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会计准则外文文献及翻译-财务会计专业(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Buschhüter M, Striegel A. IAS 37 – Provisions, Contingent Liabilities and Contingent Assets[M]// Kommentar Internationale Rechnungslegung IFRS. Gabler, 2011:955-974.英文原文Accounting Standard (AS) 37Contingent Liabilities and Contingent AssetsBuschhüter M, Striegel AThis International Accounting Standard was approved by the IASC Board in July 1998 and became effective for financial statements covering periods beginning on or after 1 July 1999.Introduction1. IAS 37 prescribes the accounting and disclosure for all provisions, contingent liabilities and contingent assets, except:(a) those resulting from financial instruments that are carried at fair value;(b) those resulting from executory contracts, except where the contract is onerous. Executory contracts are contracts under which neither party has performed any of its obligations or both parties have partially performed their obligations to an equal extent;(c) those arising in insurance enterprises from contracts with policyholders;(d) those covered by another International Accounting Standard. Provisions2. The Standard defines provisions as liabilities of uncertain timing or amount. A provision should be recognised when, and only when:(a) an enterprise has a present obligation (legal or constructive) as a result of a past event; (b) it is probable (i.e. more likely than not) that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation;(c) a reliable estimate can be made of the amount of the obligation. The Standard notes that it is only in extremely rare cases that a reliable estimate will not be possible.3. The Standard defines a constructive obligation as an obligation that derives from an enterprise's actions where:(a) by an established pattern of past practice, published policies or a sufficiently specific current statement, the enterprise has indicated to other parties that it will accept certain responsibilities; (b) as a result, the enterprise has created a valid expectation on the part of those other parties that it will discharge those responsibilities.4. In rare cases, for example in a law suit, it may not be clear whether an enterprise has a present obligation. In these cases, a past event is deemed to give rise to a present obligation if, taking account of all available evidence, it is more likely than not that a present obligation exists at thebalance sheet date. An enterprise recognises a provision for that present obligation if the other recognition criteria described above are met. If it is more likely than not that no present obligation exists, the enterprise discloses a contingent liability, unless the possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.5. The amount recognized as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditu required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date, in other words, the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time.6. The Standard requires that an enterprise should, in measuring a provision: (a) take risks and uncertainties into account. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or a deliberate overstatement of liabilities;(b) discount the provisions, where the effect of the time value of money is material, using a pre-tax discount rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and those risks specific to the liability that have not been reflected in the best estimate of the expenditure. Where discounting is used, the increase in the provision due to the passage of time is recognised as an interest expense;(c) take future events, such as changes in the law and technological changes, into account where there is sufficient objective evidence thatthey will occur; and(d) not take gains from the expected disposal of assets into account, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision.7. An enterprise may expect reimbursement of some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). An enterprise should:(a) recognise a reimbursement when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision; and(b) recognise the reimbursement as a separate asset. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement. 8. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted reflect thecurrent best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provisioshould be reversed.9. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.Provisions - Specific Applications10. The Standard explains how the general recognition and measurement requirements for provisions should be applied in three specific cases: future operating losses; onerous contracts; and restructurings. Contingent Liabilities11. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent liability. , unless the12. A contingent liability is disclosed, as required by paragraph 86possibility of an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is remote.13. Where an enterprise is jointly and severally liable for an obligation, the part of tobligation that is expected to be met by other parties is treated as a contingentThe enterprise recognises a provision for the part of the obligation for which an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits is probable, except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made.14. Contingent liabilities may develop in a way not initially expected. Therefore, theare assessed continually to determine whether an outflow of resources embodying probable. If it becomes probable that an outflow of economic benefits has become future economic benefits will be required for an item previously dealt with as a contingent liability, a provision is recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change in probability occurs (except in the extremely rare circumstances where no reliable estimate can be made).Contingent Assets15. An enterprise should not recognise a contingent asset.16. Contingent assets usually arise from unplanned or other unexpected events that give rise to the possibility of an inflow of economic benefits to the enterprise. An example is a claim that an enterprise is pursuing through legal processes, where the outcome is uncertain. 17. Contingent assets are not recognised in financial statements since this may result in the recognition of income that may never be realised. However, when the realisation of income is virtually certain, then the related asset is not a contingent asset and its recognition is appropriate. 18. A contingent asset is disclosed, as required by paragraph 89 economic benefits is probable.19. Contingent assets are assessed continually to ensure that developments are appropriately reflected in the financial statements. If it has become virtually certain that an inflow of economic benefits will arise, the asset and the related income are recognised in the financial statements of the period in which the change occurs. If an inflow of economic benefits has become probable, an enterprise discloses the contingent asset.Measurement20. The amount recognised as a provision should be the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date.21. The best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation is the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle the obligation at the balance sheet date or to transfer it to a third party at that time. It will often be impossible or prohibitively expensive to settle or transfer an obligation at the balance sheet date. However, the estimate of the amount that an enterprise would rationally pay to settle or transfer the obligation gives the best estimate of the expenditure required to settle the present obligation at the balance sheet date. 22. The estimates of outcome and financial effect are determined by the judgement of the management of the enterprise, supplemented by experience of similar transactions and, in some cases, reports from independent experts. The evidence considered23. Uncertainties surrounding the amount to be recognised as a provision are dealt with by various means according to the circumstances. Where the provision being measured involves a large population of items, the obligation is estimated by weighting all possible outcomes by their associated probabilities. The name for thistatistical method of estimation is 'expected value'. The provision will therefore be different depending on whether the probability of a loss of a given amount is, for example, 60 per cent or 90 per cent. Where there is a continuous range of possible outcomes, and each point in that range is as likely as any other, the mid-point of thrange is used. 24. Where a single obligation is beingmeasured, the individual most likely outcome may be the best estimate of the liability. However, even in such a case, the enterprise considers other possible outcomes. Where other possible outcomes are either mostly higher or mostly lower than the most likely outcome, the best estimate will be a higher or lower amount. For example, if an enterprise has to rectify a serious fault in a major plant that it has constructed for a customer, the individual most likely outcome may be for the repair to succeed at the first attempt at a cost of1,000, but a provision for a larger amount is made if there is a significant chance that further attempts will be necessary.25. The provision is measured before tax, as the tax consequences of the provision, , Income Taxes. and changes in it, are dealt with under IAS 12,Income Taxes.Risks and Uncertainties26. The risks and uncertainties that inevitably surround many events and the best estimate of a circumstances should be taken into account in reachin the best estmeate of a provision.27. Risk describes variability of outcome. A risk adjustment may increase the amount at which a liability is measured. Caution is needed in making judgements under conditions of uncertainty, so that income or assets are not overstated and expenses or liabilities are not understated. However, uncertainty does not justify the creation of excessive provisions or adeliberate overstatement of liabilities. For example, if the projected costs of a particularly adverse outcome are estimated on a prudent basis, that outcome is not then deliberately treated as more probable than is realistically the case. Care is needed to avoid duplicating adjustments for risk and uncertainty with consequent overstatement of a provision. Present Value28. Where the effect of the time value of money is material, the amount ofa provision should be the present value of the expenditures expected to be required to settle the obligation.29. The discount rate (or rates) should be a pre-tax rate (or rates) that reflect(s) current market assessments of the time value of money and the risks specific to the liability. The discount rate(s) should not reflect risks for which future cash flow estimates have been adjusted. Future Events 30. Future events that may affect the amount required to settle an obligation should be reflected in the amount of a provision where there is sufficient objective evidence that they will occur.31. Expected future events may be particularly important in measuring provisions. For example, an enterprise may believe that the cost of cleaning up a site at the end of its life will be reduced by future changes in technology. The amount recognised reflects a reasonable expectation of technically qualified, objective observers, taking account of all available evidence as to the technology that will be available at the time of theclean-up. Thus it is appropriate to include, for example, expected cost reductions associated with increased experience in applying existing technology or the expected cost of applying existing technology to a larger or more complex clean-up operation than has previously been carried out. However, an enterprise does not anticipate the new technology for cleaning up unless it is supported by development of a completel sufficient objective evidence.32. The effect of possible new legislation is taken into consideration in measuring an existing obligation when sufficient objective evidence exists that the legislation is virtually certain to beenacted. The variety of circumstances that arise in practice makes it impossible to specify a single event that will provide sufficient, objective evidence in every case. Evidence is required both of what legislation will demand and of whether it is virtually certain to be enacted and implemented in due course. In many cases sufficient objective evidence will not exist until the new legislation is enacted.Expected Disposal of Assets33. Gains from the expected disposal of assets should not be taken into account in measuring a provision.34. Gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken into account in measuring a provision, even if the expected disposal is closely linked to the event giving rise to the provision. Instead, an enterprise recognisesgains on expected disposals of assets at the time specified by the International Accounting Standard dealing with the assets concerned. Reimbursements35. Where some or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision is expected to be reimbursed by another party, the reimbursement should be recognised when, and only when, it is virtually certain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the obligation. The reimbursement should be treated as a separate asset. The amount recognised for the reimbursement should not exceed the amount of the provision.36. In the income statement, the expense relating to a provision may be presented net of the amount recognised for a reimbursement.37. Sometimes, an enterprise is able to look to another party to pay part or all of the expenditure required to settle a provision (for example, through insurance contracts, indemnity clauses or suppliers' warranties). The other party may either reimburse amounts paid by the enterprise or pay the amounts directly.38. In most cases the enterprise will remain liable for the whole of the amount in question so that the enterprise would have to settle the full amount if the third party failed to pay for any reason. In this situation, a provision is recognised for the full amount of the liability, and a separate asset for the expected reimbursement is recognised when it is virtuallycertain that reimbursement will be received if the enterprise settles the liability.39. In some cases, the enterprise will not be liable for the costs in question if the third party fails to pay. In such a case the enterprise has no liability for those costs and they are not included in the provision.40. As noted in paragraph 29,severally liable is a contingent liability to the extent that it is expected that the obligation will be settled by the other parties.Changes in Provisions41. Provisions should be reviewed at each balance sheet date and adjusted to reflect the current best estimate. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic benefits will be required to settle the obligation, the provision should be reversed.42. Where discounting is used, the carrying amount of a provision increases in each period to reflect the passage of time. This increase is recognised as borrowing cost.Use of Provisions43. A provision should be used only for expenditures for which the provision was originally recognised.44. Only expenditures that relate to the original provision are set against it. Setting expenditures against a provision that was originally recognised for another purpose would conceal the impact of two different events.Future Operating Losses45. Provisions should not be recognised for future operating losses.46. Future operating losses do not meet the definition of a liability in paragraph 10.the general recognition criteria set out for provisions in paragraph 1447. An expectation of future operating losses is an indication that certain assets of the operation may be impaired. An enterprise tests these assets for impairment under IAS 36, Impairment of Assets.Onerous Contracts48. If an enterprise has a contract that is onerous, the present obligation under the contract should be recognised and measured as a provision. 49. Many contracts (for example, some routine purchase orders) can be cancelled without paying compensation to the other party, and therefore there is no obligation. Other contracts establish both rights and obligations for each of the contracting parties. Where events make such a contract onerous, the contract falls within the scope of this Standard and a liability exists which is recognised. Executory contracts that are not onerous fall outside the scope of this Standard. 50. This Standard defines an onerous contract as a contract in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it. The unavoidable costs under a contract reflect the least net cost of exiting from the contract, which is the lower ofthe cost of fulfilling it and any compensation or penalties arising from failure to fulfil it.51. Before a separate provision for an onerous contract is established, an enterprise recognises any impairment loss that has occurred on assets dedicated to that contract(see IAS 36, Impairment of Assets). Restructuring52. The following are examples of events that may fall under the definition of restructuring: (a) sale or termination of a line of business; (b) the closure of business locations in a country or region or the relocation of business activities from one country or region to another; (c) changes in management structure, for example, eliminating a layer of management; (d) fundamental reorganisations that have a material effect on the nature and focus of the enterprise's operations.53. A provision for restructuring costs is recognised only when the general recognition are met. Paragraphs 72-83 set out how criteria for provisions set out in paragraph 14the general recognition criteria apply to restructurings.54. A constructive obligation to restructure arises only when an enterprise:(a) has a detailed formal plan for the restructuring identifying at least: (i) the business or part of a business concerned;(ii) the principal locations affected;(iii) the location, function, and approximate number of employees whowill be compensated for terminating their services;(iv) the expenditures that will be undertaken;(v) when the plan will be implemented;(b) has raised a valid expectation in those affected that it will carry out the restructuring by starting to implement that plan or announcing its main features to those affected by it. . Evidence that an enterprise has started to implement a restructuring plan would be provided, 55for example, by dismantling plant or selling assets or by the public announcement of the main features of the plan. A public announcement of a detailed plan to restructure constitutes a constructive obligation to restructure only if it is made in such a way and in sufficient detail (i.e. setting out the main features of the plan) that it gives rise to valid expectations in other parties such as customers, suppliers and employees (or their representatives) that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring.56. For a plan to be sufficient to give rise to a constructive obligation when communicated to those affected by it, its implementation needs to be planned to begin as soon as possible and to be completed in a timeframe that makes significant changes to the plan unlikely. If it is expected that there will be a long delay before the restructuring begins or that the restructuring will take an unreasonably long time, it is unlikely that the plan will raise a valid expectation on the part of others that theenterprise is at present committed to restructuring, because the timeframe allows opportunities for the enterprise to change its plans.57. A management or board decision to restructure taken before the balance sheet date does not give rise to a constructive obligation at the balance sheet date unless the enterprise has, before the balance sheet date:(a) started to implement the restructuring plan;(b) announced the main features of the restructuring plan to those affected by it in a sufficiently specific manner to raise a valid expectation in them that the enterprise will carry out the restructuring. In some cases, an enterprise starts to implement a restructuring plan, or announces its main features to those affected, only after the balance sheet date. Disclosure may be , Events After the Balance Sheet Date, if the restructuring is of required under IAS 10 such importance that its non-disclosure would affect the ability of the users of the financial statements to make proper evaluations and decisions.58. Although a constructive obligation is not created solely by a management decision, an obligation may result from other earlier events together with such a decision. For example, negotiations with employee representatives for termination payments, or with purchasers for the sale of an operation, may have been concluded subject only to board approval. Once that approval has been obtained and communicated to the other parties, the enterprise has a constructive obligation to restructure, if theconditions of paragraph 72 are met.. 59. In some countries, the ultimate authority is vested in a board whose membership gement (e.g. employees) includes representatives of interests other than those of managment.or notification to such representatives may be necessary before the board decision is taken. Because a decision by such a board involves communication to these representatives, it may result in a constructive obligation to restructure.60. No obligation arises for the sale of an operation until the enterprise is committed to the sale, i.e. there is a binding sale agreement.61. Even when an enterprise has taken a decision to sell an operation and announced that decision publicly, it cannot be committed to the sale until a purchaser has been identified and there is a binding sale agreement. Until there is a binding sale agreement, the enterprise will be able to change its mind and indeed will have to take another course of action if a purchaser cannot be found on acceptable terms. When the sale of an operation is envisaged as part of a restructuring, the assets of the operation , Impairment of Assets. When a sale is only are reviewed for impairme-ent under IAS 36part of a restructuring, a constructive obligation can arise for the other parts of the restructuring before a binding sale agreement exists.62. A restructuring provision should include only the direct expenditures arising form the restrict-uring,which are those that are both:(a) necessarily entailed by the restructuring; and(b) not associated with the ongoing activities of the enterprise.63. A restructuring provision does not include such costs as:(a) retraining or relocating continuing staff;(b) marketing; or(c) investment in new systems and distribution networks.These expenditures relate to the future conduct of the business and are not liabilities for restructuring at the balance sheet date. Such expenditures are recognised on the same basis as if they arose independently of a restructuring.64. Identifiable future operating losses up to the date of a restructuring are not included in a provision, unless they relate to an onerous contract as defined in paragraph 10. , gains on the expected disposal of assets are not taken65. As required by paragraph 51into account in measuring a restructuring provision, even if the sale of assets is envisaged as part of the restructuring.Disclosure66. For each class of provision, an enterprise should disclose:(a) the carrying amount at the beginning and end of the period;(b) additional provisions made in the period, including increases toexisting provisions; (c) amounts used (i.e. incurred and charged against the provision) during the period; (d) unused amounts reversed during the period; and(e) the increase during the period in the discounted amount arising from the passage of time and the effect of any change in the discount rate. Comparative information is not required67. An enterprise should disclose the following for each class of provision:(a) a brief description of the nature of the obligation and the expected timing of any resulting outflows of economic benefits;(b) an indication of the uncertainties about the amount or timing of those outflows. Where necessary to provide adequate information, an enterprise should disclose the major assumptions made concerning future events, as addressed in paragraph 48(c) the amount of any expected reimbursement, stating the amount of any asset that has been recognised for that expected reimbursement.68. Unless the possibility of any outflow in settlement is remote, an enterprise should disclose for each class of contingent liability at the balance sheet date a brief description of the nature of the contingent liability and, where practicable:;(a) an estimate of its financial effect, measured under paragraphs 36(b) an indication of the uncertainties relating to the amount or timing of any outflow; (c) the possibility of any reimbursement.69. In determining which provisions or contingent liabilities may be aggregated to form a class, it is necessary to consider whether the nature of the items is sufficiently similar for a single statement about them to fulfil the requirements of paragraphs 85(a)and (b) and 86(a) and (b). Thus, it may be appropriate to treat as a single class of provision amounts relating to warranties of different products, but it would not be appropriate to treat as a single class amounts relating to normal warranties and amounts that are subject to legal proceedings.70. Where a provision and a contingent liability arise from the same set of -86 in a circumstances, an enterprise makes the disclosures required by paragraphs 84 that shows the link between the provision and the contingent liability.71. Where an inflow of economic benefits is probable, an enterprise should disclose a brief description of the nature of the contingent assets at the balance sheet date, and, where practicable, an estimate of their financial effect, measured using the principles set out for provisions in paragraphs 3672. It is important that disclosures for contingent assets avoid giving misleading ndications of the likelihood of income arising.73 In extremely rare cases, disclosure of some or all of the information required by paragraphs 84-89 can be expected to prejudice seriously the position of the enterprise a dispute with other parties on the subject matterof the provision, contingent or contingent asset. In such cases, an enterprise need not disclose the information, but should disclose the general nature of the dispute, together with the fact that, and reason why, the information has not been disclosed. Transitional Provisions74. The effect of adopting this Standard on its effective date (or earlier) should be reported as an adjustment to the opening balance of retained earnings for the period in which the Standard is first adopted. Enterprises are encouraged, but not required, to adjust the opening balance of retained earnings for the earliest period presented and to restate comparative information. If comparative information is not restated, this fact should be disclosed. , Net Profit or Loss for the75. The Standard requires a different treatment from IAS 8requires Period, Fundamental Errors and Changes in Accounting Policies. IAS 8comparative information to be restated (benchmark treatment) or additional pro forma comparative information on a restated basis to be disclosed (allowed alternative reatment) unless it is impracticable to do so.。

中小企业会计准则外文文献

中小企业会计准则外文文献Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 2009 233The application of an accounting standard for SMEs Danue Nerudová and Hana Bohuová Accounting and Tax Institute of PEF MZLU Brno Zemědělská Czech Republic E-mail: d.nerudovaseznam.cz E-mail: uchanamendelu.cz Corresponding author Abstract: Small and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union EU economy mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonisation has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonised financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs an entity’s financial posi tion performance cash flow of a wide range of users shareholders creditors employees. Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity’s ta xable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognised under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises SMEs taxable income International Financial Reporting Standards IFRS cash flow tax accounting. Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Nerudová D. and Bohuová H. 2009 ‘The application of an accounting standard for SMEs’ Int. J. Liability and Scientific Enquiry Vol. 2 No. 2 pp.233–246. Biographical notes: Danue Nerudová PhD in Finance Mendel University Brno Master in Finance Mendel University Brno is the Head of the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic. Hana Bohuová PhD in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno Master in Economics and Management Mendel University Brno is a Scientific Assistant at the Department of Accounting and Taxes Faculty of Business and Economics Mendel University Brno Czech Republic.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises SMEs comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union EU member states. Based on the lateststatistics there are 25 million SMEs operating in 27 member states which representCopyright 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.234 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová99 of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EUEurostat 2003. In some industry sectors such as textiles or construction they evencreate more than 75 of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economicgrowth and employmentin the EU. Therefore they have received a great deal of attentionin the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 business economy by thenumber of persons employed is shown in Table 1.Table 1 The structure of the EU 25 business economy by the number of persons employedType of enterprise Share on total employment in Large 329Medium 208Small 165Micro 298 Source: Eurostat 2003There are 988 787 SMEs with less than 250 employees which represent 99.81 ofall the enterprises operating in the Czech market Czech Statistical Office 2003. SMEsemploy 1 961 000 people which represent a 62.21 share of the total employment in theCzech Republic. The share is even 80 higher than the other sectors of the nationaleconomy – agriculture 85 and restaurant services 89.34. For this reason SMEs alsoplay a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment butalso in the economy as a whole. The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled theEuropean Commission to commission several studies such as COM 2001582 final andCOM 2005532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’ position inthe internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprisesface while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in theform of 25 different accounting and tax systems which generate disproportionate highcompliance costs for SMEs in comparison with large enterprises is the reason whySMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal marketin comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operatemainly in the domestic national markets. It seems that in today’s globalised worlda higher involvement of SMEs in cross-border activities and its higher operation on theinternal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance whichwould remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole. The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft ED of InternationalFinancial Reporting Standards IFRS for SMEs and design some modifications of SMEfinancial reporting harmonisation. The theoretical background of the paper presents theobjectives of SME financial reporting harmonisation and the efforts of the EuropeanCommission to harmonise the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommendedtaxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementationused in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs bythe simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finallythe paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 2352 The characteristics of SMEsAt present various definitions which have been developed for application in differentcountries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnoverthe number of employees capital base profits etc. Whether an enterprise appears to belarge medium orsmall differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree ofdevelopment and the general scale of economic activity.1 According to the Organizationfor Economic Cooperation and Development OECD 2005 the characteristics ofSMEs reflect not only economic but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country.The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by theadoption of the Commission Recommendation No. 2003/361/EC. Table 2 shows thedefinition of SMEs used by the World Bank and European Commission.Table 2 The definition of SME by the World Bank and European Commission Commission RecommendationEnterprise World Bank 2003/361/ECMicro Less than ten employees assets lower Less than ten employees turnover and than USD100000 balance less than EUR2 millionSmall Less than 50 employees turnover and Less than 50 employees turnover and assets lower than USD3 million balance sheet less than EUR10 millionMedium Less than 300 employees turnover and Less than 250 employees turnover less assets lower than USD15 million than EUR50 million and balance less than EUR43 millionThere is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approachesto SMEs’ taxation and accounting. On the other hand there are available literatureon the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting andtax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishingto take part in cross-border activities in the EU. The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connectedwith the establishment of the European Economic Community EEC – the harmonisationof accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim wasto coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholdersand third parties creditors employees but also in the interest of equal competitiveconditions and equal business relations in the member states. The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplishedby the adoption of directives Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC Seventh DirectiveNo. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No. 84/253/EEC. They create the code of EUaccounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the EuropeanCommission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal systemtypified by Germany or France as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system.Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’ arrangements. The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by thefourth directive which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sizedcapital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental andAnglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable andits final form is left to national competence.236 D. Nerudová and H. Bohuová Since the 1970s the International Accounting Standards Committee IASC hasplayed a veryimportant role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC wasfollowed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board IASB which wasasked to create unified International Accounting Standards IAS and later the IFRS. The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have startedmainly in 2001 when the European Commission introduced the green paper whichsurveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that timethe European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system ofdirect taxation in general without any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publicationof the abovementioned study in 2001 the European Commission suggested fourpossible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State TaxationHST – was aimed at SMEs. Under that system the companies will use for thetaxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where thecompany has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary – companies could opt to usedomestic taxation rules or not. The model does not represent harmonisation for under this system 27 differentnational taxation systems would still exist. The application of the model could alsoincrease tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profitsfrom the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared thepilot project under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries.However no member state applied to participate therefore the Commission turned itsattention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base CCCTB.At present the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft ofthe CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that themodel is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEsfor details see Nerudová 2007. At present the directives connected with accounting are undergoing the revision.The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with theinternalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS.In 2003 Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted which enables the member states whichdo not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems. The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companieslisted on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financialstatements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country.Those statements are available to creditors suppliers and the government in theircountry but they could be difficult to understand for creditors suppliers and those inother countries. The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to thenext are needed for the following reasons. Firstly financial institutions make loans acrossborders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly vendors want to evaluate thefinancial health of buzzers in other countries beforethey sell goods or services on credit.Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermoremany SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess theprospects of a viable long-term business relationship. Venture capital firms also providefunding to SMEs across borders. Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-daymanagement of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financialstatements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external The application of an accounting standard for SMEs 237investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they haveinterests in other SMEs. Moreover global standards also improve the consistency in auditquality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand good accounting andmore disclosures add to SMEs’ burdens rather than reduce them SMEs are also oftenconcerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency. The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whosesecurities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financialstatements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different fromfull IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financialstatements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statementsof publicly traded entities users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greaterinterest in short-term cash flows liquidity balance sheet strength and interest coverage orthey may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statementof publicly traded companies. The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must be determined on thebasis of u sers’ needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes Bohuová 2007. There can befound different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory.As stated by Bezinová 2004 it is very important to consider who the users of financialstatements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standardsfor SMEs. Also Veerle 2005 and Street and Larson 2004 were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS which is applied in Malta Cyprus orCroatia mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from thefinancial statements. With quotes Bezinová 2004 the basic problem is the approachesto the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of publicinterest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financialinvestors.。

企业会计准则中英对照

企业会计准则——基本准则Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises:Basic Standard第一章总则Chapter 1 General Provisions第一条为了规范企业会计确认、计量和报告行为，保证会计信息质量，根据《中华人民共和国会计法》和其他有关法律、行政法规，制定本准则。

Article 1 In accordance with The Accounting Law of the People’ s Republichinaof andC other relevant laws and regulations, this Standard is formulated to prescribe the recognition, measurement and reporting activities of enterprises for accounting purposesand to ensure the quality of accounting information.第二条本准则适用于在中华人民共和国境内设立的企业(包括公司，下同)。

Article 2 This Standard shall apply to enterprises (including companies) established within the People’s Republic of China.第三条企业会计准则包括基本准则和具体准则，具体准则的制定应当遵循本准则。

Article 3Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises include the Basic Standard andSpecific Standards. Specific Standards shall be formulated in accordance with this Standard.第四条企业应当编制财务会计报告(又称财务报告，下同)。

企业会计准则基本准则英(Word)

Accounting Standards for Business EnterprisesBasic StandardChapter 1 General ProvisionsArticle 1In accordance with the accounting Law of The People’s Republic of China and other relevant laws and regulations, this Standard is formulated to prescribe the recognition, measurement and reporting activities of enterprises for accounting purposes and to ensure the quality of accounting information.Article 2This Standard shall apply to enterprises (including companies) established within The People’s Republic of China.Article 3Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises include the Basic Standard and Specific Standards. Specific Standards shall be formulated in accordance with this Standard.Article 4An enterprise shall prepare financial reports. The objective of financial reports is to provide accounting information about the financial position, operating result and cash flows, etc. of the enterprises to the users of the financial reports, in order to show results of management’s stewardship, and assist users of financial reports to make economic decision.Users of financial reports include investors, creditors, government and its relevant departments as well as the public.Article 5An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report transactions or events that the enterprise itself have occurred.Article 6In performing recognition, measurement and reporting for accounting purposes, an enterprise shall be assumed to be a going concern.Article 7An enterprise shall close the accounts and prepare financial reports for each separate accounting period.Accounting period is divided into annual periods (yearly) and interim periods. An interim period is a reporting period shorter than a full accounting year.Article 8Accounting measurement shall be based on unit of currency.Article 9Recognition, measurement and reporting for accounting purpose shall be on an accrual basis.Article 10An enterprise shall determine the accounting elements based on the economic characteristics of transactions or events. Accounting elements include assets, liabilities, owner’s equity, revenue, expenses and profit.Article 11An enterprise shall apply the double method (i.e. debit and credit) for bookkeeping purposes.Chapter 2 Qualitative Requirements of Accounting InformationArticle 12An enterprise shall recognize, measure, report for accounting purposes transactions or events that have actually occurred, to faithfully represent the accounting elements which satisfy recognition and measurement requirements and other relevant information, and ensure the accounting information is true, reliable and complete.Article 13Accounting information provided by enterprise shall be relevant to the needs of the users of financial reports in making economic decisions, by helping them evaluate or forecast the past, present or future events of the enterprise.Article 14Accounting information provided by an enterprise shall be clear and explicable, so that it is readily understandable and useable to the users of financial reports.Article 15Accounting information provided by enterprises shall be comparable.An enterprise shall adopt consistent accounting policies for same or similar transactions or events that occurred in different periods and shall not change the policies arbitrarily. If a change is required or needed, details of the change shall be explained in the notes.Different enterprises shall adopt prescribed accounting policies to account for same similar transactions or events to ensure accounting information is comparable and prepared on a consistent basis.Article 16An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report transactions or events based on their substance, and notmerely based on their legal form.Article 17Accounting information provided by an enterprise shall reflect all transactions or events that relate to its financial position, operating results and cash flows.Article 18An enterprise shall exercise prudence in recognition, measurement and reporting of transactions or events. It shall not overstate assets or income nor understate liabilities or expenses.Article 19An enterprise shall recognize, measure and report transactions and events occurred in a timely manner and shall neither bring forward no defer the accounting.Chapter 3 AssetsArticle 20An asset is resource that is owned or controlled by an enterprise as a result of past transactions or events and is expected to generate economic benefits to the enterprise.Last transactions and events mentioned in preceding paragraph include acquisition, production, construction or other transactions or events. Transactions or events expected to occur in the future do not give rise to assets.Owned or controlled by an enterprise is the right to enjoy he ownership of a particular resource or, although the enterprise may not have the ownership of a particular resource, it can control the resource.Expected to generate economic benefits to the enterprise is the potential to bring inflows of cash and cash equivalents, directly or indirectly, to the enterprise.Article 21A resource that satisfies the definition of an asset set out in Article 20 in this standard shall be recognized as an asset when both of the following conditions are met.(a) it is probable that the economic benefits associated with that resource will flow to the enterprise; and(b) the cost or value of that resource can be measured reliably.Article 22An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of an asset shall be included in the balance sheet. An item that satisfies the definition of an asset but fails to meet the recognition criteria shall not be included in the balance sheet.Chapter 4 LiabilitiesArticle 23A liability is a present obligation arising from past transactions or events which are expected to give rise to an outflow of economic benefits from the enterprise.A present obligation is duty committed by the enterprise under current circumstance. Obligations that will result from the occurrence of future transactions or events are not present obligations and shall not be recognized as liabilities.Article 24An obligation that satisfies the definition of a liability set out in Article 23 in the standard shall be recognized as a liability when both of the following conditions are met:(a)it is probable there will be an outflow of economic benefits associated with that obligation from the enterprise;and(b)the amount of the outflow of economic benefit in the future can be measured reliably.Article 25An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of a liability shall be included in the balance sheet. An item that satisfies the definition of a liability but fails to meet the recognition criteria shall not be included in the balance sheet.Chapter 5 Owner’s EquityArticle 26Owner’s equity is the residual interest in the assets of an enterprise after deducting all its liabilities.Owner’s equity of a company is also known as shareholders’s equity.Article 27Owner’s equity comprises capital contributed by owners, gains and losses directly recognized in owner’s equity, retains earning etc.Gains and losses directly recognized in owner’s equity are those gains and losses that shall not be recognized in profit or loss of the current period but will result in changes (increases or decreases) in owner’s equity, other than those relating to contributions from, or appropriations of profit to equity participants.Gains are inflows of economic benefits that do not arise in the course of ordinary activities resulting in increases in owner’s equity, other than those relating to contributions from owners.Losses are outflows of economic benefits that do not arise in the course of ordinary activities resulting in decreasesThe amount of owner’s equity is determined by the measurement of assets and liabilities.Article 29An item of owner’s equity shall be included in the balance sheet.Chapter 6 RevenueArticle 30Revenue is the gross inflow of economic benefits derived from the course of ordinary activities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from owners.Article 31Revenue is recognized only when it is probable that economic benefit will flow to the enterprise, which will result in an increase in assets or decrease in liabilities and the amount of inflow of economic benefits can be measured reliably.Article 32An item that satisfied the definition and recognition criteria of revenue shall be included in the income statement.Chapter 7 ExpenseArticle 33Expense is the gross outflow of economic benefits resulted from the course of ordinary activities that result in decrease in owner’s equity, other than those relating to appropriations of profits to owners.Article 34Expense are recognized only when it is probable there will be outflow of economic benefit from the enterprise which result in a reduction of its assets or an increase in liabilities and the amount of the outflow of economic benefits can be measured reliably.Article 35Directly attributable costs, such as product costs, labour costs, etc. incurred by an enterprise in the process of production of goods or rendering of services shall be recognized as cost of goods sold or services provided and are charged to profit or loss in the period in which the revenue generated from the related products or services areWhere an expenditure incurred does not generate economic benefits, or where the economic benefits derived from an expenditure do not satisfy, or cease to satisfy the recognition criteria of an asset, the expenditure shall be expensed when incurred and included in profit or loss of the current period.Transactions or events occurred which to the assumption of a liability without recognition of an asset shall be expensed when incurred and included in profit or loss of the current period.Article 36An item that satisfies the definition and recognition criteria of expense shall be included in the income statement.Chapter 8 ProfitArticle 37Profit is the operating result of an enterprise over a specific accounting period. Profit includes the net amount of revenue after deducting expenses, gains and losses directly recognized in profit of the current period, etc.Article 38Gains and losses directly recognized in profit of the current period are those gains and losses that shall be recognized in profit and losses directly which result in change (increases or decreases ) to owner’s equity, other than those relating to contributions from , or appropriations of profit to , owners.Article 39The amount of profit is determined by the measurement of the amount of revenue and expenses, gains and losses directly recognized in profit or loss in the current period.Article 40An item of profit shall be included in the income statement.Chapter 9 Accounting MeasurementArticle 41In recording accounting elements that meet the recognition criteria in the accounting books and records and presenting them in the accounting statements and the notes (hereinafter together as “financial statements”), an enterprise shall measure the accounting elements in accordance with the prescribed accounting measurement bases.Article 42Accounting measurement bases mainly comprise:a)Historical cost: Assets are recorded at the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or the fair value ofthe consideration given to acquire them at the time of their acquisition. Liabilities are recorded at the amount of proceeds or assets received in exchange for the present obligation, the amount payable under contract for assuming the present obligation, or at the amount of cash or cash equivalents expected to be paid to satisfy the liability in the normal course of business.b)Replacement cost: Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that have to be paid if asame or similar asset was acquired currently. Liabilities are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents would be currently required to settle the obligation.c)Net realizable value: Assets are carried at the amount of cash or cash equivalents that could be obtainedby selling the asset in the ordinary course of business, less the estimated costs of completion, the estimated selling cost and related tax payments.d)Present value: Assets are carried at the present discounted value of the future net cash inflows that theitem is expected to generate from its continuing use and ultimate disposal. Liabilities are carried at present discount value of the future net cash outflows that are expected to be required to settle the liabilities within the expected settlement period.e)Fair value: Assets and liabilities are carried at the amount of which an asset could be exchanged, or aliability settled, between knowledgeable, willing parties in an arm’s length transaction.Article 43An enterprise shall generally adopt historical cost as the measurement basis for accounting elements. If the accounting elements are measured at replacement cost, net realizable value, present value or fair value, the enterprise shall ensure such amount can be obtained and reliably measured.Chapter 10 Financial ReportArticle 44A financial report is a document published by an enterprise to provide accounting information to reflect its financial position on a specific date and its operating result and cash flows for a particular accounting period, etc.A financial report includes accounting statement and notes and other information or data that shall be disclosed in financial reports. Accounting statements shall at least comprise a balance sheet, an income statement and a cash flow statement.A small enterprise need not include a cash flow statement when it prepares financial statement.Article 45A balance sheet is an accounting statement that reflects the financial position of an enterprise at a specific date.Article 46An income statement is an accounting statement that reflects the operating result of an enterprise for a certain accounting period.Article 47A cash flow statement is an accounting statement that reflects the inflows and outflows of cash and cash equivalents of an enterprise for a certain accounting period.Article 48Notes to the accounting statement are further explanations of items presented in the accounting statement, and explanations of items not presented in the accounting statements, etc.Chapter 11 Supplementary ProvisionsArticle 49The Ministry of Finance is responsible for the interpretation of this Standard.Article 50This standard becomes effective as from 1 January 2007.友情提示：方案范本是经验性极强的领域，本范文无法思考和涵盖全面，供参考!最好找专业人士起草或审核后使用。

06版企业会计准则英文版_No.01_Inventoriesword版

06版企业会计准则英文版_No.01_Inventoriesword版Accounting Standards for BusinessEnterprises No.1 - InventoriesCai Kuai [2006] No.3February 15, 2006Chapter I General ProvisionsAr ti cl e 1 These Standards are formulated in accordance with the Accounti ng Standards for Enterprises - Basic Standards for the purpose of regulating the recognition of the inventories,measurement and disclosure of r elated information. .Ar ti cl e 2 Other relevant accounting standards shall apply to such items as follows:(1) The Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 5 - Biological Assets shall apply to the consumptive biological assets.(2) The Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 15 - Cons truction Contracts shall apply to the costs of the inventories together through construction contracts.Chapter II RecognitionAr ti cl e 3 The term "inventories"refers to finished products or merchand ise possessed by an enterprise for sale in the daily of business, o r work in progress in the process of production, or materials and supplies to be consumed in the process of production or offering labor service.Ar ti cl e 4 The inventories shall not be recognized unless they satisfy su ch conditions simultaneously as follows:(1) The economic benefits pertinent to the inventories are likely to flow into the enterprise; and(2) The cost of the inventories can be measured reliably.Chapter III MeasurementAr ti cl e 5 The inventories shall be initially measured in light of their cost. The cost of inventory consists of purchase costs, processing costs and other costs.Ar ti cl e 6 The purchase costs of inventories consists of the purchase pri ce, relevant taxes, transport fees, loading and unloading fees, insurance premiums and other expenses that may be relegated to the purchase costs of inventories.Ar ti cl e 7 The processing costs of inventories consist of the direct labor and production overheads allocated according to a particular method.The "production overheads" refers to all indirect expenses happened in the process of manufacturing products and providing labor services by an enterprise. An enterprise shall, according to the nature of the production overheads, choose the reasonable method for the allocation of production overhead s.If two or more kinds of products are manufactured in the same production process, and the processing cost for each product is unable to be separated from that of others directly, the processing costs shall be allocate d among the products in a reasonable way.Ar ti cl e 8 "Other costs of inventories" refers to those costs, other than purchase costs and processing costs, happened in bringing the inventories to their presentlocation and condition.Ar ti cl e 9 The following expenses shall be recognized as current profits and losses as they are happened, which shall not be included in the cost o f inventories: (1) The direct materials,direct labor and production overheads that are abnormally consumed;(2) The storage expenses (excluding the expenses which arenecessary in the production process for reach the next production stage); and(3) Other expenses that cannot be included in the costs happened i n bringing the inventories to their present location and condition.Ar ti cl e10 The borrowing costs, which shall be included in the cost of inventories, shall be disposed in accordance w ith the Accounting Standard for Enterprises No. 17 - Borrowing costs.Ar ti cl e 11 The cost of inventories invested by an investor shall be ascertained in accordance with the value as stipulated in the investment contract or agreement, unless it is not stipulated fair in the contract or agreement.Ar ti cl e 12 The cost of agricultural products in the harvest, and the cost o f inventories obtained by the exchange of non-monetary assets, recombination of liabilities and merger of enterprises shall be ascertained in accordance with the Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 5 - Biological Assets, Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 7 - Exchange o f Non-monetary Assets, Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 12 - D ebt Restructurings and Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises No. 20 -Business Combinations, respectively.Ar ti cl e 13 Where an enterprise provides labor service, the direct labor e xpenses, other direct expenses as well as the indirect expenses included thereto shall be included in the cost of inventories.Ar ti cl e 14 An enterprise shall confirm the actual cost of sending out inv entories by employing the first-in-first-out method, the weighted average method or the specific identification method.The cost of sending out inventories of items with similar nature and purpose shall be confirmed by employing the same cost calculation metho d.Generally, the cost of non-substitutable inventories, and goods purchased and produced as well as the labor services offered for specific projects, the cost of sending out shall be confirmed by employing the specific identification method.As to the inventories, which have been already sold, their costs shall be carried forward as the current profits and losses and the relevant provision for the loss on decline in value of inventories shall also be carried forward.Ar ti cl e 15 On the date of balance sheet, the inventories shall be measure d whichever is lower in accordance with the cost and the net realizable value.If the cost of inventories is higher than the net realizable value, the provision for the loss on decline in value of inventories shall be made and be included in the current profits and losses.The net realizable value refers to in the daily business activity the amount after deducting the estimated cost of completion, estimated sale expense and relevant taxes from the estimated sale price of inventories.Ar ti cl e 16 An enterprise shall confirm the net realizable value of inventories on the ground of reliable evidence obtained,taking into consideration of the purpose for holding inventories and the effects of events occurring after the date of the balance sheet.The materials held for production shall be measured at cost if the net realizable value of the finished products is higher than the co st.If a decline of the value of materials shows that the net realizable value o f the finishedproducts is lower than the cost, the materials shall be measured at the net realizable value.Ar ti cl e 17 The net realizable value of inventories held for the execution of sales contracts or labor contracts shall be calculated on the ground of the contract price.If an enterprise holds more inventories than the quantities subscribed in the sales contract, the net realizable value of the excessive p art of the inventories shall be calculated on the ground of the general sales price.Ar ti cl e 18 Ordinarily an enterprise shall make provision for loss on decline in value of inventories on the ground of each item of inventories.For inventories with large quantity and relatively low unit prices, the provision for loss on decline in value of inventories shall be made on the ground of the categories of inventories.For the inventories related to the series of products manufactured and sold in the same area, and of which the final use or purpose is identical or s imilar thereto, and if it is difficult to measure them by separating t hem from other items, the provision for loss on decline in value of inventories shall be made on a combination basis.Ar ti cl e 19 An enterprise shall confirm the net realizable value of inventories on the balance sheet date. If the factors causing any write-down o f the inventories have disappeared, the amount of write-down shall be resumed and be reversed from the provision for the loss on decline in value of inventories t hat has been made. The reversed amount shall be included in the current profits and losses.Ar ti cl e 20 An enterprise shall amortize the easily consumed products of l ow value and packing articles and supplies byemploying the one-off write-off method or equal-split amortization method and bring it in the cost of the relevant assets or in the current profits and losses.Ar ti cl e 21 For any damage to the inventories of an enterprise, the enterp rise shall include the amount after deducting the book value and relevant taxes from the disposal income in the current profits and losses.The book value of inventories shall refer to the amount after deducting the accumulative provision for loss on decline in value of inventories from the cost of in ventories.The loss of inventories shall be included in the current profits and losses.Chapter IV DisclosureAr ti cl e 22 An enterprise shall, in the notes, disclose the information co ncerning to inventories as follows:(1) The book value of all inventories at the beginning and end of the period;(2) The methods to confirm the cost of sending out inventories;(3) The basis for confirming the net realizable value of inventories, the methods to make provision for the loss on decline in value of i nventories, the amount of the provision for loss on decline in value of inventories to be reversed in the current period, as well as the relevant information about the making and reversion of the provision for loss on decline in value of inventories.(4) The book value of inventories used for a guaranty.。

企业会计准则中英文

企业会计准则中英文The EAS consists of 38 accounting standards, which cover various aspects of financial reporting such as recognition and measurement of assets and liabilities, revenue recognition, expense recognition, and presentation and disclosure offinancial statements. These standards are based on the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and are tailored to the specific needs and characteristics of Chinese enterprises.The EAS 1 (Framework for the Preparation and Presentation of Financial Statements) sets out the basic principles and concepts underlying the preparation and presentation of financial statements. It provides guidance on the selection andapplication of accounting policies, and the preparation of financial statements that provide relevant and reliable information to the users. The framework also emphasizes the importance of substance over form in financial reporting.The EAS 2 (Inventories) provides rules for the recognition, measurement, and disclosure of inventories. It requires enterprises to value inventories at the lower of cost and net realizable value, and provides guidance on the methods of inventory valuation such as the FIFO (First-in, First-out) and weighted average cost methods.The EAS 3 (Fixed Assets) governs the recognition and measurement of fixed assets. It requires enterprises to capitalize the cost of fixed assets that meet the recognition criteria, and provides guidance on the subsequent measurement, depreciation, and impairment of fixed assets. The standard also requires enterprises to disclose information about the major classes of fixed assets and the depreciation methods used.The EAS 4 (Investment Property) provides guidance on the recognition, measurement, and disclosure of investment property. It requires enterprises to account for investment property at fair value, with changes in fair value recognized in profit or loss. The standard also requires enterprises to disclose information about the nature, use, and location of investment property.The EAS 5 (Borrowing Costs) governs the capitalization and allocation of borrowing costs. It requires enterprises to capitalize borrowing costs that are directly attributable to the acquisition, construction, or production of qualifying assets, and provides guidance on the methods of allocation of borrowing costs to these assets.The EAS 6 (Revenue) provides rules for the recognition and measurement of revenue. It requires enterprises to recognize revenue when it is probable that economic benefits will flow to the enterprise, and provides guidance on the measurement ofrevenue from the sale of goods, rendering of services, and use of enterprise assets by others.。

企业会计准则会计科目英文版

企业会计准则会计科目英文版(中英文版)**Enterprise Accounting Standards: Accounting Subjects**In the realm of enterprise accounting, the establishment of standardized accounting subjects is of paramount importance.These subjects serve as the fundamental framework for categorizing and recording financial transactions, ensuring accuracy, transparency, and comparability in financial reporting.The following is an outline of the key accounting subjects in accordance with the enterprise accounting standards.1.Assets- Current Assets: Including cash, accounts receivable, inventory, and short-term investments.- Non-Current Assets: Comprising property, plant, and equipment, intangible assets, and long-term investments.2.Liabilities- Current Liabilities: Encompassing accounts payable, short-term loans, and accrued expenses.- Non-Current Liabilities: Including long-term loans, bonds payable, and deferred tax liabilities.3.Equity- Owner"s Equity: Reflecting the owner"s investment and retained- Minority Interest: Representing the portion of equity in subsidiaries not owned by the parent company.4.Revenue- Sales Revenue: Arising from the main operations of the enterprise.- Other Revenue: Including non-operating income such as interest and gains from the sale of assets.5.Expenses- Cost of Goods Sold: Relating to the production or purchase of goods sold.- Operating Expenses: Including salaries, rent, utilities, and marketing expenses.- Non-Operating Expenses: Comprising interest expenses and losses from the sale of assets.6.Gains and Losses- Gain or Loss on Disposal of Assets: Resulting from the sale or retirement of assets.- Unrealized Gains or Losses: Associated with changes in the fair value of certain financial instruments.7.Income Taxes- Current Tax Expense: Relating to taxes payable on current year"s- Deferred Tax Expense: Resulting from temporary differences between accounting and tax treatments.8.Other Comprehensive Income- Items of Other Comprehensive Income: Including foreign currency translation adjustments, gains or losses on available-for-sale financial assets, and certain pension adjustments.Adherence to these accounting subjects as per the enterprise accounting standards ensures that financial statements are prepared in a manner that is consistent, reliable, and informative for stakeholders.**企业会计准则：会计科目**在企业会计领域，建立标准化的会计科目至关重要。

关于会计的英文文献原文(带中文翻译)

The Optimization Method of Financial Statements Based on Accounting Management TheoryABSTRACTThis paper develops an approach to enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) was fundamentally flawed by fair value accounting and asset-impairment accounting. According to legal theory and accounting theory, accounting data must have legal evidence as its source document. The conventional “mixed attribute” accounting system should be re placed by a “segregated” system with historical cost and fair value being kept strictly apart in financial statements. The proposed optimizing method will significantly enhance the reliability and usefulness of financial statements.I.. INTRODUCTIONBased on international-accounting-convergence approach, the Ministry of Finance issued the Enterprise Accounting Standards in 2006 taking the International Financial Reporting Standards (hereinafter referred to as “the International Standards”) for reference. The Enterprise Accounting Standards carries out fair value accounting successfully, and spreads the sense that accounting should reflect market value objectively. The objective of accounting reformation following-up is to establish the accounting theory and methodology which not only use international advanced theory for reference, but also accord with the needs of China's socialist market economy construction. On the basis of a thorough evaluation of the achievements and limitations of International Standards, this paper puts forward a stand that to deepen accounting reformation and enhance the stability of accounting regulations.II. OPTIMIZA TION OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEM: PARALLELING LISTING OF LEGAL FACTS AND FINANCIAL EXPECTA TIONAs an important management activity, accounting should make use of information systems based on classified statistics, and serve for both micro-economic management and macro-economic regulation at the same time. Optimization of financial statements system should try to take all aspects of the demands of the financial statements in both macro and micro level into account.Why do companies need to prepare financial statements? Whose demands should be considered while preparing financial statements? Those questions are basic issues we should consider on the optimization of financial statements. From the perspective of "public interests", reliability and legal evidence are required as qualitative characters, which is the origin of the traditional "historical cost accounting". From the perspective of "private interest", security investors and financial regulatory authoritieshope that financial statements reflect changes of market prices timely recording "objective" market conditions. This is the origin of "fair value accounting". Whether one set of financial statements can be compatible with these two different views and balance the public interest and private interest? To solve this problem, we design a new balance sheet and an income statement.From 1992 to 2006, a lot of new ideas and new perspectives are introduced into China's accounting practices from international accounting standards in a gradual manner during the accounting reform in China. These ideas and perspectives enriched the understanding of the financial statements in China. These achievements deserve our full assessment and should be fully affirmed. However, academia and standard-setters are also aware that International Standards are still in the process of developing .The purpose of proposing new formats of financial statements in this paper is to push forward the accounting reform into a deeper level on the basis of international convergence.III. THE PRACTICABILITY OF IMPROVING THE FINANCIAL STATEMENTS SYSTEMWhether the financial statements are able to maintain their stability? It is necessary to mobilize the initiatives of both supply-side and demand-side at the same time. We should consider whether financial statements could meet the demands of the macro-economic regulation and business administration, and whether they are popular with millions of accountants.Accountants are responsible for preparing financial statements and auditors are responsible for auditing. They will benefit from the implementation of the new financial statements.Firstly, for the accountants, under the isolated design of historical cost accounting and fair value accounting, their daily accounting practice is greatly simplified. Accounting process will not need assets impairment and fair value any longer. Accounting books will not record impairment and appreciation of assets any longer, for the historical cost accounting is comprehensively implemented. Fair value information will be recorded in accordance with assessment only at the balance sheet date and only in the annual financial statements. Historical cost accounting is more likely to be recognized by the tax authorities, which saves heavy workload of the tax adjustment. Accountants will not need to calculate the deferred income tax expense any longer, and the profit-after-tax in the solid line table is acknowledged by the Company Law, which solves the problem of determining the profit available for distribution.Accountants do not need to record the fair value information needed by security investors in the accounting books; instead, they only need to list the fair value information at the balance sheet date. In addition, because the data in the solid line table has legal credibility, so the legal risks of accountants can be well controlled. Secondly, the arbitrariness of the accounting process will be reduced, and the auditors’ review process will be greatly simplified. The independent auditors will not have to bear the considerable legal risk for the dotted-line table they audit, because the risk of fair value information has been prompted as "not supported by legalevidences". Accountants and auditors can quickly adapt to this financial statements system, without the need of training. In this way, they can save a lot of time to help companies to improve management efficiency. Surveys show that the above design of financial statements is popular with accountants and auditors. Since the workloads of accounting and auditing have been substantially reduced, therefore, the total expenses for auditing and evaluation will not exceed current level as well.In short, from the perspectives of both supply-side and demand-side, the improved financial statements are expected to enhance the usefulness of financial statements, without increase the burden of the supply-side.IV. CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSThe current rule of mixed presentation of fair value data and historical cost data could be improved. The core concept of fair value is to make financial statements reflect the fair value of assets and liabilities, so that we can subtract the fair value of liabilities from assets to obtain the net fair value.However, the current International Standards do not implement this concept, but try to partly transform the historical cost accounting, which leads to mixed using of impairment accounting and fair value accounting. China's accounting academic research has followed up step by step since 1980s, and now has already introduced a mixed-attributes model into corporate financial statements.By distinguishing legal facts from financial expectations, we can balance public interests and private interests and can redesign the financial statements system with enhancing management efficiency and implementing higher-level laws as main objective. By presenting fair value and historical cost in one set of financial statements at the same time, the statements will not only meet the needs of keeping books according to domestic laws, but also meet the demand from financial regulatory authorities and security investorsWe hope that practitioners and theorists offer advices and suggestions on the problem of improving the financial statements to build a financial statements system which not only meets the domestic needs, but also converges with the International Standards.基于会计管理理论的财务报表的优化方法摘要本文提供了一个方法，以提高财务报表的可靠性和实用性。

会计学毕业论文外文文献及翻译

LNTU---Acc附录A国际会计准则第 37 号或有负债和或有资产目的本准则的目的是确保将适当的确认标准和计量基础运用于准备、或有负债和或有资产，并确保在财务报表的附注中披露充分的信息，以使使用者能够理解它们的性质、时间和金额。

范围1．本准则适用于所有企业对以下各项之外的准备、或有负债和或有资产的会计核算：（1）以公允价值计量的金融工具形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产：（2）执行中的合同（除了亏损的执行中的合同）形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（3）保险公司与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产；（4）由其他国际会计准则规范的准备、或有负债和或有资产。

2．本准则适用于不是以公允价值计量的金融工具（包括担保）。

3．执行中的合同是指双方均未履行任何义务或双方均同等程度地履行了部分义务的合同。

本准则不适用于执行中的合同，除非它是亏损的。

4．本准则适用于保险公司的准备、或有负债和或有资产，但不适用于其与保单持有人之间签订的合同形成的准备、或有负债和或有资产。

5．如果其他国际会计准则规范了特定的准备、或有负债和或有资产，企业应运用该准则而不是本准则，例如，关于以下项目的准则也规范了特定的准备：（1）建造合同（参见《国际会计准则第11号建造合同》）；（2）所得税（参见《国队会计准则第12号所得税》）；（3）租赁（参见《国际会计准则第17 号租赁》），但是，《国际会计准则第17 号》未对已变为亏损的经营租质的核算提出具体要求，因而本准则应适用于这些情况；（4）雇员福利（参见《国际会计准则第19号一雇员福利》）。

6．一些作为准备处理的金额可能与收入的确认有关，例如企业提供担保以收取费用，本准则不涉及收入确认，《国际会计准则第18 号收入》明确了收入确认标准，并就确认标准的应用提供了实务指南，本准则不改变《国际会计准则第18 号》的规定。

7．本准则将准备定义为时间或金额不确定的负债，在某些国家，“准备”也与一些项目相联系使用，例如折旧，资产减值和坏账：这些是对资产账面金额的调整，本准则不涉及。

企业会计准则英文版

．企业会计准则——基本准则(英文版)Accounting Standard for Business Enterprises:Basic StandardContentsThe People's Republic of ChinaAccounting Standard for Business Enterprises:Basic StandardChapter I General ProvisionsArticle 1. In accordance with "The Accounting Law of the People's Republic of China", this Standard is formulated to meet the needs of developing a socialist market economy in our country, to standardize accounting practice and to ensure the quality of accounting information.Article 2. This Standard is applicable to all enterprises established within the territory of the People's Republic of China. Chinese enterprises established outside the territory of the People's Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as "enterprises abroad") are required to prepare and disclose their financial reports to appropriate domestic regulatory authorities in accordance with this Standard.Article 3. Accounting systems of enterprises are required to comply with this Standard.Article 4. An enterprise shao9ill accurately account for all its transactions actually taken place in order to provide reports of reliable quality on the economic and financial activities of the enterprise itself.Article 5. Accounting and financial reports should proceed on the basis that the enterprise is a continuing entity and will remain in operation into the foreseeable future.Article 6. An enterprise shall account for its transactions and prepare its financial statements in distinct accounting periods. Accounting periods may be a fiscal year, a quarter, or a month, commencing on first days thereof according to the Gregorian calendar.Article 7. The Renminbi is the bookkeeping base currency of an enterprise. A Foreign currency may be used as the bookkeeping base currency for enterprises which conduct transactions mainly in foreign currency. However, in preparing financial statements, foreign currency transactions are to be converted into Renminbi. This latter requirement app1ies to enterprises abroad when reporting financial and economic results to concerned domestic organizations.Article 8. The debit and credit double entry bookkeeping technique is to be used for recording all accounting transactions.Article 9. Accounting records and financia1 reports are to be compiled using the Chinese language. Minority or foreign languages may be used concurrently with the Chinese 1anguage by enterprises in autonomous areas of minority nationalities, or by enterprises with foreign investment, and by foreign enterprises.Chapter Ⅱ General PrinciplesArticle l0. The accounting records and financial reports must be based on financial and economic transactions as they actually take place, in order to objectively reflect the financial position and operating results of an enterprise.Article 11. Accounting information must be designed to meet the requirements of national macro-economy control, the needs of all concerned external users to understand an enterprise's financial position and operating results, and the needs of management of enterprises to strengthen their financial management and administration.Article 12. Accounting records and financial statements shall be prepared according to stipulated accounting methods, and accounting information of enterprises must be comparable and convenient to be analyzed.Article 13. Accounting methods used shall be consistent from one period to the other and shall not be arbitrarily changed. Changes and reasons for changes, if necessary, and their impact on an enterprise's financial position and operating results, shall be reported in notes to the financial statements.Article 14. Accounting and financial reports preparation must be conducted in a timely manner.Article 15. Accounting records and financial reports shall be prepared in a clear, concise manner to facilitate understanding, examination and use.Article 16. The accrual basis of accounting is to be adopted.Article 17. Revenue shall be matched with related costs and expenses in accounting.Article 18. Princip1e of prudence should be followed in reasonably determining the possible loss and expense.Article l9. The values of all assets are to be recorded at historical costs at the time of acquisition. The amount recorded in books of account shall not be adjusted even though a fluctuation in their value may occur, except when State laws or regulations require specific treatment or adjustments.Article 20. A clear distinction shall be drawn between revenue expenditures and capital expenditures. Expenditure shall be regarded as revenue expenditure where the benefit to the enterprise is only related to the current fiscal year; and as capital expenditure where the benefits to the enterprise last for several fiscal years.Article 21. Financial reports must reflect comprehensively the financial position and operating results of an enterprise. Transactions relating to major economic activities are to be identified, appropriately classified, and accounted for, and separately reported in financial statements.Chapter Ⅲ AssetsArticle 22. Assets are economic resources, which are measurable by money value, and which are owned or controlled by an enterprise, including all property, rights as a creditor to others, and other rights. Article 23. For accounting treatment, assets are normally divided into current assets, long-terminvestments, fixed assets, intangible assets, deferred assets and other assets.Article 24. Current assets refer to those assets which will be realized or consumed within one year of their acquisition, or within an operating cycle longer than a year. They include cash, cash deposits, short-term investments, accounts receivable, prepayments, and inventories, etc..Article 25. Cash and all kinds of deposits shall be accounted for according to the actual amount of receipt and payment.Article 26. Short-term investments refer to various of marketable securities, which can be realized at any time and will be held less than a year, as well as other investment with a life of no longer than a year. Marketable securities shall be accounted for according to historical cost as obtained.Income received or receivable from marketable securities in current period and the difference between the receipt obtained from securities sold and book cost shall be all accounted for as current profit or loss. Marketable securities shall be shown in book balance in accounting statement.Article 27. Receivables and prepayments include: notes receivable, accounts receivable, other receivables, accounts prepaid and prepaid expenses, etc..Receivables and prepayments shall be accounted for according to actual amount.Provision for bad debts may be set up on accounts receivable. The provision for bad debts shall be shown as a deduction item of accounts receivable in the financial statement.All receivables and prepayments shall be cleared and collected on time, and shall be checked with related parties periodically. Any accounts receivable, proved to be definitely uncollectible according to state regulations, shall be recognised as bad debts and written off against provision for bad debts or charged to current profit or loss, if such provision is not set up.Prepaid expenses shall be amortized according to period benefiting, and the balance shall be shown separately in accounting statement.Article 28. Inventories refer to merchandise, finished goods, semifinished goods, goods in process, and all kinds of materials, fuels, containers, low-va1ue and perishable articles and so on that stocked for the purpose of sale, production or consumption during the production operational process.All inventories shal1 be accounted for at historical cost as obtained. Those enterprises keeping books at planned cost or norm cost in daily accounting shall account the cost variances and adjust planned cost (or norm cost) into historical cost periodically.When inventories issuing, enterprises may account them under the following methods: first-in first-out, weighted average, moving average, specific identification, last-in first-out, etc..All inventories shall be taken stock periodically. If any overage, shortage and out-of-date, deterioration and damage that need to be scrapped shall be disposed within the year and accounted into current profit or loss.All the inventories shall be disclosed at historical cost in accounting statement.Article 29. Long-term investment refers to the investment impossible or not intended to be realized within a year, including shares investment, bonds investment and other investments.In accordance with different situation, shares investment and other investments shall be accounted for by cost method or equity method respectively.Bonds investment shall be accounted for according to actual amount paid. The interest accrued contained in the actually paid amount shall be accounted for separately.Where bonds are acquired at a premium or discount, the difference between the cost and the face value of the bonds shall be amortized over the periods to maturity of the bonds.Interest accrued during the period of bonds investment and the difference between the amount of principal and interest received on bonds sold and their book cost and interest accrued but not yet received shall be accounted for as current profit and loss.Shares investment, bonds investment and other investments shall be shown separately in accounting statements at book balance.Bonds investment matured within a year shall be shown in the accounting statements separately under the caption of current assets.Article 30. Fixed assets refer to the assets whose useful life is over one year, unit va1ue is above the prescribed criteria and where original physical form remains during the process of utilization, including building and structures, machinery and equipment, transportation equipment, tools and implement, etc..Fixed assets sha1l be accounted for at historical cost as obtained. Interest of loan and other related expenses for acquiring fixed assets, and the exchange difference from conversion of foreign currency loan, if incurred before the assets not having been put into operation or after been put into operation but before the final account for completed project is made, shall be accounted as fixed assets value; if incurred after that, shall be accounted for as current profit or loss.Fixed assets coming from donations shall be accounted through evaluation with reference to market price, wear and tear degree or determined the value with relevant evidence provided by contributors. Expenses incurred on receiving those donated fixed assets, shall be accounted for as the fixed assets value.Fixed assets financed by leasing shall be accounted with reference of the way fixed assets are accounted and shall be explained in notes to the accounting statements.Depreciation on the fixed assets shall be accounted according to state regulations. On the basis of the original cost, estimated residual value, the useful life of the fixed assets or estimated working capacity, depreciation on the fixed assets shall be accounted for on the straight line method or the working capacity (or output) method. If approved or conforming to relevant regulations, accelerated depreciation method may be adopted.Fixed assets' original value, accumulated depreciation and its net value shall be shown separately in accounting statement.The actual expenditures incurred in the purpose of acquiring or technical reforming the fixed assets before available to the users, shall be shown separately as construction in progress in accounting statement.The fixed assets must be taken inventory periodically. The net profit or loss incurred in discard and disposal, and also overage, shortage of fixed assets shall be accounted as current profit and loss.企业会计准则——基本准则(英文版)二Article 31. Intangible assets refer to assets that will be used by an enterprise for a long term without material state, including patents, nonpatented technology, trademark, copyrights, right to use sites, and goodwil1, etc..Intangible assets obtained through purchase shal1 be accounted for at actual cost. Intangible assets received from investors shall be accounted for at the assessed value recognised or the amount specified in the contract. Self-developed intangible assets shall be accounted at actual cost in the development process.All intangible assets shall be averagely amortized periodically over the period benefitted from such expenditures and be shown with unamortized balance in accounting statement.Article 32. Deferred assets refer to all the expenses that could not be accounted as current profit or loss tota1ly but should be periodically amortized in future years, including organization expenses, expenditures incurred in major repair and improvement of the rented in fixed assets etc..The expenses incurred in an enterprise during its preparation period shall he accounted for as organization expenses except those accounted into related property or material value. The organization expense shall be averagely amortized in a certain period of years after the operation starts.Expenditures incurred on major repair and improvement of the rented in fixed assets shall be averagely amortized by years in the period of leasing.All deferred assets shall be shown separately in accounting statements by its ba1ance not yet amortized.Article 33. Other assets refer to the long-term assets except all items mentioned above.Chapter Ⅳ LiabilitiesArticle 34. A liability is debt borne by an enterprise, measurable by money va1ue, which will be paid to a creditor using assets, or services.Article 35. Liabilities are generally classified into current liabilities and long-term liabilities.Article 36. Current liabilities refer to the debts which should be paid off within a year or an operating cycle 1onger than a year, including short-term loans payable, notes payable, accounts payab1e, advances from customers, accrued payro1l, taxes payable, profits payab1e, dividends payable, other payables,provision for expenses, etc..All current liabilities shall be accounted for at actual amount incurred. Liabilities incurred but the amount needed to be estimated shall be accounted for at a reasonable estimate, and then adjusted after actual amount was given.Balance of current liabilities shall be shown by item in accounting statements.Article 37. Long-term liabilities refer to the debts which will be redeemed after a year or an operating cycle longer than a year, including long-term loans payable, bonds payable, long-term accounts payable, etc..Long-term loans payable include the loans borrowed from f1nancial institutions and other units. It shall beaccounted independently according to the different characters of the loan and at the amount actually incurred.Bonds shall be accounted for at par value. When bonds are issued in premium or discount, the difference between the amount actually obtained and the par value shall be accounted independently, and be written off periodically by increasing or decreasing interest expenses of every period until bonds mature.Long-term accounts payable include accounts payable for importing equipments, accounts payable for fixed assets financed by leasing. Long-term accounts payable shall be accounted at actual amounts.Long-term liabilities shall be shown by item of long-term loans, bonds payable, long-term accounts payable in accounting statements.Long-term liabilities to be matured and payable within a year sha11 be shown as a separate item under the caption of current liabilities.Chapter V Owners' EquityArticle 38. Owners' equity refers to the interest of the investors remaining in the net assets of an enterprise, including capital of the enterprise invested in by investors, capital reserve, surplus reserve, and undistributed profit retained in the enterprise etc..Article 39. Invested Capital is the capital fund actually invested in the enterprise by its investors, whether it be in form of cash, physical goods or other assets for the operation of the enterprise. Invested Capital shall be accounted for at the amount actually invested.Amount of shares issued by a corporation shall be accounted for as capital stock at the face value of the shares issued.Specia1 appropriation allocated by the government to an enterprise sha1l be accounted for as government investment unless otherwise provided.Article 40. Capital reserve includes premium on capital stock, legal increment of property value through revaluation and value of donated assets accepted, etc..Article 41. Surplus reserve refers to the reserve fund set up from profit according to relevant governmentregulations.Surplus reserve shall be accounted for at the amount actually set up.Article 42. Undistributed profit refers to the profit reserved for future distribution or not distributed yet.Article 43. Invested capital, capital reserve, surplus reserve and undistributed profit shall be shown by items in accounting statement. Deficit not yet made up, if any, shal1 be shown as a deduction item of owners' equity.Chapter Ⅵ RevenueArticle 44. Revenue refers to the financial inflows to an enterprise as a result of the sale of goods and services, and other business activities of the enterprise, including basic operating revenue and other operating revenue.Article 45. Enterprises shall rationally recognise revenue and account for the revenue on time.Enterprises generally recognise revenue when merchandise shipped, service provided as well as money collected or rights collecting money obtained.Revenue of long-term project contract (including labor service) shall be reasonably recognised, in general, according to the completed progress method or the completed contract method.Article 46. Return of sales, sa1es allowances and sales discount sha1l be accounted for as deduction item of operating revenue.Chapter Ⅶ ExpensesArticle 47. Expenses refer to the outlays incurred by an enterprise in the course of production and operation.Article 48. Expenses directly incurred by an enterprise in production and service provision, including direct labor, direct materials, purchase price of commodities and other direct expenses shal1 be charged direct1y into the cost of production or operation; indirect expenses incurred in production and provision of service by an enterprise is to be allocated into the cost of production and operation, according to certain criteria of allocation.Article 49. General and administrative-expenses incurred by enterprise's administrative sectors for organizing and managing production and operation, financial expenses, purchase expenses on commodities purchased for sale, and sales expenses for selling commodities and providing service, shal1 be direct1y accounted for as periodic expense in the current profit and loss.Article 50. The expenses paid in current period but attributable to the current and future periods shall be distributed and accounted for in current and future periods. The expenses attributable to the current period but not yet paid in current period sha1l be recognised as accrued expenses and charged to cost of the current period.Article 51. Enterprises shall generally calculate products cost every month.Costing methods shall be decided by the enterprise itself according to the characteristics of its production and operation, type of production management and requirements of cost management. Once it is decided, no change can be made arbitrarily.Article 52. Enterprises shall calculate expenses and costs on actual amounts incurred. Those adopting the norm costing, or planned costing in accounting for dai1y calculation shall reasonably calculate the cost variances, and adjust them into historical cost at the end of the month while preparing accounting statements.Article 53. Enterprises shall convert the cost of commodities sold and service provided into operating cost accurately and timely, then account current profit and loss together with periodic expenses. Chapter Ⅷ Profit and LossArticle 54. Profit is the operating results of an enterprise in an accounting period, including operating profit, net investment profit and net non-operating income.Operating profit is the balance of operating revenue after deducting operating cost, periodic expenses and all turnover taxes, surtax and fees.Net investment profit is the balance of income on externa1 investment after deducting investment loss.Net non-operating income is the balance of non-operating income after deducting non-operating expenses. Non-operating income and expenses have no direct relating with the production operations of an enterprise.Article 55. Loss incurred by an enterprise shall be made up according to the stipulated procedure.Article 56. Items that constitute the profits and the distribution of profits shal1 be shown separate1y in the financial statement. A distribution of profit plan which is not yet approved at time of publication of a financial statement is to be identified in notes to the financial statement.Chapter Ⅸ Financial ReportsArticle 57. Financial reports are the written documents summarizing and reflecting the financial position and operating results of an enterprise, including a balance sheet, an income statement, a statement of changes in financial position (or a cash flow statement ) together with supporting schedules, notes to the financial statements, and explanatory statements on financial condition.Article 58. A balance sheet is an accounting statement that reflects the financial position of an enterprise at a specific date.Items of the balance sheet should be grouped according to the categories of assets, liabilities and owners' equity, and shall be shown item by item.Article 59. An income statement is an accounting statement that reflects the operating results of an enterprise within an accounting period, as well as their distribution.Items of the income statement should be arranged according to the formation and distribution of profit, and shall be shown item by item.Items of profit distribution part of the income statement may be shown separately in a statement of profit distribution.Article 60. A statement of changes in financial position is an accounting statement that reflects comprehensively the sources and application of working capital and its changes during an accounting period.Items of the statement of changes in financial position are divided into two groups: sources of working capital and application of working capital. The difference between the total sources and total applications is the net increase (or decrease ) of the working capital. Sources of working capital are subdivided into profit sources and other sources; applications of working capital are also subdivided into: profit distribution and other applications, all shall be shown item by item.An enterprise may also prepare a cash flow statement to reflect the changes in its financial position.A cash flow statement is an accounting statement that reflects the condition of cash receipts and cash disbursements of an enterprise during a certain accounting period.Article 61. Financial statements should include comparative financial information for the corresponding previous accounting period, When so required, if the classification and contents of statement items of the previous accounting period are different from that of the current period, such items should be adjusted in conformity with that of the current period.Article 62. Accounting statements should be prepared from the records of account books, completely recorded and correctly checked and other relative information. It is required that they must be true and correct in figures, complete in contents and issued on time.Article 63. Consolidated financia1 statements sha1l be prepared by the enterprise (acts as a parent company ) which owns 50% or more of the total capital of the enterprise it invested (acts as subsidiary ) or otherwise owns the right of control over the invested enterprise. Financial statements of an invested enterprise of special line of business not suitable for consolidation, may not be consolidated, but should be submitted together with the consolidated financial statements of the parent company.Article 64. Notes to the financial statements are explanatory to related items in the financial statement of the enterprise concerned so as to meet the needs to understand the contents of the statements. This should include mainly:(a) the accounting methods adopted for the current and previous accounting periods;(b) changes in accounting treatments between the current and prior periods, inc1uding the reasons for, and impact on the financial performance and status of the enterprise of such changes;(c) description of unusual items;(d) detailed information relating to major items listed in the accounting statements; and(e) any other explanations necessary to provide users with a clear view and understanding of the financial statements.Chapter X Supplementary ProvisionsArticle 65. The exp1anation of this Standard is the charge of the Ministry of F1nance.Article 66.This Standard will be effective as from 1 July,1993.。

中小企业会计准则的应用外文文献翻译中英文

中小企业会计准则的应用外文文献翻译(含：英文原文及中文译文)文献出处：Nerudova D, Bohusova H. The application of an accounting standard for SMEs[J]. International Journal of Liability & Scientific Enquiry, 2009, 2(2):233-246.英文原文The application of an accounting standard for SMEsDanuse Nerudova and Hana BohusovaAbstractSmall and medium-sized companies have a very important position in the European Union (EU) economy, mainly in the area of employment. Their activities in the internal market are limited by a great deal of obstacles. The most important obstacles are the different national accounting and tax systems. At present, it is obvious that a certain degree of accounting and tax harmonization has to take place. International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for Small- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) is designed to apply to the general-purpose harmonized financial statements of all profit-oriented SMEs. General-purpose financial statements are directed toward the common information needs (an entity’s financial position, performance, cash flow) of a wide range of users (shareholders, creditors,employees). Determining taxable income requires special-purpose financial statements designed to comply with the tax laws and regulations in a particular jurisdiction. An entity taxable income is defined by the laws and regulations of the country or other jurisdictions in which it is domiciled. Tax authorities are also important external users of the financial statements of SMEs. Profit or loss recognized under IFRS for SMEs could be a starting point for determining taxable income. Keywords: small- and medium-sized enterprises; SMEs; taxable income; International Financial Reporting Standards; IFRS; cash flow; tax; accounting.1 IntroductionSmall- and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) comprise a substantial part of thecompanies operating in the European Union (EU) member states. Based on the latest statistics, there are 25 million SMEsoperating in 27 member states, which represent 234 D. Nerudováand H. Bohušov á99% of all business. These companies create more than 100 million jobs in the EU (Eurostat, 2003). In some industry sectors, such as textiles or construction, they even create more than 75% of the jobs. SMEs are considered the key factor of economic growth and employment in the EU. Therefore, they have received a great deal of attention in the EU in the last ten years. The structure of the EU 25 businesseconomy by the number of persons employed is shown in Table.There are 988 787 SMEs (with less than 250 employees), which represent 99.81% of all the enterprises operating in the Czech market (Czech Statistical Office, 2003). SMEs employ 1 961 000 people, which represent a 62.21% share of the total employment in the Czech Republic. The share is even 80% higher than the other sectors of the national economy –agriculture 85% and restaurant services 89.34%. For this reason, SMEs also play a very important role in the Czech Republic not only in the area of employment, but also in the economy as a whole.The increase in the importance of SMEs in the EU economy has propelled the European Commission to commission several studies, such as COM (2001)582 final and COM (2005)532 final in this area. These studies have dealt with the SMEs’position in the internal market and have identified the obstacles which these types of enterprises face while operating in the internal market. The existence of obstacles mainly in the form of 25 different accounting and tax systems, which generate disproportionate high compliance costs for SMEs (in comparison with large enterprises), is the reason why SMEs are less involved in cross-border activities and operate less in the internal market in comparison with large enterprises. The studies have revealed that SMEs operate mainly in the domestic (national) markets. It seems that in today’s globalised world, a higher involvement of SMEs in cross-borderactivities and its higher operation on the internal market could bring an increase in their competitiveness and performance, which would remarkably influence the economy and growth of the EU as a whole.The aims of the paper are to evaluate the Exposure Draft (ED) of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) for SMEs and design some modifications of SME financial reporting harmonization. The theoretical background of the paper presents the objectives of SME financial reporting harmonization and the efforts of the European Commission to harmonies the area of corporate taxation and introduce the recommended taxation models of EU companies. This paper contains a research on the implementation used in harmonising SME financial reporting. The full IFRS is transformed for SMEs by the simplification of some standards and by the omission of irrelevant standards. Finally, the paper summarises the results of the research and suggests alternative solutions.2 The characteristics of SMEsThe application of an accounting standard for SMEs 235 At present, various definitions which have been developed for application in different countries can be found. The criteria often used for classifying enterprises are turnover, the number of employees, capital base, profits, etc. Whether an enterprise appears to be large, medium or small differs widely across the countries and depends on their degree of development and the generalscale of economic activity.1 According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2005), the characteristics of SMEs reflect not only economic, but also the cultural and social dimensions of a country. The paper uses the definition of SMEs which has been introduced in the EU by the adoption of the Commission There is at present relatively little cross-country experience with generalised approaches to SMEs’taxation and accounting. On the other hand, there are available literature on the challenges faced in designing tax regimes for SMEs. Different accounting and tax systems which trigger high compliance costs represent the barrier for SMEs wishing to take part in cross-border activities in the EU.The efforts to unify the accounting systems of the EU member states are connected with the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) –the harmonisation of accounting and taxes is confirmed in the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. The aim was to coordinate the protective rules of companies not only in the interest of shareholders and third parties (creditors, employees), but also in the interest of equal competitive conditions and equal business relations in the member states.The first harmonisation efforts in the area of accounting were accomplished by the adoption of directives (Fourth Directive No. 78/660/EEC, Seventh Directive No. 83/349/EEC and Eighth Directive No.84/253/EEC). They create the code of EU accounting legislation and represent the basic harmonisation tool of the European Commission. These directives comprise elements from the continental legal system typified by Germany or France, as well as the elements from the Anglo-Saxon system. Both approaches differ mainly in the area of financial statements’arrangements.The most important directive in the area of accounting is represented by the fourth directive, which concerns the financial statements of large and medium-sized capital companies. The directive reflects the compromises between the continental and Anglo-Saxon approaches –the structure and form of financial statements are variable and its final form is left to national competence.Since the 1970s, the International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) has played a very important role in the area of accounting harmonisation. The IASC was followed in 2001 by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB), which was asked to create unified International Accounting Standards (IAS) and later, the IFRS.The efforts to harmonise taxation systems for SMEs within the EU have started mainly in 2001, when the European Commission introduced the green paper which surveyed the tax obstacles for the companies in the internal market. Until that time, the European Commission was always trying to harmonise or coordinate the system of direct taxation in generalwithout any special emphasis on SMEs. After the publication of the abovementioned study in 2001, the European Commission suggested four possible models of corporate tax harmonisation.2 One of them –Home State Taxation (HST) –was aimed at SMEs. Under that system, the companies will use for the taxation of their European activities the rules which are valid in the country where the company has a seat or headquarters. HST is voluntary –companies could opt to use domestic taxation rules or not.The model does not represent harmonisation, for under this system, 27 different national taxation systems, would still exist. The application of the model could also increase tax competition in order to attract the companies that would tax their profits from the European activities in the country. The European Commission has prepared the pilot project, under which the model should be tested for five years in selected countries. However, no member state applied to participate; therefore, the Commission turned its attention to a second model –the Common Consolidated Corporate Tax Base (CCCTB). At present, the CCCTB represents the priority of the European Commission –the draft of the CCCTB directive should be finished by the end of 2008. The problem is that the model is mainly aimed at large companies and will probably not be reachable for SMEs (for details, see Nerudová, 2007).At present, the directives connected with accounting are undergoingthe revision. The aims are to adopt the directives to the requirements connected with the internalisation of the business environment and harmonise the directives with IFRS. In 2003, Directive No. 2003/51/EC was adopted, which enables the member states which do not apply IAS/IFRS on all companies to use the similar financial reporting systems.The situation in the area of accounting harmonisation is solved for large companies listed on the world stock markets. SMEs have a legal obligation to prepare financial statements in accordance with a set of accounting principles accepted in their country. Those statements are available to creditors, suppliers and the government in their country, but they could be difficult to understand for creditors, suppliers and those in other countries.The financial statements of SMEs that are comparable from one country to the next are needed for the following reasons. Firstly, financial institutions make loans across borders and operate on a multinational level. Secondly, vendors want to evaluate the financial health of buzzers in other countries before they sell goods or services on credit. Credit rating agencies try to develop ratings uniformly across borders. Furthermore, many SMEs have overseas suppliers and use a supplier’s financial statement to assess the prospects of a viable long-term business relationship. V enture capital firms also provide funding to SMEs across borders.Many SMEs have external investors who are not involved in the day-to-day management of the entity. Global accounting standards for general-purpose financial statements and the resulting comparability are especially important when those external investors are located in a different jurisdiction from the entity and when they have interests in other SMEs. Moreover, global standards also improve the consistency in audit quality and facilitate education and training. On the other hand, good accounting and more disclosures add to SMEs’burdens rather than reduce them; SMEs are also often concerned about the competitive harmfulness of greater transparency.The benefit of global financial reporting standards is not limited to enterprises whose securities are traded in public capital markets. SMEs –and those who use their financial statements –can benefit from a common set of accounting standards different from full IFRS. Users may have less interest in some information in general-purpose financial statements prepared in accordance with full IFRS than the users of financial statements of publicly traded entities (users of the financial statements of SMEs may have greater interest in short-term cash flows, liquidity, balance sheet strength and interest coverage or they may need some information that is not ordinarily presented in the financial statement of publicly traded companies).The differences between full IFRS and IFRS for SMEs must bedetermined on the basis of users’needs and cost-benefit analyses as quotes (Bohušová, 2007). There can be found different attitudes to the introduction of standards for SMEs in accounting theory. As stated by Březinová(2004), it is very important to consider who the users of financial statements are while making the decision about the application of accounting standards for SMEs. Also, V eerle (2005) and Street and Larson (2004) were in opposition to SMEs’accounting harmonisation based on full IFRS, which is applied in Malta, Cyprus or Croatia (mainly because of the different needs of users of the information from the financial statements). With quotes (Březinová, 2004), the basic problem is the approaches to the valuation methods used by IFRS for companies which are not the subjects of public interest. The philosophy of IFRS is primarily to provide the information for financial investors and supervising institutions while the standards for SMEs (which are not the subjects of public interest) should reflect the needs of different accounting information users (owners, managers, state, tax authorities, insurance companies, creditors, etc.). On the contrary, Haller (2002) asked whether the size of the enterprise is the reason for the application of different methodical approaches to financial statements. Furthermore, Oberreiter (2005) expressed doubt about the harmonisation of the standards for SMEs mainly because of its local character. According to the author, SMEs lack the ambition to become large or listed companies.He suggested different approaches to the individual SMEs.3 BackgroundSince 2004, the IASB has been working on a project to develop accounting standards suitable for enterprises that are not obliged to prepare financial statements in accordance with IAS/IFRS. In June 2004, the discussion paper Preliminary Views on Accounting Standards for SMEs was published. The responses (120 responses) to the discussion paper showed a clear demand for an IFRS for SMEs and the preference to adopt the IFRS for SMEs rather than locally or regionally developed standards. Based on the responses to the discussion paper, the enterprises which should prepare their financial statements in accordance with IFRS for SMEs were defined. They were defined by the IASB as enterprises that either do not have public accountability or publish general-purpose financial statements for external users.The IASB definition of SMEs does not include quantified size criteria for determining what a small or medium-sized entity is because those standards could be used in over 100 countries (from the reasons already mentioned). It is not feasible to develop a quantified test that would be applicable and long-lasting in all of those countries. In deciding which entities should be required or permitted to use the IFRS for SMEs, jurisdiction may prescribe the quantified size criteria in a particular country. Despite this fact, the IASB approach focuses on ‘the typicalSME’with about 50 employees. It is a quantified size test for defining SMEs, but rather, for helping it decide the kind of transactions, events and conditions that should be explicitly addressed in the IFRS for SMEs.中文译文中小企业会计准则的应用Danuse Nerudova和Hana Bohusova摘要中小企业在欧盟经济中占有非常重要的地位，主要集中在就业领域。

企业会计准则中英版

企业会计准则第2 号——长期股权投资Accounting Standards for Enterprises No。

2 - Long-term Equity Investments第一章总则Chapter I General Provisions第一条为了规范长期股权投资的确认、计量和相关信息的披露,根据《企业会计准则——基本准则》，制定本准则。

Article 1 In order to regulate the recognition and measurement oflong—term equity investments, and disclosure of relevant information, these Standards are formulated in the light of the Accounting Standards for Enterprises – Basic Standards.第二条下列各项适用其他相关会计准则：Article 2 Other relevant accounting standards shall apply to such items as follows：（一）外币长期股权投资的折算,适用《企业会计准则第19 号-—外币折算》。

(1) The Accounting Standards for Enterprises No。

19 —Foreign CurrencyTranslation shall apply to the translation of long term equity investments in foreign currencies；（二)本准则未予规范的长期股权投资，适用《企业会计准则第22 号——金融工具确认和计量》.(2)The Accounting Standards for Enterprises No。

国际会计准则中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)译文:译文（一）世界贸易的飞速发展和国际资本的快速流动将世界经济带入了全球化时代。

在这个时代, 任何一个国家要脱离世界贸易市场和资本市场谋求自身发展是非常困难的。

会计作为国际通用的商业语言, 在经济全球化过程中扮演着越来越重要的角色, 市场参与者也对其提出越来越高的要求。

随着市场经济体制的逐步建立和完善，有些国家加入世贸组织后国际化进程的加快，市场开放程度的进一步增强，市场经济发育过程中不可避免的各种财务问题的出现，迫切需要完善的会计准则加以规范。

然而，在会计准则制定过程中，有必要认真思考理清会计准则的概念，使制定的会计准则规范准确、方便操作、经济实用。

由于各国家的历史、环境、经济发展等方面的不同,导致目前世界所使用的会计准则在很多方面都存在着差异,这使得各国家之间的会计信息缺乏可比性,本国信息为外国家信息使用者所理解的成本较高,在很大程度上阻碍了世界国家间资本的自由流动。

近年来,许多国家的会计管理部门和国家性的会计、经济组织都致力于会计准则的思考和研究,力求制定出一套适于各个不同国家和经济环境下的规范一致的会计准则,以增强会计信息的可比性,减少国家各之间经济交往中信息转换的成本。

译文（二）会计准则就是会计管理活动所依据的原则, 会计准则总是以一定的社会经济背景为其存在基础, 也总是反映不同社会经济制度、法律制度以及人们习惯的某些特征, 因而不同国家的会计准则各有不同特点。

但是会计准则毕竟是经济发展对会计规范提出的客观要求。

它与社会经济发展水平和会计管理的基本要求是相适应的,因而,每个国家的会计准则必然具有某些共性:1. 规范性每个企业有着变化多端的经济业务,而不同行业的企业又有各自的特殊性。

而有了会计准则,会计人员在进行会计核算时就有了一个共同遵循的标准,各行各业的会计工作可在同一标准的基础上进行,从而使会计行为达到规范化,使得会计人员提供的会计信息具有广泛的一致性和可比性,大大提高了会计信息的质量。

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企业会计准则外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)外文：On February 15, 2006, the Ministry of Finance issued 1 item of basic accounting standards and 38 specific guidelines, the new set of accounting standards system. Standards issued, the community gave wide attention, the securities industry, business circles, academic circles gave height the opinion, think this is the second in 1993 accounting reform after another is of great significance to the accounting reform, marking China's convergence with international financial reporting standards of enterprise accounting standards system formally established, to improve the China's socialist market economic system, improve the level of opening up and accelerate China's integration into the global economy has important significance.Also expressed their concerns and worries, mainly reflected in the following aspects: a fair value is difficult to "fair", and is very likely to become the profit manipulation tools; two is the enterprise may to adjust earnings manipulation debt restructuring, debt restructuring will once again become the darling of the securities market; three is the new standard published may induce "fair" phenomenon, whichmay lead to the end of 2006 enterprises will impairment assault back, at the same time accounts receivable impairment will still give listing Corporation profit adjustment leaves lots of space. These concerns whether it can become a reality? The new standards will become the corporate profits manipulation of the tool? Here we have to this a few worry about one to launch the analysis:A moderate, fair value applicationThe history of our country is a listing Corporation with the fair value of profit manipulation. Fair value appeared in 1998 in "debt recombines", "non monetary transactions" specific accounting standards, after the actual operation in many companies the abuse of fair value and profit manipulation in 2001 revised guidelines by the restriction of the use of. The new criterion system in financial tool, real estate investment, not the combination under common control, debt restructuring and non-monetary transactions etc. are carefully adopted the fair value accounting standards, thus becoming the one large window. Past episodes of "story" will repeat itself? To this one problem we analyzed from the following aspects:First of all, the fair value of the assets can be achieved by using fair value valuation is the international accounting standards, the United States and most market economic countries accounting standards in general practice. International already crossed the "want" present value and fair value debate stage, and mainly in "how to use" stage; International did not because of "Enron event" appear and delay the study and adopt present value and the fair value of the process. From the beginning of 1975, 30 years, FASB on the fair value measurement system research has not stopped, the fair value in the accounting standards in the United States are used more and more widely. As of 2004, at the end of 12, FASB has released a total of 153 financial accounting standards, fair value accounting standards and related 60 (forever, 2005).Fair value has a profound theoretical basis for the ten, it accords with the economic income concept, the comprehensive income concept, cash flow and market price of accounting assumption, accounting goal, modern relevance and reliability of quality characteristics of accounting elements, essential characteristics, future basic accounting, value and value concept, measurement values and net surplus theory and financial statements of the primitive logic (Xie Sifone, 2005).The use of fair value can effectively enhance the relevance of accounting information for investors, creditors,and other stakeholders to provide more help to the information for decision making. Take the investment real estate, book 20000000 yuan, if the city price rises to $200000000 accounting should reflect 200000000 yuan, such information is really true and useful. If still persist in the statements that the 20000000 yuan, accounting treatment is simple, but this information does not help the decision-making of investors, even misleading. Any reform will not give up eating for fear of choking, accounting reform is no exception. In line with international standards is the direction, is to represent the general trend, this point is in the affirmative.Secondly, suitable for the application of the fair value of the "soil" preliminary already form. Fair value is the product of the market economy. In 2003 the Central Committee made on perfecting the socialist market economic system a number of issues, symbolizes that our country market economy already from start-up to improve, the market economy status of China has been established. The securities market of our country after ten years of development and perfection, to strengthen corporate governance, improve operational transparency, clear violations, establishing listing Corporation integrated supervision system has made great progress. China Securities Regulatory Commission promoting the share-trading reform pilot, listing and financing program, has issued a number of regulations, strengthen the listing Corporation information disclosure and fraud and strength; the Ministry of finance to increase the quality of accounting information and the CPA audit quality inspection; listing Corporation governance level rises further, CPA, assets assessment division, independent directors such as rational economic choice for listing Corporation irregularities built several "firewall"; the majority of investors in the analysis of accounting information to judge, effective screening capacity is enhanced, the effectiveness of the securities market gradually improve. In addition, after joining the WTO, large amount of foreign capital into China, financial derivatives trading activity, produce a number, different features of derivative financial instruments, such as futures (Futures), option (Options), forward contract (Forwards Contract), swap (Swaps) etc.. As the derivative financial instruments no initial net investment is required, or very few requirements of net investment, the historical cost of its incapable of action, only the fair value to carry on the accurate recognition and measurement..FASl33 stated: fair value measurement of financial instruments is the best measurement attribute, the derivative financial instruments, fair value measurement attribute is the only. Potential of time shift, which contributes to theapplication of the fair value of the environment is preliminary already implementation. We must adopt the development strategy view ", not" once bitten, twice shy of ten years".In third, the fair value of the criteria in the new application is more cautious, does not lead to abuse. Compared with international financial reporting standards: China accounting standards system in determining the scope of the application of fair value, the more fully consider China's national conditions, the improvement was prudent. The use of fair value must satisfy certain conditions, in the basic guidelines in section forty-third clearly pointed out that the replacement cost, net realizable value of, present value, fair value, should be to ensure that the identified elements of accounting amounts can be obtained and the reliable measurement. In relation to specific standards, the use of fair value measurement, has clearly defined constraints. For example, in real estate investment criteria specified by the fair value measurement model, the following conditions shall be met simultaneously: one is the investment property real estate located in active trading market of real estate; two is the enterprise can from the real estate trading market on the same or similar real estate market prices and other information, thus the investment real estate to make a reasonable estimate of fair value.Visible in the investing real estate standards, ban contains more hypothetical valuation techniques used, only in a certain reliability on the basis that the use of fair value, and not all of the investment real estate can be applied the fair value. So as long as the strictly in accordance with the standards, fair value will really be fair.For instance in non monetary transactions for the use of fair value, the new standards in exchange of non-monetary assets, fair value and change the carrying value of the assets included in the current profits and losses of the difference between the two conditions, namely the exchange must be commercial in nature, and a change of assets or the fair value of the assets surrendered can be measured reliably. Commercial essence refers to, must be changed in the future cash flow of the assets at risk, time and amount of assets surrendered and were significantly different, or substitution of assets and the assets surrendered the present value of estimated future cash flows are different, and the difference between the assets and the change of the fair value of the assets is more significant than the. The new guidelines are also provided to determine whether is commercial in nature, an enterprise shall pay attention to whether or not the transacting parties are related party relationship.Related party relationship may lead to the occurrence of non monetary assets exchange is not commercial in nature. These preconditions, will effectively restricted to non monetary assets exchange way of earnings manipulation behavior. From these rules, we can see that, the application of fair value is strictly restricted conditions, the fair value is not allowed to abuse.The new standards require that the fair value to "reliable" and not "just, fair value estimate" is no longer the eraser ruler. The author thinks, fair value to be profit manipulation tools need to also have three elements: the listing Corporation management deliberate fraud, accounting audit staff lose occupation moral and securities market regulatory failure. In fact with the three elements, any system can effectively play a protective role, therefore, establishing and perfecting accounting standards supporting management system is urgent.Two, the debt restructuring reform from the bottomThe new debt restructuring guidelines stipulated in debt restructuring gains can be included in the current profits and losses. As a debtor's listing Corporation, the new debt restructuring guidelines means that, once the creditor concessions, listing Corporation acquired interests will be directly included in the current income, into a profit report. Debt restructuring is likely to increase profits, improve earnings per share. But this approach achieved with the international convergence of financial reporting standards, reflects the essence of transaction debt restructuring, debt restructuring gains is after all the creditors rather than owners concessions, the past will not pass the profit and loss statement directly included in the capital reserve, it is under the special background of a matter of expediency, now be included in the profit and loss, is not "white" the "black", but the reform from the bottom. The new guidelines on the definition of debt restructuring, made clear only in "the debtor's financial difficulties." the premise condition, can get debt concession confirmed as debt restructuring gains. This condition will be restricted to a certain extent, the new guidelines on abuse, prevent inappropriate acknowledgement of debt reorganization gains.Some people think that some affiliates can also through a remit a debt, a high performance to price manipulation, insider trading, is still small shareholders suffered losses. In fact, this fear is a bit much. This is because, first, for *ST and ST company,fantasy on debt restructuring benefit, reaching for the stars is futile. Because the 2004 amendment of the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchange rules, one is freed, after deducting non-recurring profits and losses, net profit is positive. Debt restructuring to listing Corporation profits, in actual accountant operation, will be included in operating income, which belongs to the non-recurring profit and loss, thus can in St, the stars are deducted from; second, has experienced more than 10 years of stock market investors' groundless talk, analysis and judgment ability and self protection consciousness had very big rise, debt restructuring guidelines requiring companies to disclose the fair value of the methods and basis for the ascertainment, investors can easily recognize the debt restructuring packaging profits, in order to make a rational choice .Investors blindly follow Zhuang, slaughter age has gone for ever.In three, the impairment of Chinese characteristicsNew guidelines for asset impairment provisions, asset impairment loss is confirmed, in the later period may not be back. It is based on the real situation of our country, last ditch of major change, it is with international accounting standards, with substantial differences in the. New guidelines for asset impairment will effectively curb the use impairment as a "secret reserve" adjusting profit situation. Guidelines for the implementation, use impairment adjusting profit space will become more and more small, the provision of manual adjustment of profits will be more and more difficult. Some people write civil point out new guidelines for asset impairment induced by releasing will "go" phenomenon, cause some "hidden profits" of the industry and Related Companies, possible impairment in 2006 will be ready to strike back, "crow change Phoenix" may reproduce. We analyze, first of all, if the listing Corporation snatches in the new guidelines before the implementation of the 2006 year rushs impairment, we must first examine whether such actions are the reasonable basis, namely the original has provision for the impairment of an asset value now is really picks up, and if so, to adjust the asset value will make the accounting information more real, related; secondly, in 2006 large red back impairment must make appropriate evidence of the original provision for the impairment of appropriateness, otherwise the previous provision is the abuse of accounting estimation results, should be in accordance with the accounting error handling, a reversal of impairment cannot be used as the 2006 annual profit. Moreover, the financial sector has been aware ofthis problem, and takes positive and effective measures, prevent the assault to adjust profit listing Corporation. In addition, some time ago the market that new guidelines will make A shares listing Corporation in 2006 to increase net profit 20000000000 Yuan hearsay, the survey is author's subjective, concerned media specially clarification.Others receivables and other four impairment expressed worry, think accounts receivable (especially the "shareholders of account") will become the "eight project" of the main means of profit manipulation. In fact, in the new guidelines, receivables is as financial assets, and the depreciation detailed provisions, requires that there must be "objective evidence" of impairment to provision for impairment, such evidence includes the debtor serious financial difficulties, is likely to fail or other financial restructuring. Can be said that the criterion is more and more perfect, then the "this year that cannot take back full provision, next year 'efforts' and back", this "to practice deception" approach, which itself has violated rules, to pass the CPA audit and hid from investors eye, I'm afraid some difficulty.Through the above analysis, we can see some people on the new criterion a few concerns, many in reality does not exist, or is in the process of the reform of the price to be paid for, and far from their imagination so serious. But these concerns also remind standards departments in the formulation of standards to the full attention of guidelines for the technical and economic consequences, in the setting of the new guidelines in the process, give full consideration to guideline implementation may arise in the course of the various problems, and further make a specific interpretation and explanation, improving guidelines operation, improve accounting information quality.Also need to point out in particular, accounting standards is a production of accounting information of the specification, it is to solve the problem of "how to do". On the accounting standards of the malicious misuse of guidelines for the implementation of the "people", from the perspective of the listing Corporation is the ecological problems, to strengthen supervision, occupation moral construction, improve the ability of investors screening accounting information system engineering to solve, cannot be attributed to the guidelines themselves. And the new accounting and auditing standards system come on stage; it is to promote the improvement of listing Corporation governance ecology effective measure. Say from this meaning, we are not going to worry about me, but "criteria for the beat and breathe out".Note: ① according to the "Shanghai Stock Exchange Listing Rules (2004 Revision)" provisions, *ST indicated the presence of terminating the listing of special processing and ST risk for other special treatment.Main referencesMinistry of finance. In 2006 accounting standards for business enterprises. Economic Science PressYu Monishing. The 2005 fair value in the United States of America's application research. Financial theory, 9Xie Stiffen, wearing Zili.2005 present value and fair value accounting: financial reform is the important premise of twenty-first Century. Theory and practice of Finance and economics, 9中文：2006年2月15日，财政部发布了包括1项基本准则和38项具体准则在内的新的一整套企业会计准则体系。