Labor Demand 1
labor demand
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Employment
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Labor Demand
Fall 2010
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Substitution and Scale E¤ects
Capital
D C1 /r
Q C0 /r R P
200
D
100
Wage is w1 Wage is w0
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100 q 0 Isoquant 5 200 Employment 20 Employment q 0 Isoquant
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Labor Demand
Fall 2010
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Elasticity of Substitution
The elasticity of substitution is the percentage change in the capital to labor ratio given a percentage change in the price ratio (wages to real interest). σ= d ln(K /L) d ln(K /L) F F = = L K d ln(w /r ) d ln(MPL /MPK ) YFLK
38
VAPE
22
VMPE
1
4
8
Number of Workers
Simon Chang (Institute)
Labor Demand
Fall 2010
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Short Run Labor Demand Curve
The short run demand curve for labor indicates how many workers the …rm hires for each possible wage, holding capital constant. The labor demand curve is downward sloping. This re‡ects the fact that additional workers are costly and alter average production due to the Law of Diminishing Returns.
劳动经济学(全) 第三章 劳动力需求
Q1
Q0 L A L B
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➢ 向下倾斜 ➢ 凸向原点 ➢ 不会相交 ➢ 离远点越远，
产量越高
L
整理课件
第三节 企业长期劳动力需求
二、等成本线
K
C1 C0
C1
C = wL + rK K C wL
rr
等成本线 (isocost line)
C0
V
α
0
L
劳动经济学
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整理课件
第三节 企业长期劳动力需求
劳动力需求曲线 (labor demand curve)
W
0
劳动经济学
D
L
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整理课件
第三节 企业长期劳动力需求
某企业的产量可以表达为：
Q= f (L,K) = L K
企 业 使 用 机 器 的 成 本 为 750 元 / 周 ， 人 力 成 本 为 300元/周。当企业产量为1000单位时，确定企业最佳 人力与资本组合。
第三章 劳动力需求
劳动力市场的结果，不仅取决于工作者 将他们的时间提需求工作活动的意愿，还取 决于企业雇佣这些工作者的意愿。
劳动经济学
1
整理课件
第三章 劳动力需求
劳动力需求概述
企业短期 劳动力需求
劳动经济学
企业长期 劳动力需求
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整理课件
第一节 劳动力需求概述
一、劳动力需求
劳动力需求（Labor Demand）是指一定 时期内，在某种工资率下，雇主愿意并能 够雇佣到的劳动力的数量。 ➢ 派生需求（需要和欲望） ➢ 联合需求（相互依存的需求）
规模效应（scale effect） 是指由于工资率上升引起的 生产规模缩减所造成的劳动 力需求量的减少。
labor 翻译
labor 翻译labor的翻译：劳动，工作。
用法：labor是一个名词，用来描述一项工作、活动或劳动力的总称。
作为动词时，labor表示努力、极力做某事，并且可能带有困难和痛苦的含义。
例句：1. She went into labor in the middle of the night.（她在凌晨时分开始分娩。
）2. I need some help with this labor-intensive project.（这个劳动强度大的项目需要一些帮助。
）3. Many people were forced into labor during the war.（许多人在战争期间被迫劳动。
）4. The company is facing a shortage of skilled labor.（公司面临着熟练劳动力的短缺。
）5. The government has passed new labor laws to protect workers' rights.（政府通过了新的劳工法以保护工人权益。
）6. She was in labor for several hours before giving birth.（她分娩前经历了数小时的分娩过程。
）7. The factory workers went on strike to demand better labor conditions.（工厂工人举行罢工，要求更好的劳动条件。
）8. The artist labored over his latest masterpiece for months.（这位艺术家花费数月时间费力地制作他最新的杰作。
）9. They hired laborers to help with the harvest.（他们雇佣了些劳工帮助完成收获工作。
）10. The doctor worried that the long labor would harm the baby.（医生担心漫长的分娩过程会对婴儿造成伤害。
劳动英语作文范文...
劳动英语作文范文...There are many different types of labor, ranging from manual labor to intellectual labor. Manual labor involvesthe use of physical strength and dexterity to perform tasks, such as construction, manufacturing, and agriculture. Intellectual labor, on the other hand, involves the use of mental skills and knowledge to perform tasks, such as research, teaching, and writing.The division of labor is a key feature of modern economies. The division of labor refers to thespecialization of workers in particular tasks or industries. This specialization allows workers to develop their skills and become more efficient in their work. The division of labor also leads to greater productivity and economic growth.The value of labor is determined by the market. The market value of labor is the price that employers arewilling to pay for labor services. The market value oflabor is influenced by a number of factors, including the supply of labor, the demand for labor, and the skills and experience of the workers.Labor is a fundamental human right. The International Labour Organization (ILO) has adopted a number of conventions and recommendations that promote the rights of workers. These conventions and recommendations cover a wide range of issues, including freedom of association, theright to collective bargaining, and the elimination of forced labor.中文回答：劳动是一种复杂而多方面的概念，几个世纪以来一直受到学者的争论和定义。
Chapter 3 Labor Demand解读
2018/10/19
Chapter 3 Labor Demand
1
Annual net employment change （realized labor demand) as a percentage of total employment, 1989-1999.
Korea 1.5% U.S. 1.2% Canada 1.1% Japan 0.5% France 0.4% United Kingdom 0.3% Italy -0.2% Sweden -0.9%
0.5 0.5
Several factors
Y f ( X 1 , X 2 ,, X N ) f i 0, f ii 0
2018/10/19 Chapter 3 Labor Demand 7
3.2 The employment decision in the short run
The short run is defined as a time span that the firm cannot change the stock of capital. He can only change the number of workers.
2018/10/19
Chapter 3 Labor Demand
L
APL=Y/L
2018/10/19
Chapter 3 Labor Demand
3
Law of diminishing returns: marginal product eventually declines.
Profit maximizationΠ=pf(K,L)-wL-rK PMPL=w PMPK=r MPL/MPk=w/r
劳动经济学完全劳动需求课件
➢ 工资率和劳动力需求之间关系变 化的定量分析可以从绝对角度和相 对角度两个方向进行。把握工资率 和劳动力需求量函数关系敏感度的 尺度就是劳动力需求弹性。
劳动力需求弹性的形态
按绝对值的大小劳动力需求弹性（是工资率 变化一个单位而劳动力需求变化多少？） 呈现为5种形态:
1. 弹性为0 2. 弹性< 1 3. 弹性= 1
长期劳动力需求曲线的形成
W
DS3
DS2
DS1
W3
e
W2
c
b
W1
a DL
O
l2
lb l1
L
第七节 政府的特殊政策与劳 动力需求
一、对社会特殊群体采取特殊 就业促进政策的经济效果
二、对特定劳动者发放工资补 贴的经济效果
两类劳动者的比率指定对
劳动力需求的影响
Lw
E
H
A
C
如果相关企
业全部采取 G 这样政策：
MC=MR 企业实现利润最大化的必要条件为：
X
R X
C X
MR • MP MCX
0
MR • MP MCX W
六. 单个企业劳动力需求量的决定
总总 成收 本入
CR
R
A 利润
C
固
定
成O
L*
劳动量L
本 总收入与总成本曲线
七. 边际收入
➢完全竞争的产品市场的边际收入
边际收入=产品的边际生产力×产品价 格
劳动力的边际产量与工资率 之比等于资本的边际产量与资 本价格之比。
公式：MPL / W = MPK / R
工资上升对劳动力需求的影响
替代效应：
与资本的相 对价格上升而 产生节约劳动 力的效应。
Chapter 3 Labor Demand
downward-sloping
An increase in the output price p shifts the VMPE curve upward. An increase in capital K0? (discussed below)
2-12
The Short-Run Labor Demand Curve for a Firm
2-11
The Short-Run Labor Demand Curve for a Firm
• The short-run demand curve for labor (劳动需求曲线) tells us what happens to the firm’s employment as the wage changes, holding capital constant.
VMPE is declining: requiring that the law of diminishing returns hold; the law of diminishing returns sets limits on the size of the firm. Profits ≥ 0: the points on the VMPE curve that lie on the downward-sloping portion of the curve below the point where the VAPE curve intersects the VMPE curve.
2-8
3-2 The Employment Decision in the Short Run
• Define the short run (短期) as a time span that is sufficiently brief that the firm’s capital stock is fixed at some level K0. • The value of marginal product (边际产品价值) of labor: the dollar increase in revenue generated by an additional worker—holding capital constant. • The value of average product (平均产品价值) of labor: • The value of marginal (average) product curve is blown-up version of the marginal (average) product curve:
心理学专业英语词汇（L1）_教学英语词汇
la belle indifference 泰然漠视lab 实验室labefaction 衰落label 标记label coding 标记编码label symbol 标记符号labeled leucine 标记亮氨酸labeled sodium ion 示踪钠离子labeling 标记labeling 定名labeling control 标号控制器labeling response 标定反应labeling theory 标记论labial stop 唇音labialism 唇音滥用labile 易变的labile determination 不稳定决定labile factor 不稳定因素labile gene 易变基因labile state 不稳定状态lability 不稳定性lability of nervous process 神经过程的灵活性labilitzation 易变作用labiochorea 唇舞病labiology 唇运动学labiomancy 唇读法labor 劳动labor aptitude 工作适应性labor capacity 劳动能力labor condition 劳动条件labor efficiency 劳动效率labor environment 工作环境labor exchange 职业介绍所labor force 劳动力labor force statistics 劳动力统计资料labor force survey 劳动力调查labor hygiene 劳动卫生labor index 劳动指标labor intensity 劳动强度labor management 劳动管理labor physiology 劳动生理学labor power 劳动力labor protection 劳动保护labor psychology 劳动心理学labor quota 劳动定额labor research 劳工研究labor science 劳动科学labor time 劳动时间labor time standard 工时定额labor turnover 工作调换labor turnover 员工离职labor union 工会labor variance 人工差异laboratory 实验室laboratory animal 实验动物laboratory design 实验室设计laboratory equipment 实验室设备laboratory experiment 实验室实验laboratory manual 实验手册laboratory method 实验法laboratory observation 实验观察laboratory technique 实验室技术laboratory training 实验室训练labored breathing 困难呼吸laborer 劳动者labor management committee 劳动管理委员会labor management co operation 劳动管理合作labor management relations 劳动管理关系labour 劳动labyrinth 迷路labyrinth apparatus 迷路器官labyrinth disorder 迷路失调labyrinth test 迷路测验labyrinthectomy 迷路切除术labyrinthine 迷路的labyrinthine pathway 迷路小径labyrinthine system 迷路系统labyrinthitis 迷路炎labyrinths membranaceus 膜迷路labyrinthus 迷路labyrinthus oticus 耳迷路lachrymal 泪的lachrymal gland 泪腺lachrymation 流泪lachrymose 爱哭的lack 缺乏lack frustation 缺乏挫折lack of balance 不平衡lack of identification 识别不足lack of invariance 不变性欠缺lackluster 无生气lactation 生乳lacuna 空白lacuna of superego 超我缺陷lacunar amnesia 间隙性遗忘lacunar dementia 间隙性痴呆lad 男孩lad 语言掌握装置ladd franklin color theory 拉德佛兰克林颜色学说ladd franklin theory 拉德佛兰克林学说ladd franklin theory of color vision 拉德佛兰克林色觉说lafora s bodies 拉福拉体lafora s disease 肌阵挛性癫痫lag 延迟lag in technology 技术落后lag phase 停滞期lag phase 延缓期lagena 蜗管顶盲端laggard 落后者lagged effort 延迟产生的影响lagger 囚犯lagging 延迟lagneuomania 色情狂lagnosis 色情laissez faire 放任laissez faire atmosphere 放任气氛laissez faire family 放任型家庭laissez faire group 放任团体laissez faire leader 放任型领袖laissez faire leadership 放任性领导laissez faire parents 放任型父母laitmatophobia 深渊恐怖症laliatry 言语病学laliopobia 言语恐怖症lallation 重复无意义者lallation 喃语lalling 喃语lalognosis 言语理解laloneurosis 精神性言语障碍lalopathy 言语障碍lalophobia 谈话恐怖症laloplegia 言语器官麻痹lalorrhea 多言癖lambert 朗伯lambert s law 朗伯定律lambert s treatment 朗伯特疗法lamella 板lamella 层lament 悲伤lamina 层状体lamprophonia 语音清晰land effect 兰德颜色效应land of childhood 童年领域landolt c 兰道环视标landolt ring 兰道环landouzy grasset law 蓝杜兹格腊塞定律landscaped office 环境优美办公室language 语言language acquisition 语言习得language acquisition device 语言掌握装置language and speech 语言和言语language barrier 语言障碍language center 语言中枢language competence 语言表达能力language contact 语言接触language defect 语言缺陷language development 语言发展language development of children 儿童语言发展language disability 语言缺陷language engineering 语言工程学language family 语系language handicap 语言障碍language in great apes 猿类语言language laboratory 语言实验室language learning 语言学习language localization 语言区位化language master 语言教师language modalities test for aphasia 失语症语态测验language of image 形象语言language of information 信息语言language performance 语言表达language pictorial display apparatus 语图仪language processor 语言处理程序language redundancy 语言冗余度language sense 语感language situation 语境language skill 语言技能language translation 语言翻译language acquisition device 语言获得装置language acquisition system 获取语言系统language behavior 语言行为language disordered children 语言障碍儿童language game 语言游戏languor 倦怠languor 无力lannet 大型人造神经网络lantern 幻灯lantern slide 幻灯片lapse 失误lapse 癫痫小发作lapsus calami 笔误lapsus linguae 失言lapsus memoriae 记错larceny 偷窃larch key children 钥匙儿large artificial nerve network 大型人造神经网络large group 大群体large group discussion method 大组讨论法large muscle motor skill 大肌肉运动技能large number of observation 大量观察法large sample 大样本large for date infant llarge for gestational age infantlarge sample distribution 大样本分布large sample estimation 大样本估计large sample test 大样本检验large sample testing method 大样本检验法large scale experiment 大规模试验large scale survey 大规模调查large unit method 大单位法larithmics 人口学larithmics 种群增长因素学larval development type 幼体发育类型larval masturbation 隐蔽性手淫laryngeal plexus 喉神经丛laryngeal tone 喉音laryngemphraxis 喉阻塞laryngendoscope 喉内镜laryngismus 喉痉挛laryngismus stridulus 喘鸣性喉痉挛laryngitis 喉炎laryngograph 喉动描记器laryngography 喉描记术laryngology 喉科学laryngoparalysis 喉麻痹laryngoscope 喉镜laryngoscopy 喉镜检查laryngospasmus 喉痉挛laryngostroboscope 喉动态镜laryngoxerosis 喉干燥症larynx 喉larynx sound source 喉头原音lascivia 色情狂lasegue s disease 拉塞路病lasegue s disease 迫害狂laser 激光laser irradiation 激光照射lashley jumping box 拉士利跳箱lashley jumping stand 拉士利跳台lassitude 疲乏latah 谵妄症late adolescence 青春晚期late bloomer 成熟晚的人late childhood 童年晚期late component of evoked potential 诱发电位晚成分late developer 发育迟缓者late maturer 迟熟者late receptor potential 迟发感受器电位late replicating 延迟复制late selection model 晚期选择模型latency 潜伏状态latency of response 反应潜在能力latency period 潜伏期latency stage 潜伏阶段latent 潜伏的latent class analysis 潜伏组分析latent class model 潜在组模型latent content 潜性内容latent defect 潜在缺点latent demand 潜在要求latent distance model 潜在距离模型latent dream 潜性梦latent dream content 潜伏梦意latent epilepsy 隐性癫痫latent extinction 潜在消退latent force 潜力latent homosexuality 潜隐型同性恋latent image 潜象latent learning 潜伏学习latent need 潜性需求latent of energy 潜能latent paranoia 潜隐型偏执狂latent period 潜伏期latent premise 潜在前提latent process 潜在过程latent psychosis 隐性精神病latent schizophrenia 潜隐型精神分裂症latent stage 性欲潜伏期latent structure analysis 潜在结构分析latent time 潜伏时间latent trait 潜在特质latent trait model 潜在特质模型latent trait theory 潜在特质理论latent unemployment 潜在失业lateral acceleration 侧向加速度lateral column 侧柱lateral dominance 边利lateral dominance 一侧优势lateral fissure 外侧裂lateral geniculate body 外侧膝状体lateral geniculate nucleus 外侧膝状核lateral horn 侧角lateral hypothalamus 外侧下丘脑lateral hypothalamus area 外侧下丘脑区lateral inhibition 一侧抑制lateral inhibition mechanism 一侧抑制机制lateral lemniscus 外侧丘系lateral masking 边缘掩蔽lateral nerve cord 侧神经索lateral olfactory tract 外侧嗅束lateral phototropism 侧屈光性lateral sulcus 外侧沟lateral symmetry 两侧对称lateral thinking 水平思维lateral transfer 水平迁移lateral ventricle 侧脑室lateral vestibulospinal tract 外侧前庭脊髓束laterality 边利性laterality 一侧优势laterality preference schedule 利侧表lateralization 单侧化lateralization of brain 大脑机能一侧化laterodeviation 侧向偏斜lateroposition 偏侧变位latin square 拉丁方latin square design 拉丁方设计latin square experiment 拉丁方实验法latin square stratification 拉丁方分层latin square test 拉丁方测验lattice experimental design 格点实验设计lattice sampling 格点抽样lattice group model 格点群模式laughter 大笑laumonier s ganglion 颈动脉神经节laurence biedl syndrome 劳伦斯比德尔综合症law 定律law 规律law and order orientation 顺从权威取向law of action and reaction 作用与反作用定律law of advantage 优势法则law of all or none 全或无律law of analogy 类比律law of assimilation 同化律law of association 联想律law of asymmetry 不对称律law of autonomic affective 自律情感性定律law of avalanche 爆发定律law of avalanche 雪崩定律law of average 平均法则law of belongingness 相属律law of biogenetic mental 心理生物发生律law of causality 因果律law of causation 因果律law of chance 机遇律law of closure 闭合法则law of coexistence 并存律law of cognition 认识规律law of cohesion 附着律law of color mixture 颜色混合律law of color preference 颜色偏爱法则law of comparative judgment 比较判断法则law of compensation 补尝法则law of complementary colors 补色律law of conditioned 条件律law of conditioning relations 条件关系律制约关律law of contemporaneity 同时性法则law of contiguity 时近律law of continuity 连续律law of contradiction 矛盾律law of contraposition 逆反律law of contrast 对比律law of contrast innervation 颉顽神经支配定律law of denervation 神经去除定律law of development 发展规律law of developmental direction 发展方向规律law of difference 差异律law of diffusion 扩散律law of diminishing returns 效果递减法则law of disharmony 不调和律law of displacement 位移律law of disuse 失用律law of dominance 显性定律law of dominance 优势定律law of effect 效果律law of equality 均等律law of error 误差律law of exercise 练习律law of filial regression 后裔归法则law of fixation 固着律law of frequency 频次律law of good pattern 良好模式律law of good shape 良形法则law of great number 大数法则law of growth 增长律law of higher nervous activity 高级神经活动规律law of identical direction 同向法则law of identical visual direction 同视向律law of identity 同一律law of imitation 模仿律law of independent assortment 独立分配律law of individual variability 个体变异定律law of inertia 惯性律law of intermediary color 中间色律law of large numbers 大数定律law of learning 学习律law of limiting factor 限制因素律law of logarithmic 对数定律law of logarithmic function 对数函数定律law of mass action 质量作用定律law of motion 运动定律law of nature 自然律law of parsimony 简约律law of part activity 部分活动法则law of participation 参与律law of piecemeal activity 片断活动律law of possibility 或然律law of power function 幂函数定律law of pragnanz 趋完形律law of precision 精确律law of pregnancy 趋完满律law of primacy 初始法则law of primacy 首因律law of prior entry 先入律law of probability 概率律law of progression 渐进律law of readiness 准备律law of recapitulation 重演律law of recency 近因律law of regeneration 再生律law of reinforcement 强化律law of repetition 重复律law of resemblance 类似律law of retrogression 退行律law of satisfaction 满足律law of shifting 转移律law of sign 符号律law of similarity 类似律law of similitude 相似律law of situation 情境律law of small numbers 小数定律law of somatopsychic development 身心发展规律law of specific energy of sensation 感觉特殊能力说law of specific sense energy 特殊感觉能力说law of stimulus summation 刺激加算法则law of substitution 代替律law of symmetry 对称性定律law of tension 紧张律law of thought 思维律law of use 使用律law of vision 视觉法则law of vision angle 视角法则law of “unity of opposites"矛盾统一律lawful age 法定年龄laws of vibrate 奥尔贝特法则law abiding psychology 守法心理学lay analyst 非医科专业心理分析家lay off 解雇layer of rods and cones 网膜棒锥层layer of structure 结构层次lay off rate 解雇率laziness 懒惰lazy sabotage 怠工ldg 无领导讨论小组le 职业介绍所lead 领先lead lag control 提前量控制leader 领导者leader behavior description questionnaire 领导者行为描述问卷leader effectiveness 领袖效率leader opinion questionnaire 领导者意见问卷leader reward and punishment questionnaire 领导者奖惩问卷leader status 领导地位leader style 领导风格leaderless discussion group 无领导讨论小组leadership behavior 领导行为leadership behavior description questionnaire 领导行为详目问卷leadership functions 领导功能leadership opinion questionnaire 领导意见问卷leadership patterns 领导模式leadership skills 领导技能leadership style 领袖风格leadership training 领导训练leader s position 领导的地位leader follower relationship in animals 动物首领与随从关系leader member exchange theory 领导者成员交换理论leader member relations 领导者与部下关系leader participation model 领导参与模式leading 领导leading eye 主眼leading question 引导性问题leading role 主导作用leading schedule 主要表格leading variable 前项变量leakage 泄漏leapfrog 跳背游戏leapfrog test 跳步测验learned behavior 习得行为learned fear 学得的恐惧learned goal 习得目标learned helplessness 学得无助感learned industriousness 习得勤奋性learned reinforcement 学得性强化learned response 习得反应learned specific hunger 习得的特异性饥饿learner 学习者learning 学习learning ability 学习能力learning activity 学习活动learning and maturation 学习与成熟learning and memory 学习与记忆learning and motivation 学习与动机learning assumption 学习假设learning by association 联想学习learning by contract 合同学习learning by doing 从做中学learning by imitation 模仿学习learning by insight 顿悟学习learning capacity 学习能力learning coefficient 学习系数learning collective 学习集体learning contrast 学习对比learning criterion 学习准则learning curve 学习曲线learning cycle 学习周期learning difficulty 学习困难learning dilemma 学习困境learning disability 学习不能learning disturbance 学习障碍learning drive 学习内驱力learning effect 学习效果learning efficiency 学习效率learning environment inventory 学习环境调查表learning evaluation 学习评价learning function 学习函数learning goals 学习目的learning guide 学习指导learning hierarchy 学习层次learning how to think 学会学习learning in attitude formation 态度形成学习learning in invertebrate 无脊椎动物的学习learning incentive 学习的诱因learning initiative 学习积极性learning interest 学习兴趣learning method 学习方法learning model 学习模式learning motivation 学习动机learning of evaluation 学习评价learning of learn 学会学习learning of problem solving 解决问题的学习learning of structure 构造学习learning organization 学习型组织learning outcome 学习结果learning plateau 学习高原learning potential assessment device 学习潜能测定法learning procedure 学习程序learning process 学习过程learning psychology 学习心理学learning readiness 学习准备learning retention 学习记忆保持learning sequence 学习顺序learning set 学习定势learning simulation 学习模拟learning situation 学习情景learning strategy 学习策略learning style 学习类型learning target 学习目标learning theory 学习理论learning therapy 学习治疗learning through insight 顿悟学习法learning through living 从生活中学习learning through trial and error 尝试错误学习learning to learn 学会学习learning to master 掌握学习learning track 学习途径learning transfer 学习迁移learning types 学习类型learning with alteration problem 交替问题学习learning with discrimination versa problem 辨别颠倒学习learning with oddity problem 奇偶问题学习learning with whole hearted devotion 专心致志learning without responding 无反应的学习leary interpersonal check list 利里人际检核表least absolute error 最小绝对误差least absolute value 最小绝对值least action 最小作用量least effort principle 最省力原则least energy 最小能量least energy principle 省能原则least error 最小误差least perceptible difference 最小可觉差最小可觉差least perceptible duration 最短可觉时间最短可觉时间least preference co worker scale 最不喜欢的共事者量表least preferred coworker 最差同事least preferred coworker questionnaire 最难共事者问卷least preferred coworker scores 最差同事得点least significant difference 最低显著性差异least square 最小平方least square analysis 最小平方分析least square equations 最小平方方程least square estimation 最小平方估计least square method 最小平方法least square normal equation 最小平方常规方程least square principle 最小平方原理least square solution 最小平方解least waist circumference 最小腰围leaving method 留置调查法leaving the field 逃避现实leber s congenital amaurosis 勒伯尔先天性黑蒙leber s disease 勒伯尔病leber s optic atrophy 勒伯尔神经萎缩lecture 演讲lecture method 演讲法lee boot effect 李布特效应lee clark reading readiness test 李克二氏阅读具备测验left handedness 左利手left hemisphere 左半球left visual acuity 左视敏度left brain dominance 左脑优势left brained 左脑性的left eared 善用左耳的left eyed 善用左眼的left hand dominance 左手优势left handedness 左利手left hander 左撇子leg 腿leg length 小腿长leg of preferential side 利腿leg skill 腿部技能leg strength 腿力legal authority 法定权威legal consciousness 法律意识legal guarantee 法律保证legal liability 法律责任legal prevention 法律预防legal psychology 法律心理学legal psychology 法制心理legal regulation 法律条例legal responsibility 法律责任legal rights 法定权力legal sanction 法律制裁legal separation 合法分居legal time 合法时间legal validity 法律效力legibility 易读性legibility 字迹清晰性legibility of display 显示易读性legislative psychology 立法心理学legitimacy 合法性legitimacy 正统性legitimate birth rate 合法出生率legitimate claim 合法要求legitimate inference 合理推断legitimate political behavior 合法政治行为legitimate power 合法权力leichtenstern s encephalitis 出血性脑炎leichtenstern s sign 莱希敦斯坦症leipopsychia 失神leipzig laboratory 莱比锡实验室leisure 闲暇leisure time 休闲时间leiter adult intelligence scale 利特成人智力量表leiter international performance scale 雷特国际通用操作量表lek display 列克展示lemniscal pathway 丘索通路lemniscus 丘系length and area estimation apparatus 长度和面积估计器length conservation 长度守恒length illusion 长度错觉length of upper extremity 上肢长length of working cycle 工作周期leniency effect 仁慈效应leniency error 宽容评价误差lennox syndrome 雷诺克斯综合症lens 水晶体lens model 水晶体模式lenticonus 圆锥形晶状体lenticular 晶状体的lenticular aphasia 豆状核性失语lenticular astigmatism 晶状体性散光lenticular nucleus 晶状体核lenticular stereoscope 透镜式实体镜lentiform nucleus 豆状核lentiglobus 球形晶状体lentitis 晶状体炎lentoid 透镜状结构leptocephalia 狭长头畸形leptokurtic 尖峰的leptokurtic distribution 高狭峰分配leptophonia 声弱leptosome 瘦弱型lerch s percussion 落槌叩诊lerema 儿稚样言语leresis 冗谈lermoyez s syndrome 莱尔马耶综合症lesbian 女性同性恋lesbianism 女性同性恋lesch nyhan syndrome 李乃氏综合症lesion 病变lesion 损伤leter international performance scale 雷特国际操作量表lethal 致命的lethal catatonia 致命性紧张症lethal factor 致死因素lethargic 昏睡的lethargy 嗜睡症lethargy by inducing 诱导性迷睡letheomania 麻醉药癖letheral 记忆缺失的lethologica 词性遗忘letter 字母letter code 字母代码letter string 字母串letter sequence 词序leucine 白氨酸leucitis 巩膜炎leucotomy 脑白质切除术leudet s tinnitus 勒代耳鸣leukaemia 白血病leukencephalitis 脑白质炎leukodystrophy 脑白质营养不良leukoecephalopathy 脑白质病leukoma 角膜白斑leukoscope 色光光度计leukotomy 脑白质切除术leuko encephalitis 脑白质炎levator 提肌level 层次level 水平level i ability 第一层能力level ii ability 第二层能力level indicator 水平仪level of ability 能力水平level of abstraction 抽象程度level of achievement 成就水平level of activation 活动水平level of aggregation 综合水平level of anticipation 预期层次level of aspiration 抱负水平level of aspiration 志趣水平level of confidence 信心程度level of consciousness 意识水平level of development 发展水平level of intelligence 智力水平level of living 生活水平level of modernization 现代化水平level of operation 作业水平level of optimization 最优化水平level of processing 加工水平level of processing hypothesis 加工水平说level of significance 显著性水平level of significance test 显著性检验水平leveling 平抑作用leveling style 平稳型levels of processing theory 处理层次论levels of processing theory of memory 记忆加工层次论level of processing model 加工水平模型levophobia 左位恐怖症lewin s personality theory 勒温个性理论lexical 词汇lexical access 词汇接触lexical memory 字汇记忆lexicology 词汇学lgn 外侧膝状核lh 黄体生长激素lh 外侧下丘脑外侧下视丘lha 外侧下丘脑区lhrf 黄体生成素释放因子liability 责任liaisons 联络人libel 诽谤liberal education 文科教育liberomotor 随意运动的liberty 意志自由libidinal object 力对象libidinal phases 欲力期libidinal transference 力转移libidinal type 欲力类型libido analog 欲力取代libido fixation 力比多固着license 证书lichtheim s aphasia 利希海姆氏失语症lichtheim s plaque 利希海姆斑lichtheim s test 利希海姆测验。
范里安中级微观经济学第八版习题
1 BUDGET CONSTRAINT1.A poor person who has an income of $1000 receives $100 worth offood stamps. Draw the budget constraint if the food stamp recipient can sell these coupons on the black market for less than their face value.2.Since 1979, recipients have been given food stamps. Before 1979,however, people bought food stamps at a subsidized rate. For example, to get $1 worth of food stamps, a household paid about 15￠(the exact amount varied by household characteristics and other factors). What is the budget constraint facing an individual if that individual may buy up to $100 per month in food stamps at 15￠per each $1 coupon. 3.During his first year at school, Ximing buys eight new collegetextbooks at a cost of $50 each. Used books cost $30 each. When the bookstore announces a 20% increase in new texts and a 10% increase in used texts next year, Ximing’s father offers him $80 extra. Is Ximing better off, the same, or worse off after the price change? Why?2 PREFERENCES1. Julia consumes cans of anchovies, A, and boxes of biscuits, B. Each ofher indifference curves reflects strictly diminishing marginal rates of substitution. Where A = 2 and B = 2, her marginal rate of substitution between cans of anchovies and boxes of biscuits equals -1. Will sheprefer a bundle with three cans of anchovies and a box of biscuits to a bundle with two of each? Why?2. What assumption or assumptions rule out the following phenomenon:Geoffrey has a bundle consisting of 6 apples and 8 raspberries. He states that if he is given 1 more apple, he will ask for 3 more raspberries to keep him indifferent between his old bundle and the new bundle that he will have after he receives the 1 additional apple.3. Draw indifference curves for the following people:a) John says: “I get no satisfaction from 1 ounce of vermouth or 3 ouncesof gin, but 1 ounce of vermouth and 3 ounces of gin (a martini) really turn me on.”b) Steve says: “I will not cut my hair to please my boss unless she paysme. My price is $300 plus $1 for every 1/8 inch of hair that is cut. In other words, for every $1 above $300 that the boss pays me, I will cut 1/8 inch off my hair.”c) In Part b of this problem, what is the marginal rate of substitutionbetween dollars and hair in the region below and above $300?d) Ann says: “I enjoy beer and pretzels, but after 12 beers, any additionalbeer makes me sick.”4. Jeffrey is five years old. He likes candy and hates spinach. He isallowed 2 candy bars a day, but his mother offers him 1 additional candy bar for every 2 ounce of spinach he eats.a) On these terms, Jeffrey eats 3 ounces of spinach and 3.5 candy barseach day. Using indifference curves, illustrate his optional choice.b) Suppose that Jeffrey’s mother does not give him 2 “free” candy barseach day but still gives him 1 candy bar for every 2 ounce of spinach he eats. Would his spinach consumption be greater or smaller than in Part a? Explain your answer.4 CHOICE1. Tara has a utility function U(B, Z) = ABαZβ, Where A, α, andβareconstraints, B is burritos, and Z is pizzas. If the price of burritos, p B is $2 and the price of pizzas, p Z is $1, what is Tara’s optimal bundle?2. Assume that there are two goods in the world: apples and raspberries.Say that Geoffrey has a utility function for these goods of the following type, where r denotes the quantity of raspberries and a the quantity if apples: U = r·a.a)Draw an indifference curve that is defined by this utility function andhas a utility level of 2500.b)What is the marginal rate of substitution between the raspberries andthe apples when Geoffrey consumes 50 raspberries and 50 apples?What is the marginal rate of substitution between these two goods when Geoffrey consumes 100 raspberries and 50 apples?c)If the price of raspberries is $1 per unit and the price of apples is $1per unit and Geoffrey has $100 to spend, what bundle of raspberries and apples will he buy? Is the marginal rate of substitution equal to the ratio of the prices of these goods in the optimal bundle? If not, why not?d)If the unit prices of the raspberries and the apples are $4 and $3,respectively, what bundle of raspberries and apples will Geoffrey buy with his income of $100?3. Steve’s utility function is U = BC, where B = veggie burgers per weekand C= packs of cigarettes per week. What is his marginal rate of substitution if veggie burgers are on the vertical axis and cigarettes are on the horizontal axis? Steve’s income is $120, the price of a veggie burger is $2, and that of a pack of cigarettes is $1. How many burgers and how many packs of cigarettes does Steve consume to maximize his utility? When a new tax raises the price of a burger to $3, what is his new optimal bundle? Illustrate your answers in a graph.5 DEMAND1.Roger’s utility function is U = B1/4Z3/4, his income is Y, the price of Bis p B, and the price of Z is p Z. Derive his demand curves.2.Derive Roger’s Engel curve for B for the utility given in problem 2.7 CONSUMER’S SUPPLUS1.If the inverse demand function is p = a–bQ, what is the consumersurplus if price is a/2?2.If the supply function is Q = Apη, what is the producer surplus if priceis p*?9 EQUILIBRIUM1.In 1998, a virus killed more than half the oysters used to producepearls in the world’s busiest undersea factory. Use a diagram to indicate why the price of pearls rose 18%. How did the equilibrium quantity change?2.Increasingly, instead of advertising in newspapers, individuals andfirms use Web sites that offer free classified ads, such as , , , and portals like Yahoo and America Online.Using a supply-and-demand model, explain what will happen to the equilibrium levels of newspaper advertising as the use of the Internet grows. Will the growth of the Internet affect the supply curve, the demand curve or both? Why?3.The U.S. supply of frozen orange juice comes from Florida and Brazil.What is the effect of a freeze that damages oranges in Florida on the price of frozen orange juice in the U.S. and on the quantities of orange juice sold by Floridian and Brazilian firms?4.The supply of corn by the U.S. is Q a= a + bp, and the supply by therest of the world is Q r = c + ep. What is the world supply?5. A rent control law limits the price of an apartment. What is the likelyeffect of such a law in the short run? What is the likely effect of the law in the long run? Be sure to discuss the quantity and quality of apartments available for rent.6.The government wants to drive the price of soybeans above theequilibrium price, p1 to p2. It offers growers a payment of x to reduce their output from Q1(the equilibrium level) to Q2, which is the quantity demanded by consumers at p2. How large must x be for growers to reduce output to this level? What are the effects of this program on consumers, farmers, and total welfare? Compare this approach to (a) offering a price support of p2, (b) offering a price support and a quota set at Q1, and (c) offering a price support and a quota set at Q2.10 TECHNOLOGY1.Michelle’s business produces ceramic cups using labor, clay, and akiln. She can manufacture 25 cups a day with one worker and 35 with two workers. Does her production process illustrate diminishing returns to scale or diminishing marginal returns to scale? What is the likely explanation for why output doesn’t increase proportionatelywith the number of workers?2. Suppose that the production function is q = L 3/4K 1/4.a. What is the average product of labor ，holding capital fixed at K ?b. What is the marginal product of labor?c. Does this production function have increasing, constant, or decreasing returns to scale?3. A good recipe for a French dish called ceviche requires 16 ounces of fillet of red snapper, 3 ounces of lime juice, 1 ounce of coriander, and 8 ounces of Bermuda onion. This combination of inputs is expressed in the following production function:1243min ,,,1638z z z y z ⎧⎫=⎨⎬⎩⎭ In this production function, z 1 is fillet of red snapper, z 2 is lime juice, z 3 is coriander, and z 4 is Bermuda onion. The unit of measure for each input is the ounce, and the unit of measure for ceviche (the output) is the quantity produced by the recipe. If a restaurant has on hand 32 ounces of snapper, 9 ounces of lime juice, 5 ounces of coriander, and 48 ounces of onion, how many “units ” of ceviche can it produce?4. Construct a total product curve for a function that exhibits diminishing marginal product throughout. Then construct another total product curve for a function that exhibits initially constant and subsequently diminishing marginal product. Below the graphs of these two total products curve, derive the corresponding average and marginalfunctions. Check to see that the curves you have drawn are consistent with what you know about the relationship between the average and marginal product curves.11 PROFIT MAXIMIZATION1.You have 60 minutes to take an exam with two questions. You want tomaximize your score. Toward the end of the exam, the more time you spend on either question, the fewer extra points per minutes you get for that question. How should you allocate time between the two questions?(Hint: Think about producing an output of a score on the exam using inputs of time spent on each of the problem)2. A competitive firm’s production function is y = L + 2LK + K. What isits marginal revenue product of labor?3.A firm’s production function is y = ALαKβ. What is the firm’s marginalrevenue product of labor?1L2, 4.A competitive firm has the production of function Q= 20L–4 where Q is the number of units of output produced and L is the number of units of labor (the only input) used. The output price is $2, the wage rate is $1, and the firm faces a fixed cost of $100.a)What is the profit-maximizing quantity of labor demanded by thefirm?b)What is the firm’s profit in the short run?c)If, in the long run, the output price changes so that profits are zero,what is the quantity of labor demanded in the long run?5.A competitive firm has the production function. Q = LαKβ, where Q isthe number of units of output produced, L is the number of units of labor used, and K is the number of units of capital used. The output price p, the wage rate w, and the cost of capital r are given. Assume that α > 0, β > 0, and 0 < ( α + β ) < 1.a)What is the firm’s profit-maximizing quantity of labor if the quantityof capital is fixed at K?b)What is the firm’s profit-maximizing level of capital if both capitaland labor are variable? (Hint: Use the profit-maximizing capital-labor ratio K/L to substitute for the level of labor.)12 COST MINIMIZATION1.Assume that a firm produces 90 units of output using 9 units of inputX and 9 units of input Y. The f irm’s technological possibilities can be represented by the production function Q = 10X1/2Y1/2.a)If the price of X is $8 and the price of Y is $16, is the inputcombination of 9 units of X and 9 units of Y the most efficient way to produce 90 units of output?b)What must the ratio of input prices be for this input combination to beefficient?c)Assume that the price of X is $1 and the price of Y is $2. Derive theleast-cost way to produce 400 units of output.2.A medical center produces health services using two inputs: hospitalbeds and labor. There is a government regulation restricting the number of beds to B. Assume that the medical center is currently usingB beds and L units of labor to produce Q1 units of health services. Alsoassume that the medical center plans to expand its output to Q2 units of health services. Prepare a diagram to show how this government regulation restricting the number of hospital beds would affect the efficiency of delivering health services.3.A trucking firm’s output is measured by the number m of truck-milesmoved per day. The firm’s operating costs are as follows:i.wages of trucks, $w per hourii.cost of gasoline, $p per galloniii.fuel consumption, g= A+ Bs, where g is gallons of gasoline per truck-mile, s is the speed at which a truck is driven, and A and B are constantsa)Derive the total variable cost function of the firm if it has an unlimitednumber of trucks.b)What does the cost function look like if the firm has only one truckand that truck can be driven for a maximum of ten hours per day?4.A college student is considering whether to operate a lawn-mowingbusiness for the summer or work in a business owned by her family.Her time is worth $w1 per hour and she can work as many hours as she chooses in the family business at this rate. If she starts her own business, she will have to buy gasoline for her lawn mower at a price of $w2 per gallon. She can rent a small mower for $w3 per hour. The mower cuts a 12-inch swath of lawn and uses 1/3 gallon of gasoline per hour. With this mower, she can cut 10,000 square feet of lawn in an hour. (Use 10,000 square feet as the units of measurement for output.) Our college student can rent a large mower for $w4 per hour.This mower uses 1 gallon of gasoline per hour and cuts 3 units of lawn per hour.a)Verify that the production function for the two mowers are as follows:y = min{z1, 3z2, z3}y = 3min{z1, z2, z4}Assume that z1 is hours of labor, z2 is gallons of gasoline, and z3 and z4are the hours of the small mower and the large mower, respectively.b)Derive the cost functions.c)Show that using the small mower is a cheaper way to cut grass if 2w1 <w4 – 3w3. Why is this result independent of the price of gasoline?d)How high a price must our college student receive for cutting a unit oflawn in order to induce her to set up her own lawn-mowing firm ratherthan work in the family business?e)Assume that a firm uses two types of input in the production of acertain commodity. What is the maximum output if the marginal product of input is MP1 = 100X2 –X1 and the marginal product of input2 is MP2 = 100X1 –X2, the total amount that can be spent on inputs is$1,000, the price of input 1 is $2, and the price of 2 is $5?13 COST CURVES1.The only variable input a janitorial service firm uses to clean offices isworkers who are paid a wage, w, of $8 an hour. Each worker can clean four offices in an hour. Use math to determine the variable cost, the average variable cost, and the marginal cost of cleaning one more office. Draw a diagram to show the average cost, and marginal cost curves.2.Gail works in a flower shop, where she produces 10 floralarrangements per hour. She is paid $10 an hour for the first eight hours she works and $15 an hour for each additional hour she works. What is the firm’s cost function? What are its AC, AVC, and MC functions?Draw the AC, AVC, and MC curves.3.A firm has two plants that produce identical output. The cost functionsare C1 = 10y– 4y2 + y3and C2 = 10y– 2y2 + y3.b.At what output levels does the average cost curve of each plant reachits minimum?c. If the firm wants to produce 4 units of output, how much should it produce in each plant?4. A firm that makes widgets must build a plan that will cost $10,000. The plant will be able to produce up to 10,000 units, at which point its capacity will be reached and a new plant will be needed. The total cost function for each plant (including the fixed cost of building the plant) is C (y ) = 10,000 – x 1/2/100.a) Determine the cost function for this firm.b) Is this cost function subadditive over the range of outputs from 1 unit to 10,000 units? Is it subadditive for all levels of output?14 FIRM SUPPLY1. If a competitive firm ’s cost function is C (y ) = 100 + 10y – y 2 + 31y 3, what is the firm ’s marginal cost function? What is the firm ’s profit- maximizing condition?2. If a competitive firm ’s cost function is C (y ) = a + by + cy 2 + dy 3, where a , b , c , and d are constants, what is the firm ’s marginal cost function? What is the firm ’s profit-maximizing condition?3. Consider a firm with a total cost curve of TC = 1,000 + q 3/3 – 2q 2 + 6q . a) What is the lowest price at which this firm will want to supply a positive amount to the market in the short run?b) At the “lowest price”, how much will be supplied?c) How much will be supplied in the short run if the price is $10?4. What is the effect on firm and market equilibrium of a law requiring afirm to give its workers six months’ notice before it can shut down its plant?15 INDUSTRY SUPPLY1. Each firm in a competitive market has a cost function of C = 16 + y2.The market demand function is Q = 24–y. Determine the equilibrium price, quantity per firm, market quantity, and number of firms.2. Assume that the taxi industry in the town of New City is perfectlycompetitive. Also assume that the constant marginal cost of a taxi ride is $5 per trip and that each taxi is capable of making 20 trips a day. We will let the demand function for taxi rides each day be D(p) = 1,100 –20p.a)What is the perfectly competitive price of a taxi ride?b)How many rides will the citizens of New City make every day?c)How many taxis will operate in New City?Assume that every taxi that operates in New City has a special license. Therefore, the number of such licenses is the same as the number of taxis that you calculated in Part c of this problem. Further assume that the demand for taxi rides has increased and is now D(p) =1,200 - 20p. The cost of operating a taxi is still $5 per ride, and the number of taxis has not changed.d)Calculate the price that will equate demand with supply.e)Calculate the profit that each taxi will earn on a ride.f)Calculate the daily profit of each taxi. (Hint: Continue to assume thateach taxi can make only 20 rides a day)3. A competitive market has an unlimited number of potential suppliersproducing the same output, and each supplier has a long-run average cost function of AC= q2 –4q+ 6 and a long-run marginal cost function of MC = 3q2 – 8q + 6.a) Find the equilibrium quantity q produced by each firm in the long run.b) Find the long-run equilibrium price.4. Assume that a very large number of firms in an industry all have accessto the same production technology. The total cost function associated with this technology is TC(Q) = 40Q–24Q2 + 4Q3. If the demand function for the industry’s product is Q = 19 –P, how many firms will produce positive amounts of output at a competitive (that is, zero profit) equilibrium?5. Assume that a certain small town contains a large number ofwidget-producing firms. All the firms buy oil from the same refinery.Firm 1 is situated very close to the refinery, and the other firms are located 50 miles away. Firm 1 pays $18 per barrel for the oil, while theother firms pay $18 per barrel plus a transportation charge of $.05 cents a mile, or a total of $20.50 per barrel.To produce four widgets, a firm needs 1/10 barrel of oil, 1/2 hour of labor, and the use of one machine. The cost of labor is $10 per hour, and the necessary machine can be rented for $5 per hour. No firm has the capacity to produce more than 100 units of widgets.a)Derive the supply curve for firm1. Derive the supply curve for all theother firms.b)What is the equilibrium price?c)Does any firm earn economic rent (that is, extra economic profit) inthe industry?d)Does firm 1 affect the price of widgets in the industry? If not, whynot?e)Suppose that there is no capacity limit. What will the equilibrium pricebe?f)Will firm 1 affect the price when there is unlimited capacity?16 MONOPOLY1.Show that after a shift in the demand curve, a monopoly’s price mayremain constant but its output may rise.2.When is a monopoly unlikely to be profitable?(Hint: Discuss therelationship between market demand and average cost)3.The inverse demand curve a monopoly faces is p = 100 - Q. The firm’scost curve is C(Q) = 10 + 5Q. What is the profit-maximizing solution?4.How does your answer to Problem 3 change if C(Q) = 100 + 5Q?5.A monopoly’s production function is: y = L1/2K1/2, where L is labor andK is capital. The demand function is p = 100–y. The wage, w, is $1 per hour, and the rental cost of capital, r, is $4.a.Derive the long-run total cost curve equation as a function of y.b.What quantity maximizes this firm’s profit?c.Find the optimal input combination that produces the profit-maximizing quantity. Illustrate with a graph.6. Suppose that a monopolist faces a demand curve of P = 100 - 2Q. Herfirm has costs of C(Q) = 5Q2.a) What is the revenue function for this monopolist?b) What is the marginal revenue function?c) What is the marginal cost function?d) What is the profit-maximizing output for this monopolist?e) What is the maximum profit this firm can make?f) If this monopolist has to pay a permission free of $150 to the stategovernment in order to start the business, will her optimal level of output change? If not, why not?17 FACTOR MARKETS1.A monopsony faces a supply curve: w = 10 + x. What is its marginalexpenditure curve?18 OLIGOPOLY1.What is the duopoly Cournot equilibrium if the market demandfunction is Q = 1000–1000p, and each firm’s marginal cost is $0.28 per unit?2. Consider a duopolistic market with two firms, A and B, facing ademand curve of p = 1 –q A–q B. Assume that initially each firm has access to the same technology with constant returns to scale and that the cost of production is C A = q A/2 for firm A and C B= q B/2 for firm B.a) What is the profit function for each firm?b) Graph the reaction functions for firms.c) What is the equilibrium outputs?d) Assume that the initial output levels of the two firms are given by pointX(3/10, 4/10) and Y(1/10, 2/10). Show in a graph the process of change in the output levels of the two firms and the point at which their output levels converge.3. A duopoly faces a market demand of p= 120–Q. Firm 1 has aconstant marginal cost of MC1 = 20. Firm 2’s constant marginal cost is MC2 = 40. Calculate the output of each firm, market output, and price if there is (a) a collusive equilibrium or (b) a Cournot equilibrium.4. Assume that there are two firms in a market, firm 1 and firm 2. Thetotal demand for the identical product they make is p = 200 – 2(q1 + q2), where q1 is the output of firm 1 and q2 is the output of firm 2. The production costs of firm 1 and firm 2 are C1 = q12and C2 = q22, respectively.a) Assume that firm 2 decides to produce either 20, 40, 60, or 100 units ofoutput. Show the demand curve and the marginal revenue curve facing firm 1 in each of these situations, assuming that the output levels will remain unchanged once they are chosen.b) Define the output that represents the best (the profit-maximizing)response of firm 1 to each of the output levels chosen by firm 2.19 EXCHANGE1.Initially, Michael has 10 candy bars and 5 cookies, and Tony has 5candy bars and 10 cookies. After trading, Michael has 12 candy bars and 3 cookies. In an Edgeworth box, label the initial Allocation A and the new Allocation B. Draw some indifference curves that are consistent with this trade being optimal for both Michael and Tony. 2.In a pure exchange economy with two goods, G and H, the two tradershave Cobb-Douglas utility functions. Amos’s utility is U a =(G a)α(H a)1-α, and Elise’s is U e = (G e)β(H e) 1-β, what are their marginalrates of substitution?3. Continuing with problem 3: between them, Amos and Elise own 100 units of G and 50 units of H . Thus if Amos has G a and H a , Elise has G e =100 – G a and H e = 50 – H a . Solve for their contract curve.4. Arnold and Brigitte are marooned on a deserted island. Arnold has exactly one unit of Xylose and Brigitte has exactly one unit of Yam. Their preferences between these two items are represented by the following two equations:1/32/31/21/2A A AB B B U X Y U X Y =⋅=⋅In these equations, X A and Y A are the consumption of Xylose and Yam by Arnold. Similarly, X B and Y B are the consumption of Xylose and Yam by Brigitte.a) Is the following allocation Pareto-optimal? Explain why or why not.1211,,,2323A AB B X Y andX Y ==== b) If Arnold and Brigitte were to trade between themselves, would they be able to attain this allocation as a competitive equilibrium? What would be the equilibrium price ratio of Xylose to Yam? Would Arnold and Brigitte be able to afford this allocation at the equilibrium prices, given their endowments? If not, what kind of income transfer would be necessary?5. Two people trade two goods that they cannot produce. Suppose that one consumer ’s indifference curves are bowed away from the origin – the usual type of curves – but the other ’s are concave to the origin.In an Edgeworth box, show that a point of tangency between the two consumers’indifference curves is not a Pareto-efficient bundle.(Identify another allocation that Pareto dominates.)6.The demands for two goods depend on the prices of Good 1 and Good2, p1 and p2, Q1 = 15 – 3p1 + p2, Q2 = 6 – 2p2 + p1, but each supply curve depends on only its own price: Q1 = 2 + p1, Q2 = 1 + p2. Solve for the equilibrium: p 1, p2, Q1, and Q2.20 PRODUCTION1. Assume that you have exactly 100 hours of labor to allocate betweenproducing good X and good Y. Your output of goods X and Y depends solely on the hours of labor you spend in the following way:X=and Y=a)If you can sell your output of goods X and Y at the fixed prices P X = 10and P Y= 5, how much of goods X and Y would you produce to maximize your profits?b)Now assume further that you have the following utility function:U=If you can trade a bundle of goods X and Y that you produce in the market at fixed prices of P X = 10 and P Y = 5, what bundle would you produce and what bundle would you consume to maximize your utility?Are you a net demander and a net supplier of the two goods? Draw adiagram to depict what is happening.2. Suppose that the production possibilities frontier for cheeseburgers (C)and milk-shakers (M) is given by C + 2M = 600.a) Graph this function.b) Assuming that people prefer to eat two cheeseburgers with everymilk-shaker, how much of each product will be produced? Indicate this point in your graph.c) Assuming that this fast-food economy is operating efficiently, whatprice ratio (P C/P M) will prevail?21 WELFARE1. Suppose that society used the “opposite”of a Rawlsian welfarefunction: it tried to maximize the well-being of the best-off member of society. Write this welfare function. What allocation maximizes welfare in this society?2. Assume that Bob has a utility function of U = 8X1 + 1X2 – 3X3 and Joanhas a utility function of U = –2X1 + 7X2 + 5X3. Consider the following allocation:a)Is this allocation envy free?b)Is this allocation Pareto-optimal?c)Find a Pareto-optimal allocation, and determine whether it is envyfree.d)Do you think that the allocation in Part c of this problem is desirable?Why or why not?22 EXTERNALITIES1.Suppose that the only way to reduce pollution from paper productionis to reduce output. The government imposes a tax equal to the marginal harm from the pollution on the monopoly producer. Show that the tax may raise welfare.2.Suppose that the inverse demand curve for paper is p = 200–y, theprivate marginal cost (unregulated competitive market supply) is MC p = 80 + Q, and the marginal harm from gunk is MC g = y.a.What is the unregulated competitive equilibrium?b.What is the social optimum? What specific tax (per unit of output orgunk) results in the social optimum?c.What is the unregulated monopoly equilibrium?d.How would you optimally regulate the monopoly? What is theresulting equilibrium?3. A soot-spewing factory that produces steel windows is next to a。
关于劳动节的英文单词
关于劳动节的英文单词labor force, manpower 劳动力labor legislation 劳动法labor intensive 劳动密集型labour disputes 劳动争议labour discipline 劳动纪律labor of love 义务劳动reeducation through labor 劳动教养labor economics 劳动经济学working capacity labor capacity 劳动能力labour handbook 劳动手册paid labour 有偿劳动Labour for public good 公益劳动labor and social seurity 劳动保障rehandling duplication of labor 重复劳动fruit of labor 劳动成果labor contract law 劳动合同法physical work / manual work 体力劳动manpower demand forecasting 人才需求预测systems engineering for manpower 人才系统工程Labor and Social Security Bureau 劳动和社会保障局labor arbitration 劳动仲裁international labor day(may day) 五一劳动节国际劳动节又称“五一国际劳动节”、“国际示威游行日”(International Labor Day或者May Day)，是世界上大多数国家的劳动节。
定在每年的五月一日。
它是全世界劳动人民共同拥有的节日。
五一国际劳动节源于美国芝加哥城的工人大罢工。
1886年5月1日，芝加哥的216816名工人为争取实行八小时工作制而举行大罢工，经过艰苦的流血斗争，终于获得了胜利。
为纪念这次伟大的工人运动，1889年7月，在恩格斯组织召开的第二国际成立大会上宣布将每年的五月一日定为国际劳动节。
劳动需求(精)
3
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Quantity of Labor
• 边际产量曲线在最开始的时候是上升 边际收益递减法则 的， (此时总产量曲线处于加速上升的 Average and/or 区域),，在达到最大值之后， 边际产量 Marginal Product 曲线开始下降，(此时总产量曲线处于 16 Marginal 减速上升的区域)。 • 平均产量曲线与边际产量曲线有着类 似的形状，只不过其最大值在边际产量 的右边。 12
雇佣决策：
不断地增加雇佣工人的数量，直到
MRP = MWC为止。 MRP = MWC等价于MR＝MC
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劳动的短期需求：完全竞争市场
• 在下面的例子中，一个电脑公司使用设备和数据输入人员来提供 服务，这项服务的市场是完全竞争的。每提供一次服务，公司能够 收入$200 (4). • 第(2)列表明了当增加雇佣一个数据输入人员的时候，所提供的服 务数量能够增加多少。 (设备给定的情况下)。 • 边际收益产品在第 (6) 列中标出，它反映了增加雇佣一个数据输 入人员所能给企业的总收益带来的增量。 Total MRP MP Units of Product (TP) TR Sales Price Total TP week) Labor (L) (units per Revenue L L (Per Unit) (2)
(1)
(3) (4)
(5)
(6)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.0 5.0 9.0 12.0 14.0 15.5 16.5 17.0
----5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5
曼昆哈佛大学经济学原理课件第六章
Because the supply and demand for apartments are more elastic...
Supply
…rent control causes a large shortage
Controlled rent
Shortage
Supply, Demand, and Government Policies
In
a free, unregulated market system, market forces establish equilibrium prices and exchange quantities. While equilibrium conditions may be efficient, it may be true that not everyone is satisfied. One of the roles of economists is to use their theories to assist in the development of policies.
Supply
$3
2
Price floor Demand
0
Harcourt, Inc. items and derived items copyright © 2001 by Harcourt, Inc.
Equilibrium quantity
100
Quantity of Ice-Cream Cones
Price floor
Demand
0 Quantity demanded
80
Quantity supplied
微观经济学常用词汇
微观经济学常用词汇Aaccounting 会计accounting cost 会计成本accounting profit 会计利润adverse selection 逆向选择allocation 配置allocation of resources 资源配置allocative efficiency 配置效率antitrust legislation 反托拉斯法Assumption 假设asymetric information 非对称性信息average cost 平均成本average fixed cost 平均固定成本average product of capital 资本平均产量average product of labor 劳动平均产量average revenue 平均收益average total cost 平均总成本average variable cost 平均可变成本Bbarriers to entry 进入壁垒base year 基年bilateral monopoly 双边垄断benefit 收益boundary point 边界点break even point 收支相抵点budget 预算budget constraint 预算约束budget line 预算线budget set 预算集Ccapital 资本capital stock 资本存量capital output ratio 资本产出比率capitalism 资本主义cardinal utility theory 基数效用论cartel 卡特尔ceteris puribus assumption “其他条件不变”的假设ceteris puribus demand curve 其他因素不变的需求曲线change in demand 需求变化change in quantity demanded 需求量变化change in quantity supplied 供给量变化change in supply 供给变化choice 选择closed set 闭集Coase theorem 科斯定理Cobb—Douglas production function 柯布--道格拉斯生产函数collective bargaining 集体协议工资collusion 合谋command economy 指令经济commodity 商品commodity combination 商品组合commodity market 商品市场commodity space 商品空间common property 公用财产comparative static analysis 比较静态分析compensated budget line 补偿预算线compensated demand function 补偿需求函数compensation principles 补偿原则compensating variation in income 收入补偿变量competition 竞争competitive market 竞争性市场complement goods 互补品complete information 完全信息completeness 完备性condition for efficiency in exchange 交换的最优条件condition for efficiency in production 生产的最优条件concave function 凹函数consistence 一致性constant cost industry 成本不变产业constant returns to scale 规模报酬不变constraints 约束consumer 消费者consumer behavior 消费者行为consumer choice 消费者选择consumer equilibrium 消费者均衡consumer optimization 消费者优化consumer preference 消费者偏好consumer surplus 消费者剩余consumer theory 消费者理论consumption 消费consumption bundle 消费束consumption combination 消费组合consumption possibility curve 消费可能曲线consumption possibility frontier 消费可能性前沿consumption set 消费集continuity 连续性continuous function 连续函数convex function 凸函数convex preference 凸偏好convex set 凸集corporatlon 公司cost 成本cost benefit analysis 成本收益分析cost function 成本函数cost minimization 成本极小化Cross—price elasticity 交叉价格弹性Ddecreasing cost industry 成本递减产业decreasing returns to scale 规模报酬递减deduction 演绎法demand 需求demand curve 需求曲线demand elasticity 需求弹性demand function 需求函数demand price 需求价格demand schedule 需求表depreciation 折旧derivative 导数derive demand 派生需求difference equation 差分方程differential equation 微分方程diminishing marginal substitution 边际替代率递减diminishing marginal return 收益递减diminishing marginal utility 边际效用递减direct taxes 直接税discounting 贴税、折扣diseconomies of scale 规模不经济disequilibrium 非均衡distribution 分配division of labor 劳动分工distribution theory of marginal productivity 边际生产率分配论duality 对偶durable goods 耐用品dynamic analysis 动态分析dynamic models 动态模型EEconomic agents 经济行为者economic cost 经济成本economic efficiency 经济效率economic goods 经济物品economic man 经济人economic mode 经济模型economic profit 经济利润economic region of production 生产的经济区域economic regulation 经济调节economic rent 经济租金exchange 交换economics 经济学exchange efficiency 交换效率economy 经济exchange contract curve 交换契约曲线economy of scale 规模经济exclusion 排斥性、排他性efficiency 效率，效益efficiency parameter 效率参数elasticity 弹性elasticity of substitution 替代弹性endogenous variable 内生变量endowment 禀赋endowment of resources 资源禀赋Engel curve 恩格尔曲线entrepreneur 企业家entrepreneurship 企业家才能entry barriers 进入壁垒entry/exit decision 进出决策equilibrium 均衡equilibrium condition 均衡条件equilibrium price 均衡价格equilibrium quantity 均衡产量equity 公平equivalent variation in income 收入等价变量excess—capacity theorem 过度生产能力定理excess supply 过度供给exchange 交换exclusion 排斥性、排他性exclusion principle 排他性原则exogenous variables 外生变量expectation 期望expected utility 期望效用expected value 期望值expenditure 支出explicit cost 显性成本external benefit 外部收益external cost 外部成本external economy 外部经济external diseconomy 外部不经济externalities 外部性FFactor 要素factor demand 要素需求factor market 要素市场factors of production 生产要素factor substitution 要素替代factor supply 要素供给final goods 最终产品firm 企业firms’ demand curve for labor 企业劳动需求曲线firm supply curve 企业供给曲线first—order condition 一阶条件fixed costs 固定成本fixed input 固定投入fixed proportions production function 固定比例的生产函数flow 流量fluctuation 波动for whom to produce 为谁生产free entry 自由进入free mobility of resources 资源自由流动free rider 搭便车，免费搭车function 函数future value 未来值Ggame theory 对策论、博弈论general equilibrium 总体均衡Gini coefficient 基尼系数goods 货物government failure 政府失败government regulation 政府调控Hhomogeneous product 同质产品household 家庭how to produce 如何生产human capital 人力资本hypothesis 假说Iidentity 恒等式imperfect competition 不完全竞争implicit cost 隐性成本income 收入income constraint 收入约束income consumption curve 收入消费曲线income distribution 收入分配income effect 收入效应income elasticity of demand 需求收入弹性increasing cost industry 成本递增产业increasing returns to scale 规模报酬递增inefficiency 缺乏效率index number 指数indifference 无差异indifference curve 无差异曲线individual demand curve 个人需求曲线individual demand function 个人需求函数induced variable 引致变量induction 归纳法industry 产业industry equilibrium 产业均衡industry supply curve 产业供给曲线inelastic 缺乏弹性的inferior goods 劣品information 信息information cost 信息成本initial condition 初始条件initial endowment 初始禀赋innovation 创新input 投入input—output 投入—产出institution 制度institutional economics 制度经济学insurance 保险interest 利息interest rate 利息率intermediate goods 中间产品internatization of externalities 外部性内部化investment 投资invisible hand 看不见的手isocost line 等成本线isoprofit curve 等利润曲线isoquant curve 等产量曲线Kkinded—demand curve 弯折的需求曲线Llabor 劳动labor demand 劳动需求labor supply 劳动供给labor theory of value 劳动价值论labor unions 工会laissez faire 自由放任Lagrangian function 拉格朗日函数Lagrangian multiplier 拉格朗乘数land 土地law 法则law of demand and supply 供求法则law of diminishing marginal utility 边际效用递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of substitution 边际替代率递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of technical substitution 边际技术替代率law of increasing cost 成本递增法则least—cost combination of inputs 最低成本的投入组合leisure 闲暇licenses 许可证linear demand function 线性需求函数long run长期long run average cost 长期平均成本long run equilibrium 长期均衡long run marginal cost 长期边际成本long run total cost 长期总成本Lorenz curve 洛伦兹曲线loss minimization 损失极小化luxury 奢侈品Mmacroeconomics 宏观经济学marginal 边际的marginal benefit 边际收益marginal cost 边际成本marginal cost pricing 边际成本定价marginal cost of factor 边际要素成本marginal period 市场期marginal physical productivity 实际实物生产率marginal product 边际产量marginal product of capital 资本的边际产量marginal product of 1abour 劳动的边际产量marginal productivity 边际生产率marginal rate of substitution 边际替代率marginal rate of transformation 边际转换率marginal returns 边际回报marginal revenue 边际收益marginal revenue product 边际收益产品marginal revolution 边际革命marginal social benefit 社会边际收益marginal social cost 社会边际成本marginal utility 边际效用marginal value products 边际价值产品market 市场market clearance 市场出清market demand 市场需求market economy 市场经济market equilibrium 市场均衡market failure 市场失败market mechanism 市场机制market structure 市场结构market separation 市场分割market regulation 市场调节market share 市场份额Marshallian demand function 马歇尔需求函数maximization 极大化microeconomics 微观经济学minimum wage 最低工资misallocation of resources 资源误置mixed economy 混合经济model 模型money 货币monopolistic competition 垄断竞争monopolistic exploitation 垄断剥削monopoly 垄断，卖方垄断monopoly equilibrium 垄断均衡monopoly pricing 垄断定价monopoly regulation 垄断调控monopoly rents 垄断租金monopsony 买方垄断NNash equilibrium 纳什均衡Natural monopoly 自然垄断Natural resources 自然资源Necessary condition 必要条件necessities 必需品net demand 净需求non--zero—sum game 非零和对策normal goods 正常品normal profit 正常利润normative economics 规范经济学Oobjective function 目标函数oligopoly 寡头垄断oligopoly market 寡头市场oligopoly model 寡头模型opportunity cost 机会成本optimal choice 最优选择optimal consumption bundle 最优消费束perfect elasticity 完全有弹性optimal resource allocation 最佳资源配置optimal scale 最佳规模optimal solution 最优解optimization 优化ordering of optimization(social) preference (社会)偏好排序ordinary goods 一般品output 产量、产出output elasticity 产出弹性Pparameter 参数Pareto criterion 帕累托标准Pareto efficiency 帕累托效率Pareto improvement 帕累托改进Pareto optimality 帕累托优化partial derivative 偏导数partial equilibrium 局部均衡patent 专利perfect competition 完全竞争perfect complement 完全互补品perfect monopoly 完全垄断perfect price discrimination 完全价格歧视perfect substitution 完全替代品perfect inelasticity 完全无弹性perfectly elastic 完全有弹性perfectly inelastic 完全无弹性plant size 工厂规模point elasticity 点弹性positive economics 实证经济学post Hoc Fallacy 后此谬误prediction 预测preference 偏好preference relation 偏好关系present value 现值price 价格price adjustment model 价格调整模型price ceiling 最高限价price consumption curve 价格消费曲线price control 价格管制price difference 价格差别price discrimination 价格歧视price elasticity of demand 需求价格弹性price elasticity of supply 供给价格弹性price floor 最低限价price maker 价格制定者price rigidity 价格刚性price seeker 价格搜求者price taker 价格接受者price tax 从价税private benefit 私人收益principal—agent issues 委托--代理问题private cost 私人成本private goods 私人用品private property 私人财产producer equilibrium 生产者均衡producer theory 生产者理论product 产品product transformation curve 产品转换曲线product differentiation 产品差异production 生产production efficiency 生产效率production function 生产函数production possibility curve 生产可能性曲线productivity 生产率productivity of capital 资本生产率productivity of labor 劳动生产率profit 利润profit function 利润函数profit maximization 利润极大化property rights 产权property rights economics 产权经济学proposition 定理proportional demand curve 成比例的需求曲线public benefits 公共收益public choice 公共选择public goods 公共商品pure competition 纯粹竞争rivalry 对抗性、竞争pure exchange 纯交换pure monopoly 纯粹垄断Qquantity tax 从量税quasi—rent 准租金Rrate of product transformation 产品转换率rationality 理性regulation 调节，调控relative price 相对价格rent 租金rent control 规模控制rent seeking 寻租rent seeking economics 寻租经济学resource 资源resource allocation 资源配置returns 报酬、回报returns to scale 规模报酬revealed preference 显示性偏好revenue 收益revenue curve 收益曲线revenue function 收益函数revenue maximization 收益极大化risk 风险Ssatiation 饱和，满足saving 储蓄scarcity 稀缺性law of scarcity 稀缺法则second derivative 一阶导数second—order condition 二阶条件service 劳务set 集shadow prices 影子价格short—run 短期short—run cost curve 短期成本曲线short—run equilibrium 短期均衡short—run supply curve 短期供给曲线shortage 短缺single price monopoly 单一定价垄断slope 斜率social benefit 社会收益social cost 社会成本social security 社会保障social welfare function 社会福利函数socialism 社会主义solution 解space 空间stability 稳定性stable equilibrium 稳定的均衡static analysis 静态分析stock 存量stock market 股票市场strategy 策略subsidy 津贴substitutes 替代品substitution effect 替代效应substitution parameter 替代参数sufficient condition 充分条件supply 供给supply curve 供给曲线supply function 供给函数supply schedule 供给表symmetry 对称性symmetry of information 信息对称Ttangency 相切taste 兴致technical efficiency 技术效率technological constraints 技术约束technological progress 技术进步technology 技术total cost 总成本total effect 总效应total expenditure 总支出total fixed cost 总固定成本total product 总产量total revenue 总收益total utility 总效用total variable cost 总可变成本traditional economy 传统经济transitivity 传递性transaction cost 交易成本Uuncertainty 不确定性unit elasticity 单位弹性unstable equilibrium 不稳定均衡utility 效用utility function 效用函数utility index 效用指数utility maximization 效用极大化utility possibility curve 效用可能性曲线VValue 价值value judge 价值判断value of marginal product 边际产量价值variable cost 可变成本variable input 可变投入variables 变量vector 向量visible hand 看得见的手vulgur economics 庸俗经济学Wwage 工资wage rate 工资率Walras general equilibrium 瓦尔拉斯总体均衡Welfare criterion 福利标准Welfare economics 福利经济学welfare maximization 福利最优化Zzero cost 零成本zero elasticity 零弹性zero economic profit 零利润。
英语积累
七种常见类型1.主动跟新买家建立联糸Dear Mr. Jones:We understand from your information posted on that you are in the market for textiles. We would like to take this opportunity to introduce our company and products, with the hope that we may work with Bright Ideas Imports in the future.We are a joint venture specializing in the manufacture and export of textiles. We have enclosed our catalog, which introduces our company in detail and covers the main products we supply at present. You may also visit our online company introduction at which includes our latest product line. Should any of these items be of interest to you, please let us know. We will be happy to give you a quotation upon receipt of your detailed requirements.We look forward to receiving your enquires soon.SincerelyJohn Roberts2.对新买家要求建立业务联糸的回复Dear Mr. Jones:We have received your letter of 9th April showing your interest in our complete product information.Our product lines mainly include high quality textile products. To give you a general idea of the various kinds of textiles now available for export, we have enclosed a catalogue and a price list. You may also visit our online company introduction at which includes our latest product line.We look forward to your specific enquiries and hope to have the opportunity to work together with you in the future.Sincerely,3.向老客户介绍公司新的产品信息Dear Mr. Jones:We have refreshed our online catalog at, and now it covers the latest new products, which are now available from stock.We believe that you will find some attractive additions to our product line. Once you have had time to study the supplement, please let us know if you would like to take the matter further. We would be very happy to send samples to you for close inspection.We will keep you informed on our progress and look forward to hearing from you.Sincerely,4.回复对某个产品的查询Dear Mr. Jones:Thank you for your inquiry of 16 March. We are pleased to hear that you are interested in our product "toaster".We've enclosed the photo and detailed information of the product for your reference:Product: toasterSpecification: xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxPackage: 1pcs/boxPrice: 10usd/pcsPayment: L/CFor purchase quantities over 1,000pcs of individual items we would allow you a discount of 1%. Payment is to be made by irrevocable L.C at sight.We look forward to receiving your first order.Sincerely,5.无法提供对方查询中所要求的产品时Dear Mr. Jones:Thank you for your enquiry of 12 March cate 9 cable.We appreciate your efforts in marketing our products and regret very much that we are unable to supply the desired goods due to excessive demand.We would, however, like to take this opportunity to offer the following material as a close substitute: Cate 5, US$__ per meter FOB Shanghai, including your commission 2%.Please visit our catalog at for more information on this item. If you find the product acceptable, please email us as soon as possible.Sincerely,6.查询对方公司的产品Dear Sir or Madam:We know that you are exporters of textile fabrics. We would like you to send us details of your various ranges, including colors and prices, and also samples of the different qualities of material used.We are volume dealers in textiles and believe there is a promising market in our area for moderately priced goods of this kind mentioned. When quoting, please state your terms of payment and discount you would allow on purchases of quantities of not less than 1000 meters of individual items. Prices quoted should include insurance and freight to San Francisco.Sincerely,7.几种报盘(a.)Dear Mr. Jones:We thank you for your email enquiry for both groundnuts and Walnutmeat CNF Copenhagen dated February, 21.In reply, we offer firm, subject to your reply reaching us on or before February 26 for 250 metric tons of groundnuts, handpicked,shelled and ungraded at RMB2000 net per metric ton CNF Copenhagen and any other European Main Ports. Shipment to be made within two months after receipt of your order payment by L/C payable by sight draft.Please note that we have quoted our most favorable price and are unable to entertain any counter offer.As you are aware that there has lately been a large demand for the above commodities. Such growing demand will likely result inincreased prices. However you can secure these prices if you send us an immediatereply.Sincerely,(b.)Dear Mr. Jones:We thank you for your letter dated April 8 inquiring about our leather handbags. As requested, we take pleasure in offering you, ubject to our final confirmation, 300 dozen deerskin handbags style No.MS190 at $124.00 per dozen CIF Hamburg.Shipment will be effected within 20 days after receipt of the relevant L/C issued by your first class bank in our favor upon signing Sales Contract.We are manufacturing various kinds of leather purses and waist belts for exportation, and enclosed a brochure of products for your reference. We hope some of them meet your taste and needs.If we can be of any further help, please feel free to let us know. Customers' inquiries are always meet with our careful attention.Sincerely,(c.)Re: SWC SugarDear Sirs,We are in receipt of your letter of July 17, 2002 asking us to offer 10,000 metric tons of the subject sugar for shipment to Japan and appreciate very much your interest in our product.To comply with your request, we are offering you the following:1. Commodity: Qingdao Superior White Crystal Sugar.2. Packing: To be packed in new gunny bag of 100kgs. each.3. Quantity: Ten thousand （10000）metric tons.4. Price: US dollars one hundred and five （US$105.00）per metric ton, Fob Qingdao.5. Payment: 100% by irrevocable and confirmed letter of credit to be opened in our favor through A1 bank in Qingdao and to be drawn at sight.6. Shipment: Three or four weeks after receipt of letter of credit by the first available boat sailing to Yokohama direct.Please note that we do not have much ready stock on hand. Therefore, it is important that, in order to enable us to effect early shipment, your letter of credit should be opened in time if our price meets with your approval.We are awaiting your reply.Sincerely,Chinese banks have doubled the fees on withdrawing cash from other banks' ATMs to four yuan per withdrawal.我国多家银行已将跨行取款收费上调至每笔四元，是之前收费金额的两倍。
劳动需求
• 希克斯-马歇尔第二定理
– 当产品需求的价格弹性越大，则用来生产这种产品的劳动力需求 的工资弹性也越大。 – 当W上升，成本C上升，产品价格P上升，需求弹性增大；产量Q 下降大，就业量减少多。 – 其它条件相同，企业比行业或市场对劳动力的需求更富有弹性； – 长期与短期相比，长期的工资弹性高。
•
但由于企业在产品市场上是垄断者，其产品价格不再是一 个常数，而是取决于产量和销售量的一个变量。因此，垄断 企业使用劳动要素的边际收益不再等于其边际产品价值。
• 1、卖方垄断企业使用劳动要素的原则：MRP ＝ W
在卖方垄断条件下，企业使用劳动的边际收益MRP等于产品的 边际收益MR和劳动的边际产品MP的乘积MR·MP，使用劳动 的边际成本为要素价格W。
• 2、影响劳动需求的因素
• 技术对劳动需求的影响 • 时间长短对劳动需求的影响 • 企业目标对劳动需求的影响 • 社会制度安排对劳动需求的影响
• 技术对劳动需求的影响
• 含有劳动和资本两种生产要素的生产函数常被用来分析技 术对劳动需求的影响，即：Q = f（L，K），它表明了生 产中的投入量和产出量之间的相互依存关系。 • 技术系数的概念反映生产一单位产品所需要的各种投入之 间的配合比例关系，它可以划分为固定技术系数和可变技 术系数。 • 固定技术系数是指生产某一单位产品所需要的各种生产要 素彼此之间不能替代。（劳动需求一定） • 可变技术系数是指生产某一单位产品所需要的各种生产要 素的配合比例是可以变动的。（可以选择最经济的方式生 产）
• 希克斯-马歇尔第三定理
– 其它生产要素供给越富有弹性，则该要素的需求就越富有弹性。 – 当工资W上升，企业乐于用资本替代劳动力，减少劳动力需求；但当资 本供给量是一定时，随需求量增加，资本价格也会上升，因而以资本替 代劳动力从而使劳动力需求量趋于降低的程度，取决于资本要素的供给 弹性的大小。 – 一般说来，资本的供给弹性越大，其价格的上升速率就越快，企业以资 本替代劳动力的变通程度就越低，对劳动力需求量的影响越小；反之亦 然。 – 此类替代效应在劳动力要素之间也可能发生。如非技术工人工资大幅上 升，则企业乐于用技术工人替代非技术工人；如果技术工人的数量是一 定的，则随技术工人需求的上升，其工资也会上涨，从而阻碍了企业进 一步用技术工人替代非技术工人，因而此类替代取决于技术工人的供给 弹性。此类替代不影响就业总数，只影响就业结构。
劳动经济学英语
劳动经济学英语Labor EconomicsLabor economics is the study of the market for labor, where labor refers to the work done by people in exchange for wages. It is a branch of economics that examines the interaction between workers and employers in the labor market. Labor economics seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the labor market, including the determinants of wages, employment, and working conditions.One of the key concepts in labor economics is the labor supply and demand. The labor supply refers to the number of hours that workers are willing and able to work at a given wage rate. The labor demand, on the other hand, refers to the number of hours of labor that employers are willing to hire at a given wage rate. The interaction of these two forces determines the equilibrium wage rate and level of employment in the labor market.Another important aspect of labor economics is the study of human capital. Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and experience that individuals possess and thatcontribute to their productivity in the labor market. Investments in human capital, such as education and training, are crucial determinants of individual earnings and overall economic growth.Labor market institutions and policies also play a crucial role in labor economics. Minimum wage laws, collective bargaining, unemployment insurance, and labor market regulations are examples of institutions andpolicies that can affect the functioning of the labor market. Understanding the impact of these institutions and policies is essential for designing effective labor market interventions and policies.Labor economics also examines issues such as discrimination in the labor market, the impact of technology on the demand for labor, and the effects of globalization on labor markets. These topics are important for understanding the challenges and opportunities facing workers and employers in today's globalized economy.Overall, labor economics provides valuable insights into the functioning of the labor market and the determinants of labor market outcomes. By understanding the factors thatinfluence wages, employment, and working conditions, policymakers, employers, and workers can make more informed decisions and create more efficient and equitable labor markets.劳动经济学劳动经济学是研究劳动力市场的学科，其中劳动力指的是人们以换取工资为目的所做的工作。
新建宿舍楼劳动需求量计划
新建宿舍楼劳动需求量计划英文回答：To create a labor demand plan for a new dormitory building, several factors need to be considered. These factors include the size of the building, the construction timeline, and the specific tasks required for the project.Firstly, the size of the building will determine the amount of labor needed. This includes the number of floors, rooms, and common areas in the dormitory. A larger building will require more workers to complete the construction.Next, the construction timeline is crucial in determining the labor demand. If there is a tight deadline for the project, more workers will be needed to ensure that the construction is completed on time. Additionally, if the project is divided into phases, the labor demand may vary throughout the different stages of construction.Lastly, the specific tasks required for the projectwill also impact the labor demand. Different construction tasks, such as plumbing, electrical work, and carpentry, require different skill sets. It is important to assess the complexity and duration of each task to estimate the number of workers needed for each job.Considering these factors, a labor demand plan can be created. This plan should outline the number of workers needed for each phase of construction, taking into account the size of the building, the construction timeline, and the specific tasks required. It is also important to consider any potential labor shortages or limitations in the local labor market.中文回答：为了制定新宿舍楼劳动需求量计划，需要考虑几个因素。
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行业的短期需求曲线
行业的需求曲线不是由该企业的需求曲线水平(DD)加总给定 的，而要考虑到该行业的扩张对产出价格的影响(TT) 。
Wage Wage T D 20 20
最大化利润：两个准则
• 边际生产率条件：雇用劳动力直到边际产品价值 等于雇用工人增加的成本（即工资） 或者： • 一个追求利润最大化的企业应当一直生产，直到 生产新增1单位产出的成本（边际成本）等于出售 该产出所获得的收入（边际收入）时为止
位于同一条等成本线 上的资本—劳动组合 成本都是相等的。位 于更高的等成本线上 的所有资本—劳动力 组合都更加昂贵。等 成本线的斜率等于投 入价格的比率 (‐w/r)
C1/r
C0/r
Isocost with Cost Outlay C1
Isocost with Cost Outlay C0
C0/w
C 1/ w
Employment
27
28
企业的最优投入组合
Capital
成本最小化
• 企业选择了最便宜的资本与劳动力的组合 • 这个最便宜的选择是等成本线与等产量线相切的 地方 • 对于这个最便宜的选择来说，边际技术替代率 MPE / MPK，等于投入价格之比 w / r • MPE / w = MPK / r ：花费在劳动力上的最后1美元， 能够产生与花费在资本上的最后1美元得到一样多 的产出 • 利润最大化意味着成本最小化 w = p × MPE 并且 r = p × MPK
15 10 5 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Total Product Curve
Marginal Product
Number of Workers
Number of Workers
• 两条曲线之间的几何关系：当平均曲线上升时， 边际曲线位于平均曲线之上；当平均曲线下降时 ，边际曲线位于平均曲线之下
Dollars
短期劳动需求曲线（单个企业）
因为边际产品最终会下 降，所以短期劳动需求 曲线是向下倾斜的。工 资从22美元下降到18美 元，会提高企业的雇佣 水平。产出价格的提高 会使得边际产品价值曲 线向外移动，并提高雇 佣水平
14
22 18
VMP’E VMPE
8
9
12
Number of Workers
一个追求利润最 大化的企业会不 断雇用劳动者， 直到工资水平等 于边际产品价值 的那一点为止。 如果工资是22美 元，该企业将雇 用8位劳动者
11
38
VAPE
22
VMPE
1
4
8
Number of Workers
12
2
4/1/2015
短期劳动需求曲线
• 短期劳动需求曲线表示给定资本不变，在每一个 工资水平上企业愿意雇用多少员工 • 短期劳动需求曲线由劳动的边际产品价值曲线决 定 • 劳动需求曲线向下倾斜。这反映了一个事实：额 外雇佣工人是昂贵的，但根据收益递减的规律， 他们贡献的平均产品却下降了
替代效应与规模效应
工资下降会产生替 代效应和规模效应。 规模效应（从点P 移动到点Q）鼓励 企业扩张，增加雇 用数量。替代效应 （从点Q移动到点R） 鼓励该企业利用劳 动力更密集的生产 方法，进一步增加 雇用数量。
34
p
Q R 150 P 100 D 200
P
100
150
Output
25
50
Employment 100
E Capital
等产量线
位于同一条等产量线 上的所有资本‐劳动力 组合，都能够生产出 相同的产出水平。位 于点X和点Y上的投入 组合能够生产出q0 单 位的产出。位于更高 的等产量线上的投入 组合能够生产出更多 的产出
22
X K Y q1
q0
Employment
21
等产量线
1. 向下倾斜 2. 不相交 3. 更高的等产量线 = 更高的产出水平 4. 凸向原点 5. 斜率等于 ΔK / ΔE = ‐ MPE / MPK • 其绝对值被称为边际技术替代率 • 凸向原点意味着当企业用更多的劳动力替代 资本时，边际技术替代率会递减
13
行业的短期劳动需求曲线
• 是不是可以把个体企业的需求曲线水平加总， 从 而得到全行业的劳动需求曲线？ • NO! • 上述做法是错误的，它忽略了一个事实：一个公 司的劳动需求曲线是把产出价格视为给定的 • 如果行业内所有的企业都增加雇佣人数（当工资 变低时），整个行业的产出都会增加，从而使得 商品价格下降！
4/1/2015
第3章
劳动需求(1)
招聘广告 新疆，阜康 2011年8月
2
引言
• 企业雇用劳动者，因为消费者希望购买各 种商品和服务 • 对劳动者的需求来自消费者的欲求和渴望 • 核心问题：雇用多少劳动者，付给他们多 少钱？ • 对劳动力的需求，反映了企业的利润最大 化行为
浙江义乌 2015年3月10日
9 10
– p: 产出价格; w: 劳动力价格; r: 资本价格
• 完全竞争厂商无法影响产出或者投入的价 格
短期内企业的雇用决策
Dollars Dollars
短期内企业的雇用决策
我们只对曲线向 下倾斜并低于 VAPE 与 VMPE曲 线交点的部分感 兴趣
38
VAPE
22
VMPE
1
4
8
Number of Workers
保持成本不变，工资下降造成的影响
Capital
长期劳动需求
• 工资下降，产生两方面的影响
– 企业会利用劳动力的价格优势，扩大生产规模 （规模效应） – 企业会利用工资的变化，哪怕是在产出保持不 变的情况下，也会调整它生产投入中的要素占 比（替代效应）
C0/r
R 75 P q’0
q0
Wage is w0 Wage is w1
工资降低减小了生产的边际成本，并鼓励该企业扩张 （从生产100单位产出增加到150单位） 该企业会从点P移动到点R，雇用的工人从25人增加到 50人。
25 33 40 50
Wage is w1 Wage is w0
Employment
长期劳动需求曲线
Dollars
劳动的长期需求弹性
• 它衡量长期雇用数量对工资变化的反应程度 • δLR =雇用数量的百分比变化/工资的百分比变化= (ΔELR/ Δw) ∙ (w/ ELR)
5
6
1
4/1/2015
总产品，边际产品和平均产品曲线
140 120 100 25
边际产品和平均产品曲线
• 劳动的边际产品是总产品曲线的斜率 • 收益递减法则意味着边际产品曲线（以及平均产 品曲线）最终会下降
Average Product
20
Output
Output
80 60 40 20 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
– 如果等产量线是直角形状的：零 – 如果等产量线是线性的：无穷大
41
42
7
4/1/2015
马歇尔派生需求规则
马歇尔规则 (I)
• 替代弹性越大，劳动需求就越有弹性
– 替代弹性越大，等产量线看起来越像一条直线， 劳动和资本在生产过程中也越“相似” – 这使公司能够在工资上涨时很容易地用资本替 代劳动力
3 4
企业的生产函数
• q = f(E, K)
• E:该企业聘请的雇员时数; K: 资本 • 描述了该企业用来生产商品和服务的技术 • 可以使用各种资本—劳动组合来生产该企业的产 品
边际产品和平均产品
• 劳动的边际产品(MPE)是保持其他投入数量不变， 每多雇用一名劳动者带来的产出变化 • 资本的边际产品(MPK)是保持其他投入数量不变， 每多使用一单位资本带来的产出变化 • 收益递减法则意味着MPE最终会下降 • 平均劳动产品 (APE) 是一个典型劳动者的产出数量 (APE = q/E)
30
C1/r A C0/r
P 175
B q0 100
Employment
一个企业通过选择位于 点P上的资本—劳动力组 合，就可以最小化生产 q0 单位产出的成本。在 点P，等产量线与等成本 线相切。所有其他资 本—劳动力组合（例如 那些由点A和点B给出的） 都位于更高的等成本线 上。
29
5
4/1/2015
25
40
Employment
工资下降会使等成本 线变得更平坦。如果 企业要维持原成本C0 不变，等成本线会围 绕C0 /r旋转，企业从 点P移动到点R。然而 利润最大化的企业一 般不会在工资变化时 仍然希望保持原成本 不变
31
32
工资降低对一个利润最大化企业的产出和雇 佣人数的影响
Dollars Capital Capital MC0 MC1 C1/r R C0/r D
• 描述了在某一特定的行业中有可能产生富 有弹性的劳动需求曲线的因素
43Biblioteka 44马歇尔规则 (II)
w0
长期劳动需求曲线给了出企 业在既定工资水平下的雇佣 数量，是向下倾斜的。
w1
DLR
25
50
Employment
35
36
6
4/1/2015
劳动力的短期和长期需求曲线
Capital
Dollars Short-Run Demand Curve
两种特殊的等产量线
Capital
Long-Run Demand Curve
• 最优条件: 生产到 MC = MR 为止 (对竞争性企业来 说, MR = p)
– w × (1 / MPE) = p
• 可以写成
– w = p × MPE = VMPE
q*
Output