二语习得考试复习汇总
二语习得考试复习汇总
二语习得考试复习汇总一、名词解释母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言、双语者、第二语言习得、1、“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
4、“双语者”或“操双语者”，指可以同等流利地使用两种语言的人。
（1）、双语者指那些两种语言都达到与母语者同等熟练水平的人（balanced bilingualism）。
精通两种语言的人。
这种观点是根据是否具有“同等的语言知识”来定义双语者；（2）、双语者可以指那些能够用另外一种语言生成完整的有意义的话语的人。
这就是所谓双语者的“最底限定义”（minimal definition）。
这种观点是基于能否使用第二语言来定义双语者。
5、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
6、中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
1、第二语言习得研究的发端是以什么为标志的？为什么？origination: the end of 1960s.Corder 1967: “The significance of leaners’errors” ; Selinker 1972“Interlanguage”.Why?1. . For the first time Corder theoretically elaborate the great significance of errors SL learners made on language teaching, the process of acquisition and the second learners themselves;2. the view of Corder radically change the view and attitude of how people see the errors of second language learners.Corder (1967) make clear the object, method and the direction for further development. SLA as a isolated area for study.Corder:第二语言习得研究应该把目光放在学习者语言系统的考察上，把学习者的语言偏误作为观察学习者语言习得过程的窗口，从中发现学习者是如何习得第二语言的规律的。
二语习得复习题
二语习得复习题1. 第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。
上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。
在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。
当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。
（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。
偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。
受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。
2. 语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。
行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。
（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。
（3）“互动论”的观点。
Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。
认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。
3. 学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。
（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。
二语习得考试复习资料
第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。
2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。
三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。
3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。
不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。
不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。
2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。
3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。
2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。
2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。
语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。
3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。
3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。
1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。
二语习得复习汇总汇编
A General ReviewⅠ. Short & Long answers1.what is the difference between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence?Differencese between monolingual and multilingual communicative competence are due in part to the different social functions of first and second language learning, and to the differences between learning language and learning culture. The differences of the competence between native speakers and nonative speakers include structural differences in the linguisitc system, different rules for usage in writing or conversation, and even somewhat divergent meanings for the “same” lexical forms. Further, a multilingual speaker’s total communicative competence differs from that of a monolingual in including knowledge of rules for the appropriate choice of language and for switching between languages, given a particular social context and communicative purpose.2.what are the microsocial factors that affect SLA?a)L2 variation b) input and interaction c) interaction as the genesis of language3.What is the difference between linguistic competence & communicative competence (CC)?Linguistic competence- It was defined in 1965 by Chomsky as a speaker's underlying ability to produce grammatically correct expressions. Linguistic competence refers to knowledge of language. Theoretical linguistics primarily studies linguistic competence: knowledge of a language possessed by “an ideal speak-listener”.Communicative competence- It is a term in linguistics which refers to “what a speaker needs to know to communicate appropriately within a particular language community”, such as a language user's grammatical knowledge of syntax , morphology , phonology and the like, as well as social knowledge about how and when to use utterances appropriately.4.Why is CC in L1 different from L2?L1 learning for children is an integral part of their sociolization into their native language community. L2 learning may be part of second culture learning and adaptation, but the relationship of SLA to social and cultural learning differs greatly with circumstances.5.What is Accommodation Theory? How does this explain L2 variation?Accommodation theory: Speakers (usually unconsciously) change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to. This accounts in part for why native speakers tend to simply their language when they are talking to a L2 learner who is not fluent, and why L2 learners may acquire somewhat different varieties of the target language when they have different friends.6.Discuss the importance of input & interaction for L2 learning. How could this affect the feedback providedto students?. a) From the perspective of linguistic approaches: (1) behaviorist: they consider input to form the necessary stimuli and feedback which learners respond to and imitate; (2) Universal Grammar: they consider exposure to input a necessary trigger for activating internal mechanisms; (3) Monitor Model: consider comprehensible input not only necessary but sufficient in itself to account for SLA;b) From the perspective of psychological approaches: (1) IP framework: consider input which is attended to as essential data for all stages of language processing; (2) connectionist framework: consider the quantity or frequency of input structures to largely determine acquisitional sequencing;c) From the perspective of social approaches: interaction is generally seen as essential in providing learners with the quantity and quality of external linguistic input which is required for internal processing.ⅱ. Other types of interaction which can enhance SLA include feedback from NSs which makes NNs aware that their usage is not acceptable in some way, and which provides a model for “correctness”. While children rarely receive such negative evidence in L1, and don’t require it to achieve full native competence, corrective feedback is common in L2 and may indeed be necessary for most learners to ultimately reach native-like levels of proficiency when that is the desired goal.7.Explain ZPD. How would scaffolding put a student in ZPD?Zone of Proximal Development, this is an area of potential development, where the learner can achieve that potential only with assistance. Mental functions that are beyond an individual's current level must be performed in collaboration with other people before they are achieved independently. One way in which others help the learner in language development within the ZPD is through scaffolding. Scaffolding refers to verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbal collaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them individually. It is not something that happens to learners as a passive recipient, but happens with a learner as an active participant.8.Explain why some learners are more successful than others from the perspective of S-C theory?The S-C framework supports the view that some learners may be more successful than others because of their level of access to or participation in a learning community, or because of the amount of mediation they receive from experts or peers, and because of how well they make use of that help.9.What are the macrosocial factors that influence SLA?(1)Global and national status of L1 and L2 (2)Boundaries and identities(3)Institutional forces and constraints (4)Social categories (5)Circumstances of learning10.What are the advantages of young learners and old learners respectively?Young L2 learners are more likely to acquire the language in a naturalistic setting; they are more likely to use the L2 in highly contextualized face-to-face situation. Older learners succeed in SLA to the level of being able to “pass” for a native speaker when social motivation is strong enough.11.What are the similarities and differences between linguists, psycholinguist, sociolinguists and socialpsycholinguists?（1）Linguists emphasize the characteristics of the differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.（2）Psychologists and psycholinguists emphasize the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of languages in the brain.（3）Sociolinguists emphasize variability in learner linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).（4）Social psychologists emphasize group-related phenomena, such as identity and social motivation, and the interactional and larger social contexts of learning.12.What are the differences between second language, foreign language, library language and auxiliarylanguage?（1）A second language is typically an official or societally dominant language needed for education, employment, and other basic purposes. It is often acquired by minority group members or immigrants who speak another language natively. In this more restricted sense, the term is contrasted with other terms in this list.（2）A foreign language is one not widely used in the learners' immediate social context which might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school, but with no immediate or necessary practical application.（3）A library language is one which functions primarily as a tool for future learning through reading, especially when books or journals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learners' native tongue.（4）An auxiliary language is one which learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate political setting, or will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.13.Why are some learners more (or less) successful than others?The intriguing question of why some L2 learners are more successful than others requires us to unpack the broad label “learners” for some dimensions of discussion. Linguistics may distinguish categories of learners defined by the identity and relationship of their L1 and L2; psycholinguists may make distinctions based on individual aptitude for L2 learning, personality factors, types and strength of motivation, and different learning strategies;sociolinguists may distinguish among learners with regard to social, economic, and political differences and learner experiences in negotiated interaction; and social psychologists may categorize learners according to aspects of their group identity and attitudes toward target language speakers or toward L2 learning itself.14.List at least five possible motivations for learning a second language at an older age.The motivation may arise from a variety of conditions, including the following:●Invasion or conquest of one’s country by speakers of another language;● A need or desire to contact speakers of other languages in economic or other specific domains;●Immigration to a country where use of a language other than one's L1 is required;●Adoption of religious beliefs and practices which involve use of another language;● A need or desire to pursue educational experiences where access requires proficiency in another language;● A desire for occupational or social advancement which is furthered by knowledge of another language;●An interest in knowing more about peoples of other cultures and having access to their technologies orliteratures.15.What are the two main factors that influence the language learning?（1）The role of natural ability: Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn language.（2）The role of social experience: Not all of L1 acquisition can be attributed to innate ability, for language-specific learning also plays a crucial role. Even if the universal properties of language are preprogrammed in children, they must learn all of those features which distinguish their L1 from all other possible human languages. Children will never acquire such language-specific knowledge unless that language is used with them and around them, and they will learn to use only the language(s) used around them, no matter what their linguistic heritage. American-born children of Korean or Greek ancestry will never learn the language of their grandparents if only English surrounds them, for instance, and they will find their ancestral language just as hard to learn as any other English speakers do if they attempt to learn it as an adult. Appropriate social experience, including L1 input and interaction, is thus a necessary condition for acquisition.16.What is the initial state of language development for L1 and L2 respectively?The initial state of L1 learning is composed solely of an innate capacity for language acquisition which may or may not continue to be available for L2, or may be available only in some limited ways. The initial state for L2 learning, on the other hand, has resources of L1 competence, world knowledge, and established skills for interaction, which can be both an asset and an impediment.17.How does intermediate states process?The cross-linguistic influence, or transfer of prior knowledge from L1 to L2, is one of the processes that is involved in interlanguage development. Two major types of transfer which occur are: (1) positive transfer, when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is appropriate or “correct” in the L2; and (2) negative transfer (or interference), when an L1 structure or rule is used in an L2 utterance and that use is inappropriate and considered an “error”.18.What is a necessary condition for language learning (L1 or L2)?Language input to the learner is absolutely necessary for either L1 or L2 learning to take place. Children additionally require interaction with other people for L1 learning to occur. It is possible for some individuals to reach a fairly high level of proficiency in L2 even if they have input only from such generally non-reciprocal sources as radio, television, or written text.19.What is a facilitating condition for language learning?While L1 learning by children occurs without instruction, and while the rate of L1 development is not significantly influenced by correction of immature forms or by degree of motivation to speak, both rate and ultimate level of development in L2 can be facilitated or inhabited by many social and individual factors, such as (1) feedback, including correction of L2 learners' errors; (2) aptitude, including memory capacity and analytic ability; (3) motivation, or need and desire to learn; (4) instruction, or explicit teaching in school settings.20.Give at least 2 reasons that many scientists believe in some innate capacity for language.The notion that innate linguistic knowledge must underlie language acquisition was prominently espoused by Noam Chomsky. This view has been supported by arguments such as the following:(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the input they receive: Childrenoften hear incomplete or ungrammatical utterances along with grammatical input, and yet they are somehowable to filter the language they hear so that the ungrammatical input is not incorporated into their L1 system.Further, children are commonly recipients of simplified input from adults, which does not include data for allof the complexities which are within their linguistic competence. In addition, children hear only a finite subsetof possible grammatical sentences, and yet they are able to abstract general principles and constraints whichallow them to interpret and produce an infinite number of sentences which they have never heard before.(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned: Children’s access to general constraints and principles whichgovern language could account for the relatively short time it takes for the L1 grammar to emerge, and for thefact that it does so systematically and without any “wild” divergences. This could be so because innate principles lead children to organize the input they receive only in certain ways and not others. In addition to the lack of negative evidence , constraints and principles cannot be learnt in part because children acquire a first language at an age when such abstractions are beyond their comprehension; constraints and principles are thus outside the realm of learning process which are related to general intelligence.(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input: In spite of the surfacedifferences in input, there are similar patterns in child acquisition of any language in the world. The extent of this similarity suggests that language universals are not only constructs derived from sophisticated theories and analyses by linguists, but also innate representations in every young child’s mind.21.Linguists have taken an internal and/or external focus to the study of language acquisition. What is thedifference between the two?Internal focus emphasizes that children begin with an innate capacity which is biologically endowed, as well as the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge; while external focus emphasizes the information content of utterances, and considers language primarily as a system of communication.22.What are the two main factors for learning process in the study of SLA from a psychological perspective?(1) Information Processing, which assumes that L2 is a highly complex skill, and that learning L2 is notessentially unlike learning other highly complex skills. Processing itself is believed to cause learning;(2) Connectionism, which does not consider language learning to involve either innate knowledge or abstractionof rules and principles, but rather to result from increasing strength of associations (connections) between stimuli and responses.23.What are the two foci for the study of SLA from the social perspective?(1)Microsocial focus: the concerns within the microsocial focus relate to language acquisition and use inimmediate social contexts of production, interpretation, and interaction.(2) Macrosocial focus: the concerns of the macrosocial focus relate language acquisition and use to broaderecological contexts, including cultural, political, and educational settings.24.What are the characteristics of an interlanguage?1)Systematic. At any particular point or stage of development, the IL is governed by rules which constitute thelearner’s internal grammar.2)Dynamic. The system of rules which learners have in their minds changes frequently, or is in a state of flux,resulting in a succession of interim grammars.3)Variable. Although IL is systematic, differences in context result in different patterns of language use.4)Reduced system, both in form and function.25.What are the five components of language knowledge?Linguists have traditionally divided language into the following five components for purposes of description and analysis:(1)vocabulary(lexicon) (2)morphology(word structure) (3)phonology(sound system) (4)syntax(grammar) (5)discourse(ways to connect sentences and organize information)Please do3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25 (共17题)in your exercisebooks.Ⅱ.Definition1.Second Language Acquisition (SLA):a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who arelearning a language subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood,usually because it is the primary language of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual sett ing may have more than one “first” language.3.Second language (L2): A language that is acquired naturally in early childhood, usually because it is the primarylanguage of a child’s family. A child who grows up in a multilingual setting may have more than one “first”language.4.Target language:The language that is the aim or goal of learning.5.Foreign language:A second language that is not widely used in the learners’ immediate social context, but ratherone that might be used for future travel or other cross-cultural communication situations, or one that might be studied be studied as a curricular requirement or elective in school with no immediate or necessary practical application.6.Library language: A second language that functions as a tool for further learning, especially when books andjournals in a desired field of study are not commonly published in the learner’s L1.7.Auxiliary language:A second language that learners need to know for some official functions in their immediate sociopolitical setting. Or that they will need for purposes of wider communication, although their first language serves most other needs in their lives.8.Linguistic competence:The underlying knowledge that speakers/hearers have of a language. Chomsky distinguishes this from linguistic performance.9.Linguistic performance:The use of language knowledge in actual production.municative competence:A basic tenet (原则、信条、教条) of sociolinguistics defined as “what a speakerneeds to know to communicate appropriately within a particular langua ge community” (Saville-Troike 2003) 11.Pragmatic competence:Knowledge that people must have in order to interpret and convey meaning withincommunicative situations.12.Multilingualism: The ability to use more than one language.13.Monolingualism:The ability to use only one language.14.Simultaneous multilingualism:Ability to use more than one language that were acquired during early childhood.15.Sequential multilingualism:Ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1 had already beenestablished.16.Innate capacity:A natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn or acquire language.17.Child grammar:Grammar of children at different maturational levels that is systematic in terms of productionand comprehension.18.Initial state:The starting point for language acquisition; it is thought to include the underlying knowledge aboutlanguage structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.19.Intermediate state:I t includes the maturational changes which take place in “child grammar”, and the L2developmental sequence which is known as learner language.20.Final state: The outcome of L1 and L2 leaning, also known as the stable state of adult grammar.21.Positive transfer: Appropriate incorporation of an L1 structure or rule in L2 structure.22.Negative transfer: I nappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule on L2 use. Also called interference.23.Phonology: The sound systems of different languages and the study of such systems generally.24.Syntax: The linguistic system of grammatical relationships of words within sentences, such as ordering andagreement.25.Semantics: The linguistic study of meaning.26.Lexicon: The component of language that is concerned with words and their meanings.27.Principles and Parameters (model): The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’sTransformational-Generative Grammar. It revised specifications of what constitutes innate capacity to include more abstract notions of general principles and constraints common to human language as part of a Universal Grammar.28.Minimalist program:The internally focused linguistic framework that followed Chomsky’s Principles andParameters model.This framework adds distinctions between lexical and functional category development, as well as more emphasis on the acquisition of feature specification as a part of lexical knowledge.29.Variation theory: A microsocial framework applied to SLA that explores systematic differences in learnerproduction which depend on contexts of use.30.Accommodation theory:A framework for study of SLA that is based on the notion that speakers usuallyunconsciously change their pronunciation and even the grammatical complexity of sentences they use to sound more like whomever they are talking to.31.Sociocultural theory (SCT): An approach established by Vygotsky which claims that interaction not onlyfacilitates language learning but is a causative force in acquisition. Further, all of learning is seen as essentially a social process which is grounded in sociocultural settings.nguage community: A group of people who share knowledge of a common language to at least some extent.2.Foreigner talk: Speech from L1 speakers addressed to L2 learners that differs in systematic ways from languageaddressed to native or very fluent speakers.3.Interaction Hypothesis:The claim that modifications and collaborative efforts which take place in socialinteration facilitate SLA because they contribute to the accessibility of input for mental processing.4.Symbolic mediation: A link bet ween a person’s current mental state and higher order functions that is providedprimarily by language; considered the usual route to learning (of language, and of learning in general). Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.5.Linguistic context: Elements of language form and function associated with the variable element.6.Microsocial context:features of setting/situation and interaction which relate to communicative events withinwhich language is being produced, interpreted, and negotiated.7.ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development, an area of potential development where the learner can only achieve thatpotential with assistance. Part of Vygosky’s Sociocultural Theory.8.9.Scaffolding: Verbal guidance which an expert provides to help a learner perform any specific task, or the verbalcollaboration of peers to perform a task which would be too difficult for any one of them in individual performance.10.11.Intrapersonal interaction: communication that occurs within an individual's own mind, viewed by Vygosky as asociocultural phenomen.12.Interpersonal interaction: Communicative events and situations that occur between people.13.Social institutions:The systems which are established by law, custom, or practice to regulate and organize the lifeof people in public domains: e.g. politics, religion, and education.14.15.Acculturation: learning the culture of the L2 community and adapting to those values and behavioral patterns.16.17.Formal L2 learning: formal/instructed learning generally takes place in schools, which are social institutions thatare established in accord with the needs, beliefs, values, and customs of their cultural settings.rmal L2 learning: informal/naturalistic learning generally takes place in settings where people contact—andneed to interact with—speakers of another language.1.Contrastive Analysis (CA): an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement (S-R-R): learners respond to the stimulus (linguistic input), and reinforcement strengthens the response; they imitate and repeat the language that they hear, and when they are reinforced for that response, learning occurs.3.Interference: There will be transfer in learning of elements acquired in L1 to L2. When the L1 structure is used inappropriately in the L2, the transfer is called interference.4. Error Analysis (EA):the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners’ creative ability to construct language. It is based on the description and analysis of the actual learner errors in L2.6. Interlanguage (IL): is the intermediate state of a learner’s language as it moves toward the target L2. It has the following characteristics: systematic; dynamic; variable; reduced system, both in form and function.Ⅲ. Final exam questions1. Choose the best answer from the three possible choices.（每小题2 分，共20 分）2. Define the following terms（每小题5 分，共25 分）3. Short & Long answers（每小题8 分，共40 分）4. Answer the following questions, you should write at least 200 words.（每小题15分，共15 分）。
第二语言习得考试试题
第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。
A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。
第二语言习得试题及答案
第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。
答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。
答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。
答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。
答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。
答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。
答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。
2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。
答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。
当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。
第二语言习得复习整理
一、名词解释1、母语：“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、目标语：“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
Ellis (1994)“第二语言”是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言的。
因此，“第二语言”自然包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言。
4、对比分析：对比分析是把两种语言进行对比，从而确定其中的相同点和不同点。
对比分析的最终目的是为了预测母语对第二语言学习可能会造成的影响，即第二语言学习者受母语干扰可能会出现的错误，从而确定教学的重点和难点，采取相应的预防性措施。
5、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
6、中介语：“中介语”（interlanguage）这一概念是由语言学家塞林克（）于1969年提出来的。
中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
7、偏误：偏误是对正确语言的偏离，也就是离开了轨道。
这种错误是系统的，有规律的，它反映说话者的语言能力。
8、偏误分析：系统分析学习者偏误，研究来源，揭示学习者中介语体系。
对学生学习第二语言过程中所犯的偏误进行分析，从而发现第二语言学习者产生偏误的规律，包括偏误的类型，偏误产生的原因，某种偏误产生的阶段性，等等。
二语习得理论复习提纲
第二语言习得理论复习提纲1.什么是第二语言习得理论2.第二语言和外语3.习得和学习的区分及对这种区分的评价4.直接法、听说法、视听法、交际法几种不同学派对语言习得的认识5.第一语言习得和第二语言习得的区别6.本族语和非本族语7.目的语（目标语）8.第二语言习得研究（二语习得）的背景9.母语者和非母语者及二语教学的母语者标准10.儿童第一语言习得过程11.刺激一反应论的主要观点及评价12.先天论的主要观点及争议13.第二语言习得的主要理论和假说14.偏误分析15.对比分析假说16.中介语假说17.中介语的特点18.内在大纲和习得顺序19.词素习得研究的贡献及争议20.输入假说21.习得与学习假说22.自然顺序假说23.监控假说24.输入假说25.情感过滤假说26.普遍语法假说及其评价27.文化适应假说28.什么是偏误29.偏误分析的背景及发展30.科德的偏误分析观31.偏误分析的步骤32.偏误分析存在的问题33.整体性偏误和具体性偏误34.语内偏误和语际偏误35.显性偏误与隐性偏误36.前系统偏误、系统错误与后系统错误37.偏误的来源38.对待偏误的态度39.偏误分析的意义和局限40.汉语学习者语音偏误的造成语音偏误的原因41.汉语学习者常见的语音偏误的造成及正音方法42.欧美学生汉字偏误的情况43.日本学生容易出现的汉字偏误分析44.外国学生在学习汉语时词汇方面的偏误45.外国学生在学习汉语时的语用偏误46.外国学生在学习汉语时语法偏误的原因及类型及语法偏误的分析和解释47.对比分析假说的发展及对比分析假说的两种形式48.正迁移、负迁移和中性迁移49.对对比分析假说的评价50.语言迁移、跨语言影响和母语的作用51.制约语言迁移的因素52.母语在语言理解和语言教学中的作用53.第二语言习得顺序研究产生的理论背景54.习得顺序研究的基本观点55.SLA顺序研究的发展及理论争议56.对词素习得顺序研究的批评57.“习得顺序”和“习得序列”研究58.多元发展模型的主要内容：五个阶段、两个维度、言语加工策略59.中介语研究的理论背景60.中介语发展阶段61.中介语的形成模式及特点62.中介语石化及石化形成的原因63.中介语的变异性64.中介语研究对第二语言教学的启示65.语言输入和输出的关系66.Krashen的输入假说及争议67.课堂教学中老师如何把握语言输入和输出68.语言输入需进一步研究的问题69.学习者的个体因素及对二语习得的影响70.语言学能71.学习策略和交际策略、交际策略的类型72.元认知策略73.语言学习的动机74.影响语言学习态度的几个方面75.什么是语言环境？76.社会环境对语言学习的影响77.课堂语言环境与第二语言学习。
第二语言习得复习资料
第二语言习得复习资料一、引言第二语言习得是一门研究人们如何学习和掌握除母语以外的语言的学科。
对于许多学习者来说，掌握一门第二语言不仅能够拓宽交流渠道，还能增加个人的文化视野和职业发展机会。
在这篇复习资料中，我们将系统地探讨第二语言习得的相关重要内容。
二、第二语言习得的理论基础（一）行为主义理论行为主义理论认为，语言学习是一种习惯的形成。
通过不断的刺激反应强化过程，学习者逐渐养成正确的语言使用习惯。
例如，反复练习某个语法结构或单词，在得到正确的反馈和强化后，就能熟练掌握。
（二）认知理论认知理论则强调学习者的内在认知过程。
认为学习者通过对语言规则的理解、归纳和推理来学习语言。
他们会主动构建语言知识体系，而不仅仅是被动地接受外界的刺激。
（三）社会文化理论社会文化理论关注语言学习所处的社会和文化环境。
认为语言学习是通过与他人的互动和参与社会文化活动实现的。
学习者在真实的交际情境中，借助他人的帮助和指导，逐渐发展语言能力。
三、第二语言习得的关键因素（一）语言输入丰富、准确、可理解的语言输入对于第二语言习得至关重要。
这包括听、读等多种形式的输入。
例如，听英语广播、阅读英语书籍等。
（二）语言输出学习者不仅要接受输入，还需要有机会进行语言输出，如说、写。
通过输出，学习者能够检验自己的语言知识，发现不足并加以改进。
（三）学习动机强烈的学习动机能够推动学习者积极投入学习。
动机可以是内在的，如对语言本身的兴趣；也可以是外在的，如为了通过考试或获得工作机会。
（四）学习策略有效的学习策略能够提高学习效率。
比如记忆策略、认知策略、元认知策略等。
学习者要学会根据自己的情况选择和运用合适的策略。
四、第二语言习得的阶段（一）初始阶段在这个阶段，学习者通常对第二语言的语音、词汇和基本语法有初步的了解和接触，但使用能力有限。
（二）中级阶段学习者能够进行简单的交流，掌握更多的语法和词汇，但在表达上可能还存在一些错误。
（三）高级阶段学习者能够较为流利和准确地运用第二语言进行交流，对语言的理解和运用达到较高水平。
二语习得期末复习资料
Chapter 1 introducing second language acquisition1.SLA: a term that refers both to the study of individuals and groups who are learning alanguage subsequent to learning their first one as young children, and to the process of learning that language.2.Second language:an officially or societally dominant language (not L1) needed foreducation, employment or other basic purposesrmal L2 learning: SLA that takes place in naturalistic contexts4.Formal L2 learning: instructed learning that takes place in classroom5.Linguistic competence: the underlying knowledge that a speaker/hearer have of a language.Chomsky distinguishes this form linguistic performance.6.Linguistic performance: the use of language knowledge in actual production.7.First language/native language/mother tongue (L1): the language acquired in childhood8.Simultaneous multilingualism:ability to use one or more languages that were auqiredduring early childhood.9.Sequential multilingualism: ability to use one or more languages that were learned after L1had already been established.1.What are the three basic questions in SLA?(1)What exactly does the L2 learner come to know?(2)How does the L2 leaner acquire this knowledge?(3)Why are some learners more successful than others?2.Why there are no simple answers to these questions? (P2)Chapter 2 foundations of second language acquisition1.Multilingualism: the ability to use more than one language.2.Bilingualism: the ability to use two languages.3.Monolingualism: the ability to use only one language.4.Multilingual competence: “the compound state of a mind with two or more grammars”5.Monolingual competence: knowledge of only one language.6.Learner language: also called interlanguage which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.7.Positive transfer: appropriate incorporation(合并，编入) of an L1 structure or rule in L2structure.8.Negative transfer: inappropriate influence of an L1 structure or rule in L2 use, also calledinterference.9.Fossilization:a stable state in SLA where learners cease their interlanguage developmentbefore they reach target norms despite continuing L2 input and passage of time.10.Poverty-of-the-stimulus:the argument that because language input to children isimpoverished(穷尽的) and they still acquire L1, there must be an innate capacity for L1 acquisition.11.Innate capacity:a natural ability, usually referring to children’s natural ability to learn oracquire language.1.What is the nature of language learning?(1)Simultaneous/sequential multilingualism(2)The role of natural abilitya)Humans are born with a natural ability or innate capacity to learn another language.b)As children mature, so do their language abilities.c)Individual variation may occur in learning; the rate of learning can differ, but there arestages everyone goes through.d)“Cut off point”- if the process does not happen at a young age, you'll never learn thelanguage. （关键期假说）(Critical Period Hypothesis)(3)The role of social experiencea)Children will never acquire language unless that language is used with them andaround them, no matter what is their language.b)As long as children are experiencing input and social interaction, the rate and sequenceof development doesn't change.c)The only thing that may change is pronunciation, vocabulary, and social function.2.What are some basic similarities and differences in L1 and L2 learning? (P17表格)(1)Similarities between L1 and L2a)Development stagesInitial State - knowledge about language structures and principlesIntermediate State - Basic language developmentFinal State - Outcome of learningb)Necessary conditions: Input(2)Differences between L1 and L2（P17表格）3.What is “the logical problem of language acquisition”?(1)Children’s knowledge of language goes beyond what could be learned from the inputthey receive. (Poverty-of-the stimulus)(2)Constraints and principles cannot be learned(3)Universal patterns of development cannot be explained by language-specific input.(如果说普遍语法存在孩子们脑中，那语言输入起的作用又如何解释呢？)4.5.(1)Children begin to learn their language at the same age, and in much the same wayregardless of what the language is.(2)Children are not limited to repeating what they heard; they can understand and createnovel(新颖) utterance.(3)There is a cut-off age for L1 acquisition, beyond which it can never be completed.6.Linguists have taken an internal and external focus to the study of language acquisition.What is the difference between the two?The internal focus seeks to account for speakers’ internalized, underlying knowledge oflanguage. The external focus emphasizes language use, including the functions of language which are realized in learners’ production at different stages of development.Chapter 3 the linguistics of second language acquisition1.Interference: also called negative transfer, which means inappropriate influence of an L1structure or rule in L2 use.2.Interlanguage: also called learner language, which refers to the intermediate states orinterim grammars of leaner language as it moves toward the target L2.3.Natural order: a universal sequence in the grammatical development of language learners.4.Universal grammar: a linguistic framework developed most prominently by Chomsky whichclaims that L1 acquisitions can be accounted for only by innate knowledge that the human species is genetically endowed with. This knowledge includes what all languages have in common.nguage faculty: term used by Chomsky foe a “component of the human mind” thataccounts for children’s innate knowledge of language.6.Principles: properties(固有属性) of all languages of the world; part of Chomsky’s universalgrammar.7.Parameters: limited options in realization of universal principles which account forgrammatical variation between languages of the world. Part of Chomsky’s theory ofuniversal grammar.8.Initial state: the starting point of language acquisition; it is thought to include theunderlying knowledge about language structures and principles that are in learners’ heads at the very start of L1 or L2 acquisition.9.Final state: the outcome of L1 and L2 learning, also known as the stable state of adultgrammar.10.Markedness: a basic for classification of languages according to whether a specific featureoccurs more frequently than a contrasting element in the same category, is less complex structurally or conceptually, or is more “normal” or “expected” along some dimensions. 11.Grammaticalization(语法化): a developmental process in which a grammaticalfunction(such as expression of past time) is first conveyed by shared extralinguisticknowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word(such as yesterday), and only later by a grammatical marker(such as the suffix -ed).一、The nature of language1.What we learn in linguistic perspective? What are the characteristics of language?Both L1 and L2 learners acquire knowledge at these different levels: lexicon(词汇学),phonology(语音学), morphology(构词法), syntax(句法). Languages are systemic,symbolic and social.二、Contrastive analysis1.What is contrastive analysis?CA is an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.2.What is the goal of contrastive analysis?(assumptions)(1)If L2 acquisition is disturbed by the habits of your native language, it is reasonableto focus on the differences between native and target language.(2)Contrastive analysis had a practical goal: If you recognize the differences betweenyour native language and the target language, you are able to overcome thelinguistic habits of your native language that interfere with the habits of the targetlanguage.3.What are the critiques of contrastive analysis?(1)The process of L2 acquisition is not sufficiently described by the characterization oferrors.(2)Errors in L2 acquisition do not only arise from interference.(3)The structural differences between two languages are not sufficient to predict theoccurrence of errors in L2 acquisition.三、Error analysis1.What is error analysis？EA is based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2, rather than onidealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2 (as in CA).(1)Ambiguity in classification. (不知道是具体是哪个原因导致比如时态错误，可能是一语影响，也可能是在一语中出现过的universal developmental process)(2)Lack of positive data. (正确的被忽略，只关注错误不能看出学生学到什么)(3)Potential for avoidance. (学生会避免错误，这样错误就不能全部被观察)四、Interlanguage1.What are the characteristics of interlanguage?(1)Systematic.(2)Dynamic.(3)Variable.(可变性) although systematic, differences in context result in differentpatterns of language use.(4)Reduced system, both in form and function. (学习者经常会简单化)2.There are differences between IL development and L1 acquisition, including differentcognitive processes involved:(1)Language transfer from L1 to L2.(2)Transfer training.(3)Strategies of second language learning. (避免等)(4)Strategies of second language learning. (为方便不要复数等)(5)Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic material.3.The beginning and the end of IL are defined respectively as whenever a learner firstattempts to convey meaning in the L2 and whenever development “permanently” stops, but the boundaries are not entirely clear. Identification of fossilization is even morecontroversial.五、Monitor model (The input hypothesis model)1.Which five hypotheses(假定) does the model consist of? (课本P45！！！)(1)Acquisition-learning hypothesis(2)Monitor hypothesis(3)Natural order hypothesis(4)Input hypothesis(5)Affective filter hypothesis2.What is LAD in this model?The LAD is made up of the natural language learning abilities of the human mind, totally available in L1 acquisition, available in L2 acquisition according to the level of the filter.But, the process of learning, unlike the process of acquisition, uses faculties of mind outside the LAD.3.图示4.What are points of the consensus of early linguistic study of SLA?(1)What is being acquired through a dynamic interlanguage system(2)How SLA takes place involves creative mental processes(3)Why some learners are more successful than others relates primary to the age.5.What is the role of grammar according to Krashen?The only instance in which the teaching of grammar can result in language acquisition(and proficiency) is when the students are interested in the subject and the targetlanguage is used as a medium of instruction.六、Universal grammar1.Differences of linguistic competence and performance(见Chapter1名词解释)2.What is UG? (名词解释)3.UG and L1 acquisition(1)What the child acquire is selecting parametric options.(2)Unlike SLA, attitudes, motivations and social context play no role.4.UG and SLA, there are three important questions(1)What is the initial state of SAL?Interference(看参数相同不相同); no agreement on access to UG(2)What is the nature of IL and how does it change over time?定参数的过程Language faculty; positive/negative evidence(起作用);constructionism; fossilization(3)What is the final state in SLA?(P52五个达不到的原因)七、Functional approaches (systemic linguistics)1.What are the four functional approaches?They are Systemic Linguistics; Functional Typology; Function-to-form mapping;Information organization.2.What is Systemic Linguistics(系统功能语言学)?Developed by Hilliday in the late 1950s, it is a model for analyzing language in terms ofthe interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.儿童的语言体系是一个意义体系，语言是从意义体系逐渐发展而来，经历过有简单到复杂的过程。
二语习得考试题库
二语习得笔记一、二语习得1、什么是二语习得？（p3）人们学习母语外的一种语言的途径。
这种学习可以是课堂上的，也可以是课堂外的。
2、第二语言习得的目的是什么？（p4）二语习得的目标之一是对二语习得进行描述，另一个目标是对二语习得进行解释，鉴别内部因素和外部因素，这些因素可以用来解释二语习得者在二语习得过程中所使用的方法。
外部因素之一是学习发生的社会环境，社会环境影响二语习得者必须使用目的语进行交流(听和说)的机会，并且影响学习者对于二语习得的态度；另一个外部因素是学习者接收到的语言输入。
内部因素是指学习者的认知机制，而认知机制受学习者的母语、百科知识、交际策略以及它的语言普遍性知识的影响。
最后一个内部因素是学习者的个体差异，这包括学习者的一些常规因素的差异，比如，学习者的语言学能以及学习动机的不同，另外学习策略的不同也属于学习者的个体差异。
总的来说，二语习得的目标是描述二语习得的进程，并且对之进行解释，解释为什么有的学习者看起来要好于其他的学习者。
二、偏误和偏误分析1、偏误分析的作用是什么？（p14）①它们是学习者语言的一个显著特色，这就提出了“学习者为什么会产生偏误？”的重要问题。
②有助于教师了解学习者产生的偏误，便于教学。
③学习者在自我改错时有助于学习者习得。
2、偏误分析的步骤①偏误的辨别②偏误的描写③偏误的解释④偏误的评估3、偏误归类的方法（p18）①按语法范畴归类：我们可以把所有关于动词的偏误聚集起来，然后在我们的案例中识别出不同种类的动词偏误（比如过去时态的动词偏误）。
②按识别学习者的话语与重建的目的语的差异的一般方法归类，包括遗漏（漏掉了句中应有的语法成分而导致的偏误）、误用（用一种语法形式代替另一种语法形式）、错序（在话语中，把词语按错误的顺序排列）三、行为主义和心理主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？(p31)行为主义：根据行为主义理论，语言习得就和任何其他种类的习得一样，包括习惯的形成。
二语习得复习资料
二语习得复习资料填空、判断类1、第二语言习得研究得交叉学科:语言学、心理学、心理语言学。
2、第二语言习得研究得发端:Corder在1967年发表得《学习者偏误得意义》与Selinker在1972年发表得《中介语》。
3、 1984年,鲁健骥在《中介语理论与外国人学习汉语得语音偏误分析》这篇文章中,将第二语言学习者得语言“偏误”与“中介语”得概念引入对外汉语教学领域。
4、强势说强调对比分析得预测功能,认为母语干扰就是造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难与错误得主要原因。
5、 1957年,拉多在《跨文化语言学》中系统地阐述了对比分析得内容、理论依据与分析方法。
6、对比分析这一基本假设建立在行为主义心理学与结构主义语言学基础之上。
7、 Selinker被称为“中介语之父”。
8、过度泛化指得就是二语学习者在习得第二语言得过程中,将其一目得语得规则推广到超越所能接受得范围之外。
9、输入假说就是克拉申得语言监控模式整个习得理论得核心部分。
10、克拉申得输入假说包括四个要素:输入数量、输入质量、输入方式、输入条件。
11、情感过滤假说把成功得二语习得相关联得情感因素分为三大类:动机、自信、焦虑。
12、“社会文化理论”由前苏联心理学家维果茨基创立。
主要内容包括:调节论、最近发展区理论、个体话语与内在言语、活动理论。
13、语言输入与互动得研究始于上世纪70年代14、最早提出“关键期假说”这个观点得就是著名神经外科医生Penfield。
15、根据社会心理学家得观点,学习者得态度就是有三个方面构成:认知、情感、意动。
16、影响学习策略选择得因素主要有学习者个人差异、学习者个人背景与情景社会因素等。
17、沉浸式教学法就是采用目得语作为学校课堂教学得媒介,课堂上主要就是向学习者提供目得语语言输入。
18、 1945年,弗里斯在《作为外语得英语教学与学习》一书中提出了对比分析得思想。
19、在第二语言习得顺序中,主要存在以下争议:①母语迁移;②“正确顺序”就是否等于“习得顺序”;③第一语言习得顺序就是否等于第二语言习得顺序。
第二语言习得研究 考试资料【试题.知识点】
名词解释：1、母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”，一般情况下，母语是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言2、目的语：也称“目标语”，是指学习者正在学习的语言，这种语言可以指正在学习的母语或第一语言，也可以指他正在学习的第二语言、第三语言甚至第四语言。
3、第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
4、第二语言：是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外任何一种其他语言。
5、习得：指“非正式”的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语。
6、学习：指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
7、第二语言习得：指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
8、外语习得：指学习者在本国学习除母语外的目的语。
9、语言能力：指是一种反映交际双发语言知识的心理语法。
10、语言表达：指的是交际双发在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在的语法运用。
11、对比分析：产生于20世纪50年代。
兴盛于60年代。
初衷是为了在第二语言教学中预测学习者的难点，预防学习者的语言偏误，提高第二语言教学的效率。
12、母语负迁移：这一假设的实质是母语在第二语言习得中的作用问题，主张对比分析的学者认为。
学习者的母语对第二语言习得将产生极大的影响，如第二语言学习者学习外语大都有母语的“口语”。
13、内隐学习：是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识，外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习，来获得语言知识。
14、通过学习获得的“显性知识”不能转化为“隐性知识”一、第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点：语言学与心理学有着交叉与重合，构成了心理语言学，第二语言习得研究与语言学密切相关，但是在学科的划分上，它并不属于语言学，同样，第二语言习得研究与心理语言学也密切相关，但他既不属于心理语言学也不属于心理学。
二、第二语言习得研究的发端：第二语言习得研究的发端可以追溯到20世纪60年代末，Corder1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》明确提出了第二语言习得的研究对象，标志着第二语言习得研究成为一个相对独立的研究领域；Selinker1972发表的《中介语》，系统地阐述了“中介语”理论假设，更加明确的提出了第二语言习得研究的对象，即“学习者的语言系统”，因此，这两人的文章被称为第二语言习得研究的“开山之作”，成为建立第二语言习得研究学科的标志。
第二语言习得复习考试题
第二语言习得复习考试题第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。
2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。
4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。
5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。
也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。
2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。
3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。
7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。
8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。
前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。
中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。
但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。
10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。
11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。
僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。
第二语言习得研究考试资料试题知识点
第二语言习得研究考试资料试题知识点首先，为了更好地了解第二语言习得研究的相关知识点和考试内容，我们需要对这一领域进行深入研究。
本文将介绍第二语言习得研究的一些主要知识点，并提供一些考试资料试题，以帮助读者全面了解和掌握该领域的核心概念和重要内容。
第一部分：第二语言习得概述在本部分，我们将对第二语言习得的基本概念进行介绍，包括定义、研究方法和重要理论等。
第1知识点：第二语言习得的定义第二语言习得指的是个体在已经掌握第一语言的基础上，通过接触和学习第二语言来获得其语言能力的过程。
与第二语言学习不同，第二语言习得强调通过语言输入和交际环境的共同作用，自然地获得语言能力。
第2知识点：第二语言习得的研究方法第二语言习得的研究方法主要包括观察研究、实验研究和问卷调查等。
观察研究通过观察第二语言习得者的行为和语言产出，来了解其习得过程。
实验研究通过控制变量和实验条件，对第二语言习得进行实验性的研究。
问卷调查则通过调查问卷来收集第二语言习得者的相关数据。
第3知识点：第二语言习得的重要理论在第二语言习得研究中，有多个重要理论被提出和讨论，比如克里奥特斯理论、输入假设以及认知语言学等。
这些理论从不同角度解释了第二语言习得的过程和机制，为研究者提供了理论基础和研究框架。
第二部分：第二语言习得的影响因素在本部分，我们将介绍影响第二语言习得的一些主要因素，包括年龄因素、语言输入、认知因素等。
第4知识点：年龄因素对第二语言习得的影响年龄因素是影响第二语言习得的重要因素之一。
研究表明，儿童在早期习得第二语言时更容易实现母语水平的掌握，而成年人在第二语言习得上会遇到一些困难。
这主要与儿童期语言习得的生理机制和神经可塑性有关。
第5知识点：语言输入对第二语言习得的影响语言输入是指第二语言习得者在习得过程中接触到的语言材料。
研究发现，输入的丰富性和质量对于第二语言习得者的语言习得有着重要影响。
良好的语言输入能够提供更多的习得机会和语言模型，促进语言能力的发展。
二语习得复习资料
⼆语习得复习资料⼆语习得复习资料第⼀章（填空+名词解释）第⼀节第⼆语⾔习得的基本概念母语：通常指的是学习者幼年习得的语⾔。
由于母语是家庭或者所属种族、社团使⽤的语⾔，因⽽也称作“本族语”。
⼀般说来，母语通常是⼉童出⽣以后最先接触、学会的语⾔。
因此，母语通常也被称作“第⼀语⾔”。
⽬的语：也称“⽬标语”，⼀般是指学习者正在学习的语⾔。
第⼀语⾔：指⼉童幼年最先接触和习得的语⾔。
第⼆语⾔强调的是语⾔习得的先后顺序，与语⾔习得环境⽆关。
“习得”是⼀种下意识、⾮正式的类似⼉童母语的获得过程。
学习者通常意识不到他们正在学习语⾔这⼀事实，但是能意识到他们正在⽤语⾔进⾏交际。
“学习”是指有意识地、正式的学习语⾔知识，能够明确地意识到所学的规则。
克拉申把这两个⽅式看作彼此独⽴的学习过程。
⽆接⼝观点、有接⼝的观点“第⼆语⾔习得”是指学习者在⽬的语国家学习⽬的语。
该⽬的语在⽬的语国家是公认的交际⼯具，当然也是学习者⽤来交际的⼯具。
“外语习得”是指学习者在本国学习⽬的语。
该⽬的语在本国不是作为整个社团的交际⼯具。
“⾃然的第⼆语⾔习得”是指以交际的⽅式获得第⼆语⾔，⽽且语⾔习得通常是在⾃然的社会环境下发⽣的。
“有指导的第⼆语⾔习得”是以教学指导的⽅式获得第⼆语⾔，语⾔习得通常是在课堂教学环境中发⽣的。
“语⾔能⼒”美国语⾔学家乔姆斯基⾸先提出了“语⾔能⼒”的概念。
其含义是，⼈类先天具有的、受遗传因素决定的掌握语⾔规则的能⼒。
这⾥所说的语⾔能⼒是指⼈们掌握语⾔知识的能⼒。
“语⾔表达”——在实际⽣活中运⽤语⾔进⾏社会交往的能⼒。
美国社会语⾔学家海姆斯第⼀次提出交际能⼒的概念，它包括四个⽅⾯的内容：语法性、可⾏性、得体性、现实性。
第三节第⼆语⾔习得发端发展简要回顾1.第⼆语⾔习得研究作为⼀门独⽴的学科是以1967年S.P.Corder（科德）发表的颇具影响的论⽂《学习者偏误的意义》以及1972年Selinker（塞林格）的《中介语》为标志。
第二语言习得研究 考试资料
名词解释：1、母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”，一般情况下，母语是儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言2、目的语：也称“目标语”，是指学习者正在学习的语言，这种语言可以指正在学习的母语或第一语言，也可以指他正在学习的第二语言、第三语言甚至第四语言。
3、第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。
4、第二语言：是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外任何一种其他语言。
5、习得：指“非正式”的语言获得，儿童大都是通过这种方式来获得母语。
6、学习：指“正式”的语言规则学习，即通过课堂教学的方式来获得第二语言。
7、第二语言习得：指学习者在目的语国家学习目的语。
8、外语习得：指学习者在本国学习除母语外的目的语。
9、语言能力：指是一种反映交际双发语言知识的心理语法。
10、语言表达：指的是交际双发在语言的理解与生成过程中对其内在的语法运用。
11、对比分析：产生于20世纪50年代。
兴盛于60年代。
初衷是为了在第二语言教学中预测学习者的难点，预防学习者的语言偏误，提高第二语言教学的效率。
12、母语负迁移：这一假设的实质是母语在第二语言习得中的作用问题，主张对比分析的学者认为。
学习者的母语对第二语言习得将产生极大的影响，如第二语言学习者学习外语大都有母语的“口语”。
13、内隐学习：是通过无意识或下意识的方式来获得语言知识，外显学习是在有意识的状态下通过规则学习，来获得语言知识。
14、通过学习获得的“显性知识”不能转化为“隐性知识”1、第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点：语言学与心理学有着交叉与重合，构成了心理语言学，第二语言习得研究与语言学密切相关，但是在学科的划分上，它并不属于语言学，同样，第二语言习得研究与心理语言学也密切相关，但他既不属于心理语言学也不属于心理学。
2、第二语言习得研究的发端：第二语言习得研究的发端可以追溯到20世纪60年代末，Corder1967年发表的《学习者偏误的意义》明确提出了第二语言习得的研究对象，标志着第二语言习得研究成为一个相对独立的研究领域；Selinker1972发表的《中介语》，系统地阐述了“中介语”理论假设，更加明确的提出了第二语言习得研究的对象，即“学习者的语言系统”，因此，这两人的文章被称为第二语言习得研究的“开山之作”，成为建立第二语言习得研究学科的标志。
第二语言习得复习总结资料.
第二语言习得复习总结一、知识点概括各种假说包括（对比分析，偏误分析，中期中介语理论，二语习得顺序，语言监控模式，文化适应模式）提出者，提出背景内容，意义，局限对比分析假说提出者lado背景在《跨文化语言学》中，系统地阐述了对比分析的内容，理论依据跟分析方法。
母语负迁移假设；建立在行为主义心理学和结构主义语言学基础上。
基本内容1基本假设：语言迁移（1）把母语的语言形式，意义及其分布，连同母语相联系的文化迁移到第二语言系统中（2）母与二结构特征相似正迁移，有差异负迁移即母语干扰（引起困难跟偏误的主要原因或唯一原因）（3）差异与困难相对应，差异越大困难越大构成了语言习得的难度等级2分析方法系统对比学习者母语系统和目的语系统3对比分析的两种观点目的不同分为：强势说弱势说（最大差别目标不同）强势说强调对比分析的预测功能，认为母语干扰时造成第二语言学习者语言习得困难和错误的主要原因甚至是唯一原因过高地估计了对比预测功能弱势说与其预测还不如面对现实，把重点放在事后错误的分析上，通过对比来解释偏误产生的原因意义提供了一种语言比较的方法跟程序，听说法视听法受其影响局限（1）其心理学基础行为主义心理学核心思想“刺激-反应”理论受到乔姆斯基的激烈抨击和批判（忽视了人的能动性）（2）结构主义语言学并没有为对比分析找到解决问题的出路（两种语言系统不存在共同的语言范畴如何有效地对比分析）（3）对比分析将两种语言系统的差异等同于语言习得的难度不符合逻辑（有这样情况两种语言或语言特征存在很大差异的时候并不是很难学反而是差异不大容易混淆难度更大）（4）实验研究跟教学实践是质疑偏误产生的主要原因是母语负迁移不符合实际偏误分析提出者及背景60年代中后期开始corder发表了一系列偏误分析的文章，偏误分析成为研究学习者习得过程的重要手段和方法。
corder《学习者语言偏误的意义》开启二语习得研究的经典之作内容偏误分析的具体步骤收集资料，鉴别偏误，描写偏误，解释，评估国内近几十年研究可分为语音词汇语法语篇汉字五个领域意义（1）偏误分析是第一个关注学习者的语言系统的研究方法，通过分析学习者的语言偏误来观察和分析第二语言学习者的习得过程和习得机制，成为二语习得研究的起点。
《第二语言习得理论》复习题库 附参考答案.doc
《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。
但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。
这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。
因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。
2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。
这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。
2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-193、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-214、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-255^ 什么是perceived social distance?（另一个是social distance,在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance 是与social distance 相关的一个概念o Social distance 通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者内部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。
Acton 研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系,研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。
6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-307、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。
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一、名词解释母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言、双语者、第二语言习得、1、“母语”通常是指学习者家庭或者所属种族、社团使用的语言，因而也称作“本族语”。
一般情况下，母语通常是幼儿出生后最先接触、习得的语言。
也被称作“第一语言”。
2、“目标语”，也称“目的语”，指学习者正在学习的语言。
这种语言可能是他的第二语言、第三语言甚或第四语言。
•它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言，与学习者的语言习得环境无关。
•美国学生无论在美国学习汉语，还是在中国学习汉语，其目的语都是汉语。
如果他们同时在学习法语，那么法语也是他们的目的语。
•对第二语言学习者而言，母语对其目的语的习得具有重要的影响。
3、第二语言习得：人们在自然的语言环境中或者课堂环境中潜意识地或者有意识地获得母语之外的另一种语言。
4、“双语者”或“操双语者”，指可以同等流利地使用两种语言的人。
（1）、双语者指那些两种语言都达到与母语者同等熟练水平的人（balanced bilingualism）。
精通两种语言的人。
这种观点是根据是否具有“同等的语言知识”来定义双语者；（2）、双语者可以指那些能够用另外一种语言生成完整的有意义的话语的人。
这就是所谓双语者的“最底限定义”（minimal definition）。
这种观点是基于能否使用第二语言来定义双语者。
5、第二语言：相对于第一语言而言，指在母语之后再学习另一种语言。
第二语言习得可能发生在自然环境，也可能在正规的课堂环境中。
在课堂环境下学习的第二语言被称为外语。
6、中介语是指在第二语言习得过程中，学习者通过一定的学习策略，在目的语输入的基础上所形成的一种既不同于其第一语言也不同于目的语、随着学习的进展向目的语逐渐过渡的动态的语言系统。
二、简答1、第二语言习得研究的发端是以什么为标志的？为什么？origination: the end of 1960s.Corder 1967: “The significance of leaners’errors” ; Selinker 1972“Interlanguage”.Why?1. . For the first time Corder theoretically elaborate the great significance of errors SL learners made on language teaching, the process of acquisition and the second learners themselves;2. the view of Corder radically change the view and attitude of how people see the errors of second language learners.Corder (1967) make clear the object, method and the direction for further development. SLA as a isolated area for study.Corder:第二语言习得研究应该把目光放在学习者语言系统的考察上，把学习者的语言偏误作为观察学习者语言习得过程的窗口，从中发现学习者是如何习得第二语言的规律的。
Selinker:the theory of "interlanguage"”the object of SLA the system of languagepare the background when its arising,1960s contrastive analysis.2、列举主要的第二语言教学法（这道题我在于辉的课件里找不到，就从网上找了，我把全部的内容都发给大家，大家自己决定写多少吧）1、语法翻译法是一种用第一语言来教第二语言的教学方法。
它的主要特点是：1）注重书面语的读写训练，不注重听说训练，2）注重用演绎的方式对语法进行讲解，3）注重通过语法练习和翻译练习来提高学习者第二语言的水平，4）立足于两种语言的对比，5）注重语汇的积累；6）提倡对经典的精读；7）课堂以教师为中心。
2、直接法指的是直接用目标语言作为教学语言，排斥第一语言在教学活动中的运用。
直接法的理论依据是：有声语言是第一性的，第二语言获得与第一语言获得没有什么区别，儿童获得语言是从口语开始的，因此第二语言教学应该以儿童获得第一语言的规律和过程为依据。
外语教学没有必要借助于翻译和学习者的第一语言，完全可以通过目标语言、示范动作、图片、实物等来完成.直接法的主要特点是：1）用目标语言进行教学，杜绝第一语言的使用，以建立语言与外界经验的直接联系。
例如，具体语汇用示范、实物、图片等来讲授，抽象语汇用概念联系来讲授。
2）强调口语第一性，强调口头交际，听说兼顾，教师通过循序渐进的问答形式组织教学，提高学习者的口语表达，要求学习者在口语交际中有正确的发音和语法。
3）采用句本位的教学原则，强调模仿，重视句型训练；4）语法教学采用归纳法。
直接法对口语训练有较好的效果，它弥补了语法翻译法的不足，也有利于学生用目标语言思维和语言能力的培养。
但直接法也有自己的缺点：其一，它忽略了第一语言和第二语言获得的规律和过程并不完全相同这一事实，直接法对儿童比对成年人有效。
其二，直接法需要本族语学者任教，这在绝大多数学校是很难做到的。
其三，它排斥第一语言的使用，结果在教授语汇，特别是抽象语汇时很费时间。
3、听说法听说法产生于20世纪40年代。
当时美国急需大量的外语人材，以满足军事上的需要。
美国国防部根据一些语言学家的意见，把结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学的理论运用到教学实践之中，采用听说领先、反复操练的原则组织教学，为当时的美国军队培养了大批的外语人材。
二战后，美国的语言研究机构和学校对这一教学方法进行了进一步研究和完善，并在世界范围内进行推广。
听说法的主要特点是：1）采用“听说领先、读写跟上”的教学原则。
2）以句型为教学核心，强调模仿和实践，注重句型替换和操练，及时纠正学习者的语言错误。
3）重视语音训练，大量使用录音材料和视听设备。
4）基本上不采用翻译作为教学手段，5）用对比分析的方法来确定学习者的学习难点，并根据难点来组织教学。
4、功能法功能法又称交际法或意念法，产生于20世纪70年代初。
功能法以社会语言学、心理语言学、转换生成语言学、系统――功能语言学等学科的最新成果为理论基础，认为交际是语言最主要的功能，学习语言就是学会用语言进行成功的交际，第二语言教学要着重培养学习者的语言交际能力。
功能法的主要特点是：〔1）强调以功能为纲，根据功能组织教学。
例如，根据教学需要制定教学目标和大纲，确定语言材料，最大限度地满足学习者的需求，以保证达到预期的教学目标。
2）强调教学过程的交际化，强调语言材料的真实性，教学中所使用的语言材料必须来源于目标语言的实际生活，要为学习者提供逼真的语言交际环境，使学习者能在实际的场合恰当地用目标语言进行交际。
3）注意单项技能训练与综合性训练的结合，围绕功能项目而不是语法结构来组织教学，不单一强调语言能力的培养。
4）强调表达的内容，不过分苛求形式，对学习者的错误区别对待，例如，可以容忍语法错误，但对学习者交际方面的错误则予以纠正。
由于功能法吸收了直接法、听说法等的长处，表现出许多优点，目前已为许多第二语言教学工作者所接受。
但是，功能法也还有一些难题，其中最大的难题是如何把语言结构和功能结合起来。
此外，功能法对教师语言和文化水平要求较高，普及起来可能还有一定的困难。
5、认知法认知法又称认知符号法。
产生于20世纪60年代末70年代初。
认知法反对听说法的结构模式论和机械地重复操练，主张在教学中发挥学习者的智力，强调学习者对语言规则的理解，注重发挥学习者的主观能动性，力求培养学习者全面运用语言的能力。
认知法的主要特点是：1）强调语言能力的培养。
认为学习第二语言的首要任务，就是理解掌握和灵活运用第二语言的语法规则。
语言交际是在掌握规则的基础上进行的创造性活动，因此第二语言的教学应首先使学习者理解和掌握所学语言的规则，并注意培养学习者举一反三、灵活运用语言规则的能力。
2）以学生为中心。
学习者的内在因素是决定第二语言学习成功与否的关键，因此应以学习者为中心来组织教学，充分调动学习者的学习积极性，并注意培养学习者的自学能力。
3）强调有意义的学习和操练。
有意义的学习优于机械性的学习，它效果好，记忆保持时间长。
让学习者在有意义的情景中学习和使用规则来提高语言运用能力。
4）反对听说领先，主张听、说、读、写齐头并进，全面发展。
注意对错误的分析和疏导。
语言学习的过程是一个“假设-验证-修改假设-再验证”的循环过程，这一过程中出现错误是正常的。
因此教学中应对错误持积极的态度，并对错误进行分析，视具体情况给予指点或疏导。
5）适当利用第一语言。
各种语言存在着许多共性，合理利用第一语言中带有共性的语法知识、概念、规则能够促进第二语言的学习。
6、自然法自然法产生于20世纪70年代末期，源于上面提到过的“自我监测模式”。
它的主要特点是：1）强调意义的理解，认为语言学习始于理解性输人，主张推迟口头表达。
2）创造语言交际环境，让学习者在交际环境中表达思想、传递信息和解决问题。
3）以目标语言作为教学语言，同时鼓励学习者在交际活动中使用目标语言，但也允许学习者在用外语表达有困难时偶尔使用第一语言，4）一般不纠正学习者的错误，但学习者作业中的错误，包括语法错误，要指明并更正。
自然法强调先充分理解再表达，不强迫学生表达，这对第二语言教学有一定的参考价值。
3、儿童习得有什么特点？1、小孩子有一种内在的语言学习能力2、小孩子不必专门教，也不必专门给他们纠正错误3、小孩子用接触语言的方式学习4、小孩子对语言学规则的掌握是无意识的5、小孩子运用语言交际6、习得过程由不自觉到自觉儿童习得是一种特殊的过程，使用特殊的方式。
4、目前学术界围绕儿童第一语言习得存在着哪些主要理论？1、刺激-反应论（行为主义论Bhaviorist approach）行为主义语言系的理论导源于19世纪俄国生理学家巴甫洛夫的经典条件反射理论。
斯金纳指出：人类语言行为只是刺激和反应。
看见、听见和感觉到的东西是刺激，说出的话是反应。
刺激—反应的哲学基础是洛克的白板论, 强调后天经验的重要性。
认为语言也是一种行为，学会某种语言就是在后天环境中养成某种习惯，儿童的语言能力来自一系列的刺激（成人语言）他们通过模仿做出反应，如果反应正确就会得到强化，一定的刺激和相应的反应多次重复就成为习惯从而学会语言。
模仿-强化-重复-成形。
刺激-反应论可以解释儿童语言习得过程中的某些现象。