语言学教程第六章重点
胡壮麟语言学教程Chapter6
• Father: ‘You’d better take them off and put them on frontwards.’
• Daughter (Taking them off and turning them around):
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‘Is this the rightwards?
• Daughter: Somebody’s at the door.
• Father / linguist (Supervising daughter getting dressed):
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‘I think you’ve got your underpants on backwards.’
• Daughter (age 3 years 9 months): ‘Yes, I think so.’
• Child: Daddy, you’re interring up.
•
inter up interrupt
• Later development • Negation: • Stage 1 (approximately 18 to 25 months) • No the sun shining. • No sit there. • No dog bite you. • No mom sharpen it.
• 6.2.1 Language acquisition
• 1) Holophrastic stage
• So runs my dream, but what am I?
•
An infant cryingying for the light,
•
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition
语言学教程 chapter6
32
含义：
Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.
认知语言学
1
Байду номын сангаас
含义 渊源 基本理论 应用
2
What is Cognition?
Mental processes, information processing
Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
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End-of-path schema
An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sam’s home, which is at the end of the path:
Standing upright Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle” as manifested in the following diagram。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
2. Recognition of words in print
1).Two questions in printed word recognition (1). Two different processes for…… A lexical route A non-lexical route Connectionist theories （连接主义模型理论） claim that…… (2). Quantitative analyses……
(1) Word recognition
Recognition of spoken words and words in print 1.recognition of spoken words 1)Features of speech could cause difficulty for listeners. (1). (2). (3).
Six research subjects within it
1)acquisition 2)comprehension 3)production 4)disorders 5)language and thought 6)neurocognition We will focus on the former three subjects, say, acquisition, comprehension and production.
The conceptual approach
Cognitive linguistics has addressed : 1) 2) 3) 4) Above all, it seeks to ascertain the global integrated system of conceptual structuring in language.
英语语言学笔记第六章
第六章语言的心理过程6.1 绪言为什么要研究语言？从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。
它是人类智慧的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察不到的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。
（乔姆斯基，Reflections on Language，1975）"语言和思维"这项研究致力于构造思维中与语言相关部分的工作模型。
毫无疑问，思维的种种结构和关系是不可观察的，因而研究者们提出假设时总是根据一些零星的线索。
这也说明了为什么围绕这一论题几乎所有方面的争议都那么尖锐。
人们最经常给"语言和思维"这项研究贴上的标签是心理语言学--一个通常认为是正流行的术语，近年来该术语从某种意义上说被滥用了，我们会发现它几乎可以用于任一语言学论题。
"准确的"心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存、理解、产生和习得过程的研究。
为什么要研究心理语言学？心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。
照实说，该学科通常也会产生一些对语言研究提出他们自己评论的发现，这些发现促进了理论体系的改进。
如果我们通过一个宽泛聚合体--认知心理学的视角来看心理语言学的任务，那么它将变得和对语言指令行为表征的研究相一致。
作为现代形态的心理学，它采用实验的方法论，坚持必须在实验条件下研究这些行为表征；通过近三十年左右始终追求这一目标、在精密实验方法指导下的心理语言学，我们看到这样做也是合理的。
区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。
后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非言语交际。
在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作"认知心理语言学家"，以与"实验心理语言学家"相对。
前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实、比如对一个特定单词的反应速度。
胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (6)
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind6.1 Introduction1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense.2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual byoperation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension,production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written).4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structures.5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all withmaking inferences about the content of the human mind.7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concernedwith empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.6.1.1 Evidence1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their mainsource of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies.2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and childrenon the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other.The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown insome part of language could lead to an understanding of which componentsmight be independent of others.6.1.2 Current issues1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured intoseparate modules or components, each governed by its own principles andoperating independently of others.2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognitionbegins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initialsound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing asmore sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with writtenmaterials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of wordrecognition. One obvious prediction of this model is that if the beginningsound or letter is missing, recognition will be much more difficult, perhapseven impossible. For example: Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim;an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream; See Mable----seem able;well fare----welfare; lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight;Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn3. Psychological reality: The reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account ofstructures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussionof the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, andinternal consistency.4. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research:(1) Comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language, andhow do they understand what they hear or read?(2) Production: How do they produce messages that others can understand inturn?(3) Acquisition: How language is represented in the mind and how languageis acquired?6.2 Language comprehension6.2.1 Word recognition1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.2. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is howfrequently the word is used in a given context.3. Frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accesseddue to its more frequent usage in the language.4. Recency effect: describe the additional ease with which a word is accesseddue to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.6. Semantic association network represents the relationships between varioussemantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster whenother members of the association network are provided in the discourse.6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity1. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g.that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others,stable tennis bat.2. There are two main theories:(1) All the meanings associated with the word are accessed, and(2) only one meaning is accessed initially. e.g.a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….“right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightwardb. After taking the left turn at the intersection…“left” is unambiguous6.2.3 Syntactic processing1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual wordsand to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning asentence has.e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. “with the binoculars” isambiguity(1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.(2) it specifies “the spy has binoculars.”3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words inthe sentence.e.g. the desert trains, trains (培训；列车)the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。
语言学教程[第六章语言与认知]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
![语言学教程[第六章语言与认知]山东大学期末考试知识点复习](https://img.taocdn.com/s3/m/2028219351e79b896802266d.png)
第六章语言与认知复习笔记I.认知的定义“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
在心理学中，“认知”是指个人的心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态 (比如信念、意志和意愿)。
特别是在许多具象和抽象交织在一起时，如知识、技能和学习共同作用时，采用信息处理的方法可以理解心理过程。
另外一种对“认知”的定义是指心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。
II．心理语言学的定义心理语言学是对语言心理方面的研究，通常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。
心理语言学的一个重点是研究能够使人理解和产出可理解句子的语法规则的无意识运用。
心理语言学家研究语言与思维的关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言是如何习得的以及语言在思维运用中所发挥的作用。
Ⅲ．语言习得语言习得指的是一个人语言的学习和发展。
第一语言习得即一个人母语的学习和发展。
语言学家、心理语言学家和应用语言学家通过研究语言习得来理解其形成和发展的全过程，更好的理解语言的本质。
对于第一语言习得的问题存在两种说法：行为主义方法和天赋论。
1．行为主义方法语言是一个学习的行为，是一个通过学习形成习惯的过程。
对语言学习的这种观点称作行为主义或行为主义观点。
根据这种观点，孩子的语言习得是一个“刺激一反映一模仿一强化”的过程。
个人的内部语言知识是其对所观察的语言事件进行结合的直接结果。
2．天赋理论天赋论是说获取人类语言的能力是人类自身内在的机能之一，刚出生的婴儿就具备这种能力。
Ⅳ．语言的理解1．发音理解发音的理解不是一个被动的过程。
它通常依赖于听话者所处的语境。
人们需要从整体上来理解意思，而不是孤立地将其分开。
并不是单独去听每一个词。
对发音的成功理解要求人们具有区分细小的发音差别的内在能力，以及适应语言听觉种类的能力。
2．词语的识别词语的理解是一个非常复杂的心理过程，远比处理发音复杂得多。
词汇由于其在传达意义过程中的极端重要作用而在语言理解中居于核心地位。
单词辨识是指对口头词语和书面词语的识别。
语言学概论 自学笔记 第六章 文字
第六章文字一、名词解释1.文字2.字符3.意符4.音符5.记号6.自源文字7.他源文字8.单纯字符9.复合字符 10.词语文字 11.语素文字 12.音节文字 13.音位文字 14.表意文字15.表音文字 16.意音文字 17.假借字 18.楔形文字 19.象形字 20.指事字、会意字21.“六书” 22.独体字23.合体字、偏旁、形旁、声旁24.字符的书写规则 25.“文字的创制”26．语言规划二、简答和论述1.文字是语言的书写符号系统.2.简述字符的类型。
3.谈谈自源文字是如何表音的?4.举例说明音符最初都是由已有的意符转化而来的.5.“自源文字”与“他源文字”的区别。
6.简述划分文字类型的标准。
7.应该如何看待一些表示比较复杂意思的图画以及夹杂一部分字符的图画跟文字的关系？8.如何正确认识汉字的类型？9.汉字是不是音种语素文字或语素一节文字?请谈谈你的看法。
10.文字和语言的关系.11.语言对文字的影响.12.文字对语言的影响.13.简要说明不少人将文字和书面语等同起来进而把文字和语言等同起来的原因？14.文字起源于图画和契刻.15.结绳跟文字的起源没有直接的关系.16.古苏美尔文字的情况.17.古埃及文字的情况.18.腓尼基人借用古埃及文字创造了最早的辅音文字.19.“辅音文字”的起源。
20.试述“音位”文字的发展过程。
21.汉字的形旁跟表意字符的区别.22.汉字的声旁跟表音字符不完全相同.23.汉字字体的演变.24.汉语字符组合规则.25.应该如何看待“文字发展三阶段论”的观点.26.非洲一些新兴国家创制文字的情况.27.新中国为少数民族语言创制文字的情况.28.文字改革的类型.29.文字的创制有哪些值得注意的问题？30.文字创制的目的。
31.应该如何对待文字改革？32.文字改革与创制文字的异同。
33．在现代汉语中，诸如“日、山、火、象”这样的字很多。
这些字的共同特点表现在它们的字形与其所表示的意义之间存在着千丝万缕的关联。
胡壮麟语言学教程第6章专业术语解释
胡壮麟语言学教程第6章专业术语解释1. Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated withthe use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field basied on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders,language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, the most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.2. Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons. Four phrasesare identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.3. holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’ language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to unstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them.4. two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at the rate of one everytwo walking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence.5. Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complated idea.6. connectionism: With respection to the respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or wordsthat are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel iterms being processed based on their similarity to known ones. 7. Cohortmodel is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognitionpostulation postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggestedthat the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidatesthat are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate is a clear winner.8. Interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higherprocessing levels have direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels. Lexical knowedge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the formal of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonems; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.9. Race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other―a pre-lexical route, which computers phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when theword itself is accessed When word―level information appears to affect alower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.10. Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension systemcontinually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language grammarwith remarkable speed. serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to itsinterpretation ,primarily grammatical information .Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.11. Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitiveto a vast range of information .including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker\\writer and of the world in general.parallel model describes how the processor users all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence .itis generally acknowledged that listener and readers integrate and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.12. Resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model , information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it .semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truthof propositions , do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text. analyzing events in terms of goals ,actions, and reactions . A resonance process serves as first stage in processing a text, and , reading objectives and details of text structure determine whatever a reader goes further searches for a coherent structure for the text.13. Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation inalternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.14. Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.15. Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relation configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving object. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.16. Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.17. Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.18. Basic level category is the most economical level at which you canfind the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level thatwe conjure up the gestalt of the category.19. Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.20. Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure toour experience.21. Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the others. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.22. Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another.23. Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.24. Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allow us to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.25. Generic space maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common, usually more abstuct, structure and organization shared by the inputs. It defines the core cross-space mapping between them.26. Blend space is the fourth space onto which is partially projected by inputs I1 and I2.感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》第一章-第六章重难点
名词解释Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognitionMinimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each wordSemi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Chapter 1Design feature of languageArbitrariness1.bowwow 汪汪2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的Duality1.底层构建上层Creativity/productivity1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长Displacement1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的Functions of languageHalliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容◆Interpersonal function◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关门）◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）Important distinctions in linguistics◆Descriptive VS prescriptive尊重语言事实，客观描述约定俗成的现在更关注descriptive◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competenceChapter 2Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lipsVoiceless consonants-- air can pass through easilyvoiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each otherConsonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻P32, 33 图（⚠）例如：voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless alveolar fricativeVoiceless velar stopGlottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant例如：high front tense unrounded vowelHigh back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）Nasalization （cap-can）Dentalization （tent-tenth）Velarization （since-sink）Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）Rule ordering冠词规则：The elsewhere conditionThe more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）SyllableNucleus 一般为元音Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)Intonation and toneIntonation-- fall-rise tonesChinese is tone language.Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}Chapter3Morpheme◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在◆Bound Morpheme 不可以Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是catRoot：nature stem：naturalAffix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）Allomorphs同位异形体in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开Lexeme 词位Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word formContent words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰millCoordinative compound （teacher-student）并列Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compoundInflection 曲折构词曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。
语言学教程Chapter6
The second wife will claim the inheritance
belongs to her.
Garden path sentence Sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.
proposition
L comprehension: discourse interpretation
Schemata and drawing inferences Schema: a pre-existing knowledge structure in
the world
Structural factors: identify constituents of a
sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another
Minimal attachment: structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension.
Problems: Syntactic ambiguity
a.
Different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.
b.
The formal approach: structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure. The psychological approach: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. The conceptual approach: how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.
《语言学教程》中文笔记(完整)
语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
所以只有人类才能提问：元语言功能对交际、思考及人类的意义是什么？语言学的一些重要区别1.“描写式”和“规范式”描写式：客观系统地记录一种语言的模式和用法或变化。
【考研专业课笔记】胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)复习攻略(第6章)
每本教材每个章节都包含：学霸笔记，强化练习，过关检测，思维导图，复习要点，学习目标，时间安排，重难点分析，易错点分析，考点分析，音频笔记等......如果参考教材有多个版本，那么每个版本都有全套资料；如果目标院校没有指定参考书，那么所有推荐的参考书都有全套的资料可供学习。
以下是胡壮麟《语言学教程》第6章《语言与认知》的复习攻略：1.复习要点本章主要内容包括以下方面：(1)语言的认知过程：感知、注意、记忆等。
(2)语言的信息加工：语音、语义、语用等。
(3)语言与思维：内在语言（自我对话）、概念与类别等。
2.学习目标通过本章的学习，你应该能够：(1)理解语言的认知过程，掌握感知、注意、记忆等认知过程的基本原理。
(2)掌握语言信息加工的原理和方法，了解语音、语义、语用的基本概念和分析方法。
(3)了解语言与思维的关系，掌握内在语言（自我对话）的特点和作用，以及概念与类别的基本概念和分类方法。
3.时间安排上午：阅读第6章，理解语言的认知过程和信息加工的原理和方法。
下午：学习语音、语义、语用的基本概念和分析方法，以及内在语言（自我对话）的特点和作用。
晚上：了解概念与类别的基本概念和分类方法，进行练习和实验操作，加深对概念和方法的理解和记忆。
4.总结通过以上复习要点和学习目标，你可以在1天内全面了解胡壮麟《语言学教程》第6章《语言与认知》的内容，并掌握语言的认知过程和信息加工的原理和方法。
同时，还应该了解语言与思维的关系，掌握内在语言（自我对话）的特点和作用，以及概念与类别的基本概念和分类方法。
建议在学习过程中注重实践和思考，多进行练习和实验操作，加深对概念和方法的理解和记忆。
同时，还应该注意扩大知识面，关注语言学的前沿研究和应用领域，为未来的学术研究和职业发展打下坚实的基础。
语言学概论第6章重点
Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules gov erning the production of sentences. 它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences. 句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural lang uage. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
胡壮麟语言学教程第6章专业术语解释
1.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; itusually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field basied on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders,language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, the most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.nguage acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics.Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons.Four phrases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.3.holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition. The mainlinguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parent s’ language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin to unstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them.4.two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around18 months, the child begins to learn words at the rate of one everytwo walking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence.5.Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition.Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complated idea.6.connectionism: With respection to the respect to languagecomprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel iterms being processed based on their similarity to known ones.7.Cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken wordrecognition postulation postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate is a clear winner.8.Interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higherprocessing levels have direct, “top-down” influence on lower levels.Lexical knowedge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the formal of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners’ knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonems; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear” phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.9.Race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are tworoutes that race each other—a pre-lexical route, which computers phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed When word—level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race.10.Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension systemcontinually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language grammar with remarkable speed. serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation ,primarily grammatical information .Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.11.Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitiveto a vast range of information .including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker\writer and of the world in general. parallel model describes how the processor users all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence .it is generally acknowledged that listener and readers integrate and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.12.Resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model ,information in long-term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it .semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions , do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text. analyzing events in terms of goals ,actions, and reactions . A resonance process serves as first stage in processing a text, and , reading objectives and details of text structure determine whatever a reader goes further searches for a coherent structure for the text.13.Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation inalternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.14.Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in languageprocess by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.15.Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground asthe prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relation configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving object. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.16.Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.ndmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.18.Basic level category is the most economical level at which you canfind the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the gestalt of the category.19.Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differencesbetween the members of the basic level categories.20.Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptualinteractions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure toour experience.21.Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one isconstrued in terms of the others. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.22.Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution ofthe name of one thing for that of another.23.Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physicalobjects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.24.Structural metaphors play the most important role because they allowus to go beyond orientation and referring and give us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.25.Generic space maps onto each of the inputs. It reflects some common,usually more abstuct, structure and organization shared by the inputs.It defines the core cross-space mapping between them.26.Blend space is the fourth space onto which is partially projected byinputs I1 and I2.。
语言学概论第6章重点
语言学概论第6章重点Chapter 6 Syntax 句法学6.1 Syntax：definition 定义Syntax is a study of sentences:sentence structure and formation 句法学就是对句子的学习。
Syntax can be defined as the branch of linguistics that studies how the words of a language can be combined to make larger units, such as phrases, clauses and sentences.语法可以被定义为语言学的分支研究语言的词汇如何被合并成更大的单位,比如短语和句子,从句。
It studies the interrelationships between elements of the sentence structure and the rules gov erning the production of sentences. 它研究句子中各种成分之间的关系。
句法研究语言的句子结构。
Finite(有限的)number of words and small set of rules can create infinite number of sentences.有限的单词和少量规则能创造无穷尽的句子。
Syntactic knowledge: the intuition of a native speaker about how words are combined to be phrases and and how phrases are combined into sentences. 句法知识:说话者用直觉知道母语词汇如何结合成词组和短语如何组合成的句子。
6.2 Grammar，syntax and morphology 语法、句法学和形态学Grammar ：“the knowledge and study of the morphological and syntactic regularities of a natural lang ua ge. ”It excludes phonetics, phonology, semantics.语法是关于自然语言形态规则和句法规则的知识和研究。
语言学备课PPT第六章
as a self-contained, intrinsic system; in the study of language, any extra-linguistic factor was to be kept out of consideration. This is the spirit in which traditional phonology studied the sounds of language, traditional syntax studied the structure of sentences, and traditional semantics studied the meaning. The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent ,i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all
studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. If we take the meaning of word “dog” as an example, linguists or semanticists were quite happy with its definition as “a domesticated, canine mammal, etc.” And they would also be happy to explain the meaning of the sentence “The dog is barking” as the predication consisting of the argument“DOG” and the predicate “BARK”.What the sentence is used for in real situations of communication was excluded from their investigation; they felt