characteristics of culture
2_the characteristics of culture_ppt
The Characteristics of Culture
Chapter Outline
What is culture? How is culture studied? Why do cultures exist?
Characteristics Of Cultureture Without Bias
Anthropologists must: 1. Examine people’s notion of the way their society ought to function. 2. Determine how people think they behave. 3. Compare these with how people actually do behave.
Culture Is Learned
All culture is learned rather than biologically inherited. The process of transmitting culture from one generation to the next is called enculturation. Through enculturation individuals learn the socially appropriate way to satisfy biologically determined needs.
Culture Is Dynamic
Cultures are dynamic systems that respond to motions and actions within and around them. A culture must be flexible enough to allow adjustments in the face of unstable or changing circumstances. All cultures are, of necessity, dynamic, but some are far less so than others.
中国文化英语复习资料
中国文化三个特点The characteristics of Chinese culture1.Chinese culture regards human life as part of nature and ,as such, the only way for us to survive is to live in harmony with nature.The fundamental significance of civilization lies in the creation of a peaceful world, which also requires avoiding conflict between humans and nature.Instead of dictating to nature, people should hold nature in awe and gratitude.2Chinese culture emphasizes harmonious human relationships.An individual cannot live without community and society.Chinese culture strives to build a world of harmony based on friendship between individuals, mutual assistance between families, and respect between nations.3.Chinese thinking stresses self-reflection. People should not only understand the external world, but also and more importantly, improve their internal state of mind.孔子Confucius(551-479 BC), known as Kongzi, given name Qiu and alias Zhongni,lived in the state of Lu during the Spring and Autumn Period.He was a great thinker, educator and founder of Confucianism.Confucius is an ancient sage to the Chinese people. His words and life story were recorded by his disciples and their students in The Analects.“天/自然”Confucius on Heaven/Nature: the Source of Everything Confucius regarded “Heaven”as nature. Heaven does not speak in words. It speaks through the rotation of the four seasons and the growth of all living things.Heaven equaled nature, nature was not a lifeless mechanism separate from humans, it was the great world of life and the process of creation of life. Human life was part and parcel of nature as a whole创造生命Equation of Heaven with the creation of life.The natural process of life creation was the “way of Heaven”. This idea was later developed in The Book of Changes.As the natural process of creation of life, Heaven was the source of all living things and the source of all values.The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life.( The Book of Changes)In the natural process of creation of life, Heaven had its inner purpose in creating all things as well as protecting and improving life.天命Heavenly mission:Heaven had originated humanity, and humans were obliged to accomplish this purpose. In other words, humans are born with a sense of “heavenly mission”, and this is the meaning of human life.Confucian “Heaven”also had a certain sacred element, which was related to its being the source of life. Thus Confucius required people to hold Heaven in awe. He said a person of virtue must “respect his heavenly mission”, listen to and live out the purpose of Heaven by caring for and improving life.♣Under the influence of Confucius, the ancient Chinese developed a sense of awe and belief in Heave.Heaven was not a supernatural, personified deity, but was the world of ever-generating life.To them, Heaven was the highest sacred being, with the profound mystery never to be fully understood by mortal.’s parents.No one could love people in general if they did not even love their own parents.The essence of ren is “filial piety and fraternal duty”(孝悌）The Doctrine of the Mean中庸quotes Confucius : The greatest love for people is the love for one’s parents.【Children should not travel far while their parents are alive. If they have no choice but to do so, they must retain some restraint.】【Children should think often of the age of their parents. They should feel happy for the health and longevity of their parents. They should also feel concern for the aging of their parents.】Confucius: One should be aware that other people may have similar desires as oneself.【While fulfilling one’s desires, allow others to fulfill their desires as well.】【Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you.】礼Li Mencius: Loving one’s parents, loving the people, loving everything in the world.Li refers to rituals, traditions and norms in social life. Of these, Confucius regarded burial rituals and ancestral worship rituals as the most important, because they arose from human feeling.The role of li is to maintain harmony among people.Li also has philosophical implications.While individuals have a limited lifespan, life in nature is everlasting. Life is given by one’s parents and extended through one’s children.In this way, a limited, individual life becomes merged with the limitless life of nature.教育Confucius was the first figure in Chinese history to initiate private education.Confucius taught for many years and trained 3000 disciples. 72 of them excelled in the sixth arts., i.e., ritual, music, archery , (carriage) driving, calligraphy, and mathematics.Confucius believed the basic goal of education was to cultivate “persons of virtue”, who should have sound character and uplifted minds. Such persons should be able to shoulder important social responsibilities and to make contributions to society.Confucius regarded lofty ideals, great virtue, love of people, and the “six arts”as the generalprinciples of education.Confucius emphasized aesthetic education. He said, “ Studying The Book of Songs(诗经）inspires the spirit and helps one appreciate beauty. Studying music lifts the spirit and helps one to enjoy life.”☻Simply knowing the highest standard of virtue is not as good as setting it as one’s goal. Setting it as one’s goal is not as good as enjoying the practice of it.Confucius regarded the highest state of life as harmony among people and harmony between people and nature. This was a true aesthetic outlook on life.影响Under the influence of Confucius, Chinese thinkers of later generations all believed that students and scholars should not only increase their knowledge, but also and more importantly, broaden their minds and enhance their spiritual ethos.In other words, they should continually seek the greater meaning and value of life. Many modern scholars think the theory on the perspective on life is the most valuable feature of Chinese philosophy.What is The Analects mainly about?The Analects is mainly about Confucius’words and life story.What is Confu cius’view on Heaven?Confucius regarded Heaven as nature.What is Confucius’innovative idea about Heav en?Confucius’innovative idea about Heaven is that Heaven(or nature)is the process of life creation.What does t he“heavenly mission”refer to?The heavenly mission is to accomplish Heaven’purpose of protecting and improvi ng life.How is Confucius’concept of Heaven related to the modern ecological civilization?Confucius advocate d“standing in awe of the ordinances of Heaven”and warned against offending Heaven.This is,in essence,equival ent to the modern idea of staying in harmony with nature.So in this way Confucius’concept of Heaven is similar to the modern ecological civilization.What is Confucius’interpretation of ren?Confucius interpreted ren as love of people,which begins with the love for one’s parents.According to Confucius,what is the most important part of li?According to Confucius,the most important part of li is the burial and ancestral worship rituals.What qualities are“persons of virtue”supposed to have?Persons of virtue are supposed to have sound character and uplifted minds and they can shoulder important social responsibilities and make contributions to society.Why do people ne ed to study music according to Confucius?According to Confucius,studying music can lift one’s spirit and help one appreciate beauty.What did Confucius think of Zeng Dian’s aspiration?Confucius thought highly of Zeng Dian’s aspiration and regarded harmony among people and harmony between people and nature as the highest state of life.天何言哉？四时行焉，百物生焉，天何言哉？Heaven does not speak in words.It speaks through the rotation of the four seasons and the growth of all living things 生生之谓易Continuous creation of life is change.天地之大德曰生The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life.获罪于天，无所祷也He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.仁者，人也，亲亲为大。
大学英语跨文化交际 要点汇总
Unit 1
Economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology.
The English equivalents of the above kinship terms are not so used. Even with relatives, Americans tend to use just the first name and leave out the term of relationship.
--- the explicit, particular, defined meaning. Connotation: the suggestive meaning of a word --- all
the values, judgments, and beliefs implied by a word, the historical and associative accretion of the unspoken significance behind the literal meaning. Taboo: some objects, words or actions that are avoided by a particular group of people, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons. Euphemism: the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for one considered harsh, blunt, or offensive.
跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策
跨文化交际中的主要障碍及对策摘要：随着经济全球化的发展，中国与外界的交往日益频繁，跨文化交际问题受到了外语界乃至整个社会前所未有的重视。
不同的民族有着不同的文化，不同的文化必然存在有文化的差异，因此可能会导致种种的交际失误。
所以，研究跨文化交际中的障碍问题，以及如何有效地解决，清除这种障碍对于中国的外语教学和社会经济文化生活具有极为重要的现实意义。
本文从跨文化交际的内涵和意义入手，分析和探讨了跨文化交际中存在的主要障碍，并通过对跨文化交际实例的分析，阐述了障碍产生的原因和消极影响，最后提出了如何克服这些障碍，实现有效的跨文化沟通的基本策略。
通过掌握这些策略，可以逐步提高我们的跨文化意识，成功地进行跨文化交际。
关键词：跨文化交际；障碍；策略CONTENTSIntroduction: (1)1.Intercultural Communication (1)1.1 Communication (1)1.1.1 Definition of Communication (1)1.1.2 Components of Communication (1)1.1.3 Characteristics of Communication (2)1.2 Culture (3)1.2.1 Definition of Culture (3)1.2.2 Components of Culture (3)1.2.3 Characteristics of Culture (3)1.3 Intercultural Communication (4)1.3.1 Definition of Intercultural Communication (4)1.3.2 The Development of Intercultural Communication (5)1.3.3 The Study of Intercultural Communication (5)2. Obstacles to Intercultural Communication (6)2.1 Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.1 Definition of Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.2 The Performance of Assuming Similarity (7)2.1.3 The Forming Reason of Assuming Similarity (8)2.2 Stereotypes (9)2.2.1 Definition of Stereotypes (9)2.2.2 The Performance of Stereotypes (9)2.2.3 The Impact of Stereotypes (10)2.3 Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.1 Definition of Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.2 The Performance of Ethnocentrism (11)2.3.3 The Impact of Ethnocentrism (13)3. Strategies for Coping With The Obstacles (14)3.1 Knowing Yourself (14)3.1.1 Know Your Culture (14)3.1.2 Know Your Personal Attitudes (15)3.1.3 Know Your Communication Style (15)3.2 Knowing the Cultural Settings (16)3.2.1 Timing (16)3.2.2 Physical Setting (17)3.2.3 Customs (17)3.3 Developing Empathy (18)3.3.1 Definition of Empathy (18)3.3.2 Hindrances to Empathy (18)3.3.3 Improving Empathy (19)4. Conclusion (20)Bibliography (22)IntroductionWe are now in a world, which is sometimes referred to as a “global village”. With the rapid development of international trade, improved technologies of communication and the tendency of globalization，more and more exchanges are taking place internationally in almost every line, which may call for a better study on intercultural communication in order to help those intercultural activities result in better effects.I. Intercultural Communicationmunication1.1.1. Definition of CommunicationIt is difficult to find a single definition of human communication. Being concerned with the intercultural dimensions of communication, we assent to the definition advanced by Rubin and Stewart:”Human communication is the process through which individuals—in relationships, groups, organizations, and societies—respond to and create messages to adapt to the environment and one another （Rubin and Stewart 1998）.”Communication—our ability to share our ideas and feelings—is the basis of all human contacts. Whether we live in a city in the USA, a village in India, a commune in Israel, we all participate in the same activity when we communicate. The results and the methods might be different, but the process is the same.1.1.2. Components of CommunicationAll communication contains six basic components. First is the source. A source is a sender of information. He or she could send a message with or without knowing his or her actions were communication.The second component is encoding, which describes the producing of a symbolic message. Encoding is an internal activity in which verbal and nonverbal symbols are selected and arranged. It is the process of translating an already conceived idea into a message appropriate for transmission to a receiver.The third component, a message, is the production of encoding. The message is aset of verbal and nonverbal symbols that represents the feelings and ideas of the sender. It also includes symbolic messages that the sender is totally unaware of having sent.Channel is the fourth communication component. The channel provides that necessary connection between the communication participants. The primary channels are sound and sight. The degree to which an individual relies on one channel or another is often a product of culture.Receiver is the fifth component. The receiver is the person or persons who come into contact with the message. Receivers may be those for whom the sender intended or they may be others who, for whatever reasons, come into contact with the message.Decoding is the sixth component. In the decoding process, the receiver interprets what he or she believes the source meant by the message transmitted. This operation is akin to the source’s act of encoding since it is also an internal activity—an activity often referred to as information processing.1.1.3. Characteristics of CommunicationCommunication is a dynamic process. It means that communication is an ongoing activity. It is like a motion picture, not a single snapshot. A single word or action does not stay frozen when we communicate; it is immediately replaced with yet another word or action. Once a word or an action is employed, it cannot be retracted. What is said cannot be unsaid. And what is done cannot be undone.Communication is symbolic. Humans are symbol-making creatures. We are able to generate, receive, store, and manipulate symbols. We employ symbols to share our internal states. Our words and actions are other sets of symbols through which we convey our messages, ideas and feelings to other people.Communication has a consequence. This characteristic implies that when we receive a message, something happens to us. It also means that all of our messages, in one degree or another does something to someone else. We cannot send messages without influencing other people. This is not a philosophical or metaphysical theory but a biological fact. It is impossible not to respond to the sounds and actions of others.1.2.Culture1.2.1.Definition of CultureThere are more than one hundred definitions of the English word culture offered by researchers from different perspectives. Samovar and Porter evolved a definition from the perspective of intercultural communication:Culture is the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notion of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving （Samovar and Porter 1991）.Culture is mental programming, it tells us from early childhood what matters, what to prefer, what to avoid, and what to do. It gives us assumptions about the ideal beyond what individuals may experience. It establishes codes for behavior and provides justification and legitimization for that behavior.ponents of CultureIn spite of the lack of agreement on one definition on culture, most scholars, Chinese and foreign, seem to agree that culture includes three major aspects. Almaney and Alwan submitted three categories of culture elements:Cultures may be classified by three large categories of elements: artifacts (which include items ranging from arrowheads to hydrogen bombs, magic charms to antibiotic, torches to electric lights, and chariots to jet planes); concepts (which include such beliefs or value systems as right or wrong, God and man, ethics, and the general meaning of life); and behaviors (which refer to the actual practice of concepts or beliefs) （Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.There is an excellent example of how these three aspects might be reflected within a culture. Whereas money is considered an artifact, the value placed upon it is a concept, but the actual spending and saving of money is behavior.1.2.3.Characteristics of CultureCulture is learned. Culture is not something we are born with. From infancy on, members of a culture learn their patterns of behavior and ways of thinking until they have become internalized. People learn to think, act, feel and believe what their culture considers proper. For instance, humans need food. But what to eat, when, where and how to eat is learned. That’s why we use chopsticks while westerners prefer knife and fork, and why we like rice while Americans prefer bread.Culture is subject to change. Cultures, once formed, are stable, but are at the same time changing with the development of human society. It seldom remains constant. It is not difficult at all for us to think of examples of how social and historical events bring changes in our culture. The founding of new China, the implementation of the policy of opening to the outside world and China’s WTO entry, are all good examples.Culture is interrelated. It means that culture is composed of interrelated facets. When you touch one place of a culture, everything else is affected. The outbreak of SARS in spring 2003 in China is an illustrative example. It made its effects felt in medical systems, tourism, lifestyle, family life, government policies, environment protection and many others.Culture is invisible. Most of culture is hidden, like the part of the iceberg under water. Culture exists in the subconscious mind of people. People not only learn the cultural behaviors below the level of consciousness but also perform them almost habitually. Therefore they aren’t aware of the fact that their actions are governed by their own culture, or cultural rules.1.3.Intercultural Communication1.3.1. Definition of Intercultural CommunicationIn general terms, intercultural communication occurs when a member of one culture produces a message for consumption by a member of another culture. The formal definition given by Rogers and Steinfatt is that intercultural communication is the exchange of information between individuals who are unalike culturally（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.This is a very broad definition, involving any type of cultural differences betweencommunication participants. They may differ in nationality, region, race, religion, status, occupation, gender, age, and many others. However, my priority of this paper is given to communication across different national cultures.1.3.2. The Development of Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural communication studies arose in the United States around the corner of the late 1950s. As an interdisciplinary subject, it has been significantly influenced by anthropology, linguistics, communication, psychology and other disciplines. In recent years, it has extended its study range from writing to thinking, from family to society, from myth to religion, from behaviors to values.In China, intercultural communication began to be seen as an independent discipline for study in the early 1980s. It was first introduced into China by some English teachers and has made remarkable progress over the years. The main reason for the university English teachers’enthusiasm in the study of intercultural communication is the shift from traditional methodology to the communicative approach in EFL in China in the late 1970s and early 1980s.As a matter of fact, intercultural communication is not a new thing, but something that has always taken place. A typical example is the famous “Silk Road” in Chinese history through which peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe interacted with each other.Nowadays, we don’t have to go abroad to interact with people of other cultures. Even at home, we can watch overseas movies, attract overseas tourists, and employ overseas teachers, and so on. Intercultural communication has become more frequent, more abundant and, therefore, more significant than ever before.1.3.3. The Study of Intercultural CommunicationIntercultural communication is becoming an important part of our daily work and life. We will conduct more and more intercultural communication, the problem we are facing is how to do it, and how to do it well. A good knowledge of a foreign language, mainly English—the most widely used language in the world today, is of course indispensable. But only the language does not ensure successful interculturalcommunication. Therefore, intercultural communication competence has become an important quality for successful individuals in today’s China.In the process of studying intercultural communication, we can understand Chinese culture better from new perspectives and learn to be aware of many cultural differences of other countries.If we are better intercultural communicators, we might do things cross culture more confidently. If each of us can better understand others who are culturally different, it will be more productive under circumstances concerned. If individuals can attain a higher degree of intercultural communication competence, they will presumably become better government officials, entrepreneurs, teachers and so forth when they are having intercultural communication activities.We study intercultural communication to communicate effectively with people from different cultures. Through the study of intercultural communication we can gain insight into different cultures. Meanwhile, it can broaden our horizons and open our minds to different perspectives and experiences. The study of intercultural communication can also awaken our cultural sensitivity and help the cultivation of an open attitude and the development of a healthy personality.II.Obstacles To Intercultural CommunicationAs we mentioned in Part One, communication is the exchange of information. The understanding of the message, verbal or nonverbal, is largely based on the communication participant’s cultural background and varies accordingly for each person.However, due to different social backgrounds, social systems, ways of thinking, norms of behaviors and customs, people may have difficulties and obstacles in communicating successfully with each other. Identification of these problems will help us to avoid or to reduce obstacles in intercultural communication. Here in this part some major obstacles to successful intercultural communication are to be discussed.There are many obstacles to intercultural communication indeed. From HuWenzhong’s point of view, who is a famous scholar in intercultural communication, the following three seem to be the most outstanding ones. They are assuming similarity, stereotypes and ethnocentrism. We are going to discuss about them in the following writing.2.1 Assuming Similarity2.1.1. Definition of Assuming SimilarityThe assumption of similarity is one of the biggest barriers in intercultural communication. It refers to the assumption that people are more similar to you than they actually are or that another person’s situation is more similar to your own situation than it in fact is （Alder 1996）. For instance, a Chinese assumes his or her Japanese colleagues are more like Chinese than they actually are. Based on this assumed similarity, people often act inappropriately and ineffectively in intercultural communication.When you assume similarity between cultures you can be caught unaware of important differences. When you have no information about a different culture, you might assume there are no differences so you behave as you would in your own culture. However, each culture is different and unique to some degree.2.1.2. The Performance of Assuming SimilarityIn The Art of Crossing Cultures，Craig Storti (1990)thinks that in the process of intercultural communication, people generally experience several stages:1) Expecting others the same as themselves2) Facing gap between reality and expectation, thus resulting in cultural conflicts3) Feeling anger and fear4) Deciding to turn backThe following is an example to illustrate it. Li Ying, a Chinese student who went abroad for the first time was invited to attend a party by his American friends. He arrived on time, only to find that many people were late and dressed in a very casual way. At the party, there was only some drink and simple food, but no decent dishes.Few people there knew him, and he at last found Mark, his friend, and began to talk with him. They talked about only ten minutes before Mark said that he had to talk with another friend and left. Li Ying was very disappointed. Then, the host introduced him to a couple of people and left too. Two hours later, Li Ying left the party. When he was back at home, he was still hungry, so he had to cook some noodles himself. He decided not to take part in this kind of party again.This party was an unsuccessful intercultural communication for Li Ying. Why did he fail? It has something to do with his original ideas. In his opinion, people should arrive on time at party and should wear formal clothes, the host should prepare a lot of food and make a good arrangement for him, and Mark should talk with him all the time. Li Ying had a typical Chinese expectation for a western party. At a western party, the friends and the host, have their own things to do. Li Ying thought it was the same situation as in China and did not see the difference between Chinese and American styles in social intercourses. The lack of intercultural communication awareness and experience resulted in the failure.2.1.3. The Forming Reason of Assuming SimilarityWhen communicating with people from other cultures, the individual, assuming similarity when differences exist, is likely to treat them as” my people” and assume there is only way of doing things: that is “my” way.It is understandable that people would think the others should have roughly the same ideas as they have. As a matter of fact, each member of a society is culture bound and culture specific. Everyone in a society is unconsciously socialized into his or her society, influenced unconsciously by his or her own cultural values, world views and norms. We think the way we do, we behave the way we do, we feel the way we do. However, we must accept the facts that as cultures differ, we are unalike, and being unalike, we seldom know how people of different cultures think, behave, and feel.As we naively assume that people of other cultures are like us, we tend to automatically use the norms or rules underlying our thinking, behaving and feeling as standards to judge, evaluate and interpret the behavior or message, both verbal andnonverbal, of people of different cultures, and in doing so, misunderstanding is inevitable.People should constantly remind themselves of different cultural backgrounds and different customs. We must learn to observe the different cultures and compare the new culture with our own; only by doing so, we can gradually improve our intercultural awareness.2.2 Stereotypes2.2.1. Definition of StereotypesStereotypes are also one of the major obstacles to effective intercultural communication. The word “stereotyping” was first used by journalist Walter Lippman in 1922 to describe judgments made about others on the basis of their ethnic group membership. Today, the term is more broadly used to refer to judgments made on the basis of any group membership.Stereotypes are the perceptions or beliefs we hold about groups or individuals based on previously formed opinions and attitudes. Rapport and Overing underscore this point when they note that “stereotypes allow simplistic and fantastic claims to be made about a group’s manifold memberships, claims which are all more ambiguous and gross the higher the societal level to which the collective label is applied（Rapport and Overing 2000）.”2.2.2. The Performance of StereotypesThe world we confront is too big, too complex, and too transitory to know it in all its detail. Therefore, human beings have a psychological need to categorize and classify. Stereotypes, because they tend to be convenient and expeditious, help us with classification.In stereotyping people, it is believed that all the people of a given group share the same characteristics. They simplify perception of people from different cultures. Therefore, differences existing between or among people of that group is minimized or ignored.We often meet people from different cultures, about whom we have very little knowledge. It is easy to take the short cut and employ stereotypes. For instance, if we perceive all the Chinese as polite, Americans as generous, British as cold and standoffish, or blacks as athletic, sportsmen as dimwits, blondes as empty-headed and Japanese women as best caretakers, we are stereotyping.In this manner，people tend to say, “A ll Chinese are…” or “He is an English man; therefore he must…” Such conclusions take little energy, and are free from any further serious thinking about that specific character. That may lead people to ignore the specific characteristics of an individual with a different cultural background. This is a kind of communication trap we should avoid.A tragedy in US history resulted from the stereotypes. During World War II , anti-Japanese propaganda convinced many people in the United States that the Japanese were cunning, tricky and willing to fight to the death to win. The negative stereotype was mainly formed by news accounts carried by the media about the war. However, it created an atmosphere in 1942 in which the US federal government put 110,000 citizens of Japanese ancestry into internment camps. Japanese-Americans were forced to leave their homes, with their businesses, and their possessions behind because the stereotype portrayed them as threats to their own country（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）.2.2.2. The Impact of StereotypesAdler reminds us of the harmful effect that stereotypes have on intercultural communication when she notes:”Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorrectly describe the group norm, when we inappropriately evaluate the group or category, when we confuse the stereotype with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify the stereotype based on our actual observations and experience （Alder 1996）.”Stereotypes are harmful because they impede intercultural communication in at least four ways:First, stereotypes fail to specify individual characteristics. That is to say,stereotypes assume that all members of a group have exactly the same traits. As Atkinson, Morten, and Sue note,” They are rigid preconceptions which are applied to all members of a group or to an individual over a period of time, regardless of individual variations（Atkinson，Morten and Wing Su 1982）.”In other words, they don’t recognize internal differences within a group, and do not recognize exceptions to its general rules or principles.Second, stereotypes also keep us from being successful as communicators because they are over-simplified, over-generalized, and exaggerated. They are based on half-truths, distortions, and often untrue premises. Therefore, they create inaccurate pictures of the people with whom we are interacting. As Guirdham posits,” Stereotype distort intercultural communication because they lead people to base their messages, their way of transmitting them, and their reception of them on false assumptions （Guirdham 1999）.”Third, stereotypes tend to impede intercultural communication in that they repeat and reinforce beliefs until they often become taken for “truth.”The stereotype of women as “homemakers”often keeps women from advancing in the workplace. Women were stereotypes as a rather one dimensional group for many years.Finally, stereotypes can serve as “self-fulfilling prophecies.” Gudykunst reiterates this idea when he notes,” Stereotype can create self-fulfilling prophecies. Individuals tend to see behavior that confirms their expectations, even when it is absent （Gudykunst 2001）.”Once the stereotype is in place, there is a tendency to perceive the stereotyped person engaging in behavior that corroborates your stereotype—even when the behavior is not present.2.3 Ethnocentrism2.3.1. Definition of EthnocentrismThe third major obstacle to effective intercultural communication to be discussed here is ethnocentrism. The word “ethnocentrism”is derived from two Greek words: ethnos, or “nation”; and kentron, or “center.”Sumner，used to be credited with introducing the term to the study of culture, defined ethnocentrism as “the technicalname for the view of things in which ones own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it （Sumner 1940）.”In other words, ethnocentrism refers to understanding and measuring other culture according to its own cultural concepts and standards, including people’s behavior, communication, social customs, values and other management models. Because of ethnocentrism, we tend to view our own cultural values and ways of doing things as more real, or as the “right”.2.3.2. The Performance of EthnocentrismPeople communicate to have an effect on others. They want people to believe as they believe, to look at the world as they do, to know things as they want others to know. Many of these communication objectives involve intent to influence the behaviors of others, to persuade them to a certain point of view. When some members of a culture negatively judge another culture by using standards of their own culture, believing that their own culture is superior, the members are thought to be ethnocentric.The existence of ethnocentrism is not limited to recent historic times. The early Greeks used the term barbarians to refer to those people living around them who did not speak Greek. Because they did not speak Greek, the ancient Persians and Egyptians were considered by the Greeks to be inferior.In today’s world, people will not openly claim that their own culture is superior to other cultures. But people unconsciously tend to make judgments based on their own value systems. All cultures seem to have a tendency to be superior. For instance, ethnocentrism is often expressed in the way people draw their maps. The Chinese were convinced that China was the center of the world. The British drew the Prime Meridian of longitude to run through Greenwich, near London. Europeans drew maps of the world with Europe at the center, and North Americans with the New World at the center.As a major obstacle to intercultural communication, ethnocentrism may take one form or another. “The Generalized Ethnocentrism Scale” by Neuliep and McCroskeyin Intercultural Communication by Rogers and Steinfatt lists twelve forms of ethnocentrism:1)Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.2)My culture should be the role model for other cultures.3)Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.4)Most people from other cultures just don’t know what’s good for them.5)I have little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.6)Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my culture.7)People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of anywhere.8)Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.9)I do not cooperate with people who are different.10)I do not trust people who are different.11)I dislike interacting with people from different cultures.12)Other cultures are smart to look up to my culture（Rogers and Steinfatt 1999）2.3.3. The Impact of EthnocentrismOne culture teaches its members, in a variety of ways, how to judge others and what to use as criteria for those judgments. The danger of such evaluation is that they are often false, misleading, and arbitrary. It is truly a naive view of the world to believe and behave as if the members of the culture and the very culture have discovered the true and only set of norms.It is natural to look at things from one’s own point of view and to read an event as if it were the same everywhere in the word. And it is easy to feel proud of one’s own culture, country, organization or group. But many problems arise if one simply thinks one’s way is the best way, or the only way in intercultural communication. Because of its habitual nature, ethnocentrism is hard to overcome and often causes miscommunication in intercultural contacts.The more ethnocentric the communicators are, the less they are able to realize and accept the cultural variables. Extreme ethnocentrism leads to rejection of the richness。
文化有什么特点英语作文
文化有什么特点英语作文英文：Culture has many characteristics that make it unique and diverse. One of the key features of culture is its ability to shape the way people think and behave. For example, in Chinese culture, there is a strong emphasis on respect for elders and the importance of family. This is reflected in the way people address their elders with specific titles and the value placed on family gatherings and traditions. On the other hand, in Western culture, individualism and personal freedom are highly regarded, which can be seen in the emphasis on self-expression and independence.Another characteristic of culture is its influence on language and communication. Different cultures have their own unique languages, dialects, and communication styles, which can greatly impact the way people interact and express themselves. For instance, in Japanese culture,there are specific words and phrases used to show respect and politeness, such as using honorifics and polite speech when addressing others. In contrast, in Australian culture, people tend to use informal language and slang in their everyday communication, which reflects the laid-back and friendly nature of the culture.Furthermore, culture also plays a significant role in shaping traditions, customs, and rituals. For example, in Indian culture, the celebration of Diwali involves lighting oil lamps, exchanging gifts, and enjoying festive meals with family and friends. These traditions are deeply rooted in the culture and hold great significance for the people who celebrate them. Similarly, in Mexican culture, the Day of the Dead is a time for honoring and remembering deceased loved ones through colorful altars, music, and food offerings. These traditions are a reflection of thecultural beliefs and values held by the people.In addition, culture can also influence art, music, and entertainment. Different cultures have their own unique forms of artistic expression and entertainment, which canvary widely across the world. For instance, traditional Chinese music often features the use of instruments such as the guzheng and erhu, and is characterized by its melodic and soothing tones. On the other hand, American pop culture is known for its vibrant and energetic music, as well asits influence on global entertainment through movies, television, and fashion.In conclusion, culture is characterized by its ability to shape thinking and behavior, influence language and communication, shape traditions and customs, and influence art, music, and entertainment. These characteristics make culture rich and diverse, and contribute to the uniqueness of each society and its people.中文：文化有许多特点，使其独特而多样化。
文化的定义特点英语作文
文化的定义特点英语作文Title: Exploring the Definition and Characteristics of Culture。
Culture is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a wide array of human activities, beliefs, values, traditions, and behaviors. Understanding the definition and characteristics of culture provides insight into the rich tapestry of human societies worldwide.First and foremost, culture can be defined as the collective expression of a group of people, encompassing their language, customs, beliefs, rituals, art, and social norms. It is the shared heritage that shapes the identity and worldview of individuals within a community or society.One of the fundamental characteristics of culture isits dynamic nature. Culture is not static; it evolves over time in response to various factors such as technological advancements, globalization, migration, and social change.As societies interact and exchange ideas, cultures merge, adapt, and transform, leading to the emergence of new cultural expressions and practices.Language is a cornerstone of culture, serving as a means of communication and expression. The diversity of languages around the world reflects the richness of human culture, with each language carrying its unique set of nuances, idioms, and cultural references. Language not only facilitates interpersonal communication but also shapes the way individuals perceive and interpret the world around them.Cultural beliefs and values play a pivotal role in shaping social norms and behaviors within a society. These beliefs may encompass religious doctrines, moral principles, and philosophical tenets that guide individual conduct and societal institutions. Cultural values often influence various aspects of life, including family structure, gender roles, education, and governance.Cultural practices and rituals serve as symbolicexpressions of shared beliefs and values within a community. These rituals may range from religious ceremonies and rites of passage to festivals, celebrations, and daily customs. Rituals not only foster a sense of belonging and identity but also reinforce social cohesion and solidarity among group members.Art and creativity are intrinsic to culture, serving as vehicles for self-expression, storytelling, and cultural preservation. Through art forms such as music, dance, literature, visual arts, and craftsmanship, individuals convey their emotions, experiences, and cultural heritage. Art transcends language barriers, enabling cultural exchange and understanding across diverse communities and societies.Cultural diversity refers to the existence of multiple cultural identities within a society or across different societies. Diversity encompasses differences in ethnicity, race, religion, language, and socioeconomic background, among other factors. Embracing cultural diversity fosters tolerance, respect, and appreciation for the richness ofhuman expression and experience.Cultural heritage encompasses the tangible and intangible aspects of a society's cultural legacy, including historical landmarks, artifacts, traditions, and knowledge systems. Preserving cultural heritage is essential for maintaining continuity with the past, fostering collective memory, and safeguarding cultural identity against the forces of globalization and modernization.In conclusion, culture is a dynamic and multifaceted phenomenon that shapes the identity, behavior, and worldview of individuals and societies worldwide. From language and beliefs to rituals and art, culture encompasses a rich tapestry of human expression and experience. Understanding the definition and characteristics of culture is essential for promoting cross-cultural understanding, dialogue, and cooperation in an increasingly interconnected world.。
Basic Characteristics of Chinese Culture
1
Compared with the life of tradesmen and herdsmen, a farmer’s life is relatively fixed, settled, and relaxingly permanent. This is commonly referred to as "the lack of mobility." Because this style of life is more settled and at rest, it is easier for a farmer to raise children, and to develop a family up to a large population under one roof. Due to the lack of mobility, a farmer’s life is relatively free from risk and adventure. This may account for the origin of Chinese conservatism which will receive some attention later. This kind of "attached to earth" and "dependent on land" attitudes also account for some moral qualities of the Chinese people, particularly, the virtue of patience. A farmer’s efficient production very much depends on the cooperation of nature. The process of the growth of a plant, from seed to full maturity, needs a certain period of time which can hardly be speeded up by human effort. In a technological society, attempts have been made to shorten the period of time needed for production. The popular usage "instant" in "instant coffee" and "instant noodle" fully discloses the lack of patience in modern life. But this kind of "instant" production can hardly apply to an old-fashioned agricultural process. I have learned that, in contemporary American society, in addition to instant coffee and instant noodle, a computer dating service can produce an "instant girl friend" or "instant boy friend." Similarly, a commercialized college can produce an "instant degree." But, I have never learned of any "instant asparagus," and "instant cherry tree," or an "instant redwood or pine." This indicates that agricultural production needs time and patience as a required condition for the life of a farmer. From the development of the Chinese language, we have discovered many ancient characters which were names of agricultural products or natural botanical items. A very interesting phenomenon is that, the Chinese term for society is an "agricultural product." it is called she chi (or, she ji, 社稷 while "she" means "the god of the earth," and "chi or ji" means "the god of the crops". These usages really mirror the significant role of agriculture in traditional Chinese life. Another strikingly interesting fact is the name of the founder of Chinese medical tradition. This person was a legendary figure among the ancient tribal kings who were said to have contributed significantly to Chinese culture. This legendary king was called "Shen Nung Shih" (or shen nong shi, 神農氏). "shen" Байду номын сангаасeans "spiritual," "holy,"or "divine." "Nung or nong" means "agriculture" or "farmer." "Shih or shi" does not have any specific meaning except denoting a person, or a person of prominence. So the title of this legendary king can just be translated into English as "The Divine Farmer" or "The Spiritual Farmer." It was said that this Farmer experimented with various kinds of herbs in order to discover their medical functions and thus founded the tradition of Chinese medicine and pharmacy. I still remember, in my childhood in Canton, when I caught cold, I was taught to take a kind of herbal medicine called "Shen Nong Cha" ("cha" literally means tea). This reveals the significance of this legendary figure which in turn discloses the importance of agriculture in the Chinese tradition. 1. Naturalistic View Of Life A naturalistic view of life is the direct offspring of the agricultural society. Farmers work on land in the open air rather than working on papers in an enclosed air-conditioned office. Closeness to
文化及跨文化的相关知识
Culture is the medium evolved by humans to survive. Nothing in our lives is free from cultural influences. It is the keystone in civilization’s arch and is the medium through which all life’s events must flow.Characteristics of Culture:¤ Culture is learnedWe learn our culture through proverbs;We learn our culture from folk tales, legends, and myths;We learn our culture through art;We learn our culture through mass media.¤ Culture is transmitted from generation to generation¤ Culture is based on symbols¤ Culture is subject to change¤ Culture is integrated¤ Culture is ethnocentric¤ Culture is adaptiveThe life history of the individual is first and foremost an accommodation to the patterns and standards traditionally handed down in his community. From the moment of his birth the customs into which he is born shape his experience and behavior. By the time ha can talk, he is the little creature of his culture, and by the time he is grown and able to take part in its activities, its habits are his habits, its beliefs his beliefs, its impossibilities his impossibilities. Every child that is born into his group will share them with him, and no child born into the opposite side of the globe can ever achieve the thousandth part.Intercultural Communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event. Forms of Intercultural Communication:¤ Interracial (种族) CommunicationInterracial Communication occurs when the source and the receiver exchanging messages are from different races.¤ Interethnic (跨群族) CommunicationEthnic groups usually form their own communities in a country or culture.¤ Intracultural(内文化) CommunicationIt is often used to define the exchange of messages between members of the dominant culture, it is usually applied to communication in which one or both of the participants hold dual or multiple membership.。
culture
•1The reason for the characteristics of culture• In the ancient times , people settled in different areas ,because of the limit of transportation and information, they almost•haven’t communication with each other ,with the time going , the different areas‘ people formed their own living styles, the characteristics of culture formed•We may find out lots of phenomenons that represent the characteristics of culture•When summarising them ,it has following characteristics.•1culture is shared• please look at the following picture ,they all have black eyes ,black hair and yellow skin,we chinese people share the same characteristics as themSecond: culture is learned•Culture is not an innate sensibility, but a learned characteristic. Children begin learning about their culture at home with their immediate family and learning how they interact with each other, how they dress, and the rituals they perform. When the children are older and venture out into the community, their cultural education is advanced by watching social interactions, taking part in cultural activities and rituals in the community, and forming their own relationships•Third: culture is based on symbols .•In order for the culture to be transmitted successfully from one person to the next, and from one generation to the next, a system of symbols needs to be created that translates the ideals of the culture to its members. This is accomplished through language, art, religion, and money.•Forth : culture is adaptive• For example ,wh en I entered the college, at first I’m not adapt to the lifehere ,sometimes I didn’t want to eat ,sometimes I got cough, I also didn’t like to spoke pu tong hua ,but now I feel it’s a good place for me ,this is an example that culture is adaptiveThese four characteristics of culture are present in every culture, no matter where the culture is located in the world. The manipulation and sculpting of these characteristics is how a culture defines itself and sets it apart from other cultures.。
跨文化交际课件 L 1 Culture
Part Two
Culture
Warm-up Case
Having travelled to the city, a marmoset returned home. The marmoset introduced that he saw buildings which were made of concrete and glass touching the sky and buildings were full of people walking on two legs and carrying briefcases.
❖ In China
❖ Xiao Li: You must be very tired. You’re old..
❖ Catherine: Oh, I’m NOT old, and I’m NOT tired.
❖ In the st A: How are you doing now?
Would you like to rest? B. No, not a bit.
文化有什么特点英语作文
文化有什么特点英语作文Title: Characteristics of Culture。
Culture is a multifaceted concept that encompasses a wide range of elements that define a society. It's a dynamic and ever-evolving entity shaped by history, traditions, beliefs, language, arts, and social norms. Exploring the characteristics of culture unveils its complexity and richness.Firstly, culture is diverse. It reflects the plurality of human experiences across different regions, ethnicities, and historical backgrounds. Every culture contributes unique perspectives, values, and practices to the global tapestry, enriching human civilization.Secondly, culture is dynamic. It undergoes continuous transformation influenced by various factors such as globalization, technological advancements, migration, and intercultural exchanges. As societies evolve, so do theircultural expressions, adapting to new contexts while preserving essential traditions.Thirdly, culture is expressive. It finds manifestation through various mediums such as language, literature, arts, music, dance, cuisine, and rituals. These expressions serve not only as forms of communication but also as vehicles for preserving heritage, fostering identity, and promoting social cohesion.Moreover, culture is inclusive. While it celebrates uniqueness, it also fosters connections and mutual understanding among diverse groups. Cultural exchange and dialogue facilitate the appreciation of differences and the recognition of shared humanity, fostering peace and cooperation.Furthermore, culture is influential. It shapes individuals' perceptions, behaviors, and interactionswithin society. Cultural norms and values guide social conduct, define acceptable practices, and influence decision-making processes in various domains, includingpolitics, economics, and ethics.Additionally, culture is adaptive. It demonstrates resilience in the face of challenges and changes, as societies navigate complex realities. Cultural resilience enables communities to preserve core values while embracing innovation and progress, ensuring continuity amidst transformations.Lastly, culture is interconnected. It transcends geographical boundaries, linking people across the globe through shared experiences and interconnected histories. Globalization has intensified cultural interconnectivity, fostering cross-cultural fertilization and the emergence of hybrid identities.In conclusion, culture embodies a myriad of characteristics that reflect its richness, complexity, and significance in human societies. Its diversity, dynamism, expressiveness, inclusivity, influence, adaptability, and interconnectedness underscore its profound impact on shaping individual and collective identities, fosteringsocial cohesion, and advancing human civilization. Understanding and appreciating these characteristics are crucial for promoting cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue, and global cooperation in an increasingly interconnected world.。
Characteristics of Culture
QUESTIONS1. What are the characteristics of culture?Culture has a number of characteristics. It is: (1) prescriptive, (2) socially shared, (3) learned, (4) subjective, (5) enduring, (6) cumulative, and (7) dynamic. Furthermore, it facilitates communication.2. Explain the impact of culture on consumption.Consumption patterns are dictated by culture, and consumption habits vary greatly. Some Chinese do not understand how Americans can eat beef, believing that it is improper to eat cattle that work on farms. Americans, in contrast, do not understand how some Chinese and Koreans can eat dogs, the animal often treated as pets or family members in the United States. Interestingly, the Korean government, during the Olympics, banned such traditional delicacies as dog stew, snake soup, blood worm soup, and deer antlers for fear of offending foreigners who might label Koreans as barbaric. Therefore, not only does culture influence what is to be consumed, but it also affects what should not be purchased.3. What is the SRC (self-reference criterion)?The SRC explains how the individual tends to be bound by his or her own cultural assumptions. The individual thus observes foreign cultures by making reference back to personal cultural values. As a result, perception of overseas events can be distorted by the effects of the SRC.4. Distinguish between high-context and low-context cultures.In low-context cultures (e.g., the United States), messages are explicit and clear in the sense that actual words are used to convey the main part of information in communication. The words and their meanings, being independent entities, can be separated from the context in which they occur.In high-context cultures (e.g., Japan), the context of communication is high because, in addition to the verbal part, it includes a great deal of extra information, such as the message sender's values, position, background, and associations in the society. As such, the message cannot be understood without its context. One's individual environment (i.e., physical setting and social circumstances) determines what one says and how one is interpreted by others.5. Distinguish between monochronic and polychronic cultures.Monochronic cultures (e.g., the United States) handle information in a direct, linear fashion. Schedules, punctuality, and a sense that time forms a purposeful straight line are indicators of such cultures. In polychronic cultures (e.g., Japan), people work on several fronts simultaneously instead of pursuing a single task.6. Explain how the meanings of time, space, agreement/disagreement, and friendship can vary from one culture to another. Also discuss their business implications.Perceptions of time are culture bound. In the United States, there is a direct relationship between time and the importance of a matter. In some countries, a reverse relationship exists.Space has its own meaning and is relative. What is perceived as crowded in the United States may be perceived as spacious somewhere else.Culture dictates how an agreement or a disagreement is expressed and resolved. North Americans prefer a straightforward and explicit approach. Elsewhere, one must be careful in a disagreement never to make someone lose face.The development of friendship is also affected by culture. Americans have no difficulty in developing friendship in a very short time. Friendship is not developed as fast in other countries, but, when it is developed, it tends to be deeper and to be longer lasting.DISCUSSION ASSIGNMENTS AND MINICASES1. Which one of the following seems to better characterize the world: cultural commonality or cultural diversity?This question is similar to asking whether the glass is half-full or half-empty. The answer thus depends on one's perspective. Still, the world is perhaps much better characterized by cultural diversity. There is no useful purpose to study culture and international marketing if consumers were homogeneous.The lack of commonality is readily apparent. Countries have religious, philosophical, and environmental differences. Consumption and perceptual differences are everywhere. Conflicts arise because of the failure of nations to understand each other. It is thus a grave mistake to assume that everyone wants to be like us. Cultural commonality will exist only when there is but one language remaining worldwide.2. Because English is the world language of business, is it necessary for U.S. managers to learn a foreign language?English is a second language in most parts of the world because of the recognition of the importance of English as a business communication medium. Still American managers should learn a foreign language, especially that of a country with which they do a significant portion of business. Without the knowledge of a foreign language, American managers are at a disadvantage because their foreign counterparts can converse in two languages. Not only the knowledge of a foreign language makes an American manager aware of what his counterparts are saying to each other, but also he can make a good impression by showing interest in the othercountry's language and culture. Furthermore, the practice makes it more likely for American managers to understand the logic and thinking of their foreign customers or suppliers.3. Do you agree that the United States is a "melting pot"?The U.S. melting pot is a misconception because subcultural differences are everywhere. Being aware of these differences, U.S. firms segment the U.S. market based on region (e.g., South, West), race (e.g., white, black,), language (e.g., English, Spanish), occupation (e.g., professionals, truckdrivers), age (e.g., young, old), and so on. The idea is to appeal to consumers through their subcultures.4. As Hispanic consumers in the United States are also American consumers, is it necessary for marketers to adjust their marketing mix for this market segment?This question is highly related to the previous one. It is true that Hispanic consumers are American consumers. Equally true is the fact that they have their own identity, language, and preferences. Thus, it is necessary to adjust the marketing mix for this market segment. It should be noted that all segmentation criteria are met. This Hispanic segment is different, identifiable, accessible through selective advertising media, and sufficiently large. It should come as no surprise then that firms create advertisements just for this group.5. Explain how culture affects the ways people use eating utensils (e.g., fork, spoon, knife, chopsticks).Culture affects how people use eating utensils. In some cultures, people eat with their hands instead of using utensils. The Chinese and Japanese, of course, are well known for their chopsticks. Americans and Europeans use fork and knife to cut food on their dinner plates to bite-sized portions. Many other peoples have no need for a knife at the dinner table because meat has already been precut to small portions before cooking (e.g., Chinese foods). Asians are likely to use table spoons instead of knives, and they use spoons of varying shapes and sizes.The way Americans hold and use forks and knives differ from how these things are used in England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. People there eat with their forks upside down. Because the curved fork facilitates the lifting of food to the mouth, food is raked onto the fork with a knife. In addition, these Europeans do not set their knives down after cutting meat. They simply eat left handed since switching the fork from the left hand to the right hand is a wasted motion.6. Explain why people in several countries are upset when they see: (a) an advertisement showing an American crossing his legs at the reader or putting his legs on a table; and (b) Americans wearing shoes into their homes.In many cultures, feet are low and dirty. As a result, it is an insult to cross the legs, put the legs on a table, or use a leg to point at something.Americans wear shoes into their own houses, thinking that the floor is dirty. In most cultures, shoes--not the floor--are the ones which are dirty. Since the floor is swept and mopped every day, walking into someone's home with shoes on is a sign of ignorance and disrespect of someone's home.7. According to Edward T. Hall, a renowned anthropologist, American are more comfortable with Germans than with the Japanese because Germans generally make eye contact to indicate attention to a speaker. Still, the Americans feel that the Germans do not smile often enough. How do the Germans and Japanese regard the Americans' frequent smiles and eye contact?Americans smile frequently to show friendliness and make frequent eye contact to show interest and sincerity. But quick and frequent smiles may be taken as a sign of insincerity and an indication of suspicious motive. Germans regard smiling and casual touching as things for friend. Friendship cannot be developed alone by smiles. Also eye contact is a sign of aggression. In many countries, people get into a fight just by looking at each other.8. According to William Wells of the DDB Needham Worldwide advertising agency, American TV commercials are usually shown either as an illustrated lecture or as a drama in which a product is a prop (or a mixture of both techniques). Why is the lecture approach (a low-context technique) inappropriate for high-context cultures? Why is the drama approach (a high-context technique) appropriate for Japan? Note that Japanese commercials go to great lengths to present cues that are not product-related before devoting only a few seconds to the product itself at the end. To American advertisers, this advertising approach is ambiguous and puzzling.The lecture approach is inferior to the drama approach for such high-context cultures as Japan. In many parts of the world, peoples are very aware of their social classes and status. The social standings affect how the message is conveyed and interpreted. There is an emphasis on interpersonal relationships between communicators, nonverbal expression, physical setting, and social circumstances. The lecture alone is thus inadequate because it is not capable of carrying all the meanings. As a result, additional cues, although not necessarily product related, must be presented so that the audience will understand the target market of the product and the appeal of the product. The drama is therefore more effective in sending the additional message as related to the message sender's and the receiver's values, position, background, and social circumstances. For example, a print advertisement or commercial which shows a young girl kneeling while talking with another person implies that she is a servant--someone of lower status.The drama approach is high-context in the sense that the product is shown in its natural settings. As a result, there are opportunities to present contextual cues. An advertisement showing a luxury car by itself (or even the owner with it) is not capable of conveying the meaning of luxury unless such additional cues as a uniformed chauffeur are brought in. In high-The Japanese pay attention to nuances and tone (i.e., the music and scenery and how people act). These contextual cues are too subtle for those of the low-context cultures to understand because these cues do not get to the point. Although the day-after recall method is appropriate in measuring advertising effectiveness in low-context research, the attitude-change measurement is more appropriate for high-context advertising studies.Latin Americans? Why is it undesirable to use stereotyping as a basis to understand foreigners? Also identify the positive traits and values of the groups mentioned above.This discussion assignment is based on: Carol J. Fouke, “Sensitivity to Cultures Builds Foreign Markets,” Marketing News, 19 June 1989, 8-9.The stereotypes of Arabs include: terrorist, sheik, harem, revenge, and torture.The stereotypes of Asians include: geishas, being submissive, gangsters, Samurai, pigtailed “Chinamen,” snake-charmers, turbaned Indians, and enemy.The stereotypes of Africans include: pygmies, cannibals, and savages.The stereotypes of Latin Americans include: being dirty, being lazy, and the character inSome feel that stereotyping is a lazy way to learn about the others since it assumes that allneeded.This discussion assignment is a good way to get students to become culturally sensitiveMarketers should use values on which Arab cultures place a high value. These values include: hospitality, personal dignity, continuity, stability, and psychological and emotional strength.The traits valued by Asians include: sense of obligation and loyalty, strong work ethic, oneness with nature, modesty, harmony with others and with the universe, transcendence, and human dignity.In the case of Africans, they value: story-telling and the oral tradition, continuity, respect for elders, memory, oneness with nature, interdependence, community, cooperation, and harmony.The values emphasized by Latin Americans include: survivability under adversity, patience, interdependence, and cooperation.10. What are some of the unique characteristics of the U.S. culture? What are some of the unique business characteristics of the Japanese culture?American culture has several distinctive characteristics. It is: (1) materialistic, (2) individualistic, (3) achievement- oriented, (4) time-oriented, (5) youth-oriented, and (6) practical and efficient.Some general characteristics of the Japanese culture are: (1) permanent and irrevocable membership, (2) recruitment and selection based on personal qualities, (3) status acquired based on an extension of the person's status in the society, (4) compensation including nonmonetary benefits and based on broad social criteria, (5) corporate responsibilities extended to employees' nonbusiness activities, (6) job responsibility and authority not being well-defined, (7) decision-making style of risk minimization and confrontation avoidance, and (8) prevalent sexual discrimination.。
跨文化选择题及答案
I. Multiple Choice (2 points each)1. When you talk with your friends about Picasso, Beethoven, you are talking about culturefrom ___________ p erspective.A.anthropologicB. intellectualC. socialD. psychological2. The dialogues at the United Nations, for example, would be termed ________ .A.interracial communicationB. interethnic communicationC.international communicationD. interpersonal communication3. ____ i s the process of putting an idea into a symbol.A. DecodingB. ChannelC. EncodingD. Source4. ____ r efers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.A. NoiseB. MessageC. SourceD. Context5. refers to the response of are ceiver to a sender ’ s .m essageA. ReceiverB. DecodingC. EncodingD. Feedback6. Definitions of communication from many Asian countries stress _______ , whichis most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition.A. harmonyB. exchanging informationC. respectD. instrumental function7. Communication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather it takes place in aphysical and a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction. It reflects _______________ .A. communication is symbolicB. communication is systematicC. communication is irreversibleD. communication is transactional8. In China, if a Tibetan communicates with a Han, it is _____ .A. interracial communicationB. interethnic communicationC.internationalcommunicationD. interpersonal communication9. The ___ is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.A. messageB. contextC. sourceD. feedback10. ___ refers to the exchange of messagesb etween members of the dominantculture within a country.A. Interethnic CommunicationB. Intercultural CommunicationC. international CommunicationD. Interregional Communication11.occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are fromdifferent races with different physical characteristics. A. Interethnic Communication B. Interracial Communication C. Intracultural communication D. Intercultural communication12.refers to one ’ s sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. A. Cultural identity B. Cultural value C. Cultural normD. Subculture13. ___ is the environment in which the communication takes place and whichhelps define the communication.A. Receiver responseB. SourceC. ContextD. Feedback14. M r. Wang, a Chinese immigrant in U.S, has adapted himself so well to American culture that he gradually lost his Chinese cultural identity. This process is called. A. separation and segregation D. marginalization15. L iming, a Chinese student, just began hisstudy in a university in the United States. In his first week in U.S, he thought everything was new and exciting, and he enjoyed himself a lot. Liming is in stage of culture shock.B. crisisD. gradual adjustment ’ s original culture and not participating in theB. Assimilation D. Integration’ s learning and adopting the norms and values of18. is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society.B. integrationC. assimilationA. honeymoon C. reintegration16. r efers to maintaining onenew culture.A. Separation and segregation C. Marginalization17. ___ refers to an individualthe new host culture. A. Acculturation B. Deculturation C. MarginalizationD. AssimilationA. DeculturationB. AcculturationC. AssimilationD. Enculturation19. ___ takes place when individuals become an integral part of the new culturewhile maintaining their cultural integrity.A. Culture shockB. IntegrationC. Cultural identityD. Acculturation20. An American company that operates in Japan almost caused a disaster in the United States—Japaneser elations by addressing 500 red Christmas cars to its Japanesej oint-venture partner, since funeral notices are red in Japan. This case has reflected that each country has its art forA. tippingB. greetingC. card exchangeD. giving gift21. In ____ , the handshake is accompanied with a light kiss; even males kiss bothcheeks after a handshake.A. the United StatesB. Saudi ArabiaC. RussiaD. France22. ____ style focuses on the speaker and role relationships. People with suchcommunication style stress high power distance. This style is popular in collectivist and high-context culture.A. ContextualB. PersonalC. SuccinctD. Elaborate23. ____ refers to some words or actions that are avoided by a particular group ofpeople, or in certain culture for religious or social reasons.A. EuphemismB. TabooC. ArgotD. Dialect24. The _______ refers to the ability to understand and adapt to the target culture;in another word, it refers to the sensitivity to cultural diversity, i.e., the ability to behave in an appropriate way and to regulate one’ sc ommunication and interaction according to the context.A. intercultural competenceB. social competenceC. communication competenceD. cultural competence25. ________ refers to losing one’ sc ultural identity and not having anypsychological contact with the larger society.A. MarginalizationB. AcculturationC. Culture shockD. Separation and segregation26. ________ refers to the traumatic experience that an individual may encounterwhen entering a different society.A. DissimilationB. AssimilationC. IntegrationD. Culture shock27. ____ is behaviors such as gestures, body movements, facial expressions, and eyecontact.A.ChromaticsB.OlfacticsC. HapticsD. Kinesics28. While writing business messages, _____ is usually the first step.A. predictionB. selectionC. analysisD. planning29. While the highest goal of communication in the Eastern Culture is to achieve ___, the highest goalof communication in the West is to achieve the practical cooperation from others.A. proprietyB. further relationshipC. practical purposeD. definite result30. ____ is the study of communications sent by the eyes.A. OculesicsB. HapticsC. KinesicsD. Chromatics31. Which of the following statements about intercultural communication isn ot true?A. It is communication between people of different cultures.B. We need understanding and acceptance in intercultural communication.C. During the process of intercultural communication, one should turn one ’ s backon one ’ s own culture.D. We should develop tolerance and acceptance in intercultural communication.32. ____ is the socialization process you go through to adapt to your society.A. DeculturationB. AcculturationC. AssimilationD. Enculturation33. ____ is the study of how people perceive and use time.C. KinesicsD. Oculesics34. ____ is the traditional way of greeting in Northeast Asian countries like Koreaand Japan. A. Bowing B. Firm handshake C. EmbracingD. Handshake35. ____ means the act of substituting a mild, indirect, or vague term for oneconsidered harsh, blunt, or offensive. A. Euphemism B. Taboo C. Argot D. Dialect36. _____ style focuses on the speaker and personal relationships. Such style can befound in individualistic and low-context culture. A. Contextual B. Personal C. Succinct D. Elaborate37. _____ refer to rules for appropriate behavior, which provide the expectationspeople have of one another and of others. A. Beliefs B. Values C. RolesD. Norms38. ____ refers to intentional use of nonspoken symbol to communicate a specificmessage. A. ProxemicsB. ChronemicsC. Nonverbal communicationD. Olfactics39. ____ is considered inappropriate as a form of greeting in the United States andChina. A. Etiquette B. Bowing C. EmbracingD. Handshake40. In the ____ culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the interests of thegroup. A. masculinity B. femininity C. individualistD. collectivism41. _____ is assuming that a person has certain qualities (good or bad) just becausethe person is a member of a specific group. B. PrejudiceD. Stereotyping42. In the United States, the main meal is ____ .A. ChronemicsB. Proxemics A. RacismC. SexismA. in the morningB. at noonC. in the eveningD. B or C43. refers to attaching meaning to sense data and is synonymous withdecoding.A. PerceptionB. InterpretationC. SensationD. Selection1. When you talk with your friends about Picasso, Beethoven, you are talking about culture from_______________ p erspective.A.anthropologicB. intellectualC. socialD. psychological2. The dialogues at the United Nations, for example, would be termed ________ .A.interracialcommunicationB. interethnic communicationC.internationalcommunicationD. interpersonal communication3. ___ is the process of putting an idea into a symbol.A. DecodingB. ChannelC. EncodingD. Source4. ___ refers to anything that distorts the message the source encodes.A. NoiseB. MessageC. SourceD. Context5. refers to that portion of the receiver response of which the source hasknowledge and to which the source attends and assigns meaning.A. ReceiverB. DecodingC. EncodingD. Feedback6. Definitions of communication from many Asian countries stress _______ , whichis most notable in cultures with a Confucian tradition.A.exchanginginformationB. harmonyC. respectD. instrumental function7. Communication does not occur in isolation or in a vacuum, but rather it takes place in a physicaland a social context; both establish the rules that govern the interaction. It reflects .municationis symbolic8. communication is systematicmunicationisirreversibleD. communication is transactional8. In China, if a Tibetan communicates with a Han, it is _____ .A.interracialcommunicationB. interethnic communicationC.internationalcommunicationD. interpersonal communication9. The ___ is the person with an idea he or she desires to communicate.A. messageB. sourceC. contextD. feedback10. ____ refers to the exchange of messagesb etween members of the dominantculture within a country.A.InterethnicCommunication8. Interregional CommunicationC.internationalcommunicationD. Intercultural communication11. occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messages are fromdifferent races with different physical characteristics.A. InterethnicCommunicationB. Interracial CommunicationC. IntraculturalcommunicationD. Intercultural communication12. refers to one ’ s sense of belonging to a particular culthunreic ogrr oetup.A. Cultural identityB. Cultural valueC. Cultural normD. Subculture13. ____ is the environment in which the communication takes place and whichhelps define the communication.A. ContextB. SourceC. Receiver responseD. FeedbackII. Terms1. Cultural identity2. Co-culture3. Subculture4. Subgroup5. Communication6.Intercultural communication7.Intracultural communication1.1 nterethnic Communication9. Channel10. International Communication11. Context111. Short Answer1. What is culture from the intercultural perspective?2. What is the nature of culture?3. What are the characteristics of culture?4. How is culture learned?5. What is cultural identity and its characteristics?6. What are the components of communication?7. What are the characteristics of communication?8. What do you think that “ communication is irreversible ”?9. What are the forms of intercultural communication?10. What is the relationship between communication and culture?11. Short Answer Questions (5 points each)Directions: Please answer the following questions briefly.1. What is the nature of culture?2. What are the characteristics of culture?3. What are the components of communication?4. What are the characteristics of communication?5. What are the categories of nonverbal communication?6. What are the verbal communication styles?7. What are the components of cultural patterns?8. What are the business etiquette norms?9. What are the four modes of acculturation?10. What are the forms of culture shock?III. Short Answer5. What is culture from the intercultural perspectiv6. How is culture learned?5. What is cultural identity and its characteristics?8. What do you think that “ communication is irreversible ”?9. What are the forms of intercultural communication?10. What is the relationship between communication and culture?11. Terms1. Cultural identity2. Co-culture3. Subculture4. Subgroup5. Communication5.1 ntercultural communication7.Intracultural communication1.1 nterethnic Communication9. Channel10. International Communication11. Context1-5 BCCAD6-10 ABBCD11-15 BACCA16-20 CABBD21-25 BABAA26-30 DDDAA31-35 CDAAA36-40 BDCCC41-43 DCB1. The iceberg model of culture implies that it is very difficult to understand a culture thoroughly.T2. Culture is innate as soon as a person is born. F3. People may sometimes get confused about his or her cultural identity. T4. Scholars prefer the term subculture to co-culture in describing a culture which exists within adominant culture. F5. A person could be a member of several different subgroups at the same time. T6. Communication and culture are inseparable and strongly connected. T7. Intracultural communication occurs when the sender and the receiver exchanging messagesare from different races. F8. The sender must choose certain words or nonverbal methods to send an intentional message.This activity is called decoding. F9. The process of communication has nine components: sender, encoding, message, channel,noise, receiver, decoding, feedback, and context. T10. An exacting style of communication can be found in Japan, China, and some Native Americancultures. F11. The self-effacement verbal style emphasizes the importance of boasting about one ’saccomplishments and abilities. F12. Dialect refers to geographic variation, while sociolect refers to variation in terms of social group.T13. An elaborate style of communication can be seen in Arab cultures. T14. Speaking is the only mode of effective communication. F15. The elaborate, exacting, or succinct communication style deals with the quantity and/or volumeof talk that is preferred across cultural groups. T16. The Thais like to touch babies or small children, especially they like others to pat theirchildren’s head. F17. Saudi Arabs belong to touch cultures. F18. The appropriateness of eye contact varies with different cultures. T19. Paralanguage may imply the connotation of the actual words.20. In Finland, firm handshakes are the normal greeting for men and women. T21. Americans might regard gift giving as a form of bribery. T22. Similarity of culture does not affect acculturation. F23. Successful management of culture shock depends on an awareness of its symptoms and thedegree of its severity. T24. The second stage of intercultural adaptation is called honeymoon stage or initial euphoriastage. F25. All the activities of learning one’ s culture are called acculturation. F26. Insomnia can be one example of the physical symptoms of culture shock.F27. Financial matters can result in culture shock. T3. What is the nature of culture?4. What are the characteristics of culture?3.What are the components of communication?11. What are the characteristics of communication?12. What are the categories of nonverbal communication?13. What are the verbal communication styles?14. What are the differences between direct and indirect verbal communication styles?15. How to distinguish elaborate, exacting, and succinct styles?16. What are the components of cultural patterns?17. How to distinguish High context VS Low context and High context culture VS Low context culture18. What are the business etiquette norms?19. What are the four modes of acculturation?20. What are the forms of culture shock?21. What are the reasons for culture shock?22. What are the four stages of the U-curve pattern intercultural adaptation?。
lecture 2--nature of culture (1)
12
文化是历史上所创造的生活式样的系统，既包含显形 式样又包括隐形式样；它具有为整个群体共享的倾向， 或是在一定时期内为群体的特定部分所共享。或者
5
到底什么是文化(culture)？这个我们再也熟悉不过的 词语解释起来却相当麻烦，每个人看待它都有自己的 视角和层面，因而侧重点不一，导致它的“能指”非 常之多。据考证，文化有160多种定义，每个定义都 摸到了“文化”这头大象的某个部位。
中国大百科辞典将它解释为：“文化，指人类在社会 历史活动中所创造的物质财富和精神财富的总和 （culture)。狭义的“文化”则指社会的意识形态及 其与之相适应的制度和组织机构…… (Culture)。作为意 识形态的文化，是一定社会政治和经济的反映，同时， 又给一定社会的政治和经济以巨大影响和作用。”
3
People mean different things when they talk about culture
我没文化，不识字。 我文化水平不够高，欣赏不了这幅画。 Chinese culture and American culture; ancient
culture and modern culture; material culture and nonmaterial culture, everyday culture and sophisticated culture. 企业文化，饮食文化，酒文化，茶文化。
5 Some metaphors concerning culture
文化的特征英文作文
文化的特征英文作文Culture is a reflection of a society's values, beliefs, traditions, and customs. It is a dynamic and ever-changing entity that shapes the way people live, think, and interact with one another.One of the key features of culture is its diversity. Different cultures around the world have their own unique practices and rituals that set them apart from one another. From the food we eat to the clothes we wear, culture influences every aspect of our lives.Another important aspect of culture is its ability to bring people together. Festivals, holidays, and celebrations are all ways in which people come together to share their cultural heritage and traditions. These events help to foster a sense of community and belonging among individuals.Language is also a crucial component of culture. It isthrough language that people are able to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and ideas. Language not only serves as a means of communication but also plays a significant role in shaping one's identity and sense of belonging.Art and music are also integral parts of culture. They serve as outlets for creative expression and allow individuals to showcase their talents and skills. Art and music can also be used as a form of cultural preservation, helping to keep traditions alive for future generations.Overall, culture is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon that plays a significant role in shaping our identities and influencing our behaviors. It is important to embrace and celebrate the diversity of cultures around the world, as it is through this diversity that we are able to learn, grow, and evolve as individuals and as a society.。
文化的特征英文作文
文化的特征英文作文英文：Culture is a complex concept that encompasses a wide range of characteristics. Some of the key features of culture include language, customs, beliefs, values, art, music, and food. These elements are often intertwined and shape the way people interact with each other and the world around them.One of the most important aspects of culture is language. Language allows people to communicate with each other and share their thoughts, ideas, and beliefs. It also helps to create a sense of identity and belonging within a community. For example, my family speaks Mandarin Chinese at home, and it has become an important part of ourcultural identity.Customs and traditions are also important cultural characteristics. These are the practices and behaviors thatare passed down from generation to generation and help to define a culture. For example, in my family, we celebrate Chinese New Year by gathering together, eating traditional foods, and exchanging red envelopes filled with money.Beliefs and values are another important aspect of culture. These are the ideas and principles that guide behavior and decision-making. For example, in Chinese culture, filial piety is highly valued, which means that children are expected to respect and care for their parents as they age.Art, music, and food are also important cultural characteristics. These forms of expression can help to convey the history, traditions, and values of a culture. For example, Chinese calligraphy is a form of art that has been passed down for thousands of years and is still highly valued today.Overall, culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that includes a wide range of characteristics. These elements help to shape the way people interact with eachother and the world around them and create a sense of identity and belonging within a community.中文：文化是一个复杂的概念，包含了许多特征。
characteristics of culture
Hippies (嬉皮士) of the 1960s US
Case 5
▪ It was my first visit to Chongqing, southwest China. I felt uneasy when I asked the way to some place. In my hometown in the North, directions are given in terms of East, West, North and South. We may easily find the way when local people there tell you whether the place is in the direction of North or South; while in Chongqing the local people tell you the way in terms of direction on the right, or on the left, to which we Northerners are quite unfamiliar. And I guess people from Chongqing may meet the same problem as I had when they were in the North.
LEARNED
ADAPTIVE
CULTURE IS…
DYNAMIC
PERVASIVE
INTEGRATED
1. Culture Is Learned
Activity: Group Work Have you learned culture through some channels? Discuss with your group members and give examples of your own experiences of learning culture.
各种文化类型的特点归纳
Characteristics of individualistic culture Others’ behaviour is explained by personal traits.One’s success is contributed to his own ability.Self is defined as individual entity （特点，个体，存在）. One knows more about self than others.Achievement is made for o ne’s own sake.Personal goals are over group goals.Self-assuredness is valued.Autonomy and independence is valued.Dependence on others is avoided.One bears casual connections to many groups.Task completion is important.One has few obligations to others.Confrontation is acceptable.Characteristics of collectivist culture Groups are major units of social perception.Others’ behaviour is explained by group norms.Success is attributed to the help of the group.Self is defined in terms of group.One knows more about others than self.Achievement is for the benefit of the group.Ingroup（小集团）goal is over personal goal.Modesty is valued.Interdependence is valued.Ostracism （排斥）is feared.One has strong connections to a few groups.One has many obligations to others.Harmony is expected.Relations are important.Characteristics of masculine culture There is a high occupational segregation by gender.Gender inequality is common.Careers for males are mandatory（命令型的）.Few women are in powerful jobs.Accomplishments are highly valued.High-level of job-related stress.People are highly competitive.People are task-oriented.The art of combat（竞争，竞赛）is valued.The bigger, the better.Family and work life are separated.One lives to work.Characteristics of feminine culture There is little occupational segregation by gender.There is relative gender equality.Careers for males are optional.More women are in powerful jobs.Nurturing is highly valued.The level of job-related stress is low.People are highly cooperative.People are relationship-oriented.The art of compromise is valued.The smaller, the more beautiful.Concern for family issues is present in workplace.One works to live.Characteristics of culture of low uncertaintyavoidanceThere is a strong willingness to live day by day.There is less emotional resistance to change.People are more risk-taking.There is a willingness to change the employer.One hopes for success.One shows little loyalty to one’s employer.Sometimes rules can be broken.Conflict is natural and to be expected.Initiative of subordinates is encouraged.Differences are tolerated.Characteristics of culture of high uncertaintyavoidanceThere is greater anxiety about the future.There is more emotional resistance to change.People are less risk-taking.There is a tendency to stay with the same employer.Failure is feared.One shows considerable loyalty to employers.Rules should not be broken.Conflict is undesirable.Initiative of subordinates is discouragedDifferences are considered dangerous.People have high level of stress.Emotional expression is acceptable.Superordinates have all the answers.Formal organization structures are desired.Characteristics of high-context culturePeople almost enjoy the same norms or values.Most of the information is in the physical world or in individuals. People value group identity orientation and covert communication codes and maintains a homogeneous normative structure with high cultural demand characteristics.A large portion of the message is left unsaid or unspecified and need to be accessed through the context.People judge what is talking about not only by what he is saying but also by the context in which the message occurs.Characteristics of low-context culturePeople enjoy different sub-cultures.Most of the information is in the transmitted message.People value individual orientation and overt communication codes and maintains a heterogeneous normative structure with low cultural demand characteristics.Messages are expected to be explicit and specific.People judge what someone is talking about mainly by what he is saying.。
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cultures is not a static entity while it is difficult to be transformed completely.
Culture is consistently changing and involving under the impact of and as a result of contact with other cultures.
2. Culture Is Dynamic
▪Activity: Exploring Ideas ▪Do you know any other events that have great influence on culture? Tell your partner how the following events changed culture. ▪1. China’s policy of reform and openingup ▪2. The United States’ entering WWII ▪3. The atomic bombing in Japan in WWII
李安导演的电影<推 手><饮食男女><喜 宴>就说明了在文化 冲击下,人们在中西/ 新旧文化中的徘徊和 坚守
Reasons for changes
▪ Technological invention ▪ Disasters(calamities): Pompeii in Italy ▪ Cultural contact ▪ Environmental factors
➢Culture Is Learned
parents
friends
▪ We learn culture from ______, ____
______________,_______,_______
___________________________.
other family members
and even strangers who are part of the culture
LEARNED
ADAPTIVE
CULTURE IS…
DYNAMIC
PERVA Culture Is Learned
Activity: Group Work Have you learned culture through some channels? Discuss with your group members and give examples of your own experiences of learning culture.
Discuss the characteristics of culture
Activity: ▪ Let’s try to summarize the characteristics
of culture according to its definition and metaphors.
The Characteristics of Culture
儿。”
Hippies (嬉皮士) of the 1960s US
Case 5
▪ It was my first visit to Chongqing, southwest China. I felt uneasy when I asked the way to some place. In my hometown in the North, directions are given in terms of East, West, North and South. We may easily find the way when local people there tell you whether the place is in the direction of North or South; while in Chongqing the local people tell you the way in terms of direction on the right, or on the left, to which we Northerners are quite unfamiliar. And I guess people from Chongqing may meet the same problem as I had when they were in the North.
▪ The character Jian Ning in Gua Sha shows that culture is dynamic.
▪ The culture one person accepted can be replaced by another culture, because the cultural circumstance has changed for a long time.
4. Culture Is Integrated
▪ We sometimes break down and isolate various parts of culture and talk about them as if they are separate parts. However, in reality, culture functions as an integrated whole and it is systematic.
▪ This is a subculture existing in the dominant culture.
▪ (In the U.S.A. American culture is superior and the Asian-American culture is just a kind of subordinate culture.)
▪ 埃及人有十二个生肖，分别是：牡牛、山羊、猴 子、驴、蟹、蛇、犬、猫、鳄、红鹤、狮子、鹰。
▪ 希腊人有十二个生肖，与埃及人的生肖基本相同， 只是希腊人有“鼠”无“猫”，埃及人则有“猫” 无“鼠”。
▪ 墨西哥人有十二个生肖，有虎、兔、龙、猴、狗、 猪和其它六种墨西哥特有的动物组成十二生肖。
Additional concept: Cultural Identity
Subculture, Co-culture, and Subgroup
▪ Subculture (亚文化) and co-culture (共存文化) ▪ A subculture is a segment（部分）of society that
shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from the pattern of the larger society. In a sense, a subculture can be thought of as a culture existing within a larger, dominant culture.
Case 6
▪ 古时候有个不学无术的人，好不容易用钱买了个县官，却 不会说“官话”，上任之后，照例要去拜访顶头上司—知 府，在闲聊中知府问：
▪ “贵县风土怎么样？” ▪ “并没有大风，更少尘土。” ▪ “百姓怎样?” ▪ “白杏只有两棵，红杏不少。” ▪ “我问的是黎庶！” ▪ “梨树很多吗，结的果实很小。” ▪ 知府动气了：“我不是问什么梨树，我是问你的小民！” ▪ 县官见知府生气，急忙站起来回答到：“卑职的小名叫狗
examples •proverb : love me love my dog •12 zodiac animals
12 zodiac animals
▪ 越南人有十二个生肖，与中国人的生肖基本相同。 只是中国有“兔”无“猫”，越南则有“猫”无 “兔”。
▪ 印度人有十二个生肖，与中国人的生肖基本相同。 只是中国有“虎”无“狮”，印度则有“狮”无 “虎”。
JACKY CHEN
▪ Jacky Chen, Chinese famous Kong Fu movie star, expresses his loyalty to Chinese culture by wearing Chinese traditional clothes and advocating Chinese culture.
CULTURAL IDENTITY Cultural identity refers to one’s
sense of belonging to a particular culture or ethnic group. People consciously identify themselves with a group that has a shared system of symbols and meanings as well as norms for conduct.
Today the tendency is to say
‘co-culture’ and sub-groups to avoid prejudice. “Sub” implies inferior（下级的，次要的） so “co” is used to indicate the idea of equality.
DOMINANT CULTURE AND SUBCULTURE/CO-
CULTURE
▪Culture is subdivided into dominant culture, mainstream culture, and subculture(s), which coexist within each culture.
5. Culture Is Adaptive
▪ History abounds with examples of how cultures have changed because of laws, natural disasters, wars, or other calamities.