杨忠语言学翻译
杨忠语言学笔记
LinguisticsChapter 1 Introduction: Language and Linguistics●What is language?⏹Different definitions of language◆Language is a system whose parts can and must be considered in theirsynchronic solidarity. (de Saussure, 1916)◆[Language is] a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in lengthand constructed out of a finite set of elements. (Chomsky, 1957)◆Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarilyproduced symbols.⏹Each of the definitions above has pointed out some aspects of the essence oflanguage, but all of them have left out something. We must see themulti-faceted nature of language.⏹As is agreed by linguists in broad terms, language can be defined as asystem of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.●Features of human language⏹Creativity◆Language provides opportunities for sending messages that have neverbeen sent before and for understanding brand new messages.◆The grammar rules and the words are finite, but the sentences areinfinite. Every speaker uses language creatively.⏹Duality◆Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other ofmeanings.◆Certain sounds or sequences of sounds stand for certain meanings.◆Certain meanings are conveyed by certain speech sounds or sequencesof speech sounds.⏹Arbitrariness◆The relationship between the two subsystems of language is arbitrary.◆There is no logical connection between sound and meaning.⏹Displacement◆There is no limit in time or space for language.◆Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present orfuture.⏹Cultural transmission◆Culture cannot be genetically transmitted. Instead, it must be learned.◆Language is a way of transmitting culture.⏹Interchangeability◆All members of a speech community can send and receive messages.⏹Reflexivity◆Human languages can be used to describe themselves.◆The language used to talk about language is called meta-language.●Functions of language – three meta-functions⏹The ideational function◆To identify things, to think, or to record information.⏹The interpersonal function◆To get along in a community.⏹The textual function◆To form a text.●Types of language⏹Genetic classification⏹Typological classification◆Analytic language –no inflections or formal changes, grammaticalrelationships are shown through word order, such as Chinese andVietnamese◆Synthetic language –grammatical relationships are expressed bychanging the internal structure of the words, typically by changing theinflectional endings, such as English and German◆Agglutinating language – words are built out of a long sequence of units,with each unit expressing a particular grammatical meaning, such asJapanese and Turkish●The myth of language – language origin⏹The Biblical account◆Language was God’s gift to human beings.⏹The bow-wow theory◆Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries ofanimals, like quack, cuckoo.⏹The pooh-pooh theory◆Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain orjoy.⏹The yo-he-ho theory◆Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged injoint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc.⏹The evolution theory◆Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call ofsocial need.●What is linguistics?⏹Linguistics is the scientific study of language.◆Observing & questioning◆Formulating hypotheses◆Verifying the hypotheses◆Proposing a theory⏹Branches of linguistics◆Internal branches: intra-disciplinary divisions●Phonetics●Phonology●Morphology●Syntax●Semantics◆External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions●Pragmatics●Psycholinguistics●Sociolinguistics●Applied linguistics●Computational linguistics●Neurolinguistics⏹Features of linguistics◆Descriptive◆Dealing with spoken language◆SynchronicChapter 2 Phonetics●What is phonetics?⏹Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.⏹Sub-branches of phonetics◆Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech sounds◆Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech sounds◆Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds●The speech organs⏹Where does the air stream come from?◆From the lung⏹What is the function of vocal cords?◆Controlling the air stream⏹What are the cavities?◆Oral cavity◆Pharyngeal cavity◆Nasal cavity●Transcription of speech sounds⏹Units of representation◆Segments (the individual sounds)⏹Phonetic symbols◆The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds isthe International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).◆The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a singlesymbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguishphonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.◆In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may betranscribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to markthe finer distinctions.●Description of speech sounds⏹Description of English consonants◆General feature: obstruction◆Criteria of consonant description●Places of articulation●Manners of articulation●V oicing of articulation◆Places of articulation●This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified toproduce a sound.⏹Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]⏹Labiodental: [f] [v]⏹Interdental: [ ] [❆]⏹Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]⏹Palatal: [☞] [✞] [t☞] [d✞] [j]⏹Velar: [k] [g] [☠]⏹Glottal: [h]◆Manners of articulation●This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it iscompletely blocked or partially obstructed.⏹Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]⏹Fricatives: [s] [z] [☞] [✞] [f] [v] [ ] [❆] [h]⏹Affricates: [t☞] [d✞]⏹Liquids: [l] [r]⏹Glides: [w] [j]⏹Nasals: [m] [n] [☠]◆V oicing of articulation●This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds areproduced.⏹V oiced sounds⏹V oiceless sounds⏹Description of English vowels◆General feature: without obstruction◆Criteria of vowel description●Part of the tongue that is raised⏹Front⏹Central⏹Back●Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate⏹High⏹Mid⏹Low●Kind of opening made at the lips●Position of the soft palate◆Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongs●Phonetic features and natural classes⏹Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.⏹Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowelboundary.⏹Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations ofsounds can be analyzed.Chapter 3 Phonology●What is phonology?⏹Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.⏹Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which areconcerned with the study of speech sounds.⏹Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions.◆What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning ina particular language?◆What sounds vary in what ways in what context?◆What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?●Phonemes and allophones⏹ A phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.⏹The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.⏹We use allophones to realize phonemes.●Discovering phonemes⏹Contrastive distribution – phonemes◆If sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be incontrastive distribution.◆Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs andminimal sets.● A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one soundin the same position.●Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by onesegment in the same position.◆The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels representedby the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.◆Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English.However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features.Therefore, they are separate phonemes.⏹Complementary distribution – allophones◆Sounds that are not found in the same position are said to be incomplementary distribution.◆If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number offeatures, they are allophones of the same phoneme.⏹Free variation◆If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution doesnot result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.●Distinctive and non-distinctive features⏹Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and featuresdo not, non-distinctive features.⏹Distinctive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.●Phonological rules⏹Phonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones arethe actual pronunciations in speech.⏹What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context isanother major question in phonology.⏹The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context aregeneralized and stated in phonology as rules.⏹There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones asexamples.●[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_●[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_●Syllable structure⏹ A syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.⏹Every syllable has a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.⏹The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onsetand followed by one or more consonants called the coda.●Sequence of phonemes⏹Native speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be puttogether.⏹Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences arecalled systematic gaps.⏹Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.⏹When new words are coined, they may fill some accidental gaps but theywill never fill systematic gaps.●Suprasegmental features⏹Features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called suprasegmental features.⏹These features are distinctive features.⏹Stress◆Stress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements overothers in a word.◆Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or moresyllables have stress.◆If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and asecondary stress.◆In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. InEnglish, word stress is unpredictable.⏹Intonation◆When we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.◆Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.◆The same sentence uttered with different intonation may expressdifferent attitude of the speaker.◆In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.⏹Tone◆Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish words.◆The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered withdifferent tones.◆Chinese is a typical tone language.Chapter 4 Morphology●What is morphology?⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds withmeaning.⏹Morphology is defined as t he study of the internal structure and theformation of words.●Morphemes and allomorphs⏹The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.⏹ A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.⏹“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletives◆Some countable nouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly,some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In thesetwo cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among whichther e is one “zero form” of a morpheme.◆Some verbs have irregular changes when they are in past tense. In thiscase, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not relatedin form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are calledsuppletives.●Free and bound morphemes⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes arecalled free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. Theyare always attached to free morphemes to form new words. Thesemorphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme iswhether it can be used independently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are theaffixes (prefixes and suffixes).●Inflexional and derivational morphemes⏹Inflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number ofnouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms toconstruct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted intoother morphemes.◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words iscalled derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -s⏹Suffixes●Formation of new words⏹Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create aderived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes tothe word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness,unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category.Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a differentlanguage origin.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.⏹Compounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is thecombination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words fromthe three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the threeclasses.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech ofthe word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of thecomponents.⏹Conversion◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class intoanother class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.⏹Clipping◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting oneor more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informaloccasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even informal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian),gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax (facsimile)are rarelyused in their complete form.⏹Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog(smoke +frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfastand lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word inthe textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind ofmachine that is like both a plane and a bike).⏹Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a realor supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed fromtelevision. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefixtele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix–sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in theword television as that suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.⏹Acronyms and abbreviations◆Acronyms and abbreviations are formed by putting together the initialletters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer thanabbreviations, which are read letter by letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations andscientific terminology.⏹Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals orplaces. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originatingfrom the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slicesof bread so that he could eat while gambling.⏹Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existingmorphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases whereindustry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak andCoca-cola.Chapter 5 Syntax●What is syntax?⏹The term syntax is from the ancient Greek word syntaxis, which literallymeans “arrangement” or “setting out together”.⏹Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways inwhich words, with or without appropriate inflexions, are arranged to showconnexions of meaning within the sentence.⏹Syntax is a branch of linguistics that analyzes the structure of sentences.●What is a sentence?⏹Syntax is the analysis of sentence structure. A sentence is a sequence ofwords arranged in a certain order in accordance with grammatical rules.⏹ A sequence can be either well-formed or ill-formed. Native speakers of alanguage know intuitively what strings of words are grammatical and whatare ungrammatical.●Knowledge of sentence structure⏹Structural ambiguity◆Structural ambiguity is one or more string(s) of words has/have morethan one meaning. For example, the sentence Tom said he would comeyesterday can be interpreted in different ways.⏹Word order◆Different arrangements of the same words have different meanings. Forexample, with the words Tom, love and Mary, we may say Tom lovesMary or Mary loves Tom.⏹Grammatical relations◆Native speakers know what element relates to what other elementdirectly or indirectly. For example, in The boats are not big enough andWe don’t have enough boats, the word enough is related to differentwords in the two sentences.⏹Recursion◆The same rule can be used repeatedly to create infinite sentences. Forexample, I know that you are happy. He knows that I know that you arehappy. She knows that he knows that I know that you are happy.⏹Sentence relatedness◆Sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related.⏹Syntactic categories◆ A syntactic category is a class of words or phrases that can substitute forone another without loss of grammaticality. For example, consider thefollowing sentences:●The child found the knife.● A policeman found the knife.●The man who just left here found the knife.●He found the knife.◆All the italicized parts belong to the same syntactic category called nounphrase (NP). The noun phrases in these sentences function as subject.The knife, also a noun phrase, functions as object.●Traditional grammar⏹In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words whichare classified into parts of speech.⏹Sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: subjects,objects, verbs (predicates), predicatives, …⏹Compulsory elements of a sentence: subject, verb, object, complement,adverbial…⏹Nou ns: number, case, gender…⏹Verbs: tense, aspect, voice…⏹Adjectives and adverbs: comparative and superlative degrees⏹Agreement in number/person/gender⏹Parsing: trying to make detailed analysis in structure●Structural grammar⏹Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditionalgrammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units.In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independentgrammatical units, but are inter-related to one another.⏹Form class◆Form class is a wider concept than part of speech in traditional grammar.◆Linguistic units which can appear in the same slot are said to be in thesame form class. For example, a(n), the, my, that, every,etc. can beplaced before nouns in English sentences. These words fall into oneform class.◆These linguistic units are observed to have the same distribution.⏹Immediate constituent (IC) analysis◆Structural grammar is characterized by a top-down process of analysis.◆ A sentence is seen as a constituent structure. All the components of thesentences are its constituents. A sentence can be cut into sections. Eachsection is its immediate constituent. Then each section can be further cutinto constituents. This on-going cutting is termed immediate constituentanalysis.◆Examples:●Old men and women: old | men and women, old || men | and women●The ||| little || girl | speaks || French.◆In this way, sentence structure is analyzed not only horizontally but alsovertically. In other words, IC analysis can account for the linearity andthe hierarchy of sentence structure.●I will suggest | that this || in itself reflects ||| a particular ideology|||| about gender ||||| that deserves to be re-examined.◆Two advantages of IC analysis:●It can analyze some ambiguities.●It shows linearity and hierarchy of one sentence.●Transformational-generative (TG) grammar⏹Background and the goal of TG grammar◆Chomsky (1957) – grammar is the knowledge of native speakers.●Adequacy of observation●Adequacy of description●Adequacy of explanation◆Writing a TG grammar means working out two sets of rules –phrasestructure rules and transformation rules –which are followed byspeakers of the language.◆TG grammar must account for all and only grammatical sentences.⏹Syntactic categories◆Noun Phrase (NP)◆Verb Phrase (VP)◆Sentence (S)◆Determiner (Det)◆Adjective (Adj)◆Pronoun (Pro)◆Verb (V)◆Auxiliary Verb (Aux)◆Prepositional Phrase (PP)◆Adverb (Adv)⏹Phrase structure (PS) rules◆S → NP VP(Det) (Adj) N◆NP →{Pro◆VP → (Aux) V (NP) (PP)◆PP → P NP⏹Tree diagrams (omit)⏹Recursion and the infinitude of language◆S contains NP and VP and that S may be a constituent of NP and VP. NPand PP can be mutually inclusive. If phrasal categories appear on bothsides of the arrow in phrase structure rules, the rules are recursive.Recursive rules can be applied again and again, and the phrase structurecan grow endlessly.⏹Sub-categorization of the lexicon.◆The process of putting words of the same lexical category into smallerclasses according to their syntactic characteristics is calledsub-categorization.⏹Transformational rules (T-rules)◆Particle movement T-rule●John turned the machine off. John turned off the machine.◆Replacement T-rule●John beat Tom. He beat Tom.●The house needs repairing (to be repaired).◆Insertion T-rule● A fish is swimming in the pond. There is a fish swimming in thepond.◆Deletion T-rule●They came in and (they) sat down.◆Copying T-rule●He is coming, isn’t he?●He has finished his homework, hasn’t he?◆Reflexivization T-rule●I wash me (myself).⏹TG grammar accounts for the mental process of our speaking.●Systematic-functional grammar⏹Background and the goal of systemic-functional grammar◆M. A. K. Halliday●Language is a system of meaning potential and a network ofmeaning as choices.●Meaning determines form, not vice versa. Meaning is realizedthrough forms.●The goal of systemic-functional grammar is to see how function andmeaning are realized through forms.●The three meta-functions of language⏹Ideational function⏹Interpersonal function⏹Textual function⏹The transitivity system of language◆Elements●Process●Participants●Circumstances◆Categorization of reality●Doing – material process⏹Processes involving physical actions: walking, running,throwing, kicking, wrapping, etc.⏹Actor, goal and circumstance●Being – relational process⏹Processes representing a relation being set up between twoseparate entities.⏹Be (identifying), have (attributive)⏹Carrier/possessor and attribute/possessed●Sensing – mental process⏹Processes of sensing, including feeling, thinking, perceiving,imagining, wanting, liking, etc.⏹Senser and phenomenon●Less central types of linguistic process⏹Verbal processes – saying something◆Sayer and receiver⏹Behavioural processes – active conscious processes◆Behaver and range⏹Existential processes – existence of an entity◆Existent⏹Mood and modality◆Mood expresses the speaker’s attitude and serves for interpersonalfunction. It is a syntactic constituent made up of the subject and thefinite.◆Modality is the degree of certainty or frequency expressed by thegrammatical forms of finite. It can be categorized by modalization andmodulation.⏹Theme and rheme◆Theme is the given information, while rheme is the new information.◆Examples:●John | is my friend.●He | should have replied to my letter.Chapter 6 Semantics●What is semantics?⏹Semantics is defined as the study of meaning. However, it is not the onlylinguistic discipline that studies meaning.⏹Semantics answers the question “what does this sentence mean”. In otherwords, it is the analysis of conventional meanings in words and sentences outof context.●Reference and sense⏹Linguistic expressions stand in a relation to the world. There are two aspectsof meaning.⏹Reference is the relation by which a word picks out or identifies an entity inthe world. But the referential theory fails to account for certain kinds oflinguistic expression.◆Some words are meaningful, but they identify no entities in the realworld, such as the words dragon, phoenix, unicorn, and mermaid.◆It is not possible for some words to find referent in the world, such asthe words but, and, of, however, the, etc.◆Speakers of English understand the meaning of a round trianglealthough there is no such graph.⏹Sense is the relation by which words stand in human mind. It is mentalre presentation, the association with something in the speaker’s or hearer’smind. The study of meaning from the perspective of sense is called therepresentational approach.●Classification of lexical meanings⏹Referential meaning (denotative meaning) – central meaning of words, stable,universal⏹Associative meaning –meaning that hinges on referential meaning, lessstable, more culture-specific◆Connotative meaning – the communicative value an expression has byvirtue of what it refers to, embraces the properties of the referent,。
杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points)( ) 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology. ( ) 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children”is structurally ambiguous.( ) 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.( ) 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.( ) 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.( ) 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.( ) 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.( ) 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research.( )10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termed .A. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetD. code D. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongueof a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A B( ) 1. Socialinguistics a. the analysis of sentence structure( ) 2. Applied Linguistics b. the analysis of meaning in context( ) 3. Morphology C. the analysis of meaning( ) 4.d Phonetics d. the study of sound systems and patterns( ) 5.Linguistics e. the application of linguistic theories to other spheres ( ) 6. Syntax f. the study of speech sounds( ) 7. Psycholinguistics g. the study of the relationship between language and society ( ) 8. Pragmatics h. the study of word structure( ) 9. Phonology i. the scientific study of language( ) 10 Semantics j. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points)1.[t∫][dз]2.[m] [n] [ɡ]3.[f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h]4.[d] [n] [z] [l] [r]5.[i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)VI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1.The duck is too hot to eat.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________2.Visiting friends can be boring.(1)______________________________________(2)______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2.learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat” ?2.What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logicalmetafunction.( ) 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language. ( ) 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday.( ) 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.( ) 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning. ( ) 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.( ) 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.( ) 8. Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. ( ) 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.( ) 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting togethernon-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5.The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56._________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varietiesaccording to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7.__________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8.The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalizedby Grice (1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9.Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in__________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10.“John explained the theory”is a ___________ process according toHalliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principlegeneralized by Grice.2.M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and languageteachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing ameaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act.The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4.The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain isreferred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________ .5.C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deletingone or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from otherregional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. This vet is very famous in the town. a. Conversion ( ) 2. This classroom is large and bright.. b. Derivation ( ) 3. He is watering flowers. C. Blending ( ) 4. Orlon is a kind of cloth material. d. Backformation( ) 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity. e. Acronym( ) 6. EEC is an important organization in the world. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. The road was enlarged last year. h. Eponym( ) 9. Some young people have brunch quite often. i. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: [z] voiced/voiceless [f] [θ] [z] [s]1. [ ] ____________ ____ [m] [ŋ] [l] [n]2. [ ] ____________ ____ [p] [b] [m] [v] [w]3. [ ] ____________ ____ [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з]4. [ ] ____________ ___________ [i:] [i] [æ] [u] [e]5. [ ] __________________________ [i:] [ə:] [e] [æ]VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)nguage and linguistics2.semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1.How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2.What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship betweenthem?3.What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)( ) 1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.( ) 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.( ) 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).( ) 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.( ) 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.( ) 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones.( ) 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.( ) 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes and bound morphemes.( )10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principle C. speech acts7.Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8.The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or moresegments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9.The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experientialfunction) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10.Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes_________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola. a. Conversion ( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations. b. Derivation ( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang. c. Blending( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much. d. Backformation ( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge. e. Acronym ( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays. f. Compounding ( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper. g. Coinage( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him. h. Eponym( ) 9. The street was widened last year. i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals [ ]2. interdentals [ ]3. back vowels [ ]4. high vowels [ ]5. palatal affricates [ ]V. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)( ) 1. The noise annoyed him. a. Material process ( ) 2. The police caught him b. Relational process ( ) 3. There are two books on the table. c. Mental process ( ) 4. John explained the theory to me. d. Verbal process( ) 5. He watches TV every day. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. The conference is on Monday f. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1.arbitrariness2.voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points)VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse?2.What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3.What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings. ( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition. ( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction anddiscourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage. ( ) 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language.( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes. ( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A. [+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7. A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrastwords in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8.Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9.The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10.Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)( ) 1. John is talking to Jane. a. Material process ( ) 2. Tom is the leader b. Relational process ( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed. c. Mental process ( ) 4. The bad news astonished her. d. Verbal process ( ) 5. Edward broke the window. e. Behavioral process ( ) 6. He waved his hands. f. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook[ +stationary]1. king, bachelor, son ________________________2. bull, rooster, stallion ________________________3. pine, rose, elm4. bravery, charity, devotion5. car, bike, planeV. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread [ ]2. beat [ ]3. important [ ]4. live [ ]5. stop [ ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1.She can not bear children.(1)(2)(3) ______________________________________________2.He hates old men and women.(1)(2)VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)pounding2.Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1.What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics?2.What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicativecompetence according to Hymes (1972)?3.What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.( ) 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us. ( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together. ( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences.( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.( ) 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1.Geographic2.Red3.Song4.Clock5.PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points) Initial Medial Finalpit/bit rapid/rabid cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given:1./k/-/g/2./m/-/n/3./l/-/r/4./b/-/v/5./b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points)Column ⅠColumn ⅡColumn ⅢA. chairs A. reality A. blackboardB. wider B. movement B. greenhouseC.looked C.malcontent C. makeshiftD. Tom’s D. stepmother D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) inColumn Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1.I have not finished the task.2.He often comes to my office.3.I will show you how to make up the bed.4.He hardly came back to see his mother5.The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etC. (10 points)boil:fry:steam:stew:bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved:(15 points)a).The professor’s appointment was shocking.b).The design has big squares and circles.c).The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B?What is the implicature? (5 points)a).The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b).The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20points)1.What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2.How do you account for the relation between phonetics andphonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( ) 4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme. ( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages. ( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a s peaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite. ( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1.Retroactive2.Befriended3.Televise4.Margin5.EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)A Ba. terrorized (1) free rootb. uncivilized (2) bound rootC. terrorize (3) inflectional suffixd. lukewarm (4) derivational suffixe. impossible (5) inflectional prefix(6) derivational prefix(7) inflectional infix(8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)V P→V (NP) (PP) (Adv)NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a)The man found the letter.b)The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1.Bull, rooster, bachelor, boyk, water, alcohol, oil3.Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing4.Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy5.Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1.table2.willow3.cat4.blue5.dictionary6.painting7.driver8.verb9.chemistry10.juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1.My sister is a man.2.Witches are wicked3.My sister is an only child.4.The evening star isn’t the morning star.5.The evening star isn’t the evening star.6.Babies are adults.7.Babies can lift one ton.8.Puppies are human.9.My bachelor friends are all married.10.My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with different rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels:Dialect 1 Dialect 2 Dialect 3“eat” [itme] [ithe] [ite]“arc” [arkme] [arkhe] [arke]⑴ State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect.Dialect 1:Dialect 2:Dialect 3:⑵ How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give thephonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms.honest 1. 2. 3.admire 1. 2. 3.illegal 1. 2. 3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1.What is the function of phonological knowledge?2.Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoricreference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points)1.The term l a refers to the natural process ofchildren’s language development.2.It is found that children all undergo certain stages of languagedevelopment, namely the b stage, holophrastic stage,the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage.3.The practice of error analysis is divided into i ,describing and explaining.4.S refers to the analysis of meaning.5.In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commendingin sense while politician is d .6. D synonyms are words which are similar in meaningbut used in different dialects of the language.7.In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a sto replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/shewants to continue to address that idea.8.The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t .9.The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain,while the conceptualizing domain is termed the sourcedomain.10.P deixis specifies the locations relative to the speechevent.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)1.tense front mid vowelteral liquid。
杨忠---语言学概论中文版学习指导东北师范大学
《语言学概论》学习指导杨忠主编《语言学概论》学习指导主编杨忠副主编：林正军魏昆编者（按姓氏笔画排序）王泽霞王晶芝杨忠林正军《语言学概论学习指导》是为网络课程学历教育考生编写的学习指导书，既可用于网络语言学课程的大纲及教材辅导，亦可用作语言学课程教学的辅导材料。
语言学作为与外语教学密切相关的学科之一，在外语教学中的地位和作用越来越显著。
在大学英语本科专业，语言学已被当作一门重要的专业课开设。
同时，语言学也是外语教师职业发展和培训的必修课。
为了配合《语言学概论》（杨忠主编，高等教育出版社，2002）这本教材的教与学，我们组织编写了这本学习指导用书。
本书与教材相对应，共分为十章，每章包括导读、重点与难点、习题及语言学名家介绍四部分。
本书的编写体例由杨忠、林正军和魏昆共同商定。
具体分工如下：杨忠负责序言部分的撰写、以及全书的审校工作；王泽霞负责第一至三章及综合测试题一至四的编写；王晶芝负责第四至六章及综合测试题五至八的编写；林正军负责第七至十章及综合测试题九至十的编写、以及全书的统稿工作；魏昆负责全书的校对和编排工作。
本书语言学名家简介部分的编写参考了刘润青的《西方语言学流派》（外语教学与研究出版社，2004）、当代国外语言学与应用语言学文库的相关导读部分、以及中国学术期刊全文数据库的部分文章，在此我们向以上著作及文章的作者致谢！本书在编写过程中得到东北师范大学出版社魏昆老师以及出版社的大力支持，在此表示衷心感谢！编者2006年2月19日序第一章语言和语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—费迪南·德·索绪尔第二章语音学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—维伦·马泰休斯第三章音位学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—路易斯·叶姆斯列夫第四章形态学：词的构成研究导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—布龙菲尔德第五章句法：句子结构分析导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—乔姆斯基第六章语义学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—杰弗瑞·利奇第七章语用学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·塞尔第八章社会语言学导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—威廉·拉波夫第九章第二语言习得导读本章重点、难点本章习题语言学名家介绍—约翰·鲁珀特·弗斯第十章语言学与外语教学导读本章习题语言学名家介绍—韩礼德绪论漫谈外语教师学习语言学杨忠就“从语言学中学什么”和“怎样学习语言学”两个相关的话题与年轻的外语同行们交流一下学习语言学的体会，代为序。
语言学杨忠第一章
Discussion:
What is language?
What does ‗language‘ mean?
General (broad) sense Used without articles. the universal properties of all human languages, i.e. the common features, not just one particular language.
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
A generally accepted definition:
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (Wardhaugh, 1977).
What is language?
A medium of communication.
A system of code
A carrier of culture
An instrument for thinking
A glue of a community
A social institution
What is language?
(译文: 语言是用于人类交际的﹑任意的﹑ 有声的符号系统。)
(1) What is language?
Language is systematic. Language is symbolic. Language is arbitrary. Language is primarily vocal. Language is human specific.
What is language?
杨忠--语言学概论 课后综合测试题及中文版答案(仅供借鉴)
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10 points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factors。
最新杨忠--语言学概论-课后综合测试题及中文版答案
综合测试题（一）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets：(10 points) ：() 1. General linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 2. The total number of words stored in the brain is called morphology.() 3. The sentence “The woman can’t bear children” is structurally ambiguous.() 4. Categorization refers to the process by which people use language to classify the world around and inside them.() 5. Metaphors can create similarities between the target domain and the source domain.() 6. According to referential content, deixis can be put into person deixis, place deixis, time deixis and discourse deixis.() 7. Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories.() 8. Modality can be categorized into probability and Usuality.() 9. Age is not the learner factor that has been an issue in second language acquisition research. ()10. Register, as a variety of language in use, is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. ____________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. creativityB. arbitrarinessC. displacementD. interchangeability2. Syntactically, Japanese is ____________ language.A. analyticB. isolatingC. syntheticD. agglutinating3. The general roles language plays are termedA. metalanguagesB. metafunctionsC. metadiscoursesD. metagrammar4. ____________ is a process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix.A. BlendingB. EponymsC. BackformationD. Clipping5. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a ___________.A. suffixB. prefixC. morphemeD. morph6. __________ theories are those that attempt to explain acquisition on the basis of assuming an innate biological endowment that makes learning possible.A. EnvironmentalistB. functionalistC. nativistD. both a and b7. Words and phrases like now, yesterday, next week, in three day, etC. are called __________.A. person deixisB. time deixisC. place deixisD. discourse deixis8. Every syllable has a(n) __________, which is usually a vowel.A. nucleusB. onsetC. codeD. rhyme9. ___________ is defined as the study of meaning.A. linguisticsB. semanticsC. morphologyD. pragmatics10. A ___________ is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.A. pidginB. creoleC. EsperantoD. natural languageIII. Match the terms in column A with the phrases in column B and put a, b…j into brackets: (10points)A( ) 1. Socialinguistics( ) 2. Applied Linguistics( ) 3. Morphology( ) 4. Phonetics( ) 5. Linguistics( ) 6. Syntax( ) 7. Psycholinguistics( ) 8. Pragmatics( ) 9. Phonology( ) 10 SemanticsBa. the analysis of sentence structureb. the analysis of meaning in contextc. the analysis of meaningd. the study of sound systems and patternse. the application of linguistic theories to other spheresf. the study of speech soundsg.the study of the relationship between language and societyh.the study of word structurei. the scientific study of languagej. the study of the relationship between language and mindIV. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature(s) they all share: (10 points) 1. [t∫][dз] 2. [m] [n] [ɡ] 3. [f] [θ] [s ] [∫] [h] 4. [d] [n] [z] [l] [r] 5. [i:] [i] [u:] [u]V. Consider the following words and fill in the form: (10 points)Words analyzed number of morphemes troublesome free morphemesstepmother psycholinguistics understatement antidisestablishmentarianismVI. Interpretate the following ambiguous sentences: (10 points)1. The duck is too hot to eat. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________2. Visiting friends can be boring. (1) ______________________________________ (2) ______________________________________VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. derivation2. learner factorsVIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. What is the difference between “a red and a redcoat”?2. What are the features of modern linguistics?3. According to Austin, what does a speech act consist of?综合测试题（二）I. Indicate the following statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are ideational metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and logical metafunction.() 2. Duality is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.() 3. Modality can be categorized into modalization and modulation according to Halliday. () 4. Morphology is the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.() 5. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning.() 6. Second language acquisition is a complex process which involves social factors and learner factors.() 7.Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialets, sociodialects and registers.() 8.Functional linguistics is based on the view that language as a system, which is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning.() 9.Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.() 10. Intonation is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The language used to talk about language is called __________.A. languageB. metalanguageC. natural languageD. artificial language2. [+continuant] specifies ________________.A. all the fricativesB. all the fricatives and glidesC. all the fricatives and liquidsD. all the fricatives, liquids and glides3. _________ is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.A. CoinageB. BlendingC. AcronmymsD. Clipping4. A __________ is a minimal distinctive linguistic unit.A. morphemeB. wordC. phonemeD. allophones5. The word “multinationality has ___________ morphemes.A. 2B. 3C. 4D. 56. _________ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use”, in contrast with regional dialects and sociolects, both of which are “varieties according to user”.A. fieldB. modeC. tenorD. register7. __________ are a fundamental unit of conversational structure.A. back-channel signalsB. adjacency pairsC. pre-sequencesD. insertion sequences8. The idea that people cooperate with each other in conversing is generalized by Grice(1975) as ____________.A. the principle of relevanceB. cooperative principleC. the politeness principleD. the theory of prototypes9. Beauty and siren both refer to a good-looking woman, but they differ in __________.A. affective meaningB. styleC. collocationD. register10. “John explained the theory” is a ___________ process according to Halliday.A. materialB. mentalC. verbalD. behavioralIII. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. Specially, there are four m__________ under cooperative principle generalized by Grice.2. M__________ is unanimously acknowledged by researchers and language teachers as an important factor in second language acquisition.3. A speech act consists of three dimensions. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression is called l_____________ act. The act of communicating intention through utterance is termed i_____________ act. The act of bringing about an effect is known as p____________ act.4. The transference of properties of the source domain to the target domain is referred to by some cognitive linguists as m____________.5. C__________ is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.6. A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called a___________,7.The term language a___________ refers to the natural process of children’ language development.8. A d___________ is a variety of a language that is distinctive from other regional varieties in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.IV. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A() 1. This vet is very famous in the town.() 2. This classroom is large and bright..() 3. He is watering flowers.() 4.Orlon is a kind of cloth material.() 5. Watt is the measurement unit of electricity.() 6. EEC is an important organization in the world.() 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.() 8. The road was enlarged last year.() 9. Some young people have brunch quite often.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinageh. Eponymi. ClippingV. Pick out the sound that does not belong to the group of the sounds according to the natural class of sounds. And then name the feature(s) that define the one picked out and the group of sounds: (10 points)For example: 1. [ 2. [ 3. [ 4. [ 5. [ [z] voiced/voiceless ____ ____ ____ ___________ [f] [θ] [z] [s] [m] [?] [l] [n] [p] [b] [m] [v] [w] [s] [z] [∫] [dз] [з] [i:] [i] [?] [u] [e] [i:] [?:] [e] [?] ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________ ] ____________] __________________________VI. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the se ntence, “He found his book on Wall Street”: (10 points)VII. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. language and linguistics2. semantics and pragmaticsVII. Answer the following questions:(40%)1. How do you understand creativity, one of the features of human language?2. What do Taboo and Euphemism mean? What is the relationship between them?3. What are the general roles language plays according to Halliday?综合测试题（三）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets. (10 points)()1. A morpheme is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.() 2. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 3. The word “went” contains two morphemes.() 4. The approach that analyzes word meaning by decomposing it into its atomic features is called componential analysis (CA).() 5. Euphemism refers to a prohibition on the use of, mention of, or association with particular objects, action, or persons.() 6. The distinction between a free morpheme and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.() 7. In English, the two liquids [l] and [r] are phonemes, but in Korean, they are allophones. () 8. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the Subject and the Predicate.() 9. Compounding is one type of word formation by combining both free morphemes andbound morphemes.()10. The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The followings are all features of language except __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. changeabilityD. displacement2. The lexical sense relation between flour and flower is __________.A. synonymyB. antonymC. polysemyD. homonymy3. ______ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ConversionB. AbbreviationC. EponymsD. Blending4. Children all undergo ________ stages of language development.A. babbling, two-word, holophrastic and the telegraphic speechB. babbling, two-word, telegraphic speech and the holophrasticC. babbling, holophrastic, two-word, and the telegraphic speechD. babbling, holophrastic, telegraphic speech and the two-word5. The followings are acknowledged as important factors in second language acquisition except _________.A. motivationB. nationalityC. ageD. learning strategy6. Speakers consider the matter of face for themselves and others. Based on this observation, Leech (1983) proposes _____________.A. the cooperative principleB. the principle of relevanceC. the politeness principleD. speech acts7. Minimal pairs can be exemplified by ____________.A. moon/noonB. foot/foodC. she/sheetD. sea/sea8. The features that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called ___________.A. distinctive featuresB. non-distinctive featuresC. suprasegmental featuresD. free variation9. The ____________ function (sometimes also referred to as experiential function) is realized by the transitivity system of language.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. logical10. Free morphemes were traditionally called roots, and bound morphemes _________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. affixesD. inflectional morphemesIII. Match the words underlined in Column A with the types of English word formation in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket before the sentence: (10 points)A( ) 1. Most children like drinking Coca-cola.( ) 2. UNESCO is a branch United Nations.( ) 3. The police machineguned the gang.( ) 4. I like sandwiches very much.( ) 5. There are a lot of fruits in the fridge.( ) 6. Infotech is popular nowadays.( ) 7. An editor is a person who edits a newspaper.( ) 8. His stepmother is very kind to him.( ) 9.The street was widened last year.Ba. Conversionb. Derivationc. Blendingd. Backformatione. Acronymf. Compoundingg. Coinage h. Eponym i. ClippingIV. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description.(10 points)1. labiodentals2. interdentals3. back vowels4. high vowels5. palatal affricatesV. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracket. (10 points)A( ) 1. The noise annoyed him.( ) 2. The police caught him( ) 3. There are two books on the table.( ) 4. John explained the theory to me.( ) 5. He watches TV every day.( ) 6. The conference is on MondayBa. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processVI. Explain the following terms: (10 points)1. arbitrariness2. voicingVII. Draw tree diagrams to show the ambiguity of the sentence, “They can fish”. (10 points) VIII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the difference between a greenhouse and a greenhouse? What is conversion in terms of word formation? Illustrate it with examples.3. What are the components of metaphors?综合测试题（四）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)( ) 1. English is a tone language.( ) 2. Bound morphemes are always attached to free morphemes to form new words.( ) 3. Associative meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meanings.( ) 4. Metaphor is an essential element in our categorization of the world and our thinking process.( ) 5. Overgeneralization is found universal in second language acquisition.( ) 6. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the three metafunctions of language are experiential metafunction, interpersonal metafunction and discourse metafunction.( ) 7. The language used to talk about language is called metalanguage.() 8. There are two types of language in the world: natural language and artificial language. ( ) 9. Coinage is a process of inventing words based on existing morphemes.( )10 Environmentalist theories hold that experience is of more importance than innate contributions in learning a second language.II. Multiple choice: (10 points)1. The word “antidisestablishmentariaism” is composed of ______ morphemes.A. sixB. sevenC. eightD. nine2. __________ refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.A. VoicingB. VoicedC. NasalizationD. Aspiration3. Smog is a ___________ word.A. derivedB. clippedC. blendedD. compound4. The idea that the learners have a sense of achievement as long as they learn if of vital importance. This kind of motivation may be termed ____ motivation.A. instrumentalB. integrativeC. cognitiveD. none of them5. [u:] possesses the features _____________.A.[+high][+back][+round][-tense]B. [+high][-back][+round][+tense]C.[+high][+back][+round][+tense]D. [-high][+back][+round][+tense]6. English is an example of _________ languages.A. VSOB. SVOC. SOVD. SVO7.A ________ is the smallest distinctive linguistic unit that can contrast words in meaning and in form.A. phonemeB. phoneC. morphemeD. morph8. Free morphemes were traditionally called _________.A. affixesB. prefixC. suffixD. root9. The lexical sense relation between elephant and animal is __________.A. hyponymyB. synonymyC. antonymyD. homonymy10. Words like male and female, pass and fail, etc. are ________ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. relativeIII. Match the sentence in Column A with the linguistic process in column B. And put the letter you choose in the bracketbefore the sentence. (10 points)A( ) 1. John is talking to Jane.( ) 2. Tom is the leader( ) 3. There is a cat on the bed.( ) 4. The bad news astonished her.( ) 5. Edward broke the window.( ) 6. He waved his hands.Ba. Material processb. Relational processc. Mental processd. Verbal processe. Behavioral processf. Existential processIV. State what semantic property or properties are shared by the group of words. (10 points)For example: typewriter, ruler, notebook 1. king, bachelor, son 2. bull, rooster, stallion 3. pine, rose, elm 4. bravery, charity, devotion 5. car, bike, plane [ +stationary] ________________________ ________________________V. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and the describe it. (10 points)Example: far [a:] back low vowel1. thread2. beat3. important4. live5. stop [ [ [ [ [ ] ] ] ] ]VI. Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10 points)1. She can not bear children.(1) (2)(3) ______________________________________________2. He hates old men and women.(1) (2) ______________________________________________VII. Explain the following terms with examples. (10 points)1. 2. Compounding Free variationVII. Answer the following questions? (30 points)1. 2. What is the distinction between semantics and pragmatics? What are the four parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence according to Hymes (1972)?3. What are the three types of antonyms (lexical opposition) in English?综合测试题（五）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (10 points)() 1. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.( ) 2. Language contains two subsystems, one of sounds and the other of meaning.() 3. The Swiss linguist Chomsky regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.( ) 4. Language can be used to refer to things real or false, past, present or future.( ) 5. Language is merely genetically transmitted from generation to generation.( ) 6. We use language as symbolic code to represent the world around us.( ) 7. The ideatonal function of language binds individuals together.( ) 8. When we speak or write we usually confine ourselves to single phrases or sentences. ( ) 9. Language is mostly a natural phenomenon.() 10. Applied linguistic is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields.Ⅱ. Transcribe the sound underlined in the words and then describe it. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Geographic Red Song Clock PsychopathyⅢ. The following sets of minimal pairs show that English /p/ and /b/ contrast in initial, medial, and final positions. (5 points)Initial pit/bit Medial rapid/rabid Final cap/cabFind similar sets of minimal pairs for each pair of consonants given: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. /k/-/g/ /m/-/n/ /l/-/r/ /b/-/v/ /b/-/m/Ⅳ. Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process. (10 points) Column ⅠA. chairs B. wider C.looked D. Tom’sColumn ⅡA. reality B. movement C.malcontent D. stepmotherColumn ⅢA. blackboard B. greenhouse C. makeshift D. paintwork(1) What morphological process is shown by Column Ⅰ, Ⅱand Ⅲ.(2) What is the morphological difference between a),b) and c),d) in Column Ⅱ.Ⅴ. Tell whether polarity or modality is expressed in the following sentences if modality, then identify the type (modalization or modulation). (10 points)1. I have not finished the task.2. He often comes to my office.3. I will show you how to make up the bed.4. He hardly came back to see his mother.5. The company ought to cut the price of the products.Ⅵ. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/-WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/-PAN], [+/-POT], [+/-OVEN], [+/-SIEVE], etc. (10 points)boil: fry: steam: stew: bake:Ⅶ. Paraphrase each of the following sentences in two different ways to show that you understand the ambiguity involved: (15 points)a). The professor’s app ointment was shocking.b). The design has big squares and circles.c). The governor is a dirty street fighter.Ⅷ. What maxim of the politeness principle is observed by B? What is the implicature? (5points)a). The dress is lovely, isn’t it?b). The material is nice.Ⅸ. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence the magician touched the child with the wand. Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree. (10 points)Ⅹ. Answer the following question: (20 points)1. What is the functioning of stress and intonation in English?2. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology?综合测试题（六）I. Indicate the statements true or false. Put T for true and F for false in the brackets: (20 points)( ) 1. In the study of the first step is the task of auditory phonetics.( ) 2. The sound source is the larynx.( ) 3. The oral cavity contains most of the articulators, namely, the uvula, the velum the hard palate.( )4. Sounds which are produced with the upper teeth touching the lower lip are labialdentals.( ) 5. Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.( ) 6. Abbreviations are formed by putting together the final letters of some or all words in a phrase or title.( ) 7. Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. ( ) 8. All members.of a speech community can send and take messages.( ) 9.Traditional grammar was initially based on European language, particularly on Latin and German.( ) 10. One of the important concepts of structural grammar is the concept of immediate constituent.( ) 11. Pragmatics is the analysis of meaning in context.( ) 12. The meanings communicated through language are or two types: conventional meanings and intentional meanings( ) 13. An expression used by a speaker/writer to identify something is called deictic expression.( ) 14. Chomsky theory of conversational implicature is regarded as a breakthrough in pragmatic study of language use.( ) 15. Relevance is a relative notion. It is determined by two factors: contextual effect and processing effort.( ) 16. Modality can be categorized into modalization and intention.( ) 17. Mood is a syntactic constituent made up of the object and the finite.( ) 18. Relational processes are linguistic processes that represent a relation being set up between two separate.( ) 19. Mental processes are processes of sensing.( ) 20. A TG grammar must account for all or only grammatical sentences.Ⅱ. Divide the following words by placing a + between their separate morphemes. (5 points)1. Retroactive2. Befriended3. Televise4. Margin5. EndearmentⅢ.Write the one proper description from the list under B for the italicized part of each word in A. (5 points)Aa. terrorizedb. uncivilizedc. terrorized. lukewarme. impossible B(1) free root (2) bound root (3) inflectional suffix (4) derivational suffix (5) inflectional prefix (6) derivational prefix (7) inflectional infix (8) derivational infixⅣ. Write out at least ten structure rules that each of the following rules abbreviate. (5 points)VP→V (NP) (PP) (Adv) NP→(Det) (Adj) N (PP)Ⅴ .Draw phrase structure trees for the following sentences: (10 points)a) The man found the letter.b) The students put the books in the classroom.Ⅵ. Write the semantic feature shared by the given words. (5 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bull, rooster, bachelor, boy Milk, water, alcohol, oil Squash, tennis, cricket, fencing, boxing Idea, concept, love, clarity, democracy Pine, elm, willow, birch, poplarⅦ.Each of the following words is a basic level term. Write its superordinate in the left blank and one of its subordinate in the right blank. (10 points)1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. table willow cat blue dictionary painting driver verb chemistry juiceⅧ. The opposite of analytic is contradictory. A sentence that is false due to the meaning of its words alone is contradictory.Kings are female is an example. Write a C by the contradictory sentences and S for situational by sentences that are not contradictory. (10 points)1. My sister is a man.2. Witches are wicked.3. My sister is an only child.4. The evening star isn’t the morning star.5. The evening star isn’t the evening star.6. Babies are adults.7. Babies can lift one ton.8. Puppies are human.9. My bachelor friends are all married.10. My bachelor friends are all lonely.Ⅸ. Pig Latin is a common language game of English; but even Pig Latin has dialects, forms of the “language game” with differen t rules. (10 points)Consider the following data from three dialects of Pig Latin, each with its own rule applied to words beginning with vowels: Dialect 1 “eat” “arc” [itme] [arkme] Dialect 2 [ithe] [arkhe] Dialect 3 [ite] [arke]⑴State the rule that accounts for the Pig Latin forms in each dialect. Dialect 1: Dialect 2: Dialect 3: ⑵How would you say honest, admire, and illegal in each dialect? Give the phonetic transcription of the Pig Latin forms. honest admire 1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.Illegal1.2.3.Ⅹ. Answer the following questions: (20 points)1. What is the function of phonological knowledge?2. Exemplify the differences between anaphoric and cataphoric reference.综合测试题（七）Ⅰ. Complete the blanks with necessary words beginning with the letter given: (10 points) 1. 2. The term l a refers to the natural process of children’s language development. It is found that children all undergo certain stages of language development, namely the b 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. stage, holophrastic stage, , the two-word stage, and the telegraphic speech stage. The practice of error analysis is divided into i describing and explaining. S refers to the analysis of meaning . In the aspect of affective meaning, statesman is commending in sense while politician is d D synonyms are words which are similar in meaning but used in different dialects of the language. In order to avoid repetition the writer needs to use a s to replace a word used in the previous co-text when he/she wants to continue to address that idea.8. 9. The sentence “The bachelor is unmarried” is it t The domain to be conceptualized is called t domain.10. P event.Ⅱ. Write the sound which corresponds to each of the following phonetic descriptions: (5 points)。
2011年翻译硕士MTI参考书目
北京外国语大学1.《中式英语之鉴》Joan Pinkham 、姜桂华著，2000年，外语教学与研究出版社。
2.《英汉翻译简明教程》庄绎传著，2002年，外语教学与研究出版社。
3.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》叶子南著，2001年，清华大学出版社。
4.《非文学翻译理论与实践》罗进德主编，2004年，中国对外翻译出版公司。
5.《非文学翻译》，李长栓著，2009年9月外语教学与研究出版社出版。
6.《非文学翻译理论与实践》，李长栓著，中国对外翻译出版公司。
广东外语外贸大学初试无参考书，以下为复试参考书目：1.《实用翻译教程（修订版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007年。
2.《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编，高等教育出版社，2008年。
3.《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育出版社，2007年。
4.《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编，高等教育出版社，2009年。
5. 有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍湖南师范大学暂无，复试科目为：听力、英语写作南京大学暂无，可用近年来国内出版的英语专业高级阅读、翻译、写作教材，以及任何大学语文教材南开大学暂无，参考《全日制翻译硕士专业学位（MTI）研究生入学考试指南》，外研社同济大学翻译硕士英语：暂无参考书，建议考生多阅读国内外英文报刊杂志，扩大词汇量，扩宽视野，培养中西文化比较意识。
汉语写作与百科知识：不设具体参考书目，希望考生关注时事，加强人文知识的学习和积累。
英语翻译基础：1.《文体与翻译》,刘宓庆,中国对外翻译出版公司,20072.《实用翻译教程》,冯庆华,上海外语教育出版社,20073.《翻译基础》，刘宓庆，华东师范大学出版社，2008西南大学1．《实用汉英翻译教程》，曾诚编，北京：外语教学与研究出版社。
2．《英译汉教程》，连淑能编著，北京：高等教育出版社。
中南大学翻译硕士英语，暂无英语翻译基础：1.《英汉—汉英应用翻译教程》，方梦之编，上海外语教育出版社，2004年2.《高级英汉翻译理论与实践》，叶子南编，清华大学出版社，2008年汉语写作与百科知识：1.《应用文写作》，王首程主编，高等教育出版社，2009年中山大学翻译硕士英语：1.英美概况部分参见《英语国家社会与文化入门》上、下册，朱永涛编，高等教育出版社，2005；2.其它部分不列参考书汉语写作与百科知识: 参照教指委公布的考试大纲北京航空航天大学翻译硕士英语：不根据某一教科书命题英语翻译基础：1. Dictionary of Translation Studies 上海外语教育出版社（2004年）2.《翻译研究词典》外语教学与研究出版社（2005年）3.《英汉互译实用教程》武汉大学出版社（2003年）汉语写作与百科知识：不根据某一教科书命题北京师范大学1.庄绎传，《英汉翻译简明教程》。
2021东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研参考书真题经验
东北师范大学外国语言学及应用语言学考研经验考研其实是一件非常枯燥和艰辛的过程，这段时间也非常感谢high研APP 的伙伴们的鼓励和支持，没有你们我可能都坚持不下来。
只有一个建议：选择自己喜欢且擅长的，剩下要做的就是朝着这个方向努力啦。
关于初试一、参考书及资料政治：肖秀荣精讲精练，肖秀荣1000题，肖秀荣历年真题，李凡政治新时器，肖秀荣四套卷，八套卷，时政小册子，风中劲草德语：德语四级练习册，新编大学德语教材前三册，东师真题专业课：杨忠语言学，杨忠对应练习册，胡壮麟语言学（没看完），英语国家概况（下册没看），星火语言学，东师真题基础英语：精读56册，专八阅读，东师真题二、各科准备情况1.政治由于我高中是理科生，政治几乎是零基础，所以还是花费了很多时间在政治上面的。
马克思不懂的那部分看看加深一下理解，最开始看的是政治新时器和配套的1000题，1000题能做几遍是几遍，虽然到最后也有很多记不住，但我觉得做题能加深我的记忆。
不赞同买好多本习题册，一本书看得精比看好多本书有用多了。
到了后期可以看看风中劲草，有人是直接背，我剩的时间很少，就只是把做题中不会的知识点给看了。
大题就只是背了肖四，还是就剩几天才背的（心痛的回忆呀），全押中了也是幸运哈哈哈！第一轮的复习，是最为基础的复习。
刚开始，不需要给自己的复习太大压力，主要的任务是熟悉考点。
政治学科和其他学科不同，不必要静下来来看很长时间书才开始做题。
政治科目的复习，可以把看书和做题交叉在一起，配套进行。
边看书边做题，通过做题来强化自己看书的效果。
能够做到熟知考点，遇到考点不觉得陌生，就可以了。
这一轮的复习，建议以单项选择题为主，因为多项选择题需要有一定知识积累才能开始做题。
第二轮的复习，可谓是最艰难的。
经过一轮对知识点的熟悉，处在夹生半熟的状态。
多项选择题刚好可以检测知识点的复习情况。
这一轮的复习，是最为关键的。
在政治选择题中，最为关键的就是多项选择题，分值高、难度大，要想拿到不错的分数，务必好好练习。
hedge名词解释杨忠语言学
hedge名词解释杨忠语言学Hedge（名词）是指一种由词语、短语或句子组成的修饰性语言结构，用于减少陈述句的强度或保留解释的余地。
它可以用来表达迟疑、推测、条件、可能性、不确定性等含糊不清的语气或态度。
英文解释：Hedge (noun) refers to a modifier linguistic structure composed of words, phrases, or sentences, used to reduce the intensity of a statement or to leave room for interpretation. It can be used to express hesitation, speculation, conditions, possibilities, uncertainties, or ambiguous tones or attitudes.双语例句：1. I think, maybe, it could be possible that he will come to the party.（我认为，也许，他有可能会来参加派对。
）2. We might need to consider some changes in the plan.（我们或许需要考虑一些方案的改变。
）3. She seems to be somewhat upset about the news.（她似乎对这个消息有点不高兴。
）4. I'm not entirely sure, but it could potentially rain tomorrow.（我并不完全确定，但明天有可能会下雨。
）5. It's possible that the package got lost in transit.（很可能是包裹在运送过程中丢失了。
）6. He probably won't finish the project on time.（他很可能无法按时完成这个项目。
《新编简明英语语言学教程》学习手册(打印版)
页眉内容《语言学概论》学习指导第一章III. Answer the following questions briefly.1.What features does human language have, which can not be foundin animal communication system?2.Why is spoken language given priority to written language inmodern linguistics?3.What are the features of modern linguistics?第二章语音学一、导读2.1 语音研究人类交际包括两种形式：语言交际(linguistic communication) 和非语言交际(paralinguistic communication)。
非语言交际包括手势、表情、眼神或图表等。
语言交际包括口语（spoken language）和书面语(written language)。
在多数情况下，人们主要是通过口语进行交际。
口语交际的媒介是语音(speech sounds)，也就是说人们通过声道（vocal track）发出的音来表达意义。
这种对语音的研究被叫做语音学(phonetics)。
口语交际是一个复杂的过程。
可以想象，当人们交际时，语音首先被说话者发出，然后，它在空气中被传递并被听话者接收。
也就是说，口语交际包括三个基本步骤：语音的发出→语音在空气中的传导→语音的接收。
根据这三个步骤, 语音研究也自然地分成三个主要研究领域。
对第一个步骤的研究是发声语音学(articulatory phonetics)，研究语音的产生。
对第二个步骤的研究是声学语音学(acoustic phonetics)，研究语音的物理特征。
对第三个步骤的研究是听觉语音学(auditory phonetics），研究和语音感知有关的内容。
开设翻译硕士的学校及参考书目
否
是 是 电话一直打 不通 是 是 是 是 是
是
是
外语 招收 50 人 外贸 大学
335/44 66 325
吉林 口译 30
大学 延边
无 大学 南京
笔译 30 人 大学
50/90/330 50 75 345/47 71 335/44 66 325 50/90/330
南京 师范 笔译 20/口译 10 大学
大学
53/80/335
中国 笔译 20 人
50 75 345/47 71
订版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007 年。 2、《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编， 高等教育出版社，2008 年。 3、《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育 出版社，2007 年。 4、《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编， 高等教育出版社，2009 年。 5、有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、 经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍。 992|面试（含口译）:1、《实用翻译教程（修订 版）》，刘季春主编，中山大学出版社，2007 年。 2、《英汉翻译基础教程》，冯庆华、穆雷主编， 高等教育出版社，2008 年。 3、《英语口译教程》，仲伟合主编，高等教育 出版社，2007 年。 4、《商务英语口译》（第二版），赵军峰主编， 高等教育出版社，2009 年。 5、有关英语八级考试的书籍，以及英美政治、 经济、文化等方面百科知识的书籍。
2. 英语翻译基础新编汉英翻译教程 上海外语
教育出版社 2004 年 4 月 陈宏薇等
大学英汉翻译教程（第三版） 对外经贸大学出
50/50/75/75（345） 版社 2009 年 8 月王恩冕
2年
3. 汉语写作与百科知识 中国文学与中国文化
2019年北京交通大学外国语言文学考研经验分享
2019年北京交通大学外国语言文学考研经验分享【关于研究方向的选择】一战的失败让我对择校产生了阴影。
二战的择校显得格外艰难。
不能否认跨考有非常多的成功案例，但是相较于打了四年基本功的同学来说，确实没有特别大的优势。
跟家里人商量之后，二战决定考回英语专业。
英语专业的研究生方向大概可以分为以下几类：外国语言文学（也就是英美文学），外国语言学及应用语言学，翻译学，学科教学（英语），MTI翻译硕士…如有遗漏，欢迎大家进行补充～【不成熟的择校建议】根据自己的经验，下面有几条建议可供大家参考①选择可以找到近5-10年真题的学校；、②选择可以联系到在读学长学姐的学校（新祥旭专业课一对一辅导课程，直系学长一对一指导）；③明确目标院校报录比；④关注近年来分数线/招生简章/参考书目及考试范围…当然有些考研党可能会问该如何去找到这些资料，指路「研招网，各校研究生院网站，考研帮」。
如果问什么是“报录比”，麻烦出门右转找度娘。
先确定大范围（去哪个城市读研），再逐步按上面四条建议开始缩小范围。
列一张表格，然后一个个学校进行排除。
这里推荐一下环球时代的名校真题集，里面提供了十余所院校近年来的真题，可以大概浏览一下，各所学校难度如何心里也有底了。
也是在这本真题集里，偶然看到了北交大的题目，觉得难度比较适中，所以查完资料之后，拍板定下了北交大。
3.【各科目复习】北交大外国语言文学学硕内含三个子研究方向：语言学/文学/翻译学，但是初试内容都一样的。
其中：政治100分，二外100分，专业课1（语言学及英美文学）150分，专业课2（基础英语）150分。
A.「政治」：网上经验贴已经很多了，这里便不再赘述。
这两年我用的都是徐涛全套资料（包含网课及习题）肖四肖八，二战后期还关注了一些腿姐的内容，这三位老师都是考研界的良心，可以放心跟～今年选择题做的不好，只有34分，之前又听说帝都公共课压分（其实没有想象中的严重），还怕过不了单科线，所以考到这个分数还是挺满意的。
2015年东北师范大学全日制教育硕士学科英语考研经验分享
2015年东北师范大学全日制教育硕士考研经验2015年4月2日，复试结束的第四天，我看到了东师外院网站上的拟录取名单，最终排名前五。
心中没有预期的激动，更多的是一份从容。
一、关于学校与专业：不用多说，东北师范大学是211院校，教育部直属师范大学，在东北地区乃至全国认可度很高，本科生就业率为99%。
而学科教学（英语）专业属于专硕，学制两年，培养上重教学实践，当然也需要经常写论文。
这个专业就业前景就是初高中英语教师，励志当高校教师的同学慎报，还有一点就是继续读博可能受限。
东北师大的这个专业越来越火，今年复试最低分是367，想考的同学一定要抓住机会！我本科是外国语大学翻译方向的，打算考研的时候不够自信，想报本校的学硕，后来受到我们学院考上这个专业的学姐的鼓舞，去年五月才正式决定考东北师大。
这里我想说的是，择校的时候不要自卑、纠结，考研考名校比高考容易得多，尊重自己内心最真实的想法。
当然也要量力而行，可以选择上届学长学姐考上的学校，一来你们实力接近，他们是最好的参照物，二来他们能提供宝贵的资料和经验，能让你们少走弯路。
如果你不认识已经考上的学姐（这里已经不想再带上学长了，因为这个专业今年没有男生考上），你可以去逛逛考研论坛，下个“考研帮”APP，找到你报考的学校，在这里搜你报考的专业的经验贴，你一定会有很大收获！二、笔试各科经验：1．政治我高中是理科生，政治零基础，出于心理上的安慰，暑假报了班。
我们那个机构马原、毛中特……各个部分是分开讲的，老师实力也是参差不齐，坑的是15年大纲变动很大，暑假的讲义基本没用了。
暑假其实我没学到什么，就是对知识基本有个印象。
开学以后，我买了肖秀荣那个大厚本，有详细知识点，每节还有一些习题，名字记不清了。
我每天早上坚持做。
到了十月份，出了新的大纲解析，随后肖秀荣也出了新的资料，大纲解析我看不进去，我还是做肖秀荣的练习册，有不懂的知识点再翻看高教版的大纲解析，因为它是最权威的资料。
杨忠 系统功能语法讲义(AN INTRODUCTION TO FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR杨忠讲义)
Session One1. Branches of linguistics and schools of linguistics●Branches of linguistics are divided by reference to object of study, i.e.the subject matter of language as a phenomenon, seen as composed of many aspects or facets.●Schools of linguistics are divided by perspectives and methodology.2. Formalism and functionalism of Post-Saussurean Western linguistics●Logico-philosophical vs. rhetorical-ethnographic orientations oflinguistic studies in Western countries---language as rule or language as resource●Differences in perspectives between formalism and functionalism3. Functionalism as a stream of linguistics●Functionalism in EuropeThe Prague School:Major achievement — phonemic analysisRepresentatives — V. Mathesius （马西/泰修斯）N.S. Trubetzky（特鲁别茨科依）[Russian]A. Martinet （马丁内）[French]The Copenhagen School:Major achievement — text/ discourse analysisRepresentative — L. Hjelmslev (1899 -1965) [叶尔姆斯列夫] The London School:Major achievement — theory of contextSystemic-functional grammar Major representatives —J. R. Firth (1890-1960) [弗斯] (British)M.A.K. Halliday（1925-）●Functionalism in the U. S. A.Major achievement—linguistic relativity;Conitive grammar;Cognitive semantcs;Conceptual metaphorRepresentatives — F.Boas (1858-1942)E.Sapir (1884-1939)B.L.Whorf (1897-1941)FillmoreLangackerLakoffTalmy●Functionalism in China11 annual conferences held(7th held in NENU); China Association of Functional Linguistics4. The meaning of the term function●Organic/ constitutive function●Role function●Speech functions (as purpose or intention)●Metafunctions (as broad categories of meanings)The theory of metafunctions is the cornerstone of systemic- functional linguistics5. Tenets of functional approach to language(as generalised by Butler, C.S. 2003. Sturcture and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-functional Theories. Amsterdam/Philodelphia: John Benjamins)(1) An emphasis on language as as means of human communication in social and psychological contexts;(2) Rejection of the claim that the language system(the grammar) is arbitrary and self-contained, in favour of functional explanation in terms ofcognition, socio-cultural, physiological and diachraonic factors;(3) Rejection of the claim that syntax is a self-contained system, in favour of an approach where semantic and pragmatic patterning is regarded as central;(4) Recognition of the importance of non-discreteness in linguistic description and, more generally, of the importance of the cognitive dimensions;(5) A consern for the analysis of texts and their contexts of use;(6) A strong interest in typological matters;(7) The adoption of a constructionist rather than an adaptionist view of language acquisition.Session Two1.What is system?●Definition“A group of related parts that work together as a whole for a particular purpose” ( Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English)“同类事物按一定的关系组成的整体”(《现代汉语词典》)---Traffic lights as system of symbols：Stopping --- redSlowing down --- amberGoing --- green( Now at main crossroads there are also arrows for right and left turns, so the system is changed )---Chess as a system---The difference between chess and language●Features---Elements---Wholeness1) The idea of system as a concept in linguistics is first expounded in Course in General Linguistics, where system refers to langue, understood as the syntagmatic relation(linear).“What is language?“Language,[……], is a self-contained whole and a principle of classification”（Saussure1959:9）But the meaning of system is different in Halliday’s theory of grammar.2) The conception of system appeared in Halliday’s early publications:Halliday, M.A.K(1956 )Grammatical Categories in Modern Chinese. Transitions of the Philological Society, 1956. pp. 177-224. Reprinted in Kress(ed.)( 1976).Halliday, M.A.K, 1961 Categories of the Theory of Grammar. In Word, vol. 17, 3: 241-292.Halliday, M.A.K, 1963. ‘Class in relation to the axes of chain and choice in language’.Linguistics.No.2In these articles, Halliday put forward four fundamental categories of grammar: unit（单位）, class(类别), structure （结构）and system（系统）. In addition, there are three scales（阶）: rank（级）, exponence（标示）, delicacy(精密度).“韩礼德对语法的两大部分‘范畴’和‘阶’做了比过去全面成熟的归纳和阐述，对语言学界产生深远的影响，被公认为‘阶与范畴’（scale and category grammar）语法的发端。
语言学课件
LINGUISTICSLOGOClick to add contents1.Conversion(zero derivation)转类构词法2.Backformation逆向构词法3.Clipping截短构词法3.4.34.Blending混成构词法5.Acronym首字母拼音词6.Initialism(abbreviations)首字母拼写法7.Eponyms有由来的名词.(《语言学概论》杨忠)8.Coinage杜撰.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Conversion is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.(more frequently between nouns and verbs ) .(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.Some compounds are also converted. Eg: The police machinegun the gang.●Some types of conversionⅠ名词与动词之间的词性转换a.noun→ verb:eg to butter the breadb.verb →noun:eg take a lookⅡ动词与形容词之间的词性转换a.adjective →verb：eg to open the door天将降大任于斯人也，必先苦其心志，劳其筋骨···b.verb→adjective：eg a stand-up comedianⅢ 其他adjective →noun:eg a nasty，the poor 亲爱的preposition→verb：eg to up the price●Backformation is a process that createsa new word by dropping a real supposedsuffix.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:donation →donate emotion →emote●This process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called clipping.(P61)●Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables. (《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:veterinarian→vet gymnasium →gym●Blending:a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms.(P61)●Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words.(《语言学概论》杨忠)●Eg:smog=smoke+fogtelecast=television+broadcastbrunch=breakfast+lunchおはにちは=おはよう+こんにちは●Acronym is formed from the first letters ofa series of words. They can be read as a word.●Eg: AIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeradar: radio detecting and ranging超女快男毛概●Initialism: some new words are composed of the first letters of series of words and pronounced by saying each other in them.●Eg: CD: compact diskWTO:World Trade Organization●AIDS----------CPU●APEC---------GPS●The differences between acronym and initialism : acronyms can be read as a word, while initialism cannot.●Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.●Eg: sandwich: form the forth Earl of Sandwith who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.●Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.●Eg: Coca-cola Orlon Nike恒源祥Exercises●Find as many words as you can and form them in the same way and tell which process of word formation they are.a. to up the price g. to open the doorb. gym h. editc. smog i. AIDSd. bike j. BASICe. telecast k. IDf. opine l. UNKeys●ag: conversion●bd: clipping●ce: blending●fh: backformation●Ij: inicialism(BISIC:biginner’s all-purpose symbolic instruction code初学者通用符号指令代码）●kl: acronymLOGO。
语言学概论(杨忠)
1. What are the categories of lexical meaning?Lexical meaning includes: a) referential meaning (also denotative meaning). b) Associative meanings. Referential meaning is the central meaning and it is more stable and universal. Associative meanings are meanings are meanings that hinge on referential meaning, which are less stable and more culture-specific.Types of associative meanings: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning, collective meaning2. What are the components of metaphor?There are two positions on the function of metaphors: a) the classical view sees metaphor a rhetorical device; b) another view holds metaphor a cognitive device. Metaphors 一s possible precisely because there are metaphors in a person’s conceptual systems.All metaphors are composed of two domains: target domain (also tenor) and source domain (vehicle).3. How does transformational grammar account for sentence- relatedness?1) According to Chomsky, a grammar as the tacit shared knowledge of all speakers is a system of finite rules by which an infinite number of sentences can be generated. He attempts to account for this aspect of syntax by postulating that deep structures and surface structures.2) Deep structures are the basic structures generated by phrase structure rules.3) Surface structures are derived structures, the structures of sentences that we actually speak. Surface structures are derived from deep structures through transformational rules which include replacement, insertion, deletion and coping, etc.4. On what basis do linguists regard human language as species-specific (unique tohumans)?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Many philosophers and linguists believe that language is unique to man. Language is a human trait that sets us apart from other living creatures. They spell out a number of features of language which are not found in animal communication systems. These features: creativity, duality, arbitrariness, displacement, cultural transmission, interchangeability and reflexivity. These are universal features possessed by all human languages. Although some animal communication systems possess, to a very limited degree, one or another of these features except creativity and duality, none is found to have all the features. On this basis linguists tend to conclude that human languages are qualitatively different form animal communication systems.5. What part of syntax can phrase structure rules account for and what they cannot?Phrase structure rules are rules that specify the constituents of syntactic categories. These rules are part of speakers’ syntactic knowledge, which govern the construction of sentences.There are a lot of part of syntactic knowledge, including structural ambiguity (which strings of words have more than one meaning), words order (different arrangements of the same words have different meanings), grammatical relations (what element relates to what other element directly or indirectly), recursion (the repeated use of the same rules to create infinite sentences), sentence relatedness (sentences may be structurally variant but semantically related), and syntactic categories (a class of words or phrases that can substitute for one another without loss of grammaticality) etc. Phrase structure rules canaccount for structural ambiguity, word order, grammatical relations, recursion, and syntactic categories; but they cannot account for sentence relatedness.6. How do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?The term variety is the label given to the form of a language used by any group of speakers or used in a particular field. A variety is characterized by the basic lexicon, phonology, syntax shared by members of the group. Varieties of a language are of four types: the standard variety, regional dialects, sociolects and registers.A regional dialect is a variety of a language spoken by people living in an area. The English language has many regional dialects. British English, American English, Australian English. Indian English, South African English, etc. are all regional varieties of the language. One dialect is distinctive from another phonologically, lexically and grammatically.7. What are the functions of supra-segmental features?The phonetic features, distinctive or non-distinctive, that we have discussed so far may be properties of single segments. In this section we will look at features that are found over a segment or sequence of two or more segments, which are called suprasegmental features. These features are also distinctive features. They are found in such units of syllables, words, phrases and sentences. The most widely found suprasegmental features are stress, intonation and tone.Stress is defined as the perceived prominence (comparative loudness) of one or more syllable elements over others in a word. This definition implies that stress is a relative notion. Intonation: when we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas. The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker. In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise and fall-rise. Toneis the variation of pitch at the word level to distinguish words. The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones. English is not a tone language. Chinese is a typical tone language.Intonation and stress generally occur simultaneously in utterance. When intonation contour falls on a syllable, the nucleus is stressed and the vowel is naturally lengthened a bit. In the meantime, there is a little pause after the syllable. This simultaneous functioning of the features serves to highlight the information focus, or to eliminate ambiguity (double interpretations of the same phrase or sentence).8. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.9. The advantages and disadvantages of componential analysis?1st, it is a breakthrough in the formal representation of meaning. Once formally represented, meaning components can be seen. 2nd, it reveals the impreciseness of the terminology in the traditional approach to meaning analysis. Looking at the semantic formula of man and woman again you can see that it is not true that the total meaning of one word contrasts with that of the other. It is merely in one semantic feature that the two words contrast. When we look at the semantic formulae of man and father, we find that all the semantic features of man are included in the semantic formula of father. Then we reach a different conclusion from common sense in regard to the relation between man and father. Is this contradictory? The answer is No. The obvious fact that man includes father is derived from the perspective of reference. Componential analysis examines thecomponents of sense. The more semantic features a word has, the narrower its reference it is.The limitations of componential analysis are also apparent. It cannot be applied to the analysis of all lexicon, merely to words within the same semantic field. It is controversial whether semantic features are universal primes of word meanings in all language. Nevertheless, CA is so far a most influential approach in the structural analysis of lexical meaning.11. Why is linguistics a vast field of study?Linguistics is a broad field of study, because language is a complicated entity with many layers and facets. There are a number of divisions of linguistics, which can be put into two categories. 1) Intra-disciplinary divisions: the study of language in general is often termed general linguistics. It is based on the view that language as a system is composed of three aspects: sound, structure and meaning. 2) Inter-disciplinary divisions. a) Sociology deals with language and culture. b) Psycholinguistics deals with the relation between language and mind c) applied linguistics is concerned with the application of linguistic theories and descriptions in other fields. All above three belong to sociolinguistics.12. How is linguistics different from traditional grammar?1)Traditional grammar is prescriptive and modern linguistics is descriptive.2)Traditional grammatical categories are merely based on European language but linguistic studies all languages.3)Traditional grammar lacks a theoretical framework, while modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented.13.How are speech sounds described?The study of speech sounds is phonetics which includes 3 parts: 1) articulatory phonetics 2) acoustic phonetics 3) auditory phonetics. Articulatory phonetics is the primary concern in linguistics, in which speech sound is described within 3 sides:The description of consonants: a) place of articulation b) manners of articulation c) voicing d) aspirationThe description of vowels: a) monophthongs b) diphthongs c) lip rounding d) tensity14. Difference between linguistic competence and communicative competence1) Linguists like Chomsky who are not concerned with language use propose the term linguistic competence to account for a speaker’s knowledge of his or her language.2) Sociolinguists like Dell Hymes propose communicative competence as the most general term to account for both the tacit knowledge of language and the ability to use it. According to Hymes, there are 4 parameters that underlie a speaker’s communicative competence, namely the ability to judge: a) whether sth is possible. b) feasible c) appropriate 4) done.15. How are words decomposed into their constituents1) Words are composed of one or more than one morphemes.2) Morphemes are the smallest meaningful unit of language.3) Morphemes can be categorized into 2 kinds. a) free morphemes( they constitute words by themselves) b) bound morphemes( they are never used independently)4) Bound morphemes include inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.16. What are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammaticalrelations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.17. What are the two classes of phonetic features? What is the fundamental difference?The two classes of phonetic features are distinctive features and non-distinctive features. Features that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, in other words, those distinguishing phonemes. Non-distinctive features do not distinguish meanings, i.e. the features belong to allophones. However, whether a phonetic feature is distinctive or non-distinctive varies from one language to another language.18. How do you account for the relation between phonetics and phonology? Phonology and phonetics are both concerned with the study of speech sounds, but the two differ in perspectives. Phonetics, particularly articulatory phonetics, focuses on how speech sounds are produced, what phonetic features they have, and how to transcribe them. In phonetics, sound segments are assumed to be invariable; variations are overlooked.Phonology focuses on three fundamental questions. What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context? What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language? 19. What are the components of communicative competence？According to Hedge, there are mainly five components of communicative competence. They are linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, discourse competence, strategic competence, and fluency.1. Analyze the sentence in terms of type of process, mood structure, and theme and rheme:The academician will address the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference.It is the verbal process. In this sentence, the sayer is the academician, the receivers are the people at the conference though it is not mentioned but we can infer it from the sentence. The verbiage is the issue of the legitimacy of cloning.This sentence is the realization of linguistic interaction, it is the giving of information. Its syntactic form is statement. The subject is the academician, the finite is the verbal operator “will”.The constituent that stands for the starting-point for the message is termed theme; all the rest of the sentence is labeled rheme. In this sentence, the theme is the academician and “the issue of the legitimacy of cloning at the conference” is the rheme.2. Analyze the two English sound segments【K】and 【Kh】in terms of distribution and the phonetic feature that distinguish them.1) Both are in complementary distribution. They are the allophones of the phoneme【K】. 【K】: fricative, voiceless, alveolar.【Kh】: elsewhere2) the phonetic feature that distinguish them is aspirationWhat are aspects of syntactic knowledge?Syntactic knowledge is the knowing of which strings of words are grammatical and which are not. In addition, it includes: 1) structural ambiguity 2) word order 3) grammatical relations 4) recursion 5) sentence relatedness 6) syntactic categories.3. Point out the semantic problem of the sentence "the orphan is staying with his parentsThere are some sentences which sound grammatical but meaningless. The sentence "theorphan is staying with his parents” is just one example. This sentence is always false which is called contradiction. An orphan is a child whose parents are dead, or a child who has been deprived of parental care. The theme (the orphan) and the rheme (is staying with his parents) are incompatible.4. Analyze the change of feature concerning the liquids and nasals in flight, snow, smart, pray and generalize the rule.Liquids /l/ /r/ appear after a voiceless consonant /f/ and /p/ respectively, they are devoiced.Nasals /n//m/ appear after a voiceless consonant /s/, they are devoiced.Rule: Devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant.Or: When the English liquids, glides and the two anterior nasals appear after a voiceless consonant, it is devoiced. This rule can be expressed as follows: devoice a voiced consonant after a voiceless consonant，that is, [+voiced+consonantal] [-voiced] / [-voiced+consonantal]-. The phonology /l/ /r/ belong to liquids, and /m/ /n/ belong to anterior nasals. All these four are voiced consonant, but in these words, they change to the voiceless, for they appear after voiceless consonants.6. Analyze the cooking term stew as a verb by way of componential analysis and mark the feature that you think is distinguisher.stew: +cook +hot +close dish +juice (+ juice: semantic distinguisher)7. Analyze the cause of the error that some Chinese speakers of English use although and but within one sentence.In the process of analyzing learners' language, error analysis is a milestone. Explaining errors is the final but very important step in error analysis. In terms of sources, errorsare divided into interlingual errors and intralingual errors. Interlingual errors are caused by mother tongue interference which means the negative role one's knowledge of L1 to L2 learning. In Chinese, we can use “不但”，“而且”in the same sentence, so some Chinese speakers transfer this expression directly to English. But according to English grammar, “although” and “but” can not appear in the same sentence. This phenomenon is a kind of negative transfer of learners' syntactic knowledge. This is a typical phenomenon of interference in learning.9. Analyze the semantic properties of the given cooking terms, using the features [+/- WATER], [+/-FAT], [+/- PAN], [+/- POT], [+/- OVEN], [+/- SIEVE], etc. boil: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]fry: [- WATER] [+FAT] [+ PAN] [- POT], [- OVEN] [+SIEVE]steam: [+WATER] [-FAT] [- PAN] [+POT] [-OVEN] [- SIEVE]stew: [+WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [+ POT] [- OVEN] [- SIEVE]bake: [- WATER] [+FAT] [- PAN] [- POT] [+ OVEN] [- SIEVE]10. Write the type of reference of it in each of the following sentences:(1)It is rather foggy these days.(2)It is so far hard to tell how many lives are claimed in the catastrophe..(3)The most powerful earthquake triggered massive tidal waves that slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday. It killed over 30,000 people in Sri Lanka, Indonesia, India, Thailand, Malaysia, Myanmar, Bangladesh and Maldives.(1)“It” here refers to the weather. It is an exphoric reference, referring to the world outside linguistic forms.(2)“It” refers to the following expression, “how man lives are claimed in the catastrophe”,which is a linguistic form.. Thus, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, cataphoric reference (cataphora).(3)“It” refers to the preceding expression, that “massive tidal waves slammed into coastlines across Asia yesterday”. Therefore, it is an endophoric reference, specifically, anaphoric reference (anaphora).11. Analyze the ambiguity of the two sentences, telling the difference:(1)Flying planes can be dangerous.(2)She cannot bear children.1. a. The behavior of flying planes can be dangerous.b. Planes which is flying can be dangerous.2. a. She cannot endure children.b. She cannot give birth to children.1 Analyze the relation of –er –est and more most in English and generalize their distribution.-er est are the inflectional affixes of adj. or adv . –er and more are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating comparative. –est and most are allomorphs of a same morpheme indicating superlative. Distribution of more most is before a adj. which has at least two syllables. –er –est are used as the affixes of adj. and adv. which has one ore two syllables.2 analyze the semantic difference of father and daddy in the given sentence, using Leech `s classification of lexical meanings.Classification: connotative meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflected meaning and collocative meaning. Daddy has an affective meaning. When you use the term,you are in intimate relationship with your father. So a father is just who has a child, but daddy is the one loved by his child.3 analyze the difference between summon and call in terms of register.Register refers to varieties according to use. Summon is a formal word, used in court of law to order sb to appear, while call is widely used in daily life.4 point out the maxim flouted and the implicature of B `s utterance:A: Did you notice something odd between the host and hostess?B: Have another glass of beer?It flouted the maxim of relevance. The implicature of B` s utterance : the hearer doesn `t want to gossip about those people .5 point out the degree of formality of :It is gratifying that the cooperative program has been proceeding smoothly formal.6 what is distinctive featureDistinctive features are features that distinguish meanings.7 How do you account for the relation between semantics and pragmatics.They are two separate fields. Both study meaning, but semantics studies the conventional meaning of a word while pragmatics studies the international meaning, the meaning in use. Semantics is bilateral while pragmatics is trilateral. Semantics studies the relationship between sign and meaning, but pragmatics studies the sign, meaning and user.8 What are the two main schools of contemporary western linguistics? What are the fundamental differences between them?TG grammar v.s systematic-functional grammarTG based on UG, studies the general principles while systematic-functional grammarstudies language functions.。
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语言学概论主编：杨忠目录第一章语言和语言文化 (2)第二章语音学 (8)第三章音位学 (13)第四章形态学 (19)第五章句法 (23)第六章语义学 (36)第七章语用学 (41)第八章社会语言学 (47)第九章第二语言习得 (52)第十章语言学与外语教学 (57)第一章语言和语言学一、导读1.1 什么是语言？我们在醒着的大多数时间里运用语言（在梦里也会用到）。
人们经常把语言看成是理所当然。
在与他人交往过程中，我们很少思考是什么让我们可以谈论宇宙和我们心灵世界的一切。
作为一名外语学习者，你是否对语言的本质进行过思考？作为一名职业英语教师，你是否对你所教授学科的本质有过探索？深入这个问题，去理解语言的多面性。
语言包括很多作用：语言是交流手段，是符号系统，是文化载体，是思维工具。
正是由于语言的多面性，解释了语言的的定义不能被普遍接受的原因。
语言学家们必须要直面这个问题，在他们课题中，语言作为他们的研究对象。
过去，数以百计的这类定义被提出。
在这里，我们要引用一些来做讨论。
语言是一个系统，它的要素可以并且一定能被考虑到它们的共时等同中。
（de Saussure，1916）语言是语句的一种心向（限定词或者非限定词），每一个限定词在词长以及构建出自限定词的要素的心向。
（Chomsky，1957）语言仅仅是人类非本能的通过自主产生的符号，来交流思想，情绪，要求的一种手段。
（Sapir，1921）不同的语言学家从不同的视角对语言进行了定义，反映了语言本质的不同侧面，但与此同时，也遗漏了一些问题。
在语言学界，“语言是人类用于交际的任意有声符号系统”的定义得到了广泛的接受。
这一定义是建立在理论的假设上的。
就其本身而言，语言是被看做是人类所特有的。
换而言之，就是假定语言只有人类才有。
动物的交流系统（比如鸟的吱吱叫，蜜蜂的舞蹈，狗的叫声等等）都被排除在外。
交流系统是否也被被定义为不同于人类的其他生物所掌握了？1.2人类语言的本质特征许多哲学家和语言学家都相信语言是人类所独有的。
因此，语言将人类与动物区别开来。
他们将一些在动物的交流系统里无法找到的语言的特点分出来。
（1）创造性（creativity/productivity）创造性是人类语言首要的本质特征。
它使人类可以传递从未传递过的信息和理解从未听到过的信息。
一种语言的语法规则是有限的，但却有构成无限句子的潜力。
所有发话人都是在创造性地使用语言。
甚至孩子会学习他的∕她的母亲发音，将语音和词语放进句子中来表达自己的意思。
这一点在动物的交流系统中是找不到的。
会说话的鸟类，比如鹦鹉，回去模仿人类说话，但是它们无法将其分割它们所模仿的句子中短语的发音以及词句，也不会将其顺序打乱。
研究结果表明，再接近人类的动物，也不能像孩子一样学习和应用语言。
二十世纪三十年代，Winthrop和Luella Kellogg 将他们还是婴儿的儿子和名为Gua的黑猩猩幼崽一起抚养。
当孩子能理解“我说的是什么”以及“我理解我说的是什么”的时候，Gua两个都不能理解，尽管它能理解一些词语。
几十年之后，另外一只黑猩猩，名为Nim Chimsky（在美国著名语言学家Noam Chomsky之后，他声称语言仅仅为人类所掌握）在细致的试验性的环境下，被教导美国手语，有记录以及录像磁带。
在分析了Nim会话的录像磁带之后，科研人员发现，Nim的对话仅有12%是自主的，剩下的88%是跟随教导者的手势，Nim一般的回话是模仿教导者说话。
孩子们的交谈会伴随着年龄的增长而变得越来越频繁。
孩子们几乎不会去模仿对话。
孩子们在语言应用上会变得越来越有创造力，但是Nim和其他黑猩猩在相似的试验中，几乎没有表现出这样的创造性（Fromkin和Rodman，1998）。
事实上，像这些好像是在说创造性是将人类和其他一些生物的交流系统区分开来的一个特点。
（2）二重性(duality)语言拥有语音和意义两个子系统。
如果你给四个英语发音[p][l][i][d]并且将它们按顺序结合在一起，听起来就像是一个英语单词，你会发现[plid]和[pild]是可行的，但是[pdli] [dpli] [lipd]以及[idlp]等等是不可行的。
这些可行的顺序听起来就像是英语单词，但是其他的就不像，因为它们不代表任何东西。
另一方面，意义是由语音来体现的。
在英语里，[dead body of a person]是表达尸体的意思。
在这个例子里，我们可以说概念和意义被词汇化。
在英语里，没有单词能代表[dead plant]这一概念。
当一组语音体现一定语义时，一个语言单位就产生了。
同样的语音会被重新组合去表示别的意思。
在一些例子中，同样的语音排序会表示不同的意思（比如homophones和polysemes）。
这就表示，意义和语音是语言的两个子系统。
没有动物的交流系统能够掌握这一特性。
狗的叫声是可以分析的。
动物的交流系统无法被分割成小部分，在改组成有意义的顺序。
换句话说，人类语言的二重性是动物交际系统所不具有的。
（3）任意性(arbitrariness)语音和意义在语言中代表的关系在全世界就是任意的一部分。
语言的任意性特征最早是由瑞士语言学家费迪南·德·索绪尔(Ferdinand deSaussure)) 提出的。
他认为语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系。
在英语中，我们和家人一起居住的建筑物被称之为“house”，在法语中叫“marson”，俄语中是“dom”，西班牙语是“casa”。
如果语音和意义的关系是促动的(不是任意的)，那么在这些不同的语言中，代表同样一个东西的单词就会听起来是一样的或者相似的，这样的话，人们就不需要去学习外语了。
无可否认的是，在大部分语言中都存在拟声词，他们的声音和意义之间似乎有一定的关系。
这好像是在否定任意性。
但如果我们将不同语言的拟声词进行比较，就会发现这些拟声词之间仍然存在许多不同之处。
英语单词“tick tock”和中国的单词“dida”就是相同的，“buzz”和“wengweng”是相同的。
在英语中，“cockadoodledoo”表示的是公鸡啼叫，但是在俄语中是“kukareku”，这两个单词完全不同于中文的表达。
通过这些观察，我们可以说，所有人类的语言都是常规的。
大多数的动物的交流时类似于图像的。
举个例子，蜜蜂的舞蹈，十分直接的表示它的主旨，因为直接的联系表达旋转以及花蜜来源的数量和方位。
（4）超时空性（displacement）超时空性使人类可以描写真实的或想象中的发生在过去、现在或未来的事物，而不受时间和空间的限制。
然而，动物却只能对此时此地所发生的事进行交际。
一只最聪明的狗也不会通过吼叫告诉别人它的父母是如何遭受主人虐待的。
语言的超时空性赋予人类概括能力和抽象的能力，这也是其他物种在记忆和抽象能力上无法相比的。
（4）文化传递性（cultural transmission）文化传递性是指语言能力的传承性。
一个人习得或学会一种语言是一种文化产物，而不是生物结果。
也就是说，儿童是在社会交往过程中习得母语的，而动物交际系统却是靠遗传来传递的。
语言的任意性和约定性决定了儿童只能通过与他人的交往才能习得母语。
（5）互换性（interchangeability）互换性是指一个语言社区（language community）的所有成员既可以发出信息也可以接收信息的特点。
然而，动物交际系统却做不到这一点。
蜜蜂的舞蹈无法互换，只能为寻找花蜜的人提供信息。
也不是没有鸟儿唱歌，但是只有公鸡啼鸣。
（6）自返性（reflexivity）人类的语言用来描述他们自己。
用于描写语言的语言被称为元语言。
当语言学家们编写语法或者词典篡改者撰写词典吃，他们都需要用到元语言。
当他们将语言当做一门学科去教授时，他们同样要用到元语言。
没有证据显示其他的物种回去编写语法或者撰写词典，或者是去向他人教授交流系统。
语言学家们还观察到了另外一个特征，但是这一点更为显著，特别是头两项。
这些是被所有人类的语言所普遍掌握的。
尽管一些动物的交流系统也能掌握非常受限制的程度，一个或者其他方面，除了创造性和二重性，没有一个被发现拥有所有的特征。
在这一基础上，语言学家们推断出人类语言从本质上是区别于动物的交流系统的。
因此，前诉的语言学的定义看上去是有根据的。
1.3 语言的功能这两方面的讨论包括“什么是语言”以及“人类语言的特性是什么”。
去理解什么是语言，我们需要去理解语言是做什么的。
“功能”就是我们研究这一问题的术语，“大师这个词在语言文献中有不同的解释。
语法学家称“功能”为语言单位的成分作用。
同一个成分单位在句子中的位置相同，起到的句法作用也相同。
现代语言学家把“功能”看作是语言在我们生活或社会中所发挥的作用。
这种作用既可以是具体的，也可以是普遍的。
语言的普遍性作用被称为纯理功能(metafunction)。
一种纯理功能是非常抽象的，它能够描写无数具体的功能。
系统功能语言学的代表人物韩礼德（M.. A.. K. Haliday）认为语言同时体现三大纯理功能：概念功能( ideational function))、人际功能(interpersonal function))和语篇功能(textual function))。
概念功能是人类语言普遍具有的反映客观世界和主观世界各种经验和逻辑关系的功能。
这种功能体现了语言作为一种媒介把人与世界联系在一起。
也就是说概念功能是语言在人类对世界进行概念化的认知过程中所起的作用。
语言是社会人的有意义的活动，是做事的手段。
人们通过语言与人相处，用语言表达自己或他人的身份、地位、情感或态度，用语言去激怒或劝说别人，用语言向他人道歉或请求帮助等。
语言的这种使个体与社会团体凝聚在一起的媒体作用被称为人际功能。
我们在使用语言过程中通过逻辑来组织信息，并使其与语境发生联系。
也就是说，语言在实际使用中是以表达相对完整思想的语篇为基本单位的。
语篇功能是指语言使其本身前后连贯，通过前指、后指和替代等将短语和句子语法单位联系在一起形成一个语篇单位的功能。
1.4 语言的种类自然语言是一个民族的母语。
据统计世界上大约有4000种自然语言。
人们对语言分类的方法有多种：（1）自然语言（natural language）和人工语言(artificial language))；（2）谱系分类法(genetic classification))；（3）类型学分类法(typological classification)。
由于历史的原因，有些自然语言被选为官方语言。
目前英语已成为40多个国家的官方语言。
国与国之间为了克服交际障碍所使用的自然语被称为世界混合语(lingua francas)。
在混合语使用之前，人们渴望一种全球性语言，从而发明了人工语言，即专门用于国际交流的语言。