), investment (i ),government purchases (g ) and net exports (nx ).【篇三：曼昆宏观经济学课后答案(英文版)】quizzes:1. gross domestic product measures two things at once: (1) the total income of everyonein the economy; and (2) the total expenditure on the economy’s output of goods and services. it can measure both of these things at once because income must equal expenditure for the economy as a whole.2. the production of a pound of caviar contributes more to gdp than the production of apound of hamburger because the contribution to gdp is measured by market value and the price of a pound of caviar is much higher than the price of a pound of hamburger.3. the four components of expenditure are: (1) consumption;(2) investment; (3)government purchases; and (4) net exports. the largest component is consumption, which accounts for more thantwo-thirds of total expenditure.4. nominal gdp is the production of goods and services valued at current prices. realgdp is the production of goods and services valued at constant prices. real gdp is a better measure of economicwell-being because it reflects the eco nomy’s ability to satisfy people’s needs and desires. thus a rise in real gdp means people have produced more goods and services, but a rise in nominal gdp could occur either because of increased production or because of higher prices.5. although gdp is not a perfect measure of well-being, policymakers should care about itbecause a larger gdp means that a nation can afford better health care, better educational systems, and more of the material necessities of life.questions for review:1.2.3.4. an economys income must equal its expenditure, since every transaction has a buyer and a seller. thus, expenditure by buyers must equal income by sellers. the production of a luxury car contributes more to gdp than the production of an economy car because the luxury car has a higher market value. the contribution to gdp is $3, the market value of the bread, which is the final good that is sold. the sale of used records does not affect gdp at all because it involves no current production.5. the four components of gdp are consumption, such as the purchase of a music cd;investment, such as the purchase of a computer by a business; government purchases, such as an order for military aircraft; and net exports, such as the sale of american wheat to russia.6. economists use real gdp rather than nominal gdp to gauge economic well-beingbecause real gdp is not affected by changes in prices, so it reflects only changes in the amounts being produced. if nominal gdp rises, you do not know if that is because of increased production or higher prices.7.the percentage change in nominal gdp is (600-200)/200 x 100 = 200%. the percentage change in real gdp is (400-200)/200 x 100 = 100%. the percentage change in the deflator is (150-100)/100 x 100 = 50%.8. it is desirable for a country to have a large gdp because people could enjoy more goodsand services. but gdp is not the only important measure of well-being. for example, laws that restrict pollution cause gdp to be lower. if laws against pollution were eliminated, gdp would be higher but the pollution might make us worse off. or, for example, an earthquake would raise gdp, as expenditures on cleanup, repair, and rebuilding increase. but an earthquake is an undesirable event that lowers our welfare.problems and applications:1. a. consumption increases because a refrigerator is a good purchased by ahousehold.b. investment increases because a house is an investment good.c. consumption increases because a car is a good purchased by a household, butinvestment decreases because the car in ford’s inventory had been counted as aninvestment good until it was sold.d. consumption increases because pizza is a good purchased by a household.e. government purchases increase because the government spent money to providea good to the public.f. consumption increases because the bottle is a good purchased by a household,but net exports decrease because the bottle was imported.g. investment increases because new structures and equipment were built.2.3. with transfer payments, nothing is produced, so there is no contribution to gdp. purchases of new housing are included in the investment portion of gdp because housingprovides services for a long time. for the same reason, purchases of new cars could be thought of as investment, but by convention, they are not. the logic could apply to any durable good, such as household appliances.if gdp included goods that are resold, it would be counting output of that particular year, plus sales of goods produced ina previous year. it would double-count goods that were sold more than once and would count goods in gdp for severalyears if they were produced in one year and resold in another. 4.5. a. 2001: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 100 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 50 qts. honey)= $2002002: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002003: ($2 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($4 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $8002001: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 100 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. ofhoney ? 50 qts. honey)= $2002002: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002003: ($1 per qt. of milk ? 200 qts. milk) + ($2 per qt. of honey ? 100 qts.honey) = $4002001: ($200/$200) ? 100 = 1002002: ($400/$400) ? 100 = 1002003: ($800/$400) ? 100 = 200b. percentage change in nominal gdp in 2002 = [($400 - $200)/$200] ? 100 =100%.percentage change in nominal gdp in 2003 = [($800 -$400)/$400] ? 100 =100%.percentage change in real gdp in 2002 = [($400 - $200)/$200] ? 100 = 100%.percentage change in real gdp in 2003 = [($400 - $400)/$400] ? 100 = 0%.percentage change in the gdp deflator in 2002 = [(100 -100)/100] ? 100 = 0%.percentage change in the gdp deflator in 2003 = [(200 -100)/100] ? 100 =100%.prices did not change from 2001 to 2002. thus, thepercentage change in thegdp deflator is zero. likewise, output levels did not change from 2002 to 2003.this means that the percentage change in real gdp is zero.c. economic well-being rose more in 2002 than in 2003, since real gdp rose in2002 but not in 2003. in 2002, real gdp rose and prices didn’t. in 2003, realgdp didn’t rise and prices did.6.a.b.c.d.e.f.7. the growth rate of nominal gdp is higher than the growth rate of real gdp because of inflation. the growth rate of real gdp is ($8,367 - $8,203)/$8,203 ? 100% = 2.0%. real gdp in 2000 (in 1996 dollars) is $9,873/(118/100) = $8,367. real gdp in 1999 (in 1996 dollars) is $9,269/(113/100) = $8,203. the growth rate ofthe deflator is (118 - 113)/113 ? 100% = 4.4%. the growth rate of nominal gdp is ($9,873 - $9,269)/$9,269 ? 100% = 6.5%. economists ignore the rise in peoples incomes that is caused by higher prices becausealthough incomes are higher, the prices of the goods and services that people buy are also higher. therefore, they will not necessarily be able to purchase more goods and services. for this reason, economists prefer to look at real gdp instead of nominal gdp.many answers are possible.a. gdp equals the dollar amount barry collects, which is $400.8. 9.c.d.e.10. national income = nnp - sales taxes = $350 - $30 = $320. personal income = national income - retained earnings = $320 - $100 = $220. disposable personal income = personal income - personal income tax = $220 - $70 = $150. in countries like india, people produce and consume a fair amount of food at home that isnot included in gdp. so gdp per person in india and the united states will differ by more than their comparative economicwell-being.if the government cares about the total income of americans,it will emphasize gnp, since that measure includes the income of americans that is earned abroad and excludes the income of foreigners. if the government cares about the total amount ofeconomic activity occurring in the united states, it will emphasize gdp, which measures the level of production in the country, whether produced by domestic citizens or foreigners.a. the increased labor-force participation of women has increased gdp in theunited states, since it means more people are working and production hasincreased.if our measure of well-being included time spent working in the home and takingleisure, it wouldnt rise as much as gdp, since the rise in womens labor-forceparticipation has reduced time spent working in the home and taking leisure.other aspects of well-being that are associated with the rise in womens increasedlabor-force participation include increased self-esteem and prestige for women inthe workforce, especially at managerial levels, but decreased quality time spentwith children, whose parents have less time to spend with them. such aspectswould be quite difficult to measure. 11. 12. b. c.24章quick quizzes1. the consumer price index tries to measure the overall cost of the goods and servicesbought by a typical consumer. it is constructed by surveying consumers to fix a basket of goods and services that the typical consumer buys, finding the prices of the goods and。
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案
微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案本页仅作为文档封面，使用时可以删除This document is for reference only-rar21year.March微观经济学曼昆第六版课后答案【篇一：曼昆《经济学原理(微观经济学分册)》(第6版)课后习题详解(第1章经济学十大原理)】class=txt>第1篇导言第1章经济学十大原理课后习题详解跨考网独家整理最全经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题解析资料库，您可以在这里查阅历年经济学考研真题，经济学考研课后习题，经济学考研参考书等内容，更有跨考考研历年辅导的经济学学哥学姐的经济学考研经验，从前辈中获得的经验对初学者来说是宝贵的财富，这或许能帮你少走弯路，躲开一些陷阱。
以下内容为跨考网独家整理，如您还需更多考研资料，可选择经济学一对一在线咨询进行咨询。
一、概念题1．稀缺性（scarcity）答：经济学研究的问题和经济物品都是以稀缺性为前提的。
稀缺性指在给定的时间内，相对于人的需求而言，经济资源的供给总是不足的，也就是资源的有用性与有限性。
人类消费各种物品的欲望是无限的，满足这种欲望的物品，有的可以不付出任何代价而随意取得，称之为自由物品，如阳光和空气；但绝大多数物品是不能自由取用的，因为世界上的资源（包括物质资源和人力资源）是有限的，这种有限的、为获取它必须付出某种代价的物品，称为“经济物品”。
正因为稀缺性的客观存在，地球上就存在着资源的有限性和人类的欲望与需求的无限性之间的矛盾。
经济学的一个重要研究任务就是：“研究人们如何进行抉择，以便使用稀缺的或有限的生产性资源（土地、劳动、资本品如机器、技术知识）来生产各种商品，并把它们分配给不同的社会成员进行消费。
”也就是从经济学角度来研究使用有限的资源来生产什么、如何生产和为谁生产的问题。
2．经济学（economics）答：经济学是研究如何将稀缺的资源有效地配置给相互竞争的用途，以使人类的欲望得到最大限度满足的科学。
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第八章应用：赋税的代价复习题1．当对一种物品征税时，消费者和生产者剩余会发生什么变动? 与税收收入相比较，消费者剩余和生产者剩余如何变动?解释原因。
答：当对一种物品征税时，消费者和生产者剩余都会减少。
消费者剩余和生产者剩余的减少大于税收收入的增加。
税收扭曲了消费者和生产者的激励，引起市场配置资源时的无效率。
2．画出有物品销售税的供求图。
在图上标注无谓损失，标明税收收入。
答：如P163图8－3所示，对一种物品征税减少了消费者剩余(面积B+C表示减少量)和生产者剩余(面积D+E表示减少量)。
生产者和消费者剩余的减少大于税收收入(用面积B+D表示)，税收引起了无谓损失(用面积C+E表示)。
3．供给与需求弹性如何影响税收的无谓损失?为什么有这种影响?答：供给与需求曲线的弹性越大，税收的无谓损失越大；供给与需求曲线的弹性越小，税收的无谓损失越小。
因为供给和需求弹性衡量买者和卖者对价格变动的反应程度，决定了税收扭曲会使市场结果有多大变动。
4．当税收增加时，无谓损失和税收收入有什么变动?答：当税收增加时，无谓损失增加，并且无谓损失的增加要快于税收规模的增加。
税收增加时，税收收入先增加，然后随着税收规模越来越大，市场收缩非常之大，以至于税收收入开始减少。
问题与应用1．比萨饼市场的特征是需求曲线向右下方倾斜，供给曲线向右上方倾斜。
A．画出竞争市场均衡图。
标出价格、数量、消费者剩余和生产者剩余。
存在无谓损失吗？解释原因。
答：没有无谓损失。
自由竞争市场使供给与需求达到均衡点，在均衡状态下，总剩余达到最大，如图8－2。
图8－2 比萨饼市场均衡图B．假设政府令每个比萨饼店每卖出一个比萨饼交纳1美元税。
说明这种比萨饼税的影响，确定并标出消费者剩余、生产者剩余、政府收入以及无谓损失。
每块面积与税前相比有何变动?答：这种比萨饼税使卖者得到的价格降低，买者支付的价格增加，销售量从Q1减少到Q2 。
消费者剩余由税收前的面积A+B+E 减少为税收后的面积A；生产者剩余由税收前的面积C+D+F 减少为税收后的面积D。
税收收入为面积B+C。
无谓损失为面积E+F。
税收前没有税收收人和无谓损失(见图8－3)。
图8－3 有税收时的均衡图C．如果取消税收，比萨饼的买和卖者的状况变好，但政府会失去税收收入。
假设消费者和生产者自愿把他们的部分收入给予政府。
各方（包括政府）的状况能比有税收时更好吗？用你的图上所标出的面积做出解释。
答：如果取消税收，消费者和生产者自愿把收入交给政府，他们对市场的需求和供给就不会改变，市场仍处于原有的均衡状态。
虽然买者实际支付的价格上升了，卖者实际得到的价格下降了，但是销售量不变。
买者和卖者所得减少的部分都交给了政府，不存在无谓损失。
各方的状况比有税收时好。
如图8－3 所示，如果比萨饼的生产者交给政府的收入是面积C，消费者交的收入是面积B，此时的销售量仍是Q ，生产者剩余是面积D+F，消费者剩余是A+E，没有无谓损失。
2．评价以下两句话。
你同意吗？为什么?A．“一种没有无谓损失的税收不能增加任何政府收入。
”答：不同意。
有些税收不会产生无谓损失，只会增加政府收入。
例如庇古税，它是用于纠正负外部性的税收。
征收庇古税使资源配置接近于社会最优，既增加了政府收入，又提高了经济福利。
B．“不能为政府筹集收入的税收也不会有任何无谓损失。
”答：不同意。
除极个别情况外，税收都会引起市场规模的缩小，造成无谓损失。
如果政府对某种物品的销售额全额征税，这个市场的需求和供给就会变为零，此时政府没有税收收入，但却带来极大的无谓损失，这个市场的买者和卖者无法进行互利的贸易了。
3．考虑橡皮筋市场。
A．如果这个市场供给非常富有弹性，而需求非常缺乏弹性，橡皮筋的税收负担将如何在消费者和生产者之间分摊？运用消费者剩余和生产者剩余工具来回答。
答：橡皮筋的税将会更多的落在消费者一方。
假设这个市场的供给弹性为无限大，市场交易中就只有消费者剩余，即总剩余=消费者剩余。
而税收是政府从总剩余中取走的一块，因此，此时只有消费者承担税负。
B．如果这个市场供给非常缺乏弹性，而需求非常富有弹性，橡皮筋的税收负担将如何在消费者和生产者之间分摊？把你的这个答案和A的答案进行对比。
答：橡皮筋的税将更多地落在生产者头上。
假设橡皮筋的需求弹性为无限大，需求曲线是一条直线，市场上只有生产者剩余，即总剩余+生产者剩余。
当税收使总剩余减少时，只能是生产者剩余减少，即生产者完全承担税负。
4．假设政府征收燃油税。
A．这种税的无谓损失是在征税后第一年大，还是第五年大？解释原因。
答：这种税的无谓损失在征税后第五年大。
在短期内，虽然税收使油价上涨，但人们不容易大幅度改变对燃料油的需求和供给，即供求弹性小；而在长期内，人们可以通过改装锅炉、改进燃油技术等大幅度减少对燃料油的需求，也可以通过关闭一些油田、油厂来大量减少油料供给，即供求弹性大。
这样，一年后的燃料油的需求和供给弹性小于五年后的弹性。
弹性越大，税收对市场的扭曲越大，引起的无谓损失越大。
因此，在征税后第五年的无谓损失大于第一年的。
B．从这种税中得到的收入是在征税后第一年多，还是第五年多？解释原因。
答：从这种税中得到的收入在征税后第一年大。
如第一问所述，短期内，市场规模不会有太大改变。
而在长期内，由于税收扭曲了激励，人们有时间减少需求和供给，使市场规模大大缩小。
政府所能得到的税收也会随着市场规模缩小而减少。
所以，第一年的税收收入多。
5．有一天上完经济学课以后，你的朋友建议，对食物征税是增加收入的一个好方法，因为食物的需求是完全无弹性的。
从什么意义上说，对食物征税是增加税收收入的“好”方法。
在什么意义上说，这并不是增加税收收入的“好”方法。
答：因为食物的需求是完全无弹性的，对食物征税是增加税收的“好”方法，因为不引起过多的无谓损失。
但从平等角度看，由于穷人要将收入中的大部分用于食物支出，因此对食物征税对他们的影响比对富人的影响大。
6．前纽约州参议员Daniel Patrick Moynihan曾以提出一个法案，该法案要对某种空心弹征收10000％的税。
A．你认为这种税能筹集到大量税收收入吗？为什么?答：因为税率过高，生产者和消费者都没有剩余可言，市场规模会缩小为零，所以不能筹集到大量税收收人。
B．如果说这种税不能筹集到税收收入，Moynihan议员为什么还要提议征收这种税呢?? 答：Moynihan议员提出这种税应该是想减少甚至消除这种空心弹的使用。
这种税可以达到这一目的。
7．政府对购买袜子征税。
A．说明这种税对袜子市场均衡价格和均衡数量的影响。
确定在征税前后的以下面积：消费者总支出，生产者总收益和政府税收收入。
答：如图8－4，政府对袜子征税，会使袜子市场的均衡价格从P0上升到P1，均衡数量从Q0下降到Q1。
税收前，消费者总支出是面积P0EQ0 ，生产者总收益是面积P0EQO。
税收后，消费者总支出是面积P1OQ1H，生产者总收益是面积P2OQ1G，政府税收收入是面积P1HGP2 。
图8－4 袜子市场均衡图B．生产者得到的价格上升了还是下降了？你能判断出生产者的总收益是增加了还是减少了吗？解释原因。
答：生产者得到的价格下降了。
生产者的总收益减少了。
因为生产者得到的价格下降，销售量也下降。
生产者总收益＝生产者得到的价格×销量，就会下降。
C．消费者支付的价格上升了还是下降了？你能判断出消费者的总支出增加了还是减少了？详细解释。
（提示：考虑弹性。
）如果消费者总支出减少了，消费者剩余增加了吗？解释原因。
答：消费者支付的价格上升。
消费者的总支出与需求弹性有关：如果袜子的需求富有弹性，税收会使袜子价格上升的幅度小于销售量下降的幅度，消费者的总支出下降。
如果袜子的需求缺乏弹性，税收会使袜子价格上升的幅度会大于销量下降的幅度，消费者的总支出上升。
如果消费者的总支出减少了，消费者剩余不会增加。
因为，税收使袜子价格上升，一部分消费者退出市场交易。
这些消费者的需求无法实现，减少了一部分消费者剩余。
而且，仍留在市场中的消费者由于支付的价格上升，消费者剩余也会减少。
8．假设政府现在通过对每件小器具征收0．01美元的税而筹集了1亿美元的税收收入，又通过对每件小配件征收0．1美元的税筹集了另外的1亿美元的税收收入。
如果政府对小器具的税率翻一番，而取消对小配件的征税，政府的税收收入比现在多了、少了，还是相同呢？解释原因。
答：政府的税收收入比现在少了。
扩大对某种物品的税收，会进一步缩小该种物品的市场规模。
对每件小器具征收0．01 美元的税会增加1 亿美元税收收入，可以求出小器具的销量是100 亿件(1÷0.01=100)。
如果税收翻一番，达到0．02 美元每件，市场销量就会减少，达不到100 亿件。
因为税收越高，对市场激励的扭曲越严重，市场规模会缩小。
所以，政府此时的税收收入达不到2 亿美元了。
9．本章分析了对物品征税的福利影响。
现在考虑相反的政策。
假定政府补贴一种物品：每销售一单位该物品，政府向买者支付2美元。
该补贴如何影响消费者剩余、生产者剩余、税收收入和总剩余？补贴会引起无谓损失吗？解释原因。
答：政府向买者支付的补贴使消费者剩余增加，生产者剩余不变，因为补贴降低了买者的价格，消费者购买意愿会增加，市场销量增加，从而政府税收收入增加，总剩余增加。
补贴也会引起无谓损失。
因为当补贴的对象是消费者不是生产者时，这种产品的市场规模会超出最优规模，使更多的资源集中用于生产这种物品，造成资源的无效配置。
10．小镇的旅馆房间价格为每天每间100美元，一般每天租出去1000个房间。
A．为了增加收入，市长决定对旅馆每个租出去的房间收取10美元的税。
在征税之后，旅馆房间的价格上升到108美元，租出去的房间减少为900间。
计算这种税为小镇筹集到多少收入，以及税收的无谓损失。
答：对每间租出去的房子征收10 美元的税的影响如图8－5所示。
税收收入用图中的A+B 表示，即10×900=9000 美元。
征税带来的无谓损失用图中的C+D 表示，即1/2×10×100=500 美元。
图8－5征税带来的无谓损失图8－6对每间租出去的房子征收20美元的影响B．市长现在把税收翻一番，即增加到20美元。
价格上升到116美元，租出去的房间减少为800间。
计算税收增加后的税收收入和无谓损失。
税收收入和无谓损失是原来的两倍、大于两倍，还是小于两倍？解释原因。
答：对每间租出去的房子征收20 美元的税的影响如图8－6所示。
税收收入用图中的A+B 表示，即20×800=16000 美元。
征税带来的无谓损失用图中的C+D 表示，即0.5×20×200=2000 美元。
由此可见，当税收翻一番时，税收收入增加小于原来的两倍，无谓损失大于原来的两倍。