【TPO小站】托福阅读真题背景总汇PDF
托福TPO1-34阅读词汇题完整汇总(电子版)
智课网TOEFL备考资料托福TPO1-34阅读词汇题完整汇总(电子版)摘要：托福TPO1-34阅读词汇题完整汇总(电子版)!新托福TPO阅读中，TPO阅读词汇题是重要托福阅读题型。
托福阅读词汇题做题需要考生掌握一定的词汇量和做题技巧，这样也可以帮助同学检验托福词汇的背诵效果，同学们快来巩固一下吧!托福 TPO1-34阅读词汇题完整汇总(电子版)! 新托福 TPO阅读中，TPO阅读词汇题是重要托福阅读题型。
托福阅读词汇题做题需要考生掌握一定的词汇量和做题技巧，这样也可以帮助同学检验托福词汇的背诵效果，同学们快来巩固一下吧!Paragraph 1: In the fourteenth century, a number of political developments cut Europe's overland trade routes to southern and eastern Asia, with which Europe had had important and highly profitable commercial ties since thetwelfth century. This development, coming as it did when the bottom had fallen out of the European economy, provided an impetus to a long-held desire to secure direct relations with the East by establishing a sea trade. Widely reported, if somewhat distrusted, accounts by figures like the famous traveler from Venice, Marco Polo, of the willingness of people in China to trade with Europeans and of the immensity of the wealth to be gained by such contact made the idea irresistible. Possibilities for trade seemed promising, but no hope existed for maintaining the traditional routes over land A new way had to be found. 【TPO17- Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia】1. The word impetus in the passage is closest in meaning to○Return○Opportunity○Stimulus○ObstacleParagraph 3: At times, it is actually possible to watch the effects of natural selection in host-parasite relationships.For example, Australia during the 1940 s was overrun by hundreds of millions of European rabbits. The rabbits destroyed huge expanses of Australia and threatened the sheep and cattle industries. In 1950, myxoma virus, a parasite that affects rabbits, was deliberately introduced into Australia to control the rabbit population. Spread rapidly by mosquitoes, the virus devastated the rabbit population. The virus was less deadly to the offspring of surviving rabbits, however, and it caused less and less harm over the years. Apparently, genotypes (the genetic make-up of an organism)in the rabbit population were selected that were better able to resist the parasite. Meanwhile, the deadliest strains of the virus perished with their hosts as natural selection favored strains that could infect hosts but not kill them. Thus, natural selection stabilized this host-parasite relationship. 【TPO17- Symbiotic Relationships】4. The word devastated in the passage is closest in meaning to○ Influenced○ Infected○ strengthened○ destroyedParagraph 4: In contrast to parasitism, in commensalism, one partner benefits without significantly affecting the other. Few cases of absolute commensalism probably exist, because it is unlikely that one of the partners will be completely unaffected. Commensal associations sometimes involve one species' obtaining food that is inadvertently exposed by another. For instance, several kinds of birds feed on insects flushed out of the grass by grazing cattle. It is difficult to imagine how this could affect the cattle, but the relationship may help or hinder them in some way not yet recognized. 【TPO17- Symbiotic Relationships】7. The word inadvertently in the passage is closest in meaning to○Indefensibly○Substan tially○Unintentionally○Partially相关推荐:北美大学校园生活及学习常用词汇短语归纳托福写作常用短语WORD版汇总托福词汇常考词根大收录相关字搜索：托福TPO1-34阅读词汇题汇总。
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo66原文译文题目答案背景知识
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo66原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (6)题目 (9)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (23)原文 (23)译文 (27)题目 (30)答案 (38)背景知识 (39)阅读-3 (41)原文 (41)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (54)背景知识 (56)阅读-1原文The Actor and the Audience①Actors,even when they are well rehearsed,can never fully anticipate how well they will perform before an actual audience.The actor who has been brilliant in rehearsal can crumble before an audience and completely lose the“edge”of his or her performance in the face of stage fright and apprehension.The presence of an audience can affect performance in other ways as well.Or—and this is more likely —an actor who seemed fairly unexciting at rehearsal can suddenly take fire and dazzle the audience with unexpected energy,subtlety,and depth.One celebrated example of this phenomenon was achieved by Lee J.Cobb in the original production of Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman,in which Cobb had the title role.Roles rehearsed in all solemnity can suddenly turn comical in performance;conversely,roles developed for comic potential in rehearsal may be received soberly by an audience and lose their comedic aspect entirely.②Sudden and dramatic change,however,is not the norm as the performance phase replaces rehearsal:most actors cross over from final dress rehearsal to opening night with only the slightest shift;indeed,this is generally thought to be the goal of a disciplined and professional rehearsal schedule.Holding back until opening night,the once-popular acting practice of restraining emotional display until opening night,is universally disavowed today,and opening night recklessness is viewed as a sure sign of the amateur,who relies primarily on guts and adrenaline to get through the performance.Deliberate revision of a role in performance,in response to the first waves of laughter or applause,is similarly frowned upon in all but the most inartistic of theaters today.③Nevertheless,a fundamental shift does occur in the actor’s awareness between rehearsal and performance,and this cannot and should not be denied;indeed,it is essential to the creation of theater art.This shift is set up by an elementary feedback:the actor is inevitably aware,with at least a portion of his or her mind,of the audience’s reaction to his or her own performance and that of the other players;there isalways,in any acting performance,a subtle adjustment to the audience that sees it.The outward manifestations of this adjustment are usually all but imperceptible:the split-second hold for a laugh to die down,the slight special projection of a certain line to make sure that it reaches the back row,the quick turn of a head to make a characterization or plot transition extra clear.④In addition,the best actors consistently radiate a quality known to the theater world as presence.It is a quality difficult to describe,but it has the effect of making both the character whom the actor portrays and the self of the actor who represents that character especially vibrant and in the present for the audience;it is the quality of an actor who takes the stage and acknowledges,in some inexplicable yet indelible manner,that he or she is there to be seen.Performance is not a one-way statement given from the stage to the house;it is a two-way participatory communication between the actors and the audience members in which the former employ text and movement and the latter employ applause,laughter, silence,and attention.⑤Even when the audience is silent and invisible—and,owing to the brightness of the stage lights,the audience is frequently invisible to the actor—the performer feels its presence.There is nothing extrasensory about this:the absence of sound is itself a signal,for when several hundred people sit without shuffling,coughing,or muttering,their silence betokens a level of attention for which the actor customarily ughter,gasps,sighs,and applause similarly feed back into the actor’s consciousness—and unconsciousness—and spur(or sometimes,alas,distract)the actor’s efforts.The veteran actor can determine quickly how to ride the crest of audience laughter and how to hold the line just long enough that it will pierce the lingering chuckles but not be overridden by them;he or she also knows how to vary the pace and/or redouble his or her energy when sensing restlessness or boredom on the other side of the curtain line. Performance technique,or the art of reading an audience,is more instinctual than learned.The timing it requires is of such complexity that no actor could master it rationally;he or she can develop it only out of experience.译文演员和观众①演员，即使是经过充分排练，也无法完全预测他们在真实观众面前的表现。
托福阅读tpo40R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo40R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文Amphibian Thermoregulation①In contrast to mammals and birds,amphibians are unable to produce thermal energy through their metabolic activity,which would allow them to regulate their body temperature independent of the surrounding or ambient temperature. However,the idea that amphibians have no control whatsoever over their body temperature has been proven false because their body temperature does not always correspond to the surrounding temperature.While amphibians are poor thermoregulators,they do exercise control over their body temperature to a limited degree.②Physiological adaptations can assist amphibians in colonizing habitats where extreme conditions prevail.The tolerance range in body temperature represents the range of temperatures within which a species can survive.One species of North American newt is still active when temperatures drop to-2°C while one South American frog feels comfortable even when temperatures measured to41°C-the highest body temperature measured in a free-ranging amphibian.Recently it has been shown that some North American frog and toad species can survive up to five days with a body temperature of-6°C with approximately one-third of their body fluids frozen.The other tissues are protected because they contain the frost-protective agents glycerin or glucose.Additionally,in many species the tolerance boundaries are flexible and can change as a result of acclimatization (long-term exposure to particular conditions).③Frog species that remain exposed to the sun despite high diurnal(daytime) temperatures exhibit some fascinating modifications in the skin structure that function as morphological adaptations.Most amphibian skin is fully water permeable and is therefore not a barrier against evaporation or solar radiation. The African savanna frog Hyperolius viridiflavus stores guanine crystals in its skin, which enable it to better reflect solar radiation,thus providing protection against overheating.The tree frog Phyllomedusa sauvagei responds to evaporative losses with gland secretions that provide a greasy film over its entire body that helps prevent desiccation(dehydration).④However,behavior is by far the most important factor in thermoregulation.The principal elements in behavioral thermoregulation are basking(heliothermy),heat exchange with substrates such as rock or earth(thigmothermy),and diurnal and annual avoidance behaviors,which include moving to shelter during the day for cooling and hibernating or estivating(reducing activity during cold or hot weather, respectively).Heliothermy is especially common among frogs and toads:it allows them to increase their body temperature by more than10°C.The Andean toad Bufo spinulosus exposes itself immediately after sunrise on moist ground and attains its preferred body temperature by this means,long before either ground or air is correspondingly warmed.A positive side effect of this approach is that it accelerates the digestion of the prey consumed overnight,thus also accelerating growth.Thigmothermy is a behavior present in most amphibians,although pressing against the ground serves a dual purpose:heat absorption by conductivity and water absorption through the skin.The effect of thigmothermy is especially evident in the Andean toad during rainfall:its body temperature corresponds to the temperature of the warm earth and not to the much cooler air temperature.⑤Avoidance behavior occurs whenever physiological and morphological adaptations are insufficient to maintain body temperature within the vital range. Nocturnal activity in amphibians with low tolerance for high ambient temperatures is a typical thermoregulatory behavior of avoidance.Seasonal avoidance behavior is extremely important in many amphibians.Species whose habitat lies in the temperate latitudes are confronted by lethal low temperatures in winter,while species dwelling in semiarid regions are exposed to long dry,hot periods in summer.⑥In amphibians hibernation occurs in mud or deep holes away from frost.North of the Pyrenees Mountains,the natterjack toad offers a good example of hibernation,passing the winter dug deep into sandy ground.Conversely, natterjacks in southern Spain remain active during the mild winters common to the region and are instead forced into inactivity during the dry,hot summer season. Summer estivation also occurs by burrowing into the ground or hiding in cool, deep rock crevasses to avoid desiccation and lethal ambient temperature. Amphibians are therefore hardly at mercy of ambient temperature,since by means of the mechanisms described above they are more than exercise some control over their body temperature.译文两栖动物的体温调节①与哺乳动物和鸟类不同，两栖动物无法通过新陈代谢活动产生热能，这种活动使哺乳动物和鸟类能够独立于周围或环境温度来调节体温。
托福阅读中常考背景解释总结
托福阅读中常考背景解释总结辽阔的海洋既是一个硕大无比的储热库，它大量地吸收着太阳能；同时它又是一台极其巨大的调温机，随时都在调节着海洋的表面和深层的水温。
海洋中上下层水温的差异蕴藏着一定的'能量，专家们称之为海水温差能，也叫做海洋热能。
而这种海水温差能可以用来进行发电，人们把这种发电方式叫做海水温差发电。
早在本世纪20年代，科学家们就开始着手研究试验海水温差发电的方法。
1926年，法国物理学家G·克劳德进行了海水温差发电的小型试验。
他在烧瓶A里加入28℃的温水（这相当于海水表层的水温）；连接在另一端烧瓶B里放入冰块，并保持0℃水温（以代表海洋深层的水温）。
用真空泵将A烧瓶内的空气抽出（抽到压力低到每平方厘米0。
038）。
由于液体的沸点是随着加在液面上压力的减小而降低的，所以在此低压下，足以使得烧瓶中28℃的水沸腾起来。
要是能够使烧瓶内的真空度进一步提高，也就是使烧瓶内的压力变得更低，那么烧瓶内的温水就会提前沸腾而迅速蒸发。
这样，相对于烧瓶B内0℃的冰块，就产生了以水蒸汽压差为主的压力差。
于是，A烧瓶内蒸发的水蒸汽通过一个喷嘴喷出，推动涡轮发电机组进行发电。
克劳德试验成功以后，于1929年在古巴建造了一套专门进行海水温差发电的实验装置。
他用一根直径2米的铜管，在距离海岸2000米处，从 650米的深海中汲取冷海水。
当温海水的温度为27。
5℃而冷海水的温度为13℃时，其发电功率为22千瓦。
然而，他用水泵抽取冷海水时所消耗的功率却达 80千瓦。
这岂不是得不偿失吗？实际上不然，克劳德的这套实验装置的发电潜力并没有得到充分发挥，按计算其发电功率可达220千瓦。
但不管怎样，克劳德的实验表明：利用海水的温差来进行发电，在技术上是可行的。
现在的新型海水温差发电装置，是首先把海水引入太阳能加温池，将海水加温到45～60℃（有的可高达90℃），然后再将温海水引进保持真空的某一空间，让它蒸发，借助于水蒸汽来推动汽轮发电机组进行发电。
TOEFL托福阅读真题整合
TOEFL托福阅读真题整合托福阅读真题1__ 31Rent control is the system whereby the local government tells building owners how much they can charge their tenants in rent. In the United States, rent controls date back to at least World War II.In 1943 the federal government imposed rent controls to help solve the problem of housing shortages during wartime. The federal program ended after the war, but in some locations, including New York City, controls continued. Under New York's controls, a landlord generally cannot raise rents on apartments as long as the tenants continue to renew their leases. In places such as Santa Monica, California, rent controls are more recent. They were spurred by the inflation of the 1970's, which, combined with California's rapid population growth, pushed housing prices, as well as rents, to record levels. In 1979 Santa Monica's municipal government ordered landlords to roll back their rents to the levels charged in 1978. Future rents could only go up by two-thirds as much as any increase in the overall price level.In any housing market, rental prices perform three functions: (1) promoting the efficient maintenance of existing housing and stimulating the construction of new housing, (2) allocating existing scarce housing among competing claimants, and (3) rationing use of existing housing by potential renters.One result of rent control is a decrease in the construction of new rental units. Rent controls have artificially depressed the most important long-term determinant of profitability —rents. Consider some examples. In a recent year in Dallas, Texas, with a 16 percent rental vacancy rate but no rent control laws, 11,000 new housing units were built. In the same year, in San Francisco, California, only 2,000 units were built. The major difference? San Francisco has only a 1.6 percent vacancy rate but stringent rent control laws. In New York City, except for government-subsidized construction, the only rental units being built are luxury units, which are exempt from controls. In Santa Monica, California, new apartments are not being constructed. New office rental space and commercial developments are, however. They are exempt from rent controls.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) The construction of apartments in the United States.(B) Causes and effects of rent control(C) The fluctuations of rental prices(D) The shortage of affordable housing in the United States.2. The word They in line 9 refers to(A) the tenants(B) their leases(C) places(D) rent controls.3. Which of the following was NOT a reason for the introduction of rent controls in Santa Monica,California?(A) rapid population growth(B) inflation(C) economic conditions during wartime(D) record-high housing prices4. The phrase roll back in line 11 is closest in meaning to(A) credit(B) measure(C) vary(D) reduce5. The word stimulating in line 15 is closest in meaning to(A) experimenting with(B) identifying(C) estimating(D) encouraging6. It can be inferred that the purpose of rent control is to(A) protect tenants(B) promote construction(C) increase vacancy rates(D) decrease sales of rental units7. The word depressed in line 19 is closest in meaning to(A) saddened(B) created(C) lowered(D) defeated8. The information in the last paragraph supports which of the following statements?(A) San Francisco has eliminated its rent control laws.(B) Rent control leads to a reduction in the construction of housing units(C) Luxury apartments are rarely built when there is rent control(D) There is a growing need for government-subsidized housing.9. According to the passage , which of the following cities does NOT currently have rent controls?(A) Santa Monica(B) Dallas(C) San Francisco(D) New York City10. The word stringent in line 23 is closest in meaning to(A) straightforward(B) strict(C) expanded(D) efficient11. According to the passage , which of the following is NOT exempt from rent control?(A) Luxury apartments(B) Commercial development(C) Moderately priced apartments(D) Office space.__ 31 BDCDD ACBBB C托福阅读真题232By 1776 the fine art of painting as it had developed in western Europe up to this time had been introduced into the American colonies through books and prints, European visitors andimmigrants, and traveling colonists who brought back copies (and a few original) of old master paintings and acquaintance with European art institutions.By the outbreak of the Revolution against British rule in 1776, the status of the artists had already undergone change. In the mid-eighteenth century, painters had been willing to assume such artisan-related tasks as varnishing, gilding teaching, keeping shops, and painting wheel carriages, houses, and signs. The terminology by which artists were described at the time suggests their status: limner was usually applied to the anonymous portrait painter up to the 1760's; painter characterized anyone who could paint a flat surface. By the second half of the century, colonial artists who were trained in England or educated in the classics rejected the status of laborer and thought of themselves as artists. Some colonial urban portraitists, such as John Singleton Copley, Benjamin West, and Charles Wilson Peale, consorted with affluent patrons. Although subject to fluctuations in their economic status, all three enjoyed sufficient patronage to allow them to maintain an image of themselves as professional artists, an image indicated by their custom of signing their paintings. A few art collectors James Bowdoin III of Boston, William Byrd of Virginian, and the Aliens andHamiltons of Philadelphia introduced European art traditions to those colonists privileged to visit their galleries, especially aspiring artists, and established in their respective communities the idea of the value of art and the need for institutions devoted to its encouragement.Although the colonists tended to favor portraits, they also accepted landscapes, historical works, and political engravings as appropriate artistic subjects. With the coming of independence from the British Crown, a sufficient number of artists and their works were available to serve nationalistic purposes. The achievements of the colonial artists, particularly those of Copley, West, and Peale, lent credence to the boast that the new nation was capable of encouraging genius and that political liberty was congenial to the development of taste — a necessary step before art could assume an important role in the new republic.1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) European influence on colonial American painting(B) The importance of patronage to artist(C) The changing status of artists in the American colonies in the eighteenth century(D) Subjects preferred by artists in the American colonies in theeighteenth century.2. The word outbreak in line 5 is closest in meaning to(A) cause(B) beginning(C) position(D) explanation3. The word undergone in line 6 is closest in meaning to(A) led to(B) transformed(C) preferred(D) experienced4. According to the passage , before the American Revolution the main task of limners was to(A) paint wheel carriages(B) paint portraits(C) varnish furniture(D) paint flat surfaces5. I t can be inferred from the passage that artists who were trained in England(A) considered artists to be superior to painters(B) barely painted portraitists(C) were often very wealthy(D) imitated English painters6. The word consorted in line 14 is closest in meaning to(A) made decisions(B) studies(C) agreed(D) associated7. The word sufficient in line 16 is closest in meaning to(A) adequate(B) temporary(C) friendly(D) expensive8. According to the passage , artists such as Copley, West and Peal signed their paintings(A) increased the monetary value of the paintings(B) made it more difficult for other artists to copy the paintings(C) supported the artists' image of professionalism(D) distinguished colonial American artists from European artists9. The author mentions James Bowdoin III and William Byrd in line 17 as examples of which ofthe following?(A) Art gallery owners who displayed only European art(B) Art collectors who had a profound influence on American attitudes toward art(C) Artists who gave financial support to other artists(D) Patrons whose helped to encourage artisans to become artists10. With which of the following would the author be most likely to agree?(A) Countries that have not had a political revolution are unlikely to develop great art.(B) The most successful art collectors are usually artists themselves.(C) The value of colonial American paintings decreased after the Revolution.(D) Colonial artists made an important contribution to the evolving culture of the new nation.__ 32 CBDBA DACBD托福阅读真题3__ 33Researchers in the field of psychology have found that one of the best ways to make an important decision, such as choosing auniversity to attend or a business to invest in, involves the utilization of a decision worksheet. Psychologists who study optimization compare the actual decisions made by people to theoretical ideal decisions to see how similar they are. Proponents of the worksheet procedure believe that it will yield optimal, that is, the best decisions. Although there are several variations on the exact format that worksheets can take, they are all similar in their essential aspects. Worksheets require defining the problem in a clear and concise way and then listing all possible solutions to the problem. Next, the pertinent considerations that will be affected by each decision are listed, and the relative importance of each consideration or consequence is determined. Each consideration is assigned a numerical value to reflect its relative importance. A decision is mathematically calculated by adding these values together. The alternative with the highest number of points emerges as the best decision.Since most important problems are multifaceted, there are several alternatives to choose from, each with unique advantages and disadvantages. One of the benefits of a pencil and paper decision-making procedure is that it permits people to deal with more variables than their minds can generally comprehend and remember.On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds at once. A worksheet can be especially useful when the decision involves a large number of variables with complex relationships. A realistic example for many college students is the question What will I do after graduation? A graduate might seek a position that offers specialized training, pursue an advanced degree, or travel abroad for a year.A decision-making worksheet begins with a succinct statement of the problem that will also help to narrow it. It is important to be clear about the distinction between long-range and immediate goals because long-range goals often involve a different decision than short-range ones. Focusing on long- range goals, a graduating student might revise the question above to What will I do after graduation that will lead to successful career?1. What does the passage mainly discuss?(A) A tool to assist in making complex decisions.(B) A comparison of actual decisions and ideal decisions(C) Research on how people make decisions(D) Differences between long-range and short-range decision making2. The word essential in line 7 is closest in meaning to(A) introductory(B) changeable(C) beneficial(D) fundamental3. The word pertinent in line 9 is closest in meaning to(A) relevant(B) preceding(C) insightful(D) responsive4. Of the following steps, which occurs before the others in making a decision worksheet?(A) Listing the consequences of each solution(B) Calculating a numerical summary of each solution(C) Deciding which consequences are most important(D) Writing down all possible solutions5. According to decision-worksheet theory, an optimal decision is defined as one that(A) has the fewest variables to consider(B) uses the most decision worksheets(C) has the most points assigned to it(D) is agreed to by the greatest number of people6. The author develops the discussion in paragraph 1 bymeans of(A) describing a process(B) classifying types of worksheets(C) providing historical background(D) explaining a theory7. The author states that On the average, people can keep about seven ideas in their minds atonce (lines 17-18) to explain that(A) most decisions involve seven steps(B) human mental capacity has limitations(C) some people have difficulty making minor as well as major decisions(D) people can learn to keep more than seven ideas in their minds with practice8. The word succinct in line 24 is closest in meaning to(A) creative(B) satisfactory(C) personal(D) concise9. Which of the following terms is defined in the passage(A) Proponents (line 5)(B) Optimal (line 5)(C) Variables (line 17)(D) Long-range goals (line 25)10. The word it in line 24 refers to(A) worksheet(B) problem(C) distinction(D) decision11. The word revise in line 26 is closest in meaning to。
tpo45三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo45三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (16)原文 (16)译文 (19)题目 (23)答案 (30)背景知识 (31)阅读-3 (32)原文 (32)译文 (35)题目 (37)答案 (45)背景知识 (45)阅读-1原文The Beringia Landscape①During the peak of the last ice age,northeast Asia(Siberia)and Alaska were connected by a broad land mass called the Bering Land Bridge.This land bridge existed because so much of Earth’s water was frozen in the great ice sheets that sea levels were over100meters lower than they are today.Between25,000and10,000years ago,Siberia,the Bering Land Bridge,and Alaska shared many environmental characteristics.These included a common mammalian fauna of large mammals,a common flora composed of broad grasslands as well as wind-swept dunes and tundra,and a common climate with cold,dry winters and somewhat warmer summers.The recognition that many aspects of the modern flora and fauna were present on both sides of the Bering Sea as remnants of the ice-age landscape led to this region being named Beringia.②It is through Beringia that small groups of large mammal hunters, slowly expanding their hunting territories,eventually colonized North and South America.On this archaeologists generally agree,but that is where the agreement stops.One broad area of disagreement inexplaining the peopling of the Americas is the domain of paleoecologists,but it is critical to understanding human history:what was Beringia like?③The Beringian landscape was very different from what it is today. Broad,windswept valleys;glaciated mountains;sparse vegetation;and less moisture created a rather forbidding land mass.This land mass supported herds of now-extinct species of mammoth,bison,and horse and somewhat modern versions of caribou,musk ox,elk,and saiga antelope.These grazers supported in turn a number of impressive carnivores,including the giant short-faced bear,the saber-tooth cat,and a large species of lion.④The presence of mammal species that require grassland vegetation has led Arctic biologist Dale Guthrie to argue that while cold and dry, there must have been broad areas of dense vegetation to support herds of mammoth,horse,and bison.Further,nearly all of the ice-age fauna had teeth that indicate an adaptation to grasses and sedges;they could not have been supported by a modern flora of mosses and lichens. Guthrie has also demonstrated that the landscape must have been subject to intense and continuous winds,especially in winter.He makes this argument based on the anatomy of horse and bison,which do not have the ability to search for food through deep snow cover.They needlandscapes with strong winds that remove the winter snows,exposing the dry grasses beneath.Guthrie applied the term“mammoth steppe"to characterize this landscape.⑤In contrast,Paul Colinvaux has offered a counterargument based on the analysis of pollen in lake sediments dating to the last ice age.He found that the amount of pollen recovered in these sediments is so low that the Beringian landscape during the peak of the last glaciation was more likely to have been what he termed a"polar desert,"with little or only sparse vegetation,in no way was it possible that this region could have supported large herds of mammals and thus,human hunters. Guthrie has argued against this view by pointing out that radiocarbon analysis of mammoth,horse,and bison bones from Beringian deposits revealed that the bones date to the period of most intense glaciation.⑥The argument seemed to be at a standstill until a number of recent studies resulted in a spectacular suite of new finds.The first was the discovery of a1,000-square-kilometer preserved patch of Beringian vegetation dating to just over17,000years ago—the peak of the last ice age.The plants were preserved under a thick ash fall from a volcanic eruption.Investigations of the plants found grasses,sedges,mosses,and many other varieties in a nearly continuous cover,as was predicted by Guthrie.But this vegetation had a thin root mat with no soil formation,demonstrating that there was little long-term stability in plant cover,a finding supporting some of the arguments of Colinvaux.A mixture of continuous but thin vegetation supporting herds of large mammals is one that seems plausible and realistic with the available data.译文洞察白令地貌①在上一次冰期的高峰，东北亚地区（西伯利亚）和阿拉斯加曾由一片广阔的陆地相连，这片土地被叫做白令陆桥。
【小站教育】托福TPO阅读文章话题匹配
托福TPO阅读文章话题匹配自然科学一、地质学冰川类1 OG：Green Icebergs2 TPO 15：Glacier Formation3 TPO 19：Discovering The Ice Ages地质现象1 OG：Geology and Landscape2 TPO 01：Groundwater3 TPO 02：Desert Formation4 TPO 03：Depletion of The Ogallala Aquifer5 TPO 07：The Geologic History of The Mediterranean6 TPO 12：Water in The Desert7 TPO 20：Fossil Preservation8 TPO 21：Geothermal Energy9 TPO 24：Lake Water二、天文学火星类1 TPO 08：Running Water On Mars2 TPO 25：The Surface of Mars其他行星类1 TPO 16：Planets in Our Solar System2 TPO 22：The Allende Meteorite生物科学一、植物学1 Sample：Opportunity and Competitors2 TPO 01：Timberline Vegetation on Mountains3 TPO 05：Minerals and Plants4 TPO 09：The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii5 TPO 22：Spartina6 TPO 25：The Evolutionary Origin of Plants二、动物学动物特点1 OG：Swimming Machines2 OG：Feeding Habits of East African Herbivores3 TPO 04：Deer Population of The Puget Sound4 TPO 13：Biological Clock5 TPO 15：A Warm-blooded Turtle6 TPO 17：Symbiotic Relationship动物变化1 Sample：Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction2 TPO 05：The Cambrian Explosion3 TPO 08：Extinction of The Dinosaurs4 TPO 15：Mass Extinctions动物行为1 TPO 02：The Origins of Cetaceans2 TPO 11：Begging by Nestlings3 TPO 11：Orientation and Navigation4 TPO 17：Ani mal Signals in The Rain Forest三、生态/环境学生态系统1 TPO 03：The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems2 TPO 19：Succession, Climax, and Ecosystems3 TPO 26：Survival of Plants and Animals in Desert Conditions 环境特点1 Sample：Electricity from Wind2 TPO 04：Petroleum Resources3 TPO 10：Variations in The Climate4 TPO 18：Lightning5 TPO 23：Urban Climates社会科学一、艺术绘画/雕塑/陶瓷1 Sample：Lascaux Cave Paintings2 TPO 04：Cave Art in Europe3 TPO 10：Chinese Pottery4 TPO 11：Ancient Egyptian Sculpture5 TPO 23：Rock Art of the Australian Aborigines建筑/戏剧/电影/摄影1 OG：Applied Arts and Fine Arts2 TPO 01：The Origins of Theater3 TPO 02：Early Cinema4 TPO 03：Architecture5 TPO 12：Transition to Sound in Film10 TPO 22：The Birth of Photography二、历史/考古学工业化介绍1 OG：Artisans and Industrialization2 TPO 06：Powering The Industrial Revolution3 TPO 18：Industrialization in The Netherlands and Scandinavia4 TPO 26：Energy and the Industrial Revolution贸易/经济介绍1 TPO 10：Seventeenth-Century European Economic Growth2 TPO14：Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia3 TPO 16：Trade and The Ancient Middle East4 TPO 17：Europe’s Early Sea Trade with Asia5 TPO 25：The Decline of Venetian Shipping农业发展介绍1 TPO 07：Agriculture, Iron, and The Bantu Peoples2 TPO21：The Origins of Agriculture3 TPO 23：Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture国家/城市特点1 OG：Nineteenth-Century Politics in The United States2 TPO 07：Ancient Rome and Greece3 TPO 08：The Rise of Teotihuacan4 TPO 14：Maya Water Problems5 TPO 19：The Roman Army’s Impact on Britain6 TPO 26：Sumer and The First Cities of The Ancient Near East 人口变化特点1 TPO 05：The Origins of The Pacific Island People2 TPO 09：Colonizing The Americas Via The Northwest Coast3 TPO 20：Westward Migration4 TPO 20：Early Settlement in The Southwest Asia5 TPO 24：Moving into Pueblos三、心理/生理学1 OG：Aggression2 OG：The Expression of Emotion3 TPO06：Infantile Amnesia4 TPO 13：Methods of Studying Infant Perception5 TPO 18：The Mystery of Yawning6 TPO 21：Autobiographical Memory7 TPO 24：Breathing During Sleep四、社会学1 TPO09：Reflection in Teaching2 TPO 13：Types of Social Groups3 TPO 14：Childrenand Advertising其他学科类1 OG：Loie Fuller2 TPO 06：William Smith3 TPO 16：Development of The Periodic Table4 TPO 12：Which Hand Did They Use?以上就是关于托福阅读文章话题匹配(更新至TPO 26)的详细内容，希望对考生们复习托福阅读有所帮助，400-080-6358。
托福阅读tpo43R-3原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
tpo43阅读-3El Niño原文 (1)译文 (2)题目 (3)答案 (8)背景知识 (8)原文El Niño①The cold Humboldt Current of the Pacific Ocean flows toward the equator along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru in South America.When the current approaches the equator,the westward-flowing trade winds cause nutrient-rich cold water along the coast to rise from deeper depths to more shallow ones.This upwelling of water has economic repercussions.Fishing,especially for anchovies,is a major local industry.②Every year during the months of December and January,a weak,warm countercurrent replaces the normally cold coastal waters.Without the upwelling of nutrients from below to feed the fish,fishing comes to a standstill.Fishers in this region have known the phenomenon for hundreds of years.In fact,this is the time of year they traditionally set aside to tend to their equipment and await the return of cold water.The residents of the region have given this phenomenon the name of El Niño,which is Spanish for"the child,"because it occurs at about the time of the celebration of birth of the Christ child.③While the warm-water countercurrent usually lasts for two months or less,there are occasions when the disruption to the normal flow lasts for many months.In these situations,water temperatures are raised not just along the coast,but for thousands of kilometers offshore.Over the last few decades,the term El Niño has come to be used to describe these exceptionally strong episodes and not the annual event.During the past60years,at least ten El Niños have been observed. Not only do El Niños affect the temperature of the equatorial Pacific,but the strongest of them impact global weather.④The processes that interact to produce an El Niño involve conditions all across the Pacific,not just in the waters off South America.Over60years ago,Sir Gilbert Walker,a British scientist,discovered a connection between surface pressure readings at weather stations on the eastern and western sides of the Pacific.He noted that a rise in atmospheric pressure in the eastern Pacific is usually accompanied by a fall in pressure in the western Pacific and vice versa.He called this seesaw pattern the Southern Oscillation.It was later realized that there is aclose link between El Niño and the Southern Oscillation.In fact,the link between the two is so great that they are often referred to jointly as ENSO(El Niño-Southern Oscillation).⑤During a typical year,the eastern Pacific has a higher pressure than the western Pacific does.This east-to-west pressure gradient enhances the trade winds over the equatorial waters.This results in a warm surface current that moves east to west at the equator.The western Pacific develops a thick,warm layer of water while the eastern Pacific has the cold Humboldt Current enhanced by upwelling. However,in other years the Southern Oscillation,for unknown reasons,swings in the opposite direction,dramatically changing the usual conditions described above, with pressure increasing in the western Pacific and decreasing in the eastern Pacific.This change in the pressure gradient causes the trade winds to weaken or, in some cases,to reverse.This then causes the warm water in the western Pacific to flow eastward,increasing sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific.The eastward shift signals the beginning of an El Niño.⑥Scientists try to document as many past El Niño events as possible by piecing together bits of historical evidence,such as sea-surface temperature records,daily observations of atmospheric pressure and rainfall,fisheries’records from South America,and the writings of Spanish colonists dating back to the fifteenth century. From such historical evidence we know that El Niños have occurred as far back as records go.It would seem that they are becoming more frequent.Records indicate that during the sixteenth century,an El Niño occurred on average every six years. Evidence gathered over the past few decades indicates that El Niños are now occurring on average a little over every two years.Even more alarming is the fact that they appear to be getting stronger.The1997-1998El Niño brought copious and damaging rainfall to the southern United States,from California to Florida. Snowstorms in the northeast portion of the United States were more frequent and intense than in most years.译文厄尔尼诺①太平洋沿岸的洪堡德寒流沿着南美洲的厄瓜多尔和秘鲁流向赤道。
TOEFL阅读基础真题及答案-223页文档资料
TOEFL阅读基础目录TPO1 (3)G ROUNDWATER (3)TEST (7)T HE O RIGINS OF T HEATER (8)TEST (13)T IMBERLINE V EGETATION ON M OUNTAINS (14)TEST (18)TPO2 (19)T HE O RIGINS OF C ETACEANS (19)TEST (23)D ESERT F ORMATION (24)TEST (28)E ARLY C INEMA (29)TEST (33)TPO3 (34)A RCHITECTURE (34)TEST (39)D EPLETION OF THE O GALLALA A QUIFER (40)TEST (45)T HE L ONG-T ERM S TABILITY OF E COSYSTEMS (46)TEST (50)TPO4 (51)D EER P OPULATIONS OF THE P UGET S OUND (51)TEST (56)C AVE A RT IN E UROPE (57)TEST (62)P ETROLEUM R ESOURCES (63)TEST (67)TPO5 (68)M INERALS AND P LANTS (68)TEST (73)T HE O RIGIN OF THE P ACIFIC I SLAND P EOPLE (74)TEST (79)T HE C AMBRIAN E XPLOSION (80)TEST (85)TPO11 (86)A NCIENT E GYPTIAN S CULPTURE (86)TEST (91)TEST (97)B EGGING BY N ESTLINGS (98)TEST (103)TPO12 (104)W HICH H AND D ID T HEY U SE? (104)TEST (109)T RANSITION TO S OUND IN F ILM (111)TEST (116)W ATER IN THE D ESERT (118)TEST (123)TPO13 (124)T YPES OF S OCIAL G ROUPS (124)TEST (128)B IOLOGICAL C LOCKS (129)TEST (134)M ETHODS OF S TUDYING I NFANT P ERCEPTION (135)TEST (140)TPO14 (141)C HILDREN AND A DVERTISING (141)TEST (146)M AYA W ATER P ROBLEMS (147)TEST (151)P ASTORALISM IN A NCIENT I NNER E URASIA (152)TEST (157)TPO21 (158)G EOTHERMAL E NERGY (158)TEST (163)T HE O RIGINS OF A GRICULTURE (165)TEST (169)A UTOBIOGRAPHICAL M EMORY (170)TEST (175)TPO22 (176)S PARTINA (176)TEST (181)T HE B IRTH OF P HOTOGRAPHY (183)TEST (187)T HE A LLENDE M ETEORITE (188)TEST (193)TPO23 (195)U RBAN C LIMATES (195)S EVENTEENTH-C ENTURY D UTCH A GRICULTURE (200)TEST (206)R OCK A RT OF THE A USTRALIAN A BORIGINES (207)TEST (212)ANSWER (214)TPO1GroundwaterGroundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, before emerging at the surface again. At first thought it seems incredible that there can be enough space in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water.The necessary space is there, however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sand and gravel. Beds of this material, out of sight beneath the soil, are common. They are found wherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, and sand, known as glacial outwash, that was deposited as the flow slowed down.The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick.In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater.So much for unconsolidated sediments. Consolidated (or cemented) sediments, too, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among the original grains are often not totally plugged with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed.Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists ofform of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous.The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them.Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place. But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces. It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry. The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away.The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.Paragraph 1: Groundwater is the word used to describe water that saturates the ground, filling all the available spaces. By far the most abundant type of groundwater is meteoric water; this is the groundwater that circulates as part of the water cycle. Ordinary meteoric water is water that has soaked into the ground from the surface, from precipitation (rain and snow) and from lakes and streams. There it remains, sometimes for long periods, beforespace in the “solid” ground underfoot to hold all this water.1. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 1 about the ground that we walk on? It cannot hold rainwater for long periods of time.It prevents most groundwater from circulating.It has the capacity to store large amounts of water.It absorbs most of the water it contains from rivers.2. Th in the passage is closest in meaning toConfusingComfortingUnbelievableInterestingParagraph 2: The necessary space is there, however, in many forms. The commonest spaces are those among the particles—sand grains and tiny pebbles—of loose, unconsolidated sandwherever fast rivers carrying loads of coarse sediment once flowed. For example, as the great ice sheets that covered North America during the last ice age steadily melted away, huge volumes of water flowed from them. The water was always laden with pebbles, gravel, andFar awayHiddenPartly visibleInside pieces of sand and gravelOn top of beds of rockIn fast rivers that are flowing beneath the soilIn spaces between pieces of sedimentFast riversGlaciersThe huge volumes of water created by glacial meltingThe particles carried in water from melting glaciersParagraph 3: The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick.6. All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as places that sediment-laden rivers can deposit their sediments EXCEPTA mountain valleyFlat landA lake floorThe seafloorthe bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater.CoverChangeSeparateSurroundtoo, contain millions of minute water-holding pores. This is because the gaps among theoriginal grains are often not totally with cementing chemicals; also, parts of the original grains may become dissolved by percolating groundwater, either while consolidation is taking place or at any time afterwards. The result is that sandstone, for example, can be as porous as the loose sand from which it was formed.That is enough aboutNow let us turn toOf greater concern areThis is related toassage is closet in meaning toWashedSoaked throughParagraph 6: Thus a proportion of the total volume of any sediment, loose or cemented, consists of empty space. Most crystalline rocks are much more solid; a common exception is basalt, a form of solidified volcanic lava, which is sometimes full of tiny bubbles that make it very porous.Paragraph 7: The proportion of empty space in a rock is known as its porosity. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them.10. According to paragraphs 6 and 7, why is basalt unlike most crystalline forms of rock?It is unusually solid.It often has high porosity.It has a low proportion of empty space.It is highly permeable.11. What is the main purpose of paragraph 7?To explain why water can flow through rockTo emphasize the large amount of empty space in all rockTo point out that a rock cannot be both porous and permeableTo distinguish between two related properties of rockParagraph 9: The relative amount of these two kinds of water varies greatly from one kind of rock or sediment to another, even though their porosities may be the same. What happens depends on pore size. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.12. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.Surface tension is not strong enough to retain drops of water in rocks with large pores but it strong enough to hold on to thin films of water in rocks with small pores.Water in rocks is held in place by large pores and drains away from small size pores through surface tension.Small pores and large pores both interact with surface tension to determine whether a rock will hold water as heavy drops or as a thin film.If the force of surface tension is too weak to hold water in place as heavy drops, the water will continue to be held firmly in place as a thin film when large pores exist. Paragraph 8: Much of the water in a sample of water-saturated sediment or rock will drain from it if the sample is put in a suitable dry place.█ But some will remain, clinging to all solid surfaces.█ It is held there by the force of surface tension without which water would drain instantly from any wet surface, leaving it totally dry.█The total volume of water in the saturated sample must therefore be thought of as consisting of water that can, and water that cannot, drain away.█13. Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Much of the ground is actually saturated with water.Answer choicesSediments that hold water were spread by glaciers and are still spread by rivers and streams.Water is stored underground in beds of loose sand and gravel or in cemented sediment.The size of a saturated rock’s pores determines h ow much water it will retain when the rock is put in a dry place.Groundwater often remains underground for a long time before it emerges again.Like sandstone, basalt is a crystalline rock that is very porous.Beds of unconsolidated sediments are typically located at inland sites that were once underwater.TEST1．Words(10mins)1. saturate2. meteoric3. circulate4. precipitation5. incredible6. particle7. pebble8. unconsolidated9. gravel10. coarse11. sediment 12. laden13. outwash14. deposit15. fanwise16. overlie17. sandbar18. minute19. cement20. dissolve21. percolate22. crystalline23. solidify24. lava25. basalt26. permeability 27. cavity28. crevice29. tension30.film2．Sentences（20mins）1. The same thing happens to this day, though on a smaller scale, wherever a sediment-laden river or stream emerges from a mountain valley onto relatively flat land, dropping its load as the current slows: the water usually spreads out fanwise, depositing the sediment in the form of a smooth, fan-shaped slope.2. Sediments are also dropped where a river slows on entering a lake or the sea, the deposited sediments are on a lake floor or the seafloor at first, but will be located inland at some future date, when the sea level falls or the land rises; such beds are sometimes thousands of meters thick.3. In lowland country almost any spot on the ground may overlie what was once the bed of a river that has since become buried by soil; if they are now below the water’s upper surface (the water table), the gravels and sands of the former riverbed, and its sandbars, will be saturated with groundwater.4. But note that porosity is not the same as permeability, which measures the ease with which water can flow through a material; this depends on the sizes of the individual cavities and the crevices linking them.5. If the pores are large, the water in them will exist as drops too heavy for surface tension to hold, and it will drain away; but if the pores are small enough, the water in them will exist as thin films, too light to overcome the force of surface tension holding them in place; then the water will be firmly held.The Origins of TheaterIn seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals.Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters orsophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being. Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures. Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person.A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances.In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities.But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.Paragraph 1:In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widelyaccepted by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence food supply andwell-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it both desirable and1.DebatedCreated2.LeavesLimitsContrasts3. According to paragraph 1, theories of the origins of theaterAre mainly hypotheticalAre well supported by factual evidenceHave rarely been agreed upon by anthropologistsWere expressed in the early stages of theater’s development4. According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions? To establish a positive connection between the members of the societyTo help society members better understand the forces controlling their food supplyTo distinguish their beliefs from those of other societiesTo increase the society’s prosperityParagraph 2: Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a people becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradThe divorce of ritual performers from the rest of societyThe separation of myths from rites6.ImportantIndependentEstablished7. According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites?Emphasizing theater as entertainmentDeveloping a new understanding of why events occurFinding a more sophisticated way of representing mythical charactersMoving from a primarily oral tradition to a more written traditionParagraph 5: In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, andwhy was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and understand their world or escape from unpleasant realities.8. All of following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPTTheater allows people to face that they are afraid of.Theater gives an opportunity to imagine a better reality.Theater is a way to enjoy imitating other people.Theater provides people the opportunity to better understand the human mind.9. Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5?The author presents two theories for a historical phenomenon.The author argues against theories expressed earlier in the passage.The author argues for replacing older theories with a new one.Paragraph 6: But neither the human imitative instinct nor for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional are needed. Oneone sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since requires serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them, nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.10．T he word “penchant” in the passage is closest in meaning toCompromiseInclinationTraditionRespect11．Why does the author mention ?To explain how theater helps a society respond to threats to its welfareTo help explain why detachment is needed for the development of theaterTo show how theatrical performers become detached from other members of society 12．Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A society’s rites were more likely to be retained in the oral tradition if its myths wereadmired for artistic qualities.The artistic quality of a myth was sometimes an essential reason for a society to abandon it from the oral tradition.Some early societies stopped using myths in their religious practices when rites ceased to be seen as useful for social well-being.Myths sometimes survived in a society’s tradition because of their artistic qualities even after they were no longer deemed religiously beneficial.Paragraph 3:█Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being.█ Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative. █Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures.█ Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person.13．Look at the four squares [█] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.To enhance their listener’s enjoyment, storytellers continually make their stores more engaging and memorable.Where would the sentence best fit?14．Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Anthropologists have developed many theories to help understand why and how theater originated.Answer ChoicesThe presence of theater in almost all societies is thought to have occurred because early story tellers traveled to different groups to tell their stores.Many theorists believe that theater arises when societies act out myths to preserve social well-being.The more sophisticated societies became, the better they could influence desirable occurrences through ritualized theater.Some theories of theater development focus on how theater was used by group leaders to group leaders govern other members of society.Theater may have come from pleasure humans receive from storytelling and moving rhythmically.The human capacities for imitation and fantasy are considered possible reasons why societies develop theater.TEST1．Words（10mins）1.speculation2.champion3.envision4.perceive5.ritual6.attribute7.occurrence8.supernatural9.formalize10.refine11.mythical12.causal13.divorce14.autonomous15.aesthetic 16.efficacious17.feat18.elaborate19.pantomime20.impersonation21.pantomimic22.rhythmical23.gymnastic24.virtuosity25.antecedent26.theorize27.imitative28.objectify29.penchant30.detachment2．Sentences（20mins）1. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals.2. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as p art of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites.3. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations.4. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life.。
【小站教育】托福TPO+OG阅读话题篇目归类
托福 TPO 阅读文章话题匹配
自然科学 一、地质学 冰川类 1 OG：Green Icebergs 2 TPO 15：Glacier Formation 3 TPO 19：Discovering The Ice Ages 地质现象 1 OG：Geology and Landscape 2 TPO 01：Groundwater 3 TPO 02：Desert Formation 4 TPO 03：Depletion of The Ogallala Aquifer 5 TPO 07：The Geologic History of The Mediterranean 6 TPO 12：Water in The Desert 7 TPO 20：Fossil Preservation 8 TPO 21：Geothermal Energy
400-080-6358
2 TPO 04：Cave Art in Europe 3 TPO 10：Chinese Pottery 4 TPO 11：Ancient Egyptian Sculpture 5 TPO 23：Rock Art of the Australian Aborigines 建筑/戏剧/电影/摄影 1 OG：Applied Arts and Fine Arts 2 TPO 01：The Origins of Theater 3 TPO 02：Early Cinema 4 TPO 03：Architecture 5 TPO 12：Transition to Sound in Film 10 TPO 22：The Birth of Photography 二、历史/考古学工业化介绍 1 OG：Artisans and Industrialization 2 TPO 06：Powering The Industrial Revolution 3 TPO 18：Industrialization in The Netherlands and Scandinavia 4 TPO 26：Energy and the Industrial Revolution
托福tpo阅读文本及答案汇总(PDF)
智课网TOEFL备考资料托福tpo阅读文本及答案汇总（PDF）摘要：下面是小马过河整理的托福tpo阅读文本及答案汇总全套，包括TPO1-34阅读文本及答案。
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tpo62三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo62三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (23)原文 (23)译文 (27)题目 (30)答案 (36)背景知识 (37)阅读-3 (39)原文 (39)译文 (43)题目 (46)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Plant Adaptations to Cool Environments①There are many interesting adaptations that allow plants to survive in cool environments.One obvious strategy is dormancy(a suspension of activity)during the cold season.Most of the common trees in the forests of northeastern North America,western Europe,and eastern Asia,such as the maples,oaks,beech,birches,and ashes,are deciduous trees that lose their frost-sensitive leaves during the cold winter season.In most of these trees,the leaves suffer damage at temperatures of freezing or just below.The new leaves arise in the spring from winter buds that can remain viable at colder temperatures.②Most of the needle-leaved conifers of the northern and alpine forests,such as pines,spruces,and firs,do not lose their leaves during the winter.How do such evergreen plants escape intracellular freezing (freezing within cells)and tissue destruction when temperatures may drop to-40℃or colder?In these plants,the onset of cool temperatures causes physiological changes that allow plant tissue to either avoid freezing or restrict freezing to extracellular areas(thoseoutside of cells).For plants to avoid freezing,they must chemically alter their liquids into a form that is analogous to antifreeze in automobiles.The liquids in these plants can be cooled far below0℃and will not freeze.This process is called supercooling and is achieved by the metabolic synthesis of sugars and other molecules which,when in solution in the plant's tissue,lower the temperature for ice formation to far below0℃.Supercooling seems to be the prevalent mechanism of frost resistance in herbs.For woody plants,supercooling is augmented by declines of cellular water content,greater cellular accommodation to deformation,and processes that allow water to accumulate and freeze in extracellular spaces.The loss of water from the cells to extracellular areas increases the solute content(the quantity of dissolved substances)of the remaining cell water,making it more resistant to freezing.The cell walls can accommodate the deformations caused by water freezing on the exterior of the cell.For northern and alpine evergreens such as pines and spruces,both supercooling and extracellular ice formation play a part in allowing the plants to withstand extremely cold temperatures.One interesting facet of these physiological adaptations to freezing is that most of these plants will still be damaged by cold temperatures if they do not have a period of cooling in which to adjust to the onset of winter.This process of physiological preparation for the onset of winter cold is called frosthardening.③Some members of the cactus family appear to resist freezing during cool nights by radiating heat stored during the day in their thick,moist tissue.The greater the mass of the cactus,the more heat it can store and the less prone it will be to freezing damage during the night.How is it then that these cacti can survive cold temperatures when they are young and small?The giant saguaro cactus is perhaps the best-known symbol of the southwestern desert of North America.In the popular lore of North America,the distinctive shape of the multistemmed saguaro is a universally recognized icon that is used to represent deserts in movies,television,and comics.Yet,this distinctive and widely recognized plant is actually found only in the Sonoran Desert of California,Arizona,and adjacent Mexico.The saguaro cactus is damaged or killed if exposed to prolonged freezing temperatures. Desert climates in the northern Sonoran Desert are typified by warm days but sometimes experience nighttime temperatures that are below freezing in the winter.Young saguaros that survive are found sheltered beneath more frost-tolerant desert shrubs.The cover of these shrubs acts as a thermal blanket,capturing heat radiated from the ground and keeping the microclimate of the small saguaro warm at night.As thecactus grows,it eventually rises above the cover of the protective shrub.The radiation of heat from the stalk of the large mature cactus prevents freezing.This strategy works up to a point.The range of the saguaro is restricted to areas that do not experience more than about 12to24continuous hours of air temperatures below0℃.It appears that after24hours of freezing air temperatures,not enough heat reserve is left in the saguaro to keep the tissue from freezing.译文植物适应寒冷环境①有许多有趣的适应性可以让植物在凉爽的环境中生存。
tpo54三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo54三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (4)题目 (5)答案 (9)背景知识 (10)阅读-2 (10)原文 (10)译文 (12)题目 (13)答案 (18)背景知识 (20)阅读-3 (25)原文 (26)译文 (27)题目 (28)答案 (33)背景知识 (35)阅读-1原文The Commercialization of Lumber①In nineteenth-century America,practically everything that was built involved wood.Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.It also floats nicely on water,which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin,and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes,from where they were transported nationwide.②By1860,the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states.Over the next30years,lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan,Wisconsin,and Minnesota.Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity,but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees.In this sense,what happened between1860and1890represented a significant break with the past.No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles,firewood,and other wood products.By the1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturingcompanies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.③The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change.The early,thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood,with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the1870s,however,the British-invented band saw,with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states'lumber factories.Meanwhile,the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient,centralized,and continuous cutting of lumber.Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks,from cutting to the carrying away of ls also employed steam to heat log ponds,preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.④For industrial lumbering to succeed,a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production.Traditionally,cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams.Once the streams and lakes thawed,workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer.If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm,if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer.To counter the effects of climate on lumber production,loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods. In the1870s,loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads,giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel.The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.⑤But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter.Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud.In the1870s,a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons.Railroads were one possibility.At first,the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.But increasing lumber prices in the late1870s combined with periodic warm,dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails.By1887,89logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.⑥Once the logs arrived at a river,the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.Logjams(buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream)were common—at times stretching for10miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s.To help keep the logs moving efficiently,barriers called booms(essentially a chain of floating logs)were constructed to control the direction of the timber.By the1870s,lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.译文木材的商业化①在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。
托福阅读tpo32R-1原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo32R-1原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文 (1)译文 (4)题目 (6)答案 (15)背景知识 (15)原文Plant Colonization①Colonization is one way in which plants can change the ecology of a site.Colonization is a process with two components:invasion and survival.The rate at which a site is colonized by plants depends on both the rate at which individual organisms(seeds,spores,immature or mature individuals)arrive at the site and their success at becoming established and surviving.Success in colonization depends to a great extent on there being a site available for colonization–a safe site where disturbance by fire or by cutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competition and other negative interactions to a level at which the invading species can become established.For a given rate of invasion,colonization of a moist,fertile site is likely to be much more rapid than that of a dry,infertile site because of poor survival on the latter.A fertile,plowed field is rapidly invaded by a large variety of weeds,whereas a neighboring construction site from which the soil has been compacted or removed to expose a coarse,infertile parent material may remain virtually free of vegetation for many months or even years despite receiving the same input of seeds as the plowed field.②Both the rate of invasion and the rate of extinction vary greatly among different plant species.Pioneer species-those that occur only in the earliest stages of colonization-tend to have high rates of invasion because they produce very large numbers of reproductive propagules(seeds,spores,and so on)and because they have an efficient means of dispersal(normally,wind).③If colonizers produce short-lived reproductive propagules,they must produce very large numbers unless they have an efficient means of dispersal to suitable new habitats.Many plants depend on wind for dispersal and produce abundant quantities of small,relatively short-lived seeds to compensate for the fact that wind is not always a reliable means If reaching the appropriate type of habitat.Alternative strategies have evolved in some plants,such as those that produce fewer but larger seeds that are dispersed to suitable sites by birds or small mammals or those that produce long-lived seeds.Many forestplants seem to exhibit the latter adaptation,and viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in large numbers on some forest floors. For example,as many as1,125viable seeds per square meter were found in a100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in coastal British Columbia.Nearly all the seeds that had germinated from this seed bank were from pioneer species.The rapid colonization of such sites after disturbance is undoubtedly in part a reflection of the large seed band on the forest floor.④An adaptation that is well developed in colonizing species is a high degree of variation in germination(the beginning of a seed’s growth). Seeds of a given species exhibit a wide range of germination dates, increasing the probability that at least some of the seeds will germinate during a period of favorable environmental conditions.This is particularly important for species that colonize an environment where there is no existing vegetation to ameliorate climatic extremes and in which there may be great climatic diversity.⑤Species succession in plant communities,i.e.,the temporal sequence of appearance and disappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the life history of a species. Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role in determining patterns of succession,especially secondary succession.The species that are first to colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfully to new sites.Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites, excluding other species with lower invasion and growth rates.The first community that occupies a disturbed area therefore may be composed of specie with the highest rate of invasion,whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similar survival rates but lower invasion rates.译文植物定居①定居是植物改变一个地点生态环境的一种方式。
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识
托福阅读TOEFL三篇tpo75原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (36)阅读-3 (40)原文 (40)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (53)背景知识 (54)阅读-1原文Clutch Size in Birds①Each year the emperor penguin lays one egg,the pigeon lays one or two eggs,the gull typically lays three eggs,the Canada goose four to six eggs,and the American merganser ten or eleven eggs.What determines clutch size in birds?The ultimate factors that determine clutch size are the requirements for long-term(evolutionary)survival. Clutch size is viewed as an adaptation under the control of natural selection.②Natural selection will favor those birds that leave the most descendants to future generations.At first thought we might hypothesize that natural selection favors a clutch size that is the physiological maximum the bird can lay.We can test this hypothesis by taking eggs from nests as they are laid.When we do this,we find that some birds,such as the common pigeon,are determinate layers;they lay a given number of eggs,no matter what.The pigeon lays two eggs, if you take away the first,it will incubate the second egg only.If you add a third egg,it will incubate all three.But many other birds areindeterminate layers;they will continue to lay eggs until the nest is "full".If eggs are removed once they are laid,these birds will continue laying.When this subterfuge was used on a mallard female,she continued to lay one egg per day until she had laid100of them. Evidence from other,similar experiments suggests that most birds under normal circumstances do not lay their physiological limit of eggs but that ovulation is stopped long before this limit is reached.③The British ornithologist David Lack was one of the first ecologists to recognize the importance of evolutionary thinking in understanding adaptations in life history traits.In1947Lack put forward the idea that clutch size in birds was determined by the number of young that parents can provide with food.If his hypothesis is correct,the total production of young ought to be highest at the normal clutch size.And if one experimentally increased clutch size by adding eggs to nests, increased clutches should suffer greater losses because the parents could not feed the extra young in the nest.④One way to think about this problem of optimum clutch size is to usea simple economic approach.Everything an organism does has somecosts and some benefits.The benefits of laying more eggs are very clear--more descendants in the next generation.The costs are less clear.There is an energy cost to make each additional egg,and there is a further cost to feed each additional nestling.If the adult birds must work harder to feed their young,there is also a potential cost in adult survival-the adults may not live until the next breeding season.If adults are unable to work harder,there is a risk of reduction in offspring quality.Models of this type are useful because they help us think about the costs and benefits for a particular ecological strategy. No organism has an infinite amount of energy to spend on its activities. The reproductive rate of birds can be viewed as one sector of a bird's energy balance,and the needs of reproduction must be maximized within the constraints of other energy requirements.The total requirements involve metabolic maintenance,growth,energy used for predator avoidance,competitive interactions,and reproduction. According to Lack's hypothesis,if enough additional eggs are placed in a bird's nest,reproductive energy requirements escalate and the whole brood will suffer from starvation so that,in fact,fewer young birds will fledge from nests containing large numbers ofeggs.⑤In England,the blue tit normally lays a clutch of nine to eleven eggs.What would happen if blue tits had a brood of twelve or thirteen?A researcher artificially manipulated broods at hatching by adding or subtracting chicks and found that the survival of the young blue tits in manipulated broods was poor.Blue tits feed on insects and apparently cannot feed additional young adequately,so more of the young starve. Consequently,it would not benefit a blue tit in the evolutionary sense to lay more eggs and the results are consistent with Lack's hypothesis. Individual birds appear to produce the clutch size that maximizes their reproductive potential.译文鸟窝的大小①每年，皇帝企鹅会产下一枚蛋，鸽子会产下一颗或两颗蛋，海鸥通常会产下三颗蛋，加拿大鹅会产下四到六颗蛋，而美洲红颈潜鸭则会产下十到十一颗蛋。
【TPO小站内部精选】托福阅读真题背景总汇
【TPO小站内部资料精选】托福阅读真题背景汇总托福阅读的关键是在于多看多练，同样一篇文章，如果熟悉其中背景，阅读起来就比较轻松，做题的速度和准确率也会提高不少。
下面，我将根据历年托福阅读真题，总结出一部分常见托福阅读背景，希望对大家有所帮助。
一、印第安题材1.白令海峡移民理论2.印第安文化3.印第安宗教观4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize, squash, bean, pea。
二、动植物题材(必考)1.植物学题材(一般纯植物学不多)a. 地衣、苔、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
b. 树冠上方生物。
c. 植物在生态平衡中的作用（或作为平衡生态系统的手段）。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)a. 考普通动物为多。
最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
b. 考动物进化(evolution)。
c. 考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum) —门 class—纲 order—目 family—科 genus—属species—种 carnivore/predator—食肉动物 herbivore—食草动物 omnivore —杂食动物d. 动物的生活习性最为多见。
1. 群居(social animal)动物的习性a) 蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(hierarchy)：交流方式—信息素—气味；生活来源；外来物种的有害性。
b) 蜜蜂：群居个性；圆舞（食物较近时）摇摆舞（waggle dance食物较远时）；蜜蜂智能；防御；天敌—大黄蜂。
c) 大猩猩：智能：猩际关系2.迁徙 (migration)野鸭、大雁：日照长短；辨别方向。
3. 伪装 (camouflage)、花拟态(mimicry )三、考古学(archaeology)题材1.文化(cultural) 考古学形态(physical)考古学(多见)2.化石(fossil)a) 化石构成。
tpo50三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识
tpo50三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (7)答案 (16)背景知识 (18)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (35)背景知识 (37)阅读-3 (41)原文 (41)译文 (44)题目 (47)答案 (54)背景知识 (55)阅读-1原文American Railroads①In the United States,railroads spearheaded the second phase of the transportation revolution by overtaking the previous importance of canals.The mid-1800s saw a great expansion of American railroads. The major cities east of the Mississippi River were linked by a spiderweb of railroad tracks.Chicago's growth illustrates the impact of these rail links.In1849Chicago was a village of a few hundred people with virtually no rail service.By1860it had become a city of100,000, served by eleven railroads.Farmers to the north and west of Chicago no longer had to ship their grain,livestock,and dairy products down the Mississippi River to New Orleans;they could now ship their products directly east.Chicago supplanted New Orleans as the interior of America's main commercial hub.②The east-west rail lines stimulated the settlement and agricultural development of the Midwest.By1860Illinois,Indiana,and Wisconsin had replaced Ohio,Pennsylvania,and New York as the leading wheat-growing states.Enabling farmers to speed their products to the East,railroads increased the value of farmland and promotedadditional settlement.In turn,population growth in agricultural areas triggered industrial development in cities such as Chicago,Davenport (Iowa),and Minneapolis,for the new settlers needed lumber for fences and houses and mills to grind wheat into flour.③Railroads also propelled the growth of small towns along their routes.The Illinois Central Railroad,which had more track than any other railroad in1855,made money not only from its traffic but also from real estate speculation.Purchasing land for stations along its path, the Illinois Central then laid out towns around the stations.The selection of Manteno,Illinois,as a stop of the Illinois Central,for example,transformed the site from a crossroads without a single house in1854into a bustling town of nearly a thousand in1860, replete with hotels,lumberyards,grain elevators,and gristmills.By the Civil War(1861-1865),few thought of the railroad-linked Midwest as a frontier region or viewed its inhabitants as pioneers.④As the nation's first big business,the railroads transformed the conduct of business.During the early1830s,railroads,like canals, depended on financial aid from state governments.With the onset of economic depression in the late1830s,however,state governments scrapped overly ambitious railroad projects.Convinced that railroads burdened them with high taxes and blasted hopes,voters turnedagainst state aid,and in the early1840s,several states amended their constitutions to bar state funding for railroads and canals.The federal government took up some of the slack,but federal aid did not provide a major stimulus to railroads before1860.Rather,part of the burden of finance passed to city and county governments in agricultural areas that wanted to attract railroads.Such municipal governments,for example,often gave railroads rights-of-way,grants of land for stations, and public funds.⑤The dramatic expansion of the railroad network in the1850s, however,strained the financing capacity of local governments and required a turn toward private investment,which had never been absent from the picture.Well aware of the economic benefits of railroads,individuals living near them had long purchased railroad stock issued by governments and had directly bought stock in railroads, often paying by contributing their labor to building the railroads.But the large railroads of the1850s needed more capital than such small investors could generate.Gradually,the center of railroad financing shifted to New York City,and in fact,it was the railroad boom of the 1850s that helped make Wall Street in New York City the nation's greatest capital market.The stocks of all the leading railroads were traded on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange during the1850s. In addition,the growth of railroads turned New York City into thecenter of modern investment firms.The investment firms evaluated the stock of railroads in the smaller American cities and then found purchasers for these stocks in New York City,Philadelphia,Paris, London,Amsterdam,and Hamburg.Controlling the flow of funds to railroads,the investment bankers began to exert influence over the railroads'internal affairs by supervising administrative reorganizations in times of trouble.译文美国铁路①在美国，铁路超越了运河从前的重要性，成为运输革命第二阶段的先锋。
托福阅读tpo75R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识
托福阅读tpo75R-2原文+译文+题目+答案+背景知识原文 (1)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (17)原文The Palaces of Minoan Crete①The palaces built by the Minoan people of Crete(an island in the eastern Mediterranean)between1950B.C.and1450 B.C.were centers of power,both sacred and secular,with wealth based on the stores of agricultural produce from the fertile hinterland that they controlled.What happened within them?Presumably they were busy places.The receipt, recording,and storage of goods brought in from the surrounding countryside must have been a major job, particularly at those tunes of the year when the corn was harvested,the olive ripe,or the wine newly made. Administration of the goods and commodities leaving the storerooms for consumption in the palace,for use in theworkshops,or for wider distribution must have taken place throughout the year.We may imagine the storage areas as busy by day,and probably carefully guarded at night.②The craft workers creating precious works in such materials as gold,Ivory,and semiprecious stones may well have been fulltime craft specialists,totally dependent on the palaces and working constantly within them,their products in demand both tor immediate use and possibly foe exchange quite far afield.Their raw materials were part of palatial wealth,and must have been kept under strict control.Similarly bronze workers,whose raw material would have been carefully recorded,no doubt worked close by.Pottery workshops seem to have been further afield,situated near the clay beds and fuel for the kilns(pottery ovens)rather than within palace confines,though their products could still have been largely or totally under palace control.The production of textiles was probably always an important palace-based activity,though we do not know in which rooms,precisely,spinning and weaving took place.③Some revisionist interpretations of the palace of Knossos have questioned whether people lived within it to any great extent.We must face squarely the fact,implicit in the above account,that unequivocal evidence for human residence as opposed to human use,is hard to find.Nonetheless,it seems overwhelmingly probable that all the palaces were lived in by some,if not all,of the people engaged in the many activities for which they show evidence.Many nonspecific rooms could have been lived in by various dependents--craft workers, guards,textile workers,servants,or slaves.This remains true even if we follow those interpretations that would prefer "temple"to"palace"as the buildings'prime identification.④In fact,the choice of"temple"rather than“palace"is a change of emphasis rather than a change of interpretation. From the early twentieth-century work of archaeologist Arthur Evans onwards,the ingrained and embedded religious nature of the palaces has been accepted,as has the fact that "palace"is inadequate shorthand for the buildings' complexities.There are,though,good reasons not to change wholesale to"temple"which in truth is similarly inadequate.The most obvious problem with such a change is the fact that, while a society based on large palaces with no temples has always been recognized as anomalous in the ancient world, large-scale temples with no palaces would be equally so. Unless there is a truly huge gap in our excavated evidence possible,but as time goes on increasingly unlikely--these complex buildings are all we have.The most logical conclusion remains that they fulfilled two sets of functions simultaneously.Accurate terminology that did not privilege one function over another would require the coinage of a portmanteau term such as"palace-temple"or "temple-palace,"but this seems an undesirable deviation from terminology that is long established,whatever its shortcomings.⑤What,though,of the ruling elite,whether priests,kings,or both?Is there evidence that the palaces housed a royal family? The attempt to see royal apartments throws into high relief not only the difficulty of identifying precisely the function of a room from its form,but also the fact that we do not really know who,in Minoan society,held the reins of power.TheMinoan tradition indicates a king-yet power may have been wielded by a priest,or by a priest-king,combining functions that we would divide into sacred and secular.Nonetheless,it still seems overwhelmingly likely that the ruling elite lived in the palaces,or perhaps in both the palaces and the important houses in their immediate vicinity.译文克里特岛米洛斯的宫殿①克里特岛（位于东地中海的一个岛屿）上的米诺斯文明在公元前1950年至公元前1450年间建造的宫殿，既是宗教也是世俗权力的中心，其财富源自于他们控制的肥沃内陆地区所产出的农产品。
tpo53三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识
tpo53三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (16)背景知识 (18)阅读-2 (21)原文 (21)译文 (24)题目 (27)答案 (34)背景知识 (36)阅读-1原文Evidence of the Earliest Writing①Although literacy appeared independently in several parts of the prehistoric world,the earliest evidence of writing is the cuneiform Sumerian script on the clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia,which, archaeological detective work has revealed,had its origins in the accounting practices of commercial activity.Researchers demonstrated that preliterate people,to keep track of the goods they produced and exchanged,created a system of accounting using clay tokens as symbolic representations of their products.Over many thousands of years,the symbols evolved through several stages of abstraction until they became wedge-shaped(cuneiform)signs on clay tablets, recognizable as writing.②The original tokens(circa8500B.C.E.)were three-dimensional solid shapes—tiny spheres,cones,disks,and cylinders.A debt of six units of grain and eight head of livestock,for example might have been represented by six conical and eight cylindrical tokens.To keep batches of tokens together,an innovation was introduced(circa3250B.C.E.) whereby they were sealed inside clay envelopes that could be brokenopen and counted when it came time for a debt to be repaid.But because the contents of the envelopes could easily be forgotten, two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed.Eventually,having two sets of equivalent symbols—the internal tokens and external markings—came to seem redundant,so the tokens were eliminated(circa3250-3100B.C.E.),and only solid clay tablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained.Over time,the symbols became more numerous,varied,and abstract and came to represent more than trade commodities,evolving eventually into cuneiform writing.③The evolution of the symbolism is reflected in the archaeological record first of all by the increasing complexity of the tokens themselves. The earliest tokens,dating from about10,000to6,000years ago,were of only the simplest geometric shapes.But about3500B.C.E.,more complex tokens came into common usage,including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools,furniture,fruit,and humans.The earlier,plain tokens were counters for agricultural products,whereas the complex ones stood for finished products,such as bread,oil, perfume,wool,and rope,and for items produced in workshops,such as metal,bracelets,types of cloth,garments,mats,pieces of furniture, tools,and a variety of stone and pottery vessels.The signs marked onclay tablets likewise evolved from simple wedges,circles,ovals,and triangles based on the plain tokens to pictographs derived from the complex tokens.④Before this evidence came to light,the inventors of writing were assumed by researchers to have been an intellectual elite.Some,for example,hypothesized that writing emerged when members of the priestly caste agreed among themselves on written signs.But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing.⑤And not only of literacy,but numeracy(the representation of quantitative concepts)as well.The evidence of the tokens provides further confirmation that mathematics originated in people’s desire to keep records of flocks and other goods.Another immensely significant step occurred around3100 B.C.E.,when Sumerian accountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals. Previously,units of grain had been represented by direct one-to-one correspondence―by repeating the token or symbol for a unit of grain the required number of times.The accountants,however,devisednumeral signs distinct from commodity signs,so that eighteen units of grain could be indicated by preceding a single grain symbol with a symbol denoting“18.”Their invention of abstract numerals and abstract counting was one of the most revolutionary advances in the history of mathematics.⑥What was the social status of the anonymous accountants who produced this breakthrough?The immense volume of clay tablets unearthed in the ruins of the Sumerian temples where the accounts were kept suggests a social differentiation within the scribal class,with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing the monotonous job of tallying commodities.We can only speculate as to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribal hierarchy,but it stands to reason that this laborsaving innovation would have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery is eased.译文最早文字的证据①虽然读写能力是在史前世界的几个地方分别出现的，但书写的最早证据是古代美索不达米亚泥板上的苏美尔楔形文字，根据考古探查工作揭示，它起源于商业活动的会计实践。
tpo46三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案背景知识
tpo46三篇托福阅读TOEFL原文译文题目答案译文背景知识阅读-1 (2)原文 (2)译文 (5)题目 (8)答案 (15)背景知识 (16)阅读-2 (17)原文 (17)译文 (21)题目 (23)答案 (30)背景知识 (31)阅读-3 (34)原文 (34)译文 (38)题目 (40)答案 (48)背景知识 (49)阅读-1原文The Origins of Writing①It was in Egypt and Mesopotamia(modern-day Iraq)that civilization arose,and it is there that we find the earliest examples of that key feature of civilization,writing.These examples,in the form of inscribed clay tablets that date to shortly before3000B.C.E.,have been discovered among the archaeological remains of the Sumerians,a gifted people settled in southern Mesopotamia.②The Egyptians were not far behind in developing writing, but we cannot follow the history of their writing in detail because they used a perishable writing material.In ancient times the banks of the Nile were lined with papyrus plants, and from the papyrus reeds the Egyptians made a form of paper;it was excellent in quality but,like any paper,fragile. Mesopotamia’s rivers boasted no such useful reeds,but its land did provide good clay,and as a consequence the clay tablet became the standard material.Though clumsy and bulky it has a virtue dear to archaeologists:it is durable.Fire, for example,which is death to papyrus paper or otherwriting materials such as leather and wood,simply bakes it hard,thereby making it even more durable.So when a conqueror set a Mesopotamian palace ablaze,he helped ensure the survival of any clay tablets in it.Clay,moreover, is cheap,and forming it into tablets is easy,factors that helped the clay tablet become the preferred writing material not only throughout Mesopotamia but far outside it as well,in Syria,Asia Minor,Persia,and even for a while in Crete and Greece.Excavators have unearthed clay tablets in all these lands.In the Near East they remained in use for more than two and a half millennia,and in certain areas they lasted down to the beginning of the common era until finally yielding,once and for all,to more convenient alternatives.③The Sumerians perfected a style of writing suited to clay. This script consists of simple shapes,basically just wedge shapes and lines that could easily be incised in soft clay with a reed or wooden stylus;scholars have dubbed it cuneiform from the wedge-shaped marks(cunei in Latin)that are its hallmark.Although the ingredients are merely wedges and lines,there are hundreds of combinations of these basic forms that stand for different sounds or words.Learningthese complex signs required long training and much practice;inevitably,literacy was largely limited to a small professional class,the scribes.④The Akkadians conquered the Sumerians around the middle of the third millennium B.C.E.,and they took over the various cuneiform signs used for writing Sumerian and gave them sound and word values that fit their own language.The Babylonians and Assyrians did the same,and so did peoples in Syria and Asia Minor.The literature of the Sumerians was treasured throughout the Near East,and long after Sumerian ceased to be spoken,the Babylonians and Assyrians and others kept it alive as a literary language, the way Europeans kept Latin alive after the fall of Rome. For the scribes of these non-Sumerian languages,training was doubly demanding since they had to know the values of the various cuneiform signs for Sumerian as well as for their own language.⑤The contents of the earliest clay tablets are simple notations of numbers of commodities—animals,jars, baskets,etc.Writing,it would appear,started as a primitive form of bookkeeping.Its use soon widened to document the multitudinous things and acts that are involved in daily life,from simple inventories of commodities to complicated governmental rules and regulations.⑥Archaeologists frequently find clay tablets in batches.The batches,some of which contain thousands of tablets, consist for the most part of documents of the types just mentioned:bills,deliveries,receipts,inventories,loans, marriage contracts,divorce settlements,court judgments, and so on.These records of factual matters were kept in storage to be available for reference-they were,in effect, files,or,to use the term preferred by specialists in the ancient Near East,archives.Now and then these files include pieces of writing that are of a distinctly different order,writings that do not merely record some matter of fact but involve creative intellectual activity.They range from simple textbook material to literature-and they make an appearance very early,even from the third millennium B C E.译文文字的起源①文明就是在埃及和美索不达米亚（今天的伊拉克）兴起的，在那里我们找到了文明的关键特征——书写的最早例子。
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【TPO小站内部资料】 托福阅读真题背景汇总
托福阅读的关键是在于多看多练，同样一篇文章，如果熟悉其中背景，阅读起来就比较轻松，做题的速度和准确率也会提高不少。
下面，我将根据历年托福阅读真题，总结出一部分常见托福阅读背景，希望对大家有所帮助。
一、印第安题材
1.白令海峡移民理论
2.印第安文化
3.印第安宗教观
4.印第安建筑业：大、先进。
5.印第安手工业：好。
6.社会组织结构：严密、分工细、凝聚力强。
7.农业先进：A. irrigation; B. maize, squash, bean, pea。
二、动植物题材(必考)
1.植物学题材(一般纯植物学不多)
a. 地衣、苔 、真菌、蘑菇最常见。
b. 树冠上方生物。
c. 植物在生态平衡中的作用（或作为平衡生态系统的手段）。
2.动物学题材(90%以上)
a. 考普通动物为多。
最近常考鸟类、蚂蚁、动物智能与灭绝(联系天文学与冰河理论)。
b. 考动物进化(evolution)。
c. 考动物的分类(classification)。
phyla(单数phylum) —门 class—纲 order—目 family—科 genus—属 species—种 carnivore/predator—食肉动物 herbivore—食草动物 omnivore —杂食动物
d. 动物的生活习性最为多见。
1. 群居(social animal)动物的习性
a) 蚂蚁：社会组织结构—等级制(hierarchy)：交流方式—信息素—气味；生活来源；外来物种的有害性。
b) 蜜蜂：群居个性；圆舞（食物较近时）摇摆舞（waggle dance食物较远时）；蜜蜂智能；防御；天敌—大黄蜂。
c) 大猩猩：智能：猩际关系
2.迁徙 (migration)
野鸭、大雁：日照长短；辨别方向。
3. 伪装 (camouflage)、花拟态(mimicry )
三、考古学(archaeology)题材
1.文化(cultural) 考古学
形态(physical)考古学(多见)
2.化石(fossil)
a) 化石构成。
化石比原物更沉重 (矿物质环境)
b) 化石形成原因。
坚硬物质，迅速掩埋。
c) 化石与动物的进化关系。
3.人的左右手
a) 使用工具。
证据：敲击的划痕；手柄的形状。
b) 牙齿上的划痕。
c) 大脑左右半球的大小差别；趾骨的粗细差别。
d) 作画时人像的方向
4.古代陶瓷的考古
Clay, model, wheel (转盘 ), glaze, kiln
5.古代文字的考古
四、艺术（Art）题材
1.绘画（painting）
a）分类：雕刻（engrave）；岩洞艺术（cave art）；油画等。
b）材料：颜料（pigment）；蜡（wax）；画布（canvas）。
c）画法：透视法（perspective）。
2.陶器（pottery）
3.建筑（architecture）
a）要素：空间；质量（mass）；线条；纹理（texture）；光线；色彩。
b）风格：现实（realistic）；自然（naturalistic）；印象派（impressionist ic）
4.摄影（photography）
5.音乐（music）
五、美国历史题材
1.美国发展线索
a) 发现美洲阶段
哥伦布(意)，为黄金、茶叶、香料
West/East Indian
影响：世界观变化；国家形势变化；(爱尔兰——土豆饥荒 )
b) 英国定居阶段(English settlement )
1607第一个定居点Captain John S影响清教徒
1620五月花号
c) 殖民时期(colonial era)
d) 独立战争(American Revolution)
e) 新的国家(new nation) 南北不均衡
f) 南北战争(Civil War)
g) 战后重建。
持续近100年。
h) 西进运动 (Westward movement)人口迁移之类
i) 工业化大增长
j) world war I & II
End ：1960
2.“大熔炉”：地理位置；民族融合1960’s；文化融合。
3.邮政。
快递和铁路邮政
综上所述，托福阅读考试范围非常之广，对知识面要求相对较高，如果能够适当补充相关背景知识，那么在考场上做题时也不会特别慌张和头疼了。
同时，能够了解各方面的知识也是托福考试的魅力所在，在复习过程中大家还能丰富各学科知识，何乐而不为！。