英语本科语言学复习资料.docx
(完整word版)语言学考试必备(word文档良心出品)
1.classification of words(1)variable and invariable wordsvariable words may have inflective changes. Such as follow –follows-followed-following. Invariable words do not have inflective changes. Such as since, when, seldom, through, etc.(2)grammatical words and lexical wordsgrammatical words are those that mainly work for constructing group, phase, clause, clause complex, or even text. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Lexical words are mainly work for referring to substance, action, and quality.(3)Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as auxiliary verbs.(4)Word classA few more word classes have been introduced into grammar, such as particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners.2.Sense relations(1)Synonymy: it is the technical name for the sameness relation. Eg. Buy and purchase, world and universe.(2)Antonymy: it is the name for oppositeness relation. Three are three types: gradable antonymy , complementary antonymy and converse antonymy.(3)Hyponymy: it is of recent creation, is a matter of class membership.3.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?(1)Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes are those that may occur alone, which may make up words by themselves; bound morphemes are those that cannot occur alone, which must appear with at least one different morpheme.(2)Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning; an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme; a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes(3)4.what are the design features of human language?(1)arbitrariness (2)duality (3)creativity (4)displacement2、how do you understand the distinction?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a Diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.3、what are the major distinctions?(1) langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (2) langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (3)langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(4)langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.4、how do you understandChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge. This internalized set of rules enables the language users to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambigous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performance may have mistakes because of social and phychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence. Which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.5、what are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication..6、how many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? There are 3 types of morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morpheme(2)root, affix and stem(3)inflectional affix and derivational affix7、what are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound, is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meaning of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.8、what are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constitunents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type. 9、distinguish the two possible meaning of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysisMore beautiful flowers; the IC analysis is a way to dismantle a grammatical construction.10、what are the three kinds of antonym?(1)complementary pairs are antonyms in which the presence of one quality or state signifies the absence of the other and vice versa. Single/married, not pregment/pregnant. There are no intermediate states.(2)gradable pairs are antonyms which allow for a natural, gradual transition between two poles;good/bad, hot/cold. It is possible to be a little cold or very cold, etc. (3)relational opposites are antonyms which share the same semantic features, only the focus, or direction, is reversed; tie/untie, buy/sell, give/receive, teacher/pupil, father/son.11、do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with cooperative principle.A: when is the bus coming? B: there has been an accident. Further up the road. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when”. However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “ I don’t know “ or” I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “ relevant” and “informative”. Given that B’s answer contains relevant information. Acan work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “ traffic jams”, and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming”. Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus com es”; it contains an implicature concerning “ when the bus comes”.1、arbitrariness：it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.2、duality：it is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3、displacement：t means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.4、linguistics：it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.5、phonetics: it is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how the speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.6、phonology it is the study of speech sounds that the human voice capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning .7、morphology形态学It is the study of the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.8、syntax句法It refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply,the study of the formation of sentences 9semantics语义学 it is the study of the meaning of words phrases and sentences 10 pragmatics 语用学it is study of meaning in context 11Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 it investigates the interrelation of language and mind , in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition foe example.12socillinguistics 社会语言学 it is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society,including the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users 13language 语言系统 it is a social bond that constitutes language14parole言语 it is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking.10competence it is the ideal user|s knowledge of the rules of his language16performance it is the actual use of language in concrete situations 17phonemes it is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language 18 minimal pairs it is two words that differ in only one sound it can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.19allophones it is a phenomenon of variation in the pronuciation of phonemes in different positions 20Allomorph it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.21closed-class word it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited 22syntax it refers to rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences 23IC analysis immediately constituent analysis ic analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. 26concord (agreement) it is the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another ,shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category27entailment it is basically a semantic relation or logical implication 28 proposition it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning . 29 Componential analysis 词的成分分析it define the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantics features 30reference it is what a linguistics form refers to in the real world it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.31morpheme it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between soundingand meaning , a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning。
《英语语言学》复习重点(1)
《英语语言学》复习重点Chapter I Invitation to linguistics1. What is language and linguistics?●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barestdefinition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.●Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2. What are the design features of language? The definition of these design features: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, and displacement●Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..●Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaningLanguage is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomatopoeic words●Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.●Creativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things, and can be instantly understood bypeople who have never come across that usage before.●Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. The definitions of important distinctions in lingustics: Who distinguished them?descriptive VS. presriptive;Descriptive(描写式):a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.eg: American don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”Prescriptive(规定式): a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i.e. laying down rules for language use.eg: Don’t say “I’ll give you some color see see.”synchronic VS. diachronic;Synchronic study(共时性) --- description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic study(历时性) --- description of a language through the course of its history (historical development of language over a period of time)langue & parole;Langue: (说话者的语言能力.)the linguistic competence of the speaker.Parole: (语言的实际现象或语料.) the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances).competence and performance.Competence:(一个语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解.)a language user’s underlyin g knowledge about the system of rules.Performance:(指在具体场景中语言的真实使用.)the actual use of language in concrete situations.The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.5.What is the major differences between Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?①Saussure's language is social product, a set of conversations for a speech community.②Chomsky regards competence as property of the mind of each individual.③Saussure studies language more from a sociological point of view while Chomsky studies it more from a psychological point of view.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics4. Basic information about the IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (Otto Jesperson France)IPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996 and 2005.5. Three parameters to identify a consonant:①place of articulation: place in the mouth where obstruction occurs②manners of articulation: ways in which articulation can be accomplished③state of vocal cords: voiced VS. voiceless6.the categories of consonants according to the manner of articulation and the place of aritucatio7. English vowels can be divided into two large categories:Monophthongs or pure/single vowels 单元音Diphthongs or gliding vowels 双元音8. Four criteria (parameters) of vowel description1. the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low);2. the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back);3. the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short), and4. lip-rounding (rounded vs. unrounded).Phonology9. definition:1) Co-articulation: Simultaneous/overlapping articulation because of the influence of the neighbor sound(s)2) broad /narrow transcription: When we use a simple set of symbols in our transcription, it is called a broad transcription; The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription.3)Phone: the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)4) Phoneme: a sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)5)allophone phonic: variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.6)Minimal pairs:Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs: 1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.E.g. a minimal pair: pat-fat; lit-lip; phone-toneMinimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etc7)Suprasegmental features: features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress（重音），length （音程）, rhythm（节奏），tone（音调），intonation（语调）juncture（音渡）．8) syllable:10.Exemplify the relationship between phone, phoneme and allophone..Phone（音素): the smallest perceptible discrete segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)i) phonetic unit ii) not necessarily distinctive of meaningiii) physical as heard or produced iv) marked with [ ].Phoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)i) phonological unit ii) distinctive of meaningiii) abstract, not physical iv) marked with / /..allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.:p ot, s p ot, cu p: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)11. What are the differences between Phonetics and Phonology?Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It is concerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in languageChapter 3 Morphology12. Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit.13.The classification of word. Using some examples to explain these classifications.Words can be classified in terms of:★(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)★(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)★(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words(封闭词/开放词)★(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes（屈折变化）while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词).The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions（介词）, articles(冠词), and pronouns（代词）;.the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv.(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词).the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article..the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)14. definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.2) Morpheme: the smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves．Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.3) Affix: is the term for the type of form that can be used to add to another morpheme (root or stem) to form word. It can’t be used freely in sentence.prefix: change meaning eg: dis-; un-; mis-suffix: change part of speech eg: -ly; -ness; -tioninfix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.4) Inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as tense, number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.5) word-formation①Compound: referring to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a new word. ②Derivation: the way to form words with a combination of roots and affixes.15. examples of Lexical change proper★(1) Invention 新造词Nylon★(2) Blending 混合词smoke + fog→ smog★(3) Abbreviation 缩合词TV → television★(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)★(5) back-formation 逆构词editor edit★(6) analogical creation 类比造词p76★(7) Borrowing 借词、外来词Kong FuChapter 4 Syntax16. Definition:Syntax: is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.paradigmatic Relations:Syntagmatic Relations:Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, ther e is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice17.three kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.18. Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.19. Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.20. Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Chapter 5 Semantics21. Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaning: Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content.Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to. English word“river” →“江”and“河”Connotative meaning: The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience Social meaning:What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Affective meaning: --Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Reflected and meaning:--Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.Collocative meaning: --The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.Thematic meaning:--What is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes themessage, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.22. Explain the semantic triangle by using some examples.23. Use some examples to explain three sense relations:Synonymy; Antonymy; HyponymySynonymy 同义buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/undergroundAntonymy 反义Gradable antonymy 渐次对立关系good ------------- bad long --------------- short big ---------------- smallComplementary antonymy 互补反义关系alive : dead male : female present : absent innocent : guilty odd : even pass : failboy : girlhit : missConverse antonymy 逆向反义关系buy : sell lend : borrow give : receive parent : child husband : wife teacher : student above : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employeeHyponymy 上下义Superordinate （上义词）: the more general termHyponym （下义词）: the more specific termCo-hyponyms （同义词）: members of the same class24. Componential relations （成分分析）“Componential analysis”---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.Componential analysis refers to an approach adopted by structural semanticists in describing the meaning of words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word can be analyzed in terms of a number of distinct elements or meaning components25. Sense relations between sentences1 A entails B ( A is an entailment of B ) 蕴含2 A Presupposes B (A presupposes B) 预设3 A is inconsistent with B 不一致4 A is synonymous with B 同义5 A is a contradiction 自相矛盾6 A is semantically anomalous 反常26. Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can be expressed by morethan one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星，启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus. Chapter 6 Psychology and cognitive lingusitics27. What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples.Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another（从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2.Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3.A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4.In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy the comparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of charact er of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping（概念映射）, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another （从一个语域到另一个语域）, not from a word to another.Metonymy（换喻，转喻）.It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle（源域）, provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target（目标域）, within the same domain.Chapter 7 Language, culture and society28. the relationship between language and thought?29. What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages mayprobably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structuraldifferentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.30. What is the importance of culture in classroom teaching?Standard language.Chapter 8 Pragmatics31. Speech act theory32.What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Using one or two examples to discuss the voilationof its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.CP is meant to describe what actually happens in conversation.People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication.Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1. Make your contribution as informative as is required.A: 昨天上街买了些什么?B: 就买了些东西。
英语语言学概论期末复习【通用】.docx
第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
语言学复习资料(全英)
第一部分选择题nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human__.Ca. writingb. speakingc. communicationd. reading2. The study of language as a whole is ofen called__. Ba. applied linguisticsb. general linguisticsc.3. Saussure is a___ lingusit. Ca. Americanb. Russianc. Swiss4. It is generally believed that the beginning of morden lingusitics marked by the publication of the book?course in general linguistics5. Which of the following is not a major branch of lingusitic? Ba. syntaxb.speechc. phonologyd. pragmatics6. __ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced? Ba. pragmaticsb. psycholinguisticsc. Anthropological linguistics7. Design features are proposed by the American linguist? Ca. Bloomfieldb. Hallc. Hockettd. Harris8. ___is not a design feature of human language? Da. Arbitrarinessb. displacementc. Dualityd. Diachronicity9. Among the following words, __ ends with a voiceless sound? Ca. bangb. thudc. crashd. wham10. Among the following words, __does not ends with a voiceless voiced?Aa. splatb. kinc. telld. bridge11. All the initial sounds of the following words are stops(爆破音) except? Ca. Billyb. crazyc. happyd. dizzy12. All the initial sounds of the following words are fricatives(摩擦音) except? Ba. fineb.writec. shyd. think13. All the initial sounds of the following words are bilabials(双唇音,如b p m) except? Ba. bellyb. calfc. playd. medicine14. All the following pair words would be treated minimal pairs(最小分别) except? Aa. meal—heatb. heat—healc. meal—heald. bell—bet15. The word glorification has entered the language by? Aa. derivational processb. add of inflectionsc. coinaged. functional shift16. The word gym is formed by ? Aa. clippingb. coinagec. borrowing17.UNESCO belongs to ? Da. clipped wordsb. borrowed wordsc. blendd. acronyms18. Syntax is the study of ? Ba. language functionsb. sentence structuresc. textual organization19. The word “lcid, child, offspring” are examples of ? Ba. dialectal synonymsb. stylistic synonymsc. emotive synonymsd. collocational synonyms20. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy(从属关系) except? Ca. automobile vehicleb. father , parentc. magazine, dictionaryd. fish, shark21. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Aa. water , watemelonb. hurricane, stormc. ceremony , weddingd. captain, officer22. The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is called? Da. hyponymyb. synonymyc. polysemyd. homonymy(同形异义)23. All the following pairs of words contain the lexical relation of hyponymy except? Da. emotion , loveb. move, runc. occupation, teachingd. rose, tree24. ___ are a pair of complementary antonyms(互补反义关系)? Ba. doctor, patientb. absent, presentc. old, youngd. hot, cold25. ___ are a pair of gradable antonyms(等级关系)? Ca. alive, deadb. male, femalec. wide, narrowd. vacant, occupied26. ___ are a pair of relational antonyms? Aa. let, rentb. single, marriedc. fail, passd. appear, diasppear27. __ is best described as polysemy? Ca. The bookstores has some new titles in linguistics.b. Yes, I love those. I ate a whole box on Sunday.c. I had to park on the shoulder of the road.28. Leila: whoa! Has us boss gone crazy?Mary: Let’s go get some coffee.In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted(违背什么原则)? C(1) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. mannerIn the utterance “Business is business.” The maxim of ___ has been flouted? A(2) a. quantity b. quality c. relation d. manner29. Charlence: I hope you brought the bread and cheese.Dether: Ah. I brought the bread.”In the conversation, the maxim of ___ has been flouted? Aa. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner30. In the utterance, “ John runs as fast as a deer.”The maxim of ___ has been flouted? Ba. quantityb. qualityc. relationd. manner第二部分T or F1 In ancient China, a famous philosopher named XUN ZI reasoned that a name was accepted, through public agreement, and the appropriateness of naming a thing laying convention. T2 Aristotle held that there was a universally correct and acceptable logic of language for man to follow in expressing his ideas. F (Plato)3 A diachronic statement is one about a language at one point in time, whereas a synchronic statement is one about a change or changes that took place over a period of time. F (弄反了)4 Language study today is descriptive rather prescriptive. T5 Auditory phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way sounds travel from the speaker to the hearer. FArticulatory phonetics (production)Acoustic phonetics (transmission)6 Place of articulation English speech sounds can be divided into voiceless and voiced sounds. F ( manner of articulation)7 Phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. T (Phoneme is the focus of Phonetics)8 Allophone is the phonetic variant of a phoneme, which can be substituted for another without bringing about a change of meaning. T9 Language of the world can be classified morphologically into 2 types: isolating&inflecting. F( 还有 agglutinating)10 Today’s English is more similar to an isolating language. T11 Words can have 2 kinds of meanings: denotative(字面) and connotative. Connotative meaning includes all the feelings, associations and emotions that a word touches off in different type. T12 According to Austin, illocutionary act refers to the basic literal meaning of the utterance which is conveyed by particular words and structures which the utterance contains. F (locutionary)13 The cooperative principle holds that people in conversation normally cooperate with one another, and that they assume that the others are cooperating to a maximum extent. T14 The uss of conversational maxims to imply meaning during conversation is calledconversational implicative. T第三部分1 what determines whether a string of words in language is language is a sentence or simply a string of un related words----syntax (句子如何组成合法句)2 how do people use language within a context --pragmatics3 what are words like? –morphology4what are speech sounds? What is their physical nature?—phonetics (孤立研究詞,句意義)5 how do sounds behave in languages? –phonology6 why does one set of words mean one thing and a similar set mean something very different?—semeics 語義學,特定語境下的意義7 when do two different sentences mean the same thing? How can one sentence mean more than one thing? --pragmatics 語境(同距在不同地方有不同意義)8 How similar are the process of listening and reading ?—Psycholinguistics (comprehension production , mental process through 語言習得acquisition)9 What are the major feature of the English language as it is used by women native speakers?—sociolinguistics10 How do we decide what is a dialect or accent and what is a language?—sociolinguistics11 (comprehension)What mechanisms operate during speech production to ensure that all the words come out in the right order and with the right intonation? –Psycholinguistics12 How do speakers signal their identity in the language they use, and why do people who live in specific communities sometimes speak in a similar way?—sociolinguistics13 How to teach a foreign language?—applied linguistics14 To what extent do children vary in their language acquisition and usage? And why?—Psycholinguistics15 Examine the text of a play for evidence of implicit messages, and consider what the playwright is deliberately conveying about the attitudes and personality of the characters?—applied linguistics把語言學運用到文學研究/statistics大题考下面三个. Key wordsContext 語境Speech act theory first, second language acquisition。
(完整word版)语言学导论复习资料
Chapter 1 IntroductionI. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can bestcomplete the statement.1. If a study describes and an alyzes the Ian guage people actually use, it is said to beCA. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic2. Which of the follow ing is not a desig n feature of huma n Ian guage? DA. Arbitrari nessB. Displaceme ntC. DualityD. Meaningfuln ess3. Moder n lin guistics regards the writte n Ian guage as C ________ .A. primaryB. correctC. sec on daryD. stable4. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because_____ D ____ .A. in lin guistic evoluti on, speech is prior to writ ingB. speech plays a greater role tha n writ ing in terms of the amount of in formati onconveyed.C. speechis always the way in which every n ative speakeracquires his mother tongue.D. All of the above5. A historical study of Ian guage is a __B__ study of Ian guage.A. synchronicB. diachr onicC. prescriptiveD. comparative6. Saussure took a(n) A view of Ian guage, while Chomsky looks at la nguage7. Accordi ng to F. de Saussure, _C _ refers to the abstract lin guistic system sharedby all the members of a speech com mun ity.A. paroleB. performa neeC. Lan gueD. la nguage8. Lan guage is said to be arbitrary becausethere is no logical conn ecti on betwee n__B ___ and meanin gs.A. senseB. SoundsC. objectsD. ideas9. Lan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situati onsof the speaker. This feature is called _ A __ .from a _______ point of view.A. sociological, psychologicalC. applied, pragmatic B. Psychological, sociologicalD. sema ntic, li nguisticA. displaceme ntB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural tran smissi on10. The details of any Ian guage system is passed on from one gen erati on to the n ext through__D__ , rather tha n by in st inct.A. lear ningB. teach ingC. booksD. both A and BII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.1.1. Duality is one of the design features of human Ianguage which refers to the phe nomenon thatIan guage con sists of two levels: a lower level of meanin gless in dividual sounds and a higher level of meanin gful un its.2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human com muni catio n.3. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in Ian guages is called syntax .4. Human capacity for Ianguage has a genetic, basis, but the details of Ianguage have to betaught and lear ned.5. Parole _ refers to the realizati on of Ian gue in actual use.6. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems.The study of such applicati ons is gen erally known as applied _ lin guistics.7. Language is productive, in that it makes possible the construction and in terpretati on of newsig nals by its users. In other words, they can produce and un dersta nd an infin itely large nu mber of senten ces which they have n ever heard before.III. Define the following terms.1. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form senten ces is called syntax.2. Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the applicati on of lin guisticprin ciples and theories to Ian guage teachi ng and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second Ianguages. In a broad sen se, it refers to the applicatio n of lin guistic findings to the soluti on of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.3. Arbitrari ness: It is one of the desig n features of Ian guage. It means that thereis no logical connection betwee n mea nings and soun ds.4. Displaceme nt Displaceme nt means that Ian guage can be used to refer to things which areprese nt or not prese nt, real or imag ined matters in the past, prese nt, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, la nguage can be used to refer to con texts removed from theimmediate situati ons of the speaker.5. Duality: The duality nature of Ianguage means that Ianguage is a system, which con sists of twosets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanin gs.6. Design features: Design features refer to the defining properties of humanIan guage that dist in guish it from any an imal system of com muni catio n.IV. Answer the following questions.1. A wolf is able to express subtle gradations of emotion by different positions of the ears, the lips, and the tail. There are eleve n postures of the tail that express such emotio ns as self-c on fide nee, con fide nt threat, lack of tension, un certa in threat, depression, defensiveness, active submission, and complete submission. This system seems to be complex. Suppose there were a thousa nd differe nt emoti ons that the wolf could express in this way. Would you then say a wolf had a Ianguage similar to man's? If not, Why n ot?答案1. No. Hint: Wolf' way of expressing emotions does not present thedefi ning features of huma n Ian guage. Exam ine them one by one.2. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of Ianguage as primary, not the writte n? 答案2. While speech is the vocal/spoken form of Ianguage, writing is the writte n form of Ian guage. They bel ong to differe nt systems though they may overlap.That speech is primary over writi ng is a gen eral prin ciple of lin guistic an alysis. First, speech existed long before writi ng systems came into being.Second, writte n forms just represe nt in this way or that the speech soun ds.Third, gen etically childre n lear n to speak before lear ning to write.However, emphasiz ing the primacy of speech is by no means to deny the importa nee of writi ng, which gives Ian guage new scope and uses thatspeech does not have. First, with writ ing, messages can be carried through space and time. Second, oral message are subject to distortion, either inten ti onal or otherwise, caus ing misun dersta nding, while writte n messages rema in exactly the same whether read a thousa nd years later or ten thousa nd miles away.Everyth ing con sidered, speechis believed to more represe ntative of human Ianguage than writing. Most modern linguistic analysis is thus focused on speech, differe nt from traditi onal grammar of the 19th cen tury and therebefore.3. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?答案3. First, linguistics is descriptive, while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Lin guistics describes Ian guages as they are and does not lay dow n rules of correctness;traditional grammar emphasizessuch matters as correctness and aims to prescribe what is right.Second, linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary, not the writte n.Third, traditi onal grammar is based on Lat in and it tries to impose the Lat in categories and structures on other Ian guages (Lati n patter ns and categories, especially its case system and tense divisions of past, present and future), while lin guistics describes each Ian guage on its own merits.Lin guists are opposed to the no ti on that any one Ian guage can provide an adequate framework for the others. They are tryi ng to set up a uni versal framework, but that will be based on the features shared by most of the Ian guages used by mankind.(Traditional grammar is usually based on earlier grammars of Latin and applied them, ofte n in appropriately, to some other Ian guage. For example, some grammaria ns stated that En glish had six cases because Lat in had six cases.)4. S aussure ' destinction between Iangue and parole seems similar to Chomsky' s dist in ctio n betwee n compete nee and performa nee. What do you think are their major differe nces?答案4. According to Saussure,langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech com mun ity, an dparole refers to the realization of Iangue in actual use.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which Ian guage users all have to follow whileparole is the con crete use of the conven ti ons and the applicati on of the rules. Lan gue is abstract; it is not the Ian guage people actually use, but parole is con crete; it refers to the n aturally occurri ng Ian guage eve nts. Lan gue is relatively stable, it does not cha nge frequently; while parole varies from pers on to pers on, and from situatio n to situati on.Accord ing to Chomsky, compete nee is the ideal user ' s kno wledge of the rules of his Ian guage. This intern alized set of rules en ables the Ian guage user to produce and un dersta nd an infin itely large nu mber of senten ces and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. However, performanee is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic com muni cati on. Although the speaker ' s kno wledge of his mother ton gue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassme nt, etc. Chomsky believes that what lin guists should study is the compete nee, which is systematic, not the performa nee, which is too haphazard.Although Saussure "dstinction and Chomsky' sare very similar, they differ at least in thatSaussure took a sociological view of Ian guage and his no ti on of Ian gue is a mater of social conven ti ons, and Chomsky looks at Ian guage from a psychological point of views and to him, compete nee is a property of the mind of each in dividual.Chapter 2 The Sounds of Language1. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they dist in guishmeaning, they are said to be in compleme ntary distributi onF2. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaningF3. English is a tone Ianguage while Chinese is noF4. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. T5. In everyday com muni cati on, speech plays a greater role tha n writ ing in terms of the amountof in formati on eonv eyed.T6. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing.7. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the ton guethat is raised the highestF8. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can beclassified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolaF.9. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth,the ope nn ess of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the len gth of the vowels. T10. A ccording to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-closevowels, semi-ope n vowels and ope n vowels.11. F ill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. Of all the speech organs, the t _. tongue_ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties ofarticulati on tha n any other.2. English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p__2.place_ of articulatio n.3. When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech soundproduced with the obstructi on audibly released and the air pass ing out aga in is called a s_3.stop4. S__ . Suprasegmenta_ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegme nts. They in clude stress, tone, inton ati on, etc.5. The rules that gover n the comb in ati on of sounds in a particular Ian guage are calleds_5. sequentia l rules.6. The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad tran scripti on while the tran scripti on with letter-symbols together with the diacritics is called n_6. narrow _ tran scripti on.7. Whe n pitch, stress and sound len gth are tied to the sentence rather tha n the word in isolatio n, they are collectively known as i__ 7. intonation _.8. P_8. Phonology_ is a discipli ne which studies the system of sounds of a particular Ianguage and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic com muni cati on.9. T 9. Tone_ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibrati on of the vocal cords and which can disti nguish meaning just like phon emes.10. Depe nding on the con text in which stress is con sidered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s10. sentenc_ stress.III. Define the terms below:1 Phon eme: The basic unit in pho no logy is called phon eme; it is a unit of disti nctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact, a phoneme is not a sound; it is a collecti on of disti nctive phon etic features.2. Allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phon etic en vir onments are called the allopho nes of that pho neme.3. International phonetic alphabet: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phon etic tran scripti on.4. Intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolati on, they are collectively known as inton ati on.5. Auditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.6. Acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are tran smitted through the air from one pers on to ano ther.7. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segme nt which occurs in the same place in the stri ngs, the two words are said to form a mini mal pair.Phoneme: The basic un it in phono logy is called phon eme; it is a un it of disti nctive value. But it is an abstract un it. To be exact, a pho neme is not a sound; it is a collecti on of disti nctive phon etic features.IV. 1 What are the major differe nces betwee n phono logy and phon etics?答案.They differ in their approach and focus. Phon etics is of a gen eral n ature; it is in terested in all the speech sounds used in all huma n Ian guages: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phon etic features they possess, how they can beclassified. Phono logy, on the other han d, is in terested in the system of sounds of a particular Ian guage; it aims to discover how speech soundsin a Ian guage form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning inlin guistic com muni cati on.1. Illustrate with examples how suprasegmental features can affect meaning.答案1) The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, such as 'import and im'port. The similar alternation of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase con sisti ng of the same eleme nts. A pho no logical feature of the English compounds, is that the stress of the word always falls on the first element and the sec ond eleme nt receives sec on dary stress, for example: 'blackbird is a particular kind of bird, which is not n ecessarilyblack, but a black 'bird is a bird that is black.2) The more importa nt words such as nouns, verbs adjectives, adverbs, etc. arepronounced with greater force and made more prominent. But to give special emphasis to a certa in no ti on, a word in sentence that is usually un stressed can be stressed to achieve differe nt effect. Take the sentence “ He is driv ing my car.example. To emphasize the fact that the car he is driving is not his, or yours, butmine, the speaker can stress the possessive pronoun my, which under normal circumsta nces is not stressed.3) English has four basic types of intonation, known as the four tones: When spoken in differenttones, the same sequenee of words may have different meanin gs. Gen erally speak ing, the falli ng tone in dicates that what is said is a straight-forward, matter-of-fact stateme nt, the risi ng tone ofte n makes a questi on of what is said, and the fall-rise tone often indicates that there is an implied message in what is said.2. In what way can we determine whether a phone is a phoneme or not?答案A basic way to determine the phonemes of a Ianguage is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. If it does, the two sounds then represe nt differe nt phon emes.Chapter 3 MorphologyExercise and Discussion Questionsanswer to the question, or will best complete the sentence.1. The morpheme “visio n ” in the com mon word “ televisi on ” is a(n) __________ .A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. i nflectio nal morphemeD. free morpheme2. The compound word “ bookstore ” is the place where books are sold. This indicatesthat the meaning of a compo und _________ .A. is the sum total of the meaning of its comp onentsB. can always be worked out by look ing at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phraseD. None of the above3. The part of speech of the compo unds is gen erally determ ined by the part of speechof __________ .A. the first eleme ntB. the sec ond eleme ntC. either the first or the sec ond eleme ntD. both the first and the sec ond eleme nts4. ______ are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined withother morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words5. The meaning carried by the in flecti onal morpheme is ______ .A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic6. Bound morphemes are those that ___________ .A. have to be used in depe nden tlyB. cannot be comb ined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be comb ined with other morphemes7. ___ m odify the mea ning of the stem, but usually do not cha nge the part of speech of the origi nal word.A. PrefixesC. Roots 8. -s ” in the word “ books ” is .A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an in flecti onal affixD. a rootII. Decide whether each of the following statements True or False.1. Although the vast majority of prefixes do not change the original word class, there are prefixesthat are class-cha nging: a-, be-, em-, en-.2. Inflectional ending can be added to derivational ones, but not vice-versa.3. The syllabic structure of a word and its morphemic structure must correspond.4. Derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.5. Words are the smallest meaningful units of Ianguage.6. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.7. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories suchas nu mber, ten se, degree, and case.8. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be abound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.10. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word.Therefore, words formed accord ing to the morphological rules are acceptable words.III. Define the following terms.1. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed.2. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of Ianguage.3. Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units ofmeaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in comb in ati on with otler morphemes. B. Suffixes D. Affixes4. Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be usedin depe n-den tly but have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.5. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,defi nite meaning; it must be comb ined with ano ther root or an affix to form a word.6. Affix: Affixes are of two types: in flecti onal and derivati on al. I nflecti onal affixesmani fest various grammatical relati ons or grammatical categories, whilederivati onal affixes are added to an existi ng form to create a word.7. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning ofthe stem, but they usually do not cha nge the part of speech of the orig inal word.8. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the orig inalword and in many cases cha nge its part of speech.9. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixesare added to an exist ing form to create a word.10. Compo unding: Compo unding can be viewed as the comb in ati on of two orsometimes more tha n two words to create new words.V. Answer the following questions.1. What are the main features of the En glish compo un ds?Orthographically a compo und can be writte n as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphe n in betwee n. Syn tactically, the part of speech of a compo und is determ ined by the last eleme nt. Sema ntically, the meaning of a compo und is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its comp onen ts. Phon etically, the word stressof a compo und usually falls on the first eleme nt.2. Disti nguish betwee n phono logically and morphologically con diti oned allomorphs. Giveexamples.Morphoph on emics is an in termediary level of an alysis betwee n phono logy and morphology in which the phono logical regularities in the framework of morphology,especially the systematic pho no logical varia nts of morphemes and the con diti ons oftheir occurre nee are described. 1) Phono logical con diti oning of allomorphs. The distribution of the allomorphs of a morpheme is stated in terms of their phonetic en vironment, e.g. the pho netic variati ons of the past tense morphemes, -ed, as /d/ i n stayed,/t/ in heaped, and /id/ i n n eeded. 2) Morphological con diti oning of allomorphs. The morphologically con diti oned allomorphs of a morpheme are regarded as irregular incon trast to the pho no logically con diti oned allomorphs which are regarded as regular.For instanee, it is the particular morphemes rather than the sounds of the words thatdeterm ine the plural forms of nouns. E.g. child: childre n, foot: feet.3. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, -” in thebw o kd “ bookish ” .Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used in depe nden tly but have to be comb ined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as-ish ” in “ bookish ” . Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is see n as part of a word; it can n ever sta nd by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as“ ijette word “generate ” . Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as -s” in the word “ books Io indicate plurality of nouns. Derivati onal affixes are added to an existi ng form to create a word such as “miisin the word “ misi nform ” . Derivatio nal affixes can also be divided in to prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beg inning of a word such as - ” n the “ dis word “ dislike ” , while suffixes occur at the end of a word suchla s s ” in the word ““ friendless ” .4. What have you lear ned about the topic of morphology, can you put them into practice in you En glish lear ning?(This is an ope n questi on. No an swer is provided there.Chapter 4 Sy ntaxl.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T1. Syn tax is a subfield of lin guistics that studies the sentence structure of Ian guage, in cludi ng the comb in ati on ofmorphemes into words.2. Grammatical sentences are formed followi ng a set of syn tactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequenee of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one addi ng on to ano therfollowi ng a simple arithmetic logic.4. Uni versally found in the grammars of all huma n Ian guages, syn tactic rules that comprise the system ofinternalized linguistic knowledge of a Ianguage speaker are known as linguistic compete nee.5. The syn tactic rules of any Ian guage are fin ite in nu mber, but there is no limit to the nu mber of senten ces native speakers of that la nguage are able to produce and comprehe nd.6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold un equal status, one subord in at ing the other.7. Con stitue nts that can be substituted for one ano ther without loss of grammaticality bel ong to the same syn tacticcategory.8. Minor lexical categories are ope n because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In En glish syn tactic an alysis, four phrasal categories are com monly recog ni zed and discussed, n amely, nounphrase, verb phrase, infin itive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11. What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather tha ngrammatical kno wledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the in serti on of the lexic on, gen erate senten ces at the level of D-structure.14. WH-moveme ntin terrogative.is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to15. simple 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex20. embedded 21. ope n 22. adjacency 23. Parameters 24. CaseII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given.15. A s _______ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate andsta nds alone as its own senten ce.16. A s _____ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words toform a complete stateme nt, questi on or comma nd.17. A s _____ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually precedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which sayssometh ing about the subject is grammatically called p ________ .19. A c _______ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into theother.20. In the complex sentence, the in corporated or subord in ate clause is no rmally called ane ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o _ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A ____ Con diti on on case assig nment states that a case assig nor and a case recipie nt shouldstay adjace nt to each other.23. P ______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way orano ther and con tribute to sig ni fica nt lin guistic variati ons betwee n and among n atural Ian guages.24. The theory of C ____ condition explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject andobject positi ons.27. A 28. 29. A 32. C 33. D 34. B25. A sentence is con sidered ____ whe n it does not conform to the grammatical kno wledge in themind of n ative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. un grammatical26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces theembedded clause.A. coord in atorB. particleC. prepositi onD. subord in ator27. Phrase structure rules have ____ p roperties.A. recursiveB.grammaticalC. socialD. functional28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better un dersta nd ___________A. how words and phrases form senten cesB. what con stitutes the grammaticality of stri ngs of words25. D26. D 30. A 31. D。
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料
（完整word版）新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
英语语言学第一章复习资料.doc
1.The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is defined as the scientific study of languagejt studies not any particular language, but languages in general.Q：How do you interpret the definition of linguistics?(why linguistics is scientific?)★1」inguistics studies not any particular language, but languages in general.★2」inguistics is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic dcrkt conducted/with reference to some general theory of language siructure.(基于对语料库的系统调查,以关于语言结构的一般理论为指导)★3.what the linguist has to do first is to Observe and collect language facts, which are found to display some similar 计ies, and generaliza汁ions are made about them.Then, he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against theobserved facts to fully prove their valid计y.2.The scope of linguistics1.D efinition： general linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.Q：what are major branches of linguistics? What does each study?Phonetics—十he study of sounds used in linguistic commuicationPhonology—how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. Morphology—the sounds used in linguistic communication are represented by symbols. The way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form wordsSyntax ---- the combination of words to form grammatically permissible serrtences in languages is governed by rules, the study of these rules is syntax.Semantics—the study of meaning is known as semantics.Praqmatics-the study of meaning in context ofwordsIt is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. Interdisciplinary branches of linguistic study1.sociolinguistics2.psycholinguistics3.applied linguistics4.neurolinguistics5.historicallinguistics6.corpuslinguisitcs /.computational linguistics3.distinctions in linguistics1. prescriptive and descriptive★If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive.★If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ''correct and standard0 behaviour in using language ★Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.2.Synchronic and Diachronic★The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study★The description of a langugage as it changes through time is a diachronic study.★The modern linguistics is mostly synchronic3.speech and writing★Speech and writing are two major media of communicator)・Q：why spoken language is regarded as the primary medium of human language?★From the point of view of linguis十ic evolutiort speech is prior to writing.★In every communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.★Speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother toungue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.★Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the "revised" record of speech.ngue and Parole★F. de Saussure made the distinciton between langue and parole in 1916(in the early 20th century), the Swiss linguist・必考！Defin 汁ion：★Langue refers to 十he abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.★Parole refers to the realizcrtion of langue in actual use具体表现：★Langue is the set of conventions and rules which all language users all have to abide by.Paroel is the concrete use of 十he converrtion and application of the rules・★Langue is abstract, it is not the language people actually use.Parole is concrete, it refers to the naturally occuring language events.★Langue is relatively stable, it doesn't changefrequentlyParole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.petence and performance★N. Chomsky propose the distinction of competence and performance in the late 1950s, the American linguist.befin 计ion：★Competence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language★Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.★Saussure took a sociological view of language Chomsky took a psychological view of language6.Traditional grammar and modern linguistics.★The beginnin of modern linguistics was marked by the publication of F・ be Saussures book"Course inGeneral Linguistics" in the early20th century・Distinction：★Trad计ional grammar is prescriptiveModern linguistics is descriptive★Trad汁ional grammarians regard written word as primaryModern linguistics regard spoken language as primary.★Modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework. They are opposed to the notion that any one language can provide an adequate framwork for all others.The definition of LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication。
英语语言学期末复习宝典.doc
LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units of sound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker’s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historicaldevelopment of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist’s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.2which studies the distinctive sound units of a language and their relationship.1)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissiblearrangements of these sounds in words, and the processes for adding, deleting or changing sounds. It is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。
英语专业语言学复习资料.doc
1Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the f act that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, f or the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, inCh inese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese.2Duality:To human language, the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to f orm meaningf ul units (words) at anotherlevel.3A descriptive linguisticsattempts to tell what is in the language, it attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used. While the prescriptive linguistics tells people what should be in the language and tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.4Immediate constituent analysis: The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the dif ferent constituents at dif ferent structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic f orms. The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram. The f irst divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents(ICs), and the f inal cuts as the ultimate constituents(UCs).5Assimilation:Sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables. As the f ollowing sounds bring about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when f ollowed by a [+nasal] consonant.6Phonetics: The study of linguistic speech sounds that occur in all human languages , how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties, is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identif y what are speech sounds in a language, and then to study their characteristics. It includes three main areas: articul atory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.7 Phonology: It is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. 8 Allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.9Recursiveness：It refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any def inite limit. The rules introducing prepositional phrases also introduce the important concept of recursion.10 Stress: The prominence given to certain sounds in speech. When a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress. When a word belongs to dif ferent word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on diff erent syllables. When all the words above are stressed on thefirst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verb s. Stress may also have af unction at the sentence level. In this case, the phonetic f orm of word stress may be show which part of sentence is in f ocus.11Morphology: is thus the study of the internal structure, f orms and classes of words, intended structure relevant rule f or word f ormation.12Allomorph: An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme. Allophones are in complementary distribution, allomorphs are also in complementary distribution, that is to say, they cannot occur in the same environment. e.g. -s, -es, and -en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.13Derivation: the f ormation of new words by adding aff ixes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word f ormation.14Acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Exmples: NATO, radar and yuppy.15blending: A single new word can be f ormed by combining two separate f orms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is f ormed by the shortened f orms of breakfast and lunch.16Compounding:is the f ormation of new words by joining two or more stems. We have three types of compounds: 1, noun compounds:noun+noun: armchair, rainbow; 2, verb compounds: verb+verb: to sleep-walk; 3, adjective compounds: verb+adjectives: stir-crazy17Root: Some morphemes like car, talk, f riend and tour can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called f ree morphem es. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. remains when all aff ixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system f rom un- + system + atic + ally. 18Minimal pairs and sets: The phonologist is concerned with what differences are signif icant, or technically speaking, distinctive. A distinctive diff erence is one that brings about the change of meaning. In order to determine which are distinctive sounds, the customary practice is to set up minimal pairs-pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.19Stem: A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an aff ix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, dif ferent from, a root. For example, in the w ord “f riends” , “f riend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “f riendships”, “f riendships” is its stem, “f riend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlf riend” ,ect.20Suffix: Af f ixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suff ixes.An “affix” is the collective term f or the type of f ormative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Aff ixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classif i ed into three subtypes: pref ix, suff ix and inf ix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(pref ix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suff ix).21Syntax: the term used to ref er to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.22IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents byusing binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. 23Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.24Sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, to gether with the context, determines its ref erent. 25Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and \ the things, actions, events and qualities they stand f or. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (ref erent) in the real world.26Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning; thematic meaning ; connotative meaning; social meaning; affective meaning；ref l ective meaning; collocative meaning;后5种称associ ative meaning27Lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes f or “male” and“f emale” cousin.28Pragmati cs: can be def ined as the study of languages in use. It deals with how speakers use languages in ways which cannot be predicted f rom linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when communicate with each other. We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of meaning that is not covered by semantics. So people use the f ormula as itsdef inition:PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS. 29Anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.30Cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elem ents of a text. This may be the relationship between di ff erent sentences or different parts of a sentence.31Coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.32Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. f or some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. 33 Prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.34iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesar’s historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I ca me, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order(the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction). Iconicity of distance a ccounts f or the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. This entails that conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic distance not merely physical distance. eg: a, I killed the chicken. b, I caused the chicken to die. Iconicity of complexity: The phenomenon that linguistic complexity ref lects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.35Reflective meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word f orms part of our response to another sense. Ref lective meaning is the product of people’s recognition and imagination.36Ambiguity: It refers to the phenomenon that an expression has more than one meaning. Two diff erent types of ambiguity can be distinguished on the basis of what is causing it: lexical ambiguity (more than one word meaning) and structural ambiguity (more than one synt actic structure) 37The diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in theirpronunciation38Complementary distribution: [p.pH] are two different phones and are varivants of the phoneme /p/such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution, because they never occur in the same context. [p] occurred af ter [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.39syllable: A unit in speech which isof t en longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.41 the difference between derivational affix and inflectional affix (1)Inf lectional aff ixes very of t en add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. In contrast, derivational aff ixes of ten change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inf lectional aff ixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational aff ixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f or the f ormer, and that between brother and brotherhood f or the latter. (3)In English, inf lectionalaff ixes are mostly suffixes, which are always wordf inal. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational aff ixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.定义：Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are of ten used to make words of a di ff erent grammatical category from the stem Inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical f unction of a word.。
语言学复习资料1-5.doc
语言学复习资料1-5.docReview of LinguisticsChapter 1一、What is linguistics?什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.二、The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴1)The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)2)The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）3)The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.（音系学）4)The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are calledmorphology. （形态学）5)The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.（句法学）6)The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）7)The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）8)The study of language with reference to society is calledsocio-linguistics. （社会语言学）9)The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）10)The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as a ppliedlinguistics. （应用语言学）But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.三、Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念1)Prescriptive and descriptive (规定与描写)If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2)Traditional grammar and modern linguistics (传统语法和现代语言学)Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar.a)Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive.b)Modern linguistics reards the spoken language as primary. Traditional grammarianstended to emphasize the importance of the written word.c)Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does not forcelanguages into a Latin-based framework.3)Synchronic and diachronic (共时和历时)The description of a language at some point in time is asynchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.4)Speech and writing (口头语与书面语)Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language as primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the written.5)Langue and parole (语言和言语)The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.6)Competence and performance (语言能力和语言运用)Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.四、What is language?什么是语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.五、Design features of languageDefinition: Design features refer to the defining properties human language thatdistinguish it from any animal system of communication.1)Arbitrariness(任意性)Arbitrariness means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.2)Example: different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.3)Productivity(创造性)Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users.4)Duality(双重性)（sounds – words- phrases- sentences）The duality nature of language means that language is a system, which consists of two setsof structure, or two levels, one is sound and the other of meanings.5)Displacement(移位性)Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.6)Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis. we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation tothe next through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.六、Functions of languageThree main functions of language:1)The descriptive functionThe descriptive function, also referred to differently as the cognitive, or referential, or propositional function, is assumed to be the primary function of language. It is the function to convey factual information, which can be asserted or denied, and in some cases even verified.2)The expressive functionThe expressive function, also called the emotive or attitudinal function, supplies information about the user’s feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.3)The social functionSocial function, also referred to as the interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people.七、The sis elements identified and specified by the Russian-born structural linguistRoman Jakobson1)Addresser(发话人)——Emotive (情感、态度)The addresser expresses his attitude to the topic or situation of communication. (I hate whatever they are planning for me.)2)Addressee(受话人) ——Conative (意动、带有目的性)The addresser aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking. (Why not go and see another doctor?)3)Context(语境) ——Referential(所指、信息传递)The addresser conveys a message or information. ( As are asI know, the earth’s resources are being Astonishingly wasted.)4)Message(诗意) ——Poetic(语言艺术)The addresser uses language for the sole purpose ofdisplaying the beauty of language itself. ( just like poetry)5)Contact(寒暄) ——Phatic comm.union (建立良好人际关系)The addresser tries to establish or maintain good interpersonal relationships with the addressee. ( Hi! How are you this morning?)6)Code(元语) ——Metalinguistic (用语言谈论语言)The addresser uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.( Let me tell you what the word ―anorexia‖ means.)八、In the early 1970s the British linguist M.A.K. Halliday put forward a systemcontains three macrofunctions1)The ideational(概念) is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real orimaginary world.2)The interpersonal（人际）is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationshipsbetween people.3)The textual（语篇）is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they arecoherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.Chapter 2 Phonology一 2.1 The phonic medium of language(语言的声音媒介)Definition: This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic are the phonic medium of language; and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds二Phonetics(语音学)(一)What is phonetics? 什么是语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语音学研究的对象是语言的声音媒介，即人类语言中使用的全部语音。
(完整word版)英语语言学 整理资料名词+简答
第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological inguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学Modern linguistics与传统语法Traditional grammar 有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study （共时研究）; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study（历时研究）. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
英语本科语言学复习资料
英语本科语言学复习资料I. Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the blanks. (1% x 20 = 20%)1. When a sentence changes from a statement to a general/ special question, which movement is structurally required?A. NP – movement/WH - movementB. NP – movement/ Aux - movementC. AUX - movement/WH – movementD. WH – movement/ AUX - movement2. The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write indicates that language is primary ______.A. vocalB. arbitraryC. human—specificD. written3. The naming theory seems applicable to ________ only.A. verbsB. adjectivesC. adverbsD. nouns4. Which of the following statements is NOT used by the speaker to perform certain acts?A. “I name this ship Elizabeth.’’B. “I visited my uncle last Sunday.’’C. “I give and bequeath my watch to my brother.’’D. “I bet you sit pence it will rain tomorrow.’’5. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. photo - copyB. cackleC. bookD. rumble6. According to its________ in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.A meaning B. function C. position D. sound7. By saying "You have left the door wide open," a speaker might be performing the three acts: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary .A. at the same timeB. one after anotherC. two first and then the otherD. one first and then the other two8. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what"_________" means.A. displacementB. cultural transmissionC. dualityD. productivity9. The basic unit in phonology is called ______; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. phoneB. phonemeC. allophoneD. phonetic transcription10. _______ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. AffixesB. PrefixesC. SuffixesD. Inflectional morphemes11. The two words" collaborator" and "accomplice" are examples given to illustrate that synonyms may differ _______. .A. in styleB. in their emotive or evaluative meaningC. in their collocationD. slightly in what they mean12. A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I'm afraid I'm not feeling so well today.The implicature produced here is _______. .A. I'll be glad to go to your party.B. Probably I'll be a little late because I'm not feeling well.C. I do not want to go to your party.D. I'll go there even though I am not feeling well today.13. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time is offered as an example of _________ study.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive14. Speech act theory was originated with ________ in the 50’s of the 20th century .A. the American linguist Noam ChomskyB. the British philosopher John AustinC. the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureD. the American philosopher –linguist John Searle15. People speaking the same language _________.A. always share the same world viewsB. may have different world viewsC. can not describe different world viewsD. find it impossible to share the same world views16. When a speech sound changes and becomes more like anther sound which following it, it is said to be _________.A. nasalizedB. deletedC. assimilatedD. aspirated17. Inflectional morphemes convey ___________ meaning.A. LexicalB. noC. associatedD. grammatical18. Hyponyms of th e superordinate “flower’’ do not include “___________”A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose19. “If Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different.’’ This statement may typically represent___________.A. the critical period hypothesisB. Sapir—Whorf hypothesisC. X—bar theoryD. general principles of universal grammar20. _______are those which can be used independently without combining with other morphemes.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. RootsD. Affixes21. Minor lexical categories are closed" categories which do not includeA. determinerB. auxiliaryC. adverbD. conjunction22. According to Stephen Krashen, language acquisition and language learningA. mean the same and thus they can be used interchangeablyB. involve different processes and thus should be distinguishedC. are both unnecessary in the process of learning one's native languageD. are both unnecessary in the process of learning a second language23. The consonant [f] in English can be correctly described as having the following phonetic features: __________.A. voiceless, bilabial, stopB. voiceless, labiodental, fricativeC. voiced, bilabial, stopD. voiced, labiodental, fricative24. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix "ed" in the word "learned" is known as a(n) __________.A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form25. Y's utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of __________.X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner26. The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play “Romeo and Juliet” ‘A rose by any other name would smell as sweet’ well illustrates _______.()A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication27. The term _______ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparative28. The significance of Grice's Cooperative Principle lies in that .A. it tells us what an utterance literally meansB. it illustrates how an utterance is syntactically composedC. it shows us what the deep structure of a sentence isD. it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than literally said29. Which of the following can be said to be the smallest meaningful unit of language?A. LettersB. MorphemesC. WordsD. Sentences30. Depending on specific contexts, "My bag is heavy", as an utterance, can mean all of the following except .A. "My bag is easy to carry.”B. "My bag is not easy to carry. "C. "Could you help me carry the bag?"D. "My bag is too heavy for you to carry."31. All the following statements concerning the nature of language change is true except .A. language change is inevitableB. language change is abruptC. language change is universalD. language change is extensive32. By saying "We shall know a word by the company it keeps," John Firth, a British linguist, means that the real meaning of a word .A. is determined by a dictionaryB. is determined by a native speakerC. is determined by its contextD. is determined by a linguistII. Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word, the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change the letter given. (2%×5=10%)1. A c oordinary sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as "and", "but", "or".2. I nterlanguage is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA.3. Words that are close in meaning are called s__ynonyms_______. .4. There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle, namely, the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of m___anner_______.5. Affixes are of tow types: i.__nflectional______ and derivational.6. The notion of c__ ontext_______ is particularly important in pragmatics because it contributes a lot to the meaning of an utterance.7. Language is a system of two sets of structures or levels: one of s___ ound _______ at the lower or basic level, and the other of meaning at the higher level.8. Paul Grice’ s idea is that in making conversation , the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate ; otherwise , it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is known as the C______ooperative___ principle.9. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the a ____ llophone____of that phoneme.10. B_ound___ ____ morphemes are those that must be combined with other morphemes to form words to be used independently.11. Modern linguistics, which refers to linguistic study carried out in last century, is mostly d __ escriptive_____.12. Linguistic forms having the same s___ ense ____ may have different references in different situations.13. The way of forming new words in English by the combination of two or sometimes more than two words is called c______ompounding___.III Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2% x 10 = 20%)1.In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word" symbol" refers to the object in the world of experience.(F.) "Symbol" in this context refers to the linguistic elements like words or phrases.2. In view of language as an effective means of communication, we can say that standard language is purer, more correct, or more logical, than any other dialect of the language(.F)3. Most prefixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.( F.)Prefixes modify the meaning of the original word (stem), but usually do not change the part of speech.4. When the same one word has more than one meaning, we call it a polysemic word.(T)5. All utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax.（F）6. English is a language which has fixed word stress.(F.)English is a language in which stress is free in that it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a word; its position varies from word to word.7. Affixes belong to the type of bound morphemes. （T）8. Antonyms refer to words that are opposite in meaning. （T）Speech act theory is mainly studied in the field of pragmatics.9. Speech act theory is an important theory in the semantic study of language. （F）.10. The meaning of an utterance, unlike that of a sentence, is decontextualized（.F）11. Speech variety includes not only dialect, pidgin, Creole etc, but also standard language（T）12. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.（T）13. English, like Chinese, is a typical tone language. (F.)In English, tones can not distinguish meaning, and therefore it is not a tone language.14.According to its function in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.(F). According to its position, not function, in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.15.The locutionary act performed by the speaker refers to the effect of the utterance.(. F. )The locutionary performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean.16. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.T17. Locutionary act expresses the intention of the speaker.(F). Illocutionary act expresses the intention of the speaker, while locutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance.18. Children do not acquire their native language through formal instruction of grammatical rules.19. Language is the only means of expressing thought.( F).20. In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.(F)21. A compound is the combination of only two words.(F)22. In classifying the English consonants and vowels, the same criteria can be applied.（F）23. We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts.（F）24. Of the views concerning the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense.（T）25. Modern linguistics aims to lay down rules for “correct’’ linguistic behavior.26. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. （F）27. Tree diagrams of constituent structures can best illustrate the hierarchical order of sentences.（T）28. Complete synonyms, i. e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English. （T）29. All languages change with time. （F）30. Black English is as syntactically complex and logical as Standard English. （T）IV . Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% x 10 = 30%) nguage : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition, language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional. 2.linguistics:Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.3.design features : The features that distinguish human language from animal systems of communication are called design features. The features that define our human languages are called design features. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, etc..4.arbitrariness:Arbitrariness, one of the design features which distinguish human language from animal systems of communication, refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds, even with onomat opoeic words5displacement :Displacement, one of the design features which distinguish human language from animal systems of communication, refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present ornot present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.6.phonetics:Phonetics语音学is the study of the phonic medium of language. It is concerned with all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages. It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.7.phonology :Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It is a branch of linguistics which studies how sound are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.8.morphology :Morphology形态学is a branch of grammar/linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Or simply it is the study of word structure and word formation.9.syntax :Syntax 句法学is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. It is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. It consists of a set of rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. Or simply, it is the study of the structure and the formation of sentences.10. Semantics: Semantics语义学is a technical term used to refer to the study of the communication of meaning through language, or simply to the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.11. pragmatics : Pragmatics语用学studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. It is the study of language in use. Pragmatics is the study of speaker’s meaning, contextual meaning, how more gets communicated than is said, the expression of relative distance.12. consonant :Consonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”. There is obstruction of air in the production of consonants.13. vowel : A vowel母音is produced without such “stricture”so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”. There is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels.14. inflection :Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the stems (to which they are attached) will not change.15. Derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words. It can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.16. constituent :Constituent组成构成is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. It refers to component element in a construction.17. reference:Reference参照is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. For example, if we say, "The dog is barking," we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation. The actual dog the word "dog" refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word "dog".18. Sense:Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. In other words, it does not refer to any particular thing that exists in the real world.V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10% x 2 = 20%)Chapter 7:Ex.3, Why do we need to teach culture in our language classsroom?? (P169)To get the students familiar with cultural differences?;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will?;To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesEx.8 Why should language instructors look to sociolinguistics?? (P175)Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teachingIt has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom?It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and useIt has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.Chapter 11Ex1 Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics ? (P266-267)Ex.10 what are the important features of a task as defined in a task-based syllabus ? (P282-284)Chapter 12:Ex.1, Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics ? (P294-296)Ex.2,What are the three important points of the Prague School ? (P296)Ex.15,What the special features of American structuralism ? (P317, P325-326)Ex.25 What is special about TG Grammar ? (P338)。
语言学期末考试复习(英语专业).doc
LinguistsFerdinand de Saussure: Course in General LinguisticsEdward Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechNoam Chomsky: Syntactic StructuresJohn Lyons: Language and LinguisticsR. H. Robins: General LinguisticsStuart C. Pool: An Introduction to LinguisticsWhat is language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: Elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary: no close connection between a word and the object it refers to. Vocal: all human languages have sound and speech.Symbolic: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, concepts etc. by nothing but convention.Human: language is human specific.Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacementArbitrariness: --The forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (Saussure)--Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words.--Language has 2 levels of structures: sounds & meanings.-A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.--The units of meanings can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences, (lyons)Creativity:-We can understand and create sentences that we never heard before.--It comes from 2 features: duality & recursiveness (递归性) Displacement: People can use language to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.What is linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.The sounds and the sound system orpatternsMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）、Phonology （音系学）- Morphology （形态学）：the structure of wordsSyntax （句法学）：the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics （语义学）：the meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics （语用学）：the way language is used to communicate Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式 VS 规定式Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性 VS 历时性Langue vs. Parole 语言 VS 言语Competence and Performance 语言能力&语言运用Etic vs. Emic 非位学（素学）VS 位学 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to beModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, not prescriptive. Why?--Objective description helps to see the nature of language.--Language changes through time.Svnchronic vs. Diachronic （Saussure ）Synchronic Study: the study of language in a fixed instant, take language as unchanged.Diachronic Study: the study of language through the course of its historyLangue vs. Parole (Saussure)Language: the linguistic competence of the speaker, abstract, stable, systematic Parole: the exact way of speaking, specific and changeableSaussure's purpose to distinguish 'langue' and 'parole': To discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of the study of linguistics.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence: A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to and different from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?--Similarities: both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure's parole and Chomsky's performance are essentially the same thing.-Differences: Saussure's notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psycholoRical point of view. Thus, langue is quite different from competence.Etic vs. Emic (Pike)Chapter 2Major branches of phonetics：1.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)2.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)3.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)Phone [ ] Phoneme / /The IPAInternational Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. Consonants and vowelsRP: Received English (BBC English, Oxford English, King's / Queen's English) GA: General AmericanIn what ways consonants differ from vowels?1)Air-stream in Articulation--consonants (24): the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels (20): the flow of air comes out freely2)Function: --consonants are used to separate the vowels. --vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next. Consonants[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeVowelsCoarticulation and Phonetic TranscriptionCoarticulation: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.E.g. map, lambAnticipatory coarticulation 先期协'同发音lambPerseverative coarticulation 后滞协'同发音map[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].Broad transcription [ ] Narrow transcription / / or []Phone and PhonemeA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't, e.g. [tin— [t] [i] [n]A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound that can distinguish words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] 9 /t/ /d/ 9 tin dinDifferences Between Phone & PhonemeMinimal Pairs: e.g. "pat" "bat”, “pig" "big”Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [p h] as in pin and [p] in spin.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone, intonationThe syllable structureoMonosyllabic word: cat, dogPolysyllabic word: festival, transplantOpen syllable: a syllable without coda, bar, tieClosed syllable: a syllable with coda, bard, tiedChapter 3 LexiconWhat is word?Definition: It is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.Identification of wordsStability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc Relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word e.g. dis appoint mentA minimum free form (Bloomfield):maximum 9 sentenceminimum 9 wordClassification of words1)Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. (n. v.) Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.2)Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3)Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words —grammatical words): New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words (=lexical words): New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech (词性)in traditional grammar, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new word class: -Particles (小品词):Infinitive "to",Negative "not”,Subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.-Auxiliaries: do, have-Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.-Pro-form-DeterminersPre-determiners (coverage): all, both, twice, one-fifth, etc.Central- determiners (所指):this, that, every, my, etc.Post-determiners (cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and quantifiers): last, past, many, little, etc.Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, its meaning will change if further divided. E.g. dis appoint ment (3)Morphology: the study of word-formation (the internal structure of words).A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology; a morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.(1)Free morphemes & Bound morphemes-Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g.mooncake-Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, unBound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2)Root, affix and stemRoot: the free morpheme inside of the wordE.g. friend as in unfriendlinessAffix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.prefix (dis-, un-)suffix (-en, -ify) andlnfix( feet, goose)Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3)Inflectional and Derivational AffixInflectional affixes (all are suffix): number, tense, degree (-er. -est), and case(-s') Derivational affixes: e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Inflection and Word FormationInflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy's ) do not change the grammatical class of the stemsDerivation (a relationship between roots and affixes):lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)Word FormationCompounds: to join two or more separate words to produce a new word. Endocentric & Exocentric compounds向心复合词和离心复合词Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of "a kind of〃E.g. self-control: a kind of control; armchair: a kind ofchairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of "a kind of something"E.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow; breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds-Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard-Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length -Open: coffee table, washing machine Chapter 4Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)The girl ate the apple (S)The girl ate the appleIf two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.Syntactic FunctionNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.Subject: "what the sentence is about" (i.e., topic)John was bitten by a dog.u grammatical subject" (John) and 'logical subject" (a dog)Predicator: verb or verbs included in a predicate, it usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.Object:Direct Object and Indirect ObjectMother gave my sister a doll.IO DOThe accusative case （受格）for direct objectThe dative case （与格）for indirect objectObject can become subjectJohn broke the glass. 9 The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. 9 Jane was seen by Peter.Category-Number: singular, dual, pluralIn Englishnouns: dog, dogspronouns and verbs: He laughs: They laugh; this man: these men.-Gender: contrasts as "masculine : feminine : neuter", "animate : inanimate", etc. In English gender only in pronouns and nouns:he: she: itprince: princess author: authoress-Case: teacher: teacher'swith/ to a manJohn kicked Peter: Peter kicked John-Agreement:a pronoun agrees with its antecedent: Whose is this pen? --Oh,Ji's the one I lost.a verb agrees with its subject: Each person has one coin.number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.Chapter 5 Meaning (semantics)SemanticsDefinition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Geoffrey Leech. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 9 DenotationConnotative meaning 、9 Connotation (unstable, vary according to culture)Social meaningAffective meaning > Associative meaningReflected meaningJCollocative meaningThematic meaningDenotation & ConnotationE.g. words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings: politician (derogatory)statesman (favorable)The Referential TheoryReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.Leech's conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): concrete entities;Concept: the abstract thing, no entity.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. E.g. "but ", “if”, “God”,“dragon”.Sense Relations--Synonymy:buy/purchaseautumn/fall flat/apartmenttube/underground--Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy (degree)分级反义词good ---------------------- badlong ----------------------- shortbig ------------------------- small(2) Complementary antonymy (Not A = B; not B= A)互补反义词一个个体的两种情况alive : dead odd : evenmale : female pass : failpresent: absent boy : girlinnocent: guilty hit: miss⑶Converse antonymy回转反义词两方两个事物buy : sell teacher: studentlend : borrow above : belowgive : receive before : afterparent: child host: guesthusband : wife employer: employeeChapter 8 Language in Use (Pragmatics)Definition of Pragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers' meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning. Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningSentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?Contextual Meaning: meaning in contextSpeech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts: actions performed via utterancesIllocutionary Act TheoryJohn Searle (1932-)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:the locutionnary act 发话行为the illocutionnary act 行事行为the perlocutionnary act取效行为/言后行为E.g.lIt's cold here.Locutionary act: the literal meaning, the sentenceIllocutionary act: a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act: the hearer's shutting the window or his refusal to shut it. E.g.2Conversations between The illocutionary act:husband and wife:H: That's the phone. 9 Not describing something. Just making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.W: I'm in the bathroom.— Not describing her action in the bathroom, just (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request of her husband to answer it.H : Okay. 9 Accepting his wife's refusal and accepther request, meaning "all right, \'\\ answer it."Conversational ImplicatureHerbert Paul GricePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP)A speaker can mean a lot more than what he says, most the time the hearer could understand that, then the problem is how the speaker can convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker's meaning. Grice believed there exists a set of mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances, this is what he called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Grice introduced 4 categories of maxisms:--Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;--Maxim of Quantity: no more, no less--Maxim of Relation: Be relative.--Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Pragmatics violates CP. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature. 会话含义E-g.He is made of iron.CP (quality) > He is strong-willed.He (lecturer) is a good cook.CP (relation'The lecturer is no good.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1.No lessA:昨天上街买了些什么？B:就买了些东西。
英语语言学概论期末复习电子版本
英语语言学概论期末复习第一章绪论1.1什么是语言1.2语言的性质（1）语言具有系统性（systematic）（2）语言是一个符号系统语言符号是一种象征符号。
（3）语言符号的任意性（arbitrariness）与理据性（motivation）（4）口头性（5）语言是人类特有的（6）语言是用于交际的寒暄交谈（phatic communion）马林诺夫斯基提出的，认为语言除了用于表达思想、交流感情外，还可以用语言营造一种气氛或保持社会接触。
这种不用于表达思想、交流感情的语言使用，叫寒暄交谈。
1.3语言的起源1.4语言的分类1.4.1系属分类（Genetic Classification）历史比较语言学通过比较各种语言在不同时期语音、词性、曲折变化、语法结构上的相同特点来建立语言族系。
将语言分为语系（family）——语族（group）——语支（branch）——语言英语、德语属印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支。
法语属印欧语系罗曼语族中罗曼语支。
汉语属汉藏语系汉语族。
1.4.2 类型分类（Typological Classifacation）根据词的结构类型，可分为（1）孤立语（isolating language）又叫词根语，一个词代表一个意思，缺少形态变化，语序和虚词是表达语法意义的主要手段。
汉语是典型的孤立语。
（2）粘着语（agglutinative language）简单词组成复合词，而词性和意义不变。
在词根前、中、后粘贴不同的词缀实现语法功能。
日语、韩语、土耳其语是典型的黏着语。
（3）屈折语（inflectional language）词形变化表语法关系的语言。
英语是不太典型的屈折语。
（4）多式综合语（polysynthesis language）把主、宾和其它语法项结合到动词词干上以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。
因纽特语是典型的多式综合语。
根据句子的语序类型，可分为SVO、SOV、OSV、OVS等1.5语言的功能1.5.1 一般功能1.5.2元功能（metafunction）1.6什么是语言学（linguistics）1.7语言学中的重要区分（1）语言（langue）和言语（parole/langage）索绪尔对语言和言语作出了区分。
英语(本科)《现代语言学》复习大纲
Chapter 1 Introduction 绪论1 什么是语言学what is linguistics?1.1 定义definitionLinguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1.2 语言学的研究范畴the scope of linguisticsa. The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.把语言作为一个整体而进行的全面的语言学研究一般称为普通语言学。
b. The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics calledphonetics.语音学How speech sounds are produced and classified.c. how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning. phonology音位学/ 音系学交际中语音的组合规律及传达意义的方式d. The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged to form words has constituted the branch of studycalled morphology.形态学how morphemes are combined to form words.这些符号通过排列组合而成构成语词，对于这种排列组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的另一个分支如对形态学的研究。
英语专业语言学期末复习资料
英语专业语言学期末复习资料Phonetics (sound)语音学；phonology(sounds) 音系学；morphology(word) 形态学；syntax(words, sentence)句法学；semantics(meaning)语义学；pragmatics(meaning ina context)语用学1. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (modern). If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.2. Synchronic static state grammer; diachronic dynamic historical development/doc/1618092964.html,ngue (language): the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, stable.; Parole (speaking): the realization of langue in actual use, concrete, specific, changeable. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole.sociological or sociolinguistic point of view4. American linguist N. Chomsky Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,stable,prerequisite; Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations,changeable.psychologically or psycholinguistically.5.Traditional grammar ---- prescriptive, written, Latin-based frameworkModern linguistics ----- descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework/doc/1618092964.html,nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design Features of Language.1:Arbitrariness2:duality:The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e. g. words in written language) and meaningless segments (e. g. sounds, letters in spoken language).1. Combine meaningless sounds into meaningful linguistic units/doc/1618092964.html,bine small units into big units3.productivity/creativity:Language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. We can use it to create new meanings.4.Displacement: which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.5.cultural transmission7.Six Functions of language:Addresser---Emotive the addresser expressed his attitude to the topic or situation of communication; Addressee---Conative使动xx aims to influence the addressee’s course of action or ways of thinking；Context---referentia所指, xx conveys a message or informationl;Message---Poetic xx uses language for the sole purpose of displaying the beauty of language itself;Contact--Phatic communication寒暄, xx tries to establish or maintain good interpersonalrelationships with the addressee；Code--Metalingual xx uses language to make clear the meaning of language itself.8.M. A. K. Halliday.Metafunctions of Language:Ideational function:About the natural world in the broadest sense, including our own consciousness; Relates to the context of culture. Interpersonal function:About the social world, especially therelationship between speaker and hearer ; Relates to the context of situation. Contextual function:About the verbal world, especially the flow of information in a text; Relates to the verbal context.9.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone doe sn’t necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don’t. A phoneme is a phonological unit;It is a unit that is of distinctive value;It is an abstract unit;It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.10. phones are placed within square brackets: [ ], and phonemes in slashes: / /.11./p/ in [pi:k] (peak) : an aspirated [ph]12./p/ in [spi:k] (speak): an unaspirated [p]13.Both [ph] and [p] are called as allophones of /p/14. The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called allophones. [p, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme.15. Minimal pairs: Pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound; More precisely: two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string.16.Sequential rules The patterning of sounds in a particular language is governed by rules;The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.Refer to the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.17.Assimilation rule—assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar, e.g. the prefix in-18. When pitch, stress, and sound length are tried to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.19.单元音monophthongs 双元音diphthongs20.Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning. It is the smallest unit that carries grammatical and /or semantic meaning.Morphs:The smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance on the level of parole.The phonological or orthographic forms which realize morphemes. Allomorphs:A member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme.21.Free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme, such as “-s”in “dogs”, “-al”in “national”, “di s-”in “disclose”, “-ed”in “recorded”, etc.22.Derivational morphemes—the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class,or meaning of words. e.g. modern —modernizeInflectional morphemes:purely grammatical markers;signifying tense, number, and case;not changing the syntactic category; never adding any lexical meaning /doc/1618092964.html,pounding (合成词) blackboard; Derivation(派生词) --ful ---able;Back-formation逆构词法television televise; Borrowing—loanwords (外来词); Clipping（缩略词）labtory lab; Blending（混成法）motel; Acronym（词首字母）APEC；Coinage/Invention (Neologism) 创新词nylon24.Open: n. V. Adj. Adv. Bound morphemes :roots and affixes25.①traditional categories: n., v., adj., adv., prep., conj., aux., pronoun….②non-traditional categories: determiner (Det限定词), degree words (Deg程度词), qualifier (Qual修饰语).26.Three criteria are used to determine a word’s category: meaning, inflection, distribution.27.the structure or elements of phrases:XP rule specifier+head+complement28.NP (Det) + N + (PP)…29.VP (Qual) + V + (NP)…30.AP (Deg) + A + (PP)…31.PP (Deg) + P + (NP)…32.S →NP VP33.Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties, is called ds. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ss. Do insertion, WH movement.34.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformation. A special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.35.Head: A V N P36. Semantics is generally considered to be the study of meaning in language.37. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct linkbetween a linguistic form And what it refers to (i.e.between language and real world ); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Semantic triangle by ogden and richards: symblo/form, thought/ reference/, refrent.38.Contextualism: Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context ---- elements closely linked with language behavior. JR forth39.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. The relationship between sense and reference:And, if等只有sense, 而无reference.一个sense可以有许多reference同一referenece可有不同的sense，Mrs Thatcher, & the Iron Lady. Morning Star & Evening Star.40.Major sense relations: Synonymy (同义关系)Antonymy (反义关系)Polysemy (多义关系)Homonymy (同音/形异义) Hyponymy (上下义关系)41.Antonymy: Complementary antonyms (互补反义词)非A即B; Gradable antonyms (程度反义词) :AB有中间, very .. How..; Relational opposites （关系对立词）丈夫妻子42.Sense relations between sentences: Synonymy (同义关系) inconsistency (自相矛盾)Entailment (蕴涵)Presupposition (预设)X is a contradiction (自相矛盾)X is semantically anomalous (反常的43.man [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] women [+HUMAN +ADULT －MALE]girl [+HUMAN －ADULT －MALE] child [+HUMAN －ADULT OMALE]father: PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)x is a parent of y, and x is male.take: CAUSE (x, (HA VE (x, y)))x causes x to have y.give: CAUSE (x, (~HA VE (x, y)))x causes x not to have y.44.predication analysis: G.leech: argument 名词predicate 动词45. Pragmatics --- the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration). Pragmaticists regard meaning as something that is realized in the course of communication.Semantics --- the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Semanticists take meaning to be an inherent property of language. Essential difference is that whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. 不senmantics.46.Sentence meaning: It is abstract and context-independent; it’s the literal meaning of a sentence. Utterance meaning: It is concrete and context-dependent; It’s the intended meaning of a speaker.It is the product of sentence meaning and context. Therefore, it is richer than the meaning of the sentence.47.John Austin’s speech act theory.Performatives (行事话语):I promise Constatives (述事话语)48.A locutionary act (言内行为) is the act of saying words, phrases, clause; it is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.An illocutionary act (言外行为) is the act of expressing thespeaker’s intention; it i s the act performed in saying something. 关注A perlocutionary act (言后行为) is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.act performed by saying sth.49.Searle’s classificati on of speech acts:Representatives (陈述) Directives (指令)Commissives (承诺) Expressives (表达) Declarations (宣布)50.CP Grice:The maxim of quality: /doc/1618092964.html,ck adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity信息充足; The maxim of relation 继续下去; The maxim of manner方式表达清楚模糊词绕口1. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics2. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.context3. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.abstract4. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.Performatives1. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.illocutionary2. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some futurecourse of action.commissive3. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.expressive4. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.quantity4. ____C______ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act5. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is _B_____.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to someth ing’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs1. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. F2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. T3. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. F4. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. F5. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century. T6. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. T7. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing t he speaker’s intention. F1. A __bound_____ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.2. On, before and together are__close_____words—they are words which do not take inflectional endings.3. Bound morphemes are classified into two types: __affix__ and __root__ root.4. Pronouns, prepositions,conjunctions and articles are all_close__class items.5. handsome consists of 2 morphemes, one is the _free___ morpheme hand, the other is the __bound__ morpheme some.1.There are _C__ morphemes in the word denationalization?A. 3B. 4.C. 5.D. 62. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called___A_ morphemes.A. inflectionalB.freeC. boundD. Derivational1. Major lexical categories are___N__, __V__,__adj__and____prep_.2. The deep structure refers to ____.3. when the affirmative sentence "Jack sold his textbooks to jill after the final examination' is transformed into "When did jack sell his textbooks to Jill?", three transformational rules are applied. they are__Do insertion__, subject-aux inversion and __Wh movement__.4. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called __transformation______.5. The head is the word __n v a p___.1. Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words.F2. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. F3. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.T1. Phonetics studies the phonic medium of a certain language. ( F )2. The long vowels are all tense vowels and the short vowels are all lax vowels. ( T )3. In English, pill and bill are a minimal pair, and so are pill and till, pin and ping. ( T )4. The phoneme /p/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, therefore they’re in phonetic complementary distribution. ( F )5. The sequential rules in English can apply to all the other languages. For example, the velar nasal /N/ never occurs in the initial position in English nor in Chinese.( F )The pharynx refers to the space of cavity between the larynx and the end of the __C____.A. tongueB. hard palateC. soft palateD. vocal cords2. A sound produced when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration is said to be___B__.A. resonantB. voicelessC. voicedD. vowel3. The obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sound ___A___.A. /t/ and /d/B. /k/ and /g/C. /p/ and /b/D. / N/ and / W/4. The phoneme is an abstract ___B_ unit.A. phonicB. phonologicalC. phoneticD. grammatical5. The sound /k/ and /g/ are separate __B____.A. allophonesB. phonemesC. morphemesD. Allomorphs。
最新英语语言学复习资料教程文件
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing.(iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure r egarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。
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英语本科语言学复习资料L Directions: Read each of the following statements carefully. Decide which one of the four choices best completes the statement and put the letter A, B, C or D in the blanks. (1% x 20 = 20%)1.When a sentence changes from a statement lo a general/ special question, which movement is structurally required?A.NP 一movcmcnt/WH ・ movementB. NP 一movement/ Aux ・ movementC. AUX ・ movcmcn(/WH 一movementD. WH 一movement/ AUX - movement2.The fact that children acquire spoken language before they can read or write indicates that language is primaryA.vocalB. arbitrary C・ human—specific D. written3.The naming theory seems applicable to _______ only・A.verbsB. adjectives C・ adverbs D. nouns4.Which of the following statements is NOT used by the speaker to perform certain acts?A.'T name this ship Elizabeth/'B.“I visited my uncle last Sunday."C・"I give and bequeath my watch to my brother/9D. “I bet you sit pence it will rain tomorrow/'5.Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A.photo ・ copyB. cackleC. bookD. rumble6.According to its ______ in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes・A meaning B. function C. position D. sound7.By saying "You have left the door wide open,” a speaker might be performing the three acts: locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary _______ ・A. at the same timeB. one after anotherC・ two first and then the other D・ one first and then the other two& Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker・This is what”_____________ H means.A. displacementB. cultural transmissionC・ duality D・ productivity9.The basic unit in phonology is called _____ ; it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. phone phonemeC・ allophone D・ phonetic transcription10.______ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word・A. AffixesB. PrefixesC・ Suffixes D. Inflectional morphemes11.The two words11 collaborator11 and "accomplice** arc examples given to illustrate that synonyms may differA.in styleB.in their emotive or evaluative meaningC.in their collocationD.slightly in what they mean12.A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I'm afraid I'm not feeling so well today.The implicature produced here is _______ ・・A.FII be glad to go to your party.B.Probably Fll be a little late because Fm not feeling well.C.I do not want to go to your party.D.I'll go there even though I am noi feeling well today.13.A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare^ time is oftered as an example of ________ study.A. diachronicB. synchronic C・ prescriptive D. descriptive14.Speech act theory was originated with _______ in the 50's of the 20th century ・A.the American linguist Noam ChomskyB.the British philosopher John AustinC・ the Swiss linguist F. de SaussureD. the American philosopher -linguist John Searle15.People speaking the same language _________ ・A.always share the same world viewsB.may have different world viewsC・ can not describe different world viewsD. find it impossible to share the same world views16.When a speech sound changes and becomes more like anther sound which following it, it is said to beA. nasalizedB. deletedC. assimilatedD. aspirated17.Inflectional morphemes convey _________ meaning.A. LexicalB. no C・ associated D. grammatical18.Hyponyms of the superordinate 紋flower" do not include “________ "A. wardrobeB. tulipC. lilyD. rose19.Tf Aristotle had spoken Chinese, his logic would have been different/? This statement may typically represent _________ .A.the critical period hypothesisB.Sapir—Wltorf hypothesisC.X一bar theoryD・ general principles of universal grammtir20._____ are those which can be used independently without combining with other morphemes.A. Free morphemes B・Bound morphemesC.RootsD. Affixes21 ・Minor lexical categories are closed” categories which do not includeA. detenniner B・auxiliiiryC. adverbD. conjunction22.According to Stephen Krashcn, language acquisition and language learningA.mean the same and thus they can be used interchangeablyB.involve different processes and thus should be distinguishedC・ are both unnecessary in the process of learning one's native languageD・ are both unnecessary in the process of learning a second language23.The consonant |f] in English can be correctly described as having the following phonetic features: __________A. voiceless, bilabial, stopB. voiceless^ labiodental^ fricativeC ・ voiced? bilabial, stop D. voiced, labiodental, fricative24. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix H ed H in the word M learned H is known as a(n)A. derivational morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form25. Y°s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of ________ ・X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. quality B ・ quantityC. relationD. manner 26. The famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet" 'A rose by any other name would smell as sweef well illustrates _______ .() A. the conventional nature ofB. the creative nature of languageC ・ the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication27. The term _______ l inguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of lime and at various historical stages ・ A. synchronic B ・ diachronic C ・ comparative D. historical comparative2& The significance of Grice's Cooperative Principle lies in that ________ ・A. it tells us what an utterance literally meansB. i( illusgtes how an utterance is syntactically composedC ・ it shows us what the deep structure of a sentence is31 ・ All the following statements concerning the nature of language change is true except ______ ・A. language change is inevitableB. language change is abrupt C ・ language change is universal D ・ language change is extensive32. By saying H We shall know a word by the company it keeps/ John Firth, a British linguist, means that the real meaning of a word _______ .A. is determined by a dictionaryB. is determined by a native speakerC. is determined by its contextD. is determined by a linguistIL Directions: Fill in the blank in each of the following statements with one word ，the first letter of which is already given as a clue. Note that you are to fill in ONE word only, and you are not allowed to change theD. it explains how it is possible for the speaker to convey more than literally said29. Which of the following can be said to be the smallest meaningful unit of language?A. LettersB. Morphemes 30. Depending on specific contexts, "MyC. WordsD. Sentences bag is heavy 蔦 as an utterance, can mean all of the following except _________ ・A. n My bag is easy to carry.MC ・ “Could you help me carry the B. "My bag is not easy to carry ・ H D. H My bag is too heavy for you to carry.Mletter given. (2%x5=10%)I. A c _____ sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word, such as H and H, M but,\ n or,\2.1 Merlanguage_______ is the language that a learner constructs at a given stage of SLA・3.Words that are close in meaning are called s_ nonyms _______ ・・4.There are four maxims under the Cooperative Principle, namely, the maxim of quantity, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of m __ anner ______ ・5.Affixes arc of tow types: i・_nflectional ____ a nd derivational.6.The notion of c_ ontext ________ is particularly iniportant in pragmatics because it contributes a lot to the meaning of an utterance・nguage is a system of two sets of structures or levels: one of s ___ ound _______ at the lower or basic level, and the other of meaning at the higher level.& Paul Grice's idea is that in making conversation , the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate ; otherwise , it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. This general principle is known as the C_______ o operative __ principle.9.The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the a ______ llophone ___ of that phoneme・10.B_ound ______ morphemes arc those that must be combined with other morphemes to form words to be used independentl y.II.Modern linguistics, which refers to linguistic study carried out in last century, is mostly d _ escriptive _____ ・12.Linguistic forms having the same s__ ense ____ may have different references in different situations.13.The way of forming new words in English by the combination of two or sometimes more than two words is called c _____ ompounding __ •III Directions: Judge whether each of the following statements is true or false. Put a T for true or F for false in the brackets in front of each statement. (2% x 10 = 20%)1.In the diagram of the classic semantic triangle, the word11 symbol'1 refers to the object in the world of experience.(F.) ''Symbol" in this context refers to the linguistic elements like words or phrases.2.In view of language as an effective means of communication, we can say that standard language is purer, more correct, or more logical, than any other dialect of the language(.F)3.Most prefixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.( F.) Prefixes modify the meaning of the original word (stem), but usually do not change the part of speech.4.When the same one word has more than one mcaning, wc call it a polysemic word.(T)5.All utterances are complete sentences in terms of syntax. ( F)6.English is a language which has fixed word stress.( E)English is a language in which stress is free in that it is not fixed on any particular syllable of a word; its position varies from word to word.7.Affixes belong to the type of bound morphemes・(T)8.Antonyms refer to words that are opposite in meaning. ( T)Speech act theory is mainly studied in the field of pragmatics.9.Speech act theory is an important theory in the semantic study of language. (F) ・10.The meaning of an utterance, unlike that of a sentence, is dccontcxtualizcd (.F)11.Speech variety includes not only dialect, pidgin, Creole etc, but also standard language (T)12.In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. (T)13.English, like Chinese, is a typical tone language・(F・)In English, tones can not distinguish meanings and therefore it is not a tone language.14.According to its function in the new word, affixes arc divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes.(F). According to its position^ not function^ in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word and suffixes at the end.15.The locutionary act performed by the speaker refers to the effect of the utlerance.(・ F.)The locutionary performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words and expressed what the words literally mean.16.The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.?17.Locutionary act expresses the intention of the speaker.(F/ Illocutionary act expresses the intention of the speaker, while locutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance J 8. Children do not acquire their native language through formal instruction of grammatical rules.nguage is the only nleans of expressing thought.( F).20.In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form.(F)2L A compo und is the combination of only two words.(F)22.In classifying the English consonants and vowels, the same criteria can be applied. (F)23.We can always tell by the words a compound contains what it means because the meaning of a compound is always the sum of the meanings of its parts・(F)24.Of the views conccming the study of semantics, the contextual view, which places the study of n leaning in the context in which language is used, is often considered as the initial effort to study meaning in a pragmatic sense•(T)25.Modern linguistics aims to lay down rules for 44correcf? linguistic behavior.26.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology ・(F)27.Tree diagrams of constituent structures can best illustrate the hierarchical order of sentences・(T)plete synonyms, i. e. synonyms that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rare in English. (T)29.All languages change with time・(F)30.Black English is as syntactically complex and logical as Standard English・(T)IV • Directions: Explain the following terms, using one or two examples for illustration. (3% x 10 = 30%)nguage : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition^ language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental, social and conventional.2.linguistics .Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively y as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or, a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.3.design features : The features that distinguish human language from animal systems of communication are called design features. The features that define our human languages are called design features. They are arbitrariness^ duality, creativity, displacement^ etc..4.arbitrariness :Arbitrariness^ one of the design features which distinguish human language from animal systems of communication^ refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning・ Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds^ even with o/iow«/opoeic words5 displacement : Displacement^ one of the design features which distinguish human language from animalsystems of communication^ refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present^ real or imagined matters in the past9 present^ or future^ or in far-away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.6.phonetics .Phonetics 语音学is the study of the phonic medium of language. It is concerned with all the speech sounds that occur in all human languages. It studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. It is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world " s languages.7.phonology :Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of language. It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It is a branch of linguistics which studies how sound are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.8.morphology :Morphology形态学is a branch of grammar/linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Or simply it is the study of word structure and word formation. 9.syntax Syntax 句法学Is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language. It is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language^ or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures. It consists of a set of rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. Or simply, it is the study of the structure and the formation of sentences.10.Semantics: Semantics 语义学is a technical term used to refer to the study of the communication of meaning through language^ or simply to the study of meaning. More specifically^ semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units y words and sentences in particular.11・ pragmatics : Pragmatics 语用学studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. It is the study of language in use. Pragmatics is the study of speaker' s meaning, contextual meaning how more gets communicated than is said y the expression of relative distance.12.consonant .Consonants are produced a by a closure in the vocal tract or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction There is obstruction of air in the production of consonants.13.vowel : A vowel^^ is produced without such "stricture " so that "air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose " • There is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels.14.inflection : Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes^ such as number^ person^ finiteness^ aspect and case; and when inflectional affixes are added, the grammatical class of the stems (to which they are attached) will not change.15.Derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words. It can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged. It shows a relationship between roots and affixes.16.constituent : Constituent^^ 构成is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unity which is a part of a larger linguistic unit. It refers to component element in a construction・17.reference : Reference参照is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality. For example^ if we say^ n The dog is barking," we must be talking about a certain dog known to both the speaker and the hearer in the situation. The actual dog the word n dog n refers to in this particular situation is the reference of the word "dog”.18.Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized. In other word* it does not refer to any particular thing that exists in the real world.V. Directions: Answer the following questions. (10% x 2 = 20%)Chapter 7:Ex.3y Why do we need to teach culture in our language classsroom?? (P169)To get the students familiar with cultural differences?;To help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will?; To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practicesEx.8 Why should language instructors look to sociolinguistics?? (Pl 75)Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of language teachingIt has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the classroom ?It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and useIt has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field.Chapter 11Exl Why should language teachers learn some knowledge of linguistics ? (P266-267)Ex」0 what are the important features of a task as defined in a task-based syllabus ? (P282-284)Chapter 12:Ex.l、Why is Saussurc hailed as the father of modem linguistics ? (P294-296)Ex.2,What are the three important points of the Prague School ? (P296)Ex.l 5,What the special features of American structuralism ? (P317, P325-326)Ex.25 What is special about TG Grammar ? (P338)。