法国君主专制统治的崛起【英文】
三次大征服中古世纪英语
Question 1
Before the Romans invaded the people of Britain were called?
A. Celts B. Gauls C. Vikings
The Anglo-Saxon Period 410 – 1066 A.D( Old English )
Conquest of the island in 1066.
Early History
Early Settlers 3 Conquests
Romans Anglo-Saxons Normans
5
Early England Created by
Three Invasions
1. Roman Occupation 55 B.C.-410 A.D.
Except in Ireland where they are in the majority, the Celts are an indigenous people of Europe with large numbers in the United Kingdom and France.
History Early Habitants
Romanizing Britain
28
What did Roman rule leave behind?
Many types of animals and plants were brought to Britain. Miles, feet and inches are Roman measurements. Christianity Reading and writing were also introduced by the Romans. Many words in English and Welsh have been borrowed from the Latin language. E.g. autumn, beautiful, continue, different....
君主制的发展 英文
Section 4
The English Monarchy
England was one of the first countries in Europe to develop a strong central monarchy. Under the Anglo-Saxons, who first unified the country, and then under the Normans, who conquered the AngloSaxons, the English kings exercised considerable power. Anglo-Saxon England
Strong King
• William stronger king than AngloSaxon rulers • Claimed all English land as personal property • Divided land into fiefs for his Norman soldiers; new nobility created, all owing loyalty to king
The Early Middle Ages
Section 4
The Growth of Monarchies
Preview
• Main Idea / Reading Focus • The English Monarchy
• Faces of History: Eleanor of Aquitaine
• Alfred’s descendants ruled England for most of next two centuries • 1066, king died without heir; two men claimed throne: Harold, AngloSaxon nobleman from England; William, duke of Normandy in France • Supported by English nobility, Harold named liam decided to take crown by force; gathered army, sailed for England where Harold met him • Two armies fought in Battle of Hastings; William won • Became King William I of England, known as William the Conqueror
EnglishBourgeoisieRevolution
two camps
the Royalists 保皇人士） （保皇人士）: big landlords and the monopolists（ monopolists（垄断 者）.
the Parliamentary party（议会党团）: （议会党团） merchants, artisans（工匠）, （工匠） apprentices and peasants
"Glorious Revolution“（光荣革命） • The bourgeoisie （资产阶级）expelled him and invited William, Prince of Orange(奥兰治世家), from Holland, to be King of England, in 1688 . • "Glorious Revolution“（光荣革命）----it was bloodless and there was no revival of the revolutionary demands.（封建复辟没有得逞.） • Result:The state structure of England was settled, within which capitalism could develop freely.
杨艳 魏滨滨 李晓静 李文秀
Monarchy君主制 君主制 Bourgeoisie资产阶级 资产阶级 King Parliament monopoly垄断 垄断 Glorious Revolution光荣革 光荣革 命 restoration复辟 复辟
Background The process of English
After the death of Cromwell, the Parliament recalled Charles Ⅱ to England in 1660 . the Restoration(复辟) period
法国的大革命与拿破仑帝国
法国的大革命与拿破仑帝国在法国历史上，法国的大革命和拿破仑帝国是两个重要的时期，对法国和整个欧洲产生了深远的影响。
本文将重点探讨这两个时期的背景、原因、影响和意义。
一、背景法国大革命爆发于1789年，当时法国是一个专制的君主制国家，社会矛盾尖锐，民众普遍贫困，贵族和教会享有特权。
法国各阶层对现状不满，民众渴望改革，政治、经济和社会压力不断上升，成为了大革命爆发的导火索。
拿破仑帝国则起源于法国大革命后的动荡时期。
1799年，拿破仑·波拿巴（Napoleon Bonaparte）通过政变夺取了政权，开始统治法国。
此后，他推行了一系列重要政策和改革，并将军事力量扩张到整个欧洲，形成了强大的拿破仑帝国。
二、法国大革命1. 原因法国大革命的爆发主要源于以下原因：（1）经济危机：法国面临着沉重的财政赤字，国家负担沉重，国家债务危机导致了国家经济的崩溃。
（2）不平等：当时的法国社会存在严重的阶级和贫富差距，三权分立的政治体制使得统治者无法提供有效的解决办法。
（3）启蒙思想的影响：欧洲启蒙思想的传播促使了法国人民追求平等、自由和民主。
2. 进程大革命的进程可以分为三个阶段：废除特权、立宪国民议会时期和恐怖统治时期。
（1）废除特权：1789年，攻占巴士底狱的事件成为了大革命的开端，大革命旗帜上的三大口号——自由、平等、博爱——开始传播。
国民议会成立，特权阶级的特权被剥夺。
（2）立宪国民议会时期：1791年，法国颁布了第一部宪法，建立了君主立宪制。
并进行了一系列政治、经济和社会改革。
（3）恐怖统治时期：1793年至1794年，法国经历了恐怖统治时期，数千人被处死，包括路易十六国王。
这一时期结束于罗伯斯庇尔政变，罗伯斯庇尔政权开始实行温和政策。
3. 影响与意义法国大革命对法国和世界产生了重大影响，并带来了以下意义：（1）思想启示：法国大革命激发了人们对于平等、自由和民主的追求，推动了后来的民主运动。
（2）社会变革：大革命结束了封建制度，废除了特权阶级的特权，实现了社会的初步平等。
法国革命时期英语作文
法国革命时期英语作文英文回答：The French Revolution was a watershed moment in world history, and its effects are still felt today. Therevolution began in 1789 with the Storming of the Bastille and ended in 1799 with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. During this time, France underwent a profound transformation, from an absolute monarchy to a republic and then to an empire. The revolution was a complex event with many causes, including:Economic inequality: The French economy was in a state of crisis in the late 18th century. The gap between therich and the poor was growing wider, and the peasantry was suffering from high taxes and food shortages.Political inequality: The French government was an absolute monarchy, meaning that the king had absolute power. The people had no say in how they were governed, and theywere subject to arbitrary laws and punishments.Intellectual ferment: The Enlightenment had led to a new spirit of rationalism and individualism. People began to question the traditional authority of the monarchy and the Church.The French Revolution was a violent and tumultuous event. The monarchy was overthrown, and the king and queen were executed. Thousands of people were killed in the Reign of Terror. However, the revolution also brought about many positive changes. It led to the establishment of a republic and the adoption of a new constitution that guaranteed basic rights to all citizens. The revolution also inspired other revolutions around the world, and it helped to spread the ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.中文回答：法国大革命。
The coming of French Revolution(法国大革命的到来)
The coming of French RevolutionThe ultimate cause of the French Revolution of 1789 goes deep into the history of France and of the western world. At the end of the eighteenth century, the social structure of France was aristocratic. It showed the traces of having originated at a time when land was almost the only form of wealth, and when the possessors of land were the masters of those who needed it to work and to live. It is true that in the course of their revolt in the seventeenth century, the king had been able gradually to deprive the lords of their political power and subject nobles and clergy to his authority. But he had left them the first place in the social hierarchy.Meanwhile the growth of commerce and industry had created, step by step, a new form of wealth, mobile or commercial wealth, and a new class, called in France the bourgeoisie, which since the fourteenth century had taken its place as the Third Estate in the General Estates of the kingdom. This class had grown much stronger with the maritime discoveries of the fifteenth and sisteenth centuries and the ensuing exploitation of new worlds, and also because it proved highly useful to the monarchical state in supplying it with money and competent officials. In the eighteenth century commerce, industry and finance occupied an increasingly important place in the national economy. It was the bourgeoisie that rescued the royal treasury in moments of crisis. From its ranks were recruited most members of the liberal professions and most public employees. It had developed a new ideology which the “philosophers”and “economists”of the time had simply put into definite form. The role of the nobility had correspondingly declined; and the clergy, as the ideal which it proclaimed lost prestige, found its authority growing weaker. These groups preserved the highest rank in the legal structure of the country, but in reality economic power, personal abilities and confidence in the future had passed largely to the bourgeoisie. Such a discrepancy never lasts forever. The revolution of 1789 restored the harmony between fact and law. This transformation spread in the nineteenth century throughout the west and then to the first whole globe, and in this sense the ideas of 1789 toured the world.But this deeper cause of the French Revolution does not explain all its distinctive features. In England, though there have been political revolutions, social evolution has gone on in relative calm. The French Revolution was realized by violence. On the continent, in the nineteenth century, the transformation was first precipitated by the Napoleonic armies, and thereafter carried through more by governments than by the peoples themselves. In France the Third Estate liberated itself. Hence the older aristocracy long preserved more wealth and influence in other countries than in France. These special features of the Revolution in France arose from its immediate causes, and especially from the collapse of the central power which in other countries was able to keep events under control.There would have been no French Revolution-such as actually took place-if the king, “handing in his resignation,”had not convoked the Estates-General. The immediate cause lay in a government emergency for which Louis XVI could find no other solution. But the Third Estate was by no means the first to profit from the emergency, contrary to the general opinion, taken over from the Revolutionists themselves, who declared adnauseam that “the people rose up and overthrew despotism and aristocracy.” No doubt it did end that way. But the people were not the original motive force. The bourgeoisie, having no legal means of expression, was in no position to force the king to appeal to the nation. Still less were the peasants and working classes. The privileged groups did have the necessary means: the clergy in its Assembly, the nobility in the parliaments and provincial Estates. It is these bodies that forced the king’s hand. “the patriciansbegan the revolution,”wrote Chateaubriand; “the plebeians finished it.”The first act of the revolution, in 1788, consisted in a triumph of aristocracy, which, taking advantage of the government crisis, hoped to reassert itself and win back the political authority of which the Capetian dynasty had despoiled it. But, after having paralyzed the royal power which upheld its own social preeminence, the aristocracy opened the way to the bourgeois revolution, then to the popular revolution in the cities and finally to the revolution of the peasants-and found itself buried under the ruins of the old regime.疑难词汇1、Aristocratic:贵族的，贵族化的，贵族政治的2、Clergy:圣职者，牧师，僧侣，神职人员3、Hierarchy:统治集团，等级制度，特权阶级4、Bourgeoisie:资产阶级5、Exploitation:开发、开采、剥削，自私的利用，宣传，广告6、Recruit:使恢复，补充，征募新兵，新兵，新会员7、Discrepancy:相差，差异，矛盾8、Precipitate:猛抛，使陷入，促成，使沉淀9、Convoke:召集10、adnauseam:令人作呕地，讨厌地11、plebeian:平民、庶民12、despoil：夺取，掠夺13、preeminence:卓越14、capetain:波旁王朝。
法国政体演变过程
法国政体演变过程法兰西王国（843年—1791年）〔君主专制（大革命前)〕君主立宪制(1791年—1792.8）〕→法兰西第一共和国(1792年9月—1804年)→法兰西第一帝国（1804年—1815年）→波旁王朝复辟（1815年—1830年）→七月王朝(1830年—1848年）→法兰西第二共和国（1848年—1852年）→法兰西第二帝国(1852—1870年）→法兰西第三共和国（1870年-1940年）→维希政权(1940年-1945年）→临时政府（1945年—1946年）→法兰西第四共和国（1946年—1958年）→法兰西第五共和国（1958年—现在)。
①1789年法国大革命前的法兰西王国实行的是波旁王朝的封建君主专制政体。
在路易十四时期（1643-1661—1715年在位），法国王权空前强化，“太阳王"实行“朕即国家"的中央集权的绝对君主专制统治，此时是法国封建专制君主制的鼎盛时期；路易十五时期，法国的财政危机日益严重,封建制度开始解体,法国日益衰落；路易十六时期，法国专制制度已到了腐败透顶的程度，社会矛盾十分尖锐,人民反抗情绪与日俱增，革命一触即发。
②1789年大革命后大资产阶级当权，保留国王同时建立起资产阶级的君主立宪政体。
三级会议转变为制宪议会，取代王室成为法国的最高权力机关，为改造旧制度，创立资本主义社会的基本原则作出了重大贡献。
8月颁布著名的《人权宣言》，明确宣告了“主权在民”、“天赋人权”、“权力分立”和“法律面前一律平等”等资产阶级民主法治原则，实际上宣告了旧封建王权的的灭亡和一种全新的资产阶级的社会制度诞生，1791年的法国宪法就是以《人权宣言》作为序言的。
1791年制宪议会颁布了法国也是欧洲大陆历史上的第一部资产阶级成文宪法——《1791年宪法》，规定法国为君主立宪制国家，实行三权分立原则.③1792年巴黎人民发动第二次起义，普选产生的国民大会宣布废除王权，建立了法兰西第一共和国，开始建立民主共和政体。
法国历史英文作文
法国历史英文作文英文：When it comes to French history, there are so many interesting and important events that have taken place over the centuries. One of the most significant periods was the French Revolution, which began in 1789 and lasted for ten years. During this time, the people of France rose up against the monarchy and demanded more rights and freedoms.Another important event in French history was the Napoleonic era, which followed the Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte was a military leader who rose to power and became the Emperor of France. He led the country in a series of wars, expanding the French Empire and making it one of the most powerful nations in Europe.Of course, there are many other important events in French history as well, such as the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XVI, the Hundred Years' War, and the World Wars. Eachof these events played a significant role in shaping France into the country it is today.中文：谈到法国历史，有很多有趣而重要的事件发生在几个世纪里。
2012.4(第2部分)阅读理解(2)必考一篇(翻译版)
第二部分阅读理解(2)（2012年4月网考）全翻译版以下18篇阅读理解考试中必考一篇，出现在考试中阅读部分的第二部分，小抄或硬背，必须掌握，原题出现，答案位置不变，15分不可以丢。
建议多看短文的中文意思，然后记下选项答案。
Passage 1The French Revolution broke out in 1789. At the time France was in a crisis. The government was badly runand people’s lives were miserable. King Louis XIV tried to control the national parliament and raise more taxes.But his effort failed. He ordered his troops to Versailles. The people thought that Louis intended to put down the Revolution by force. On July 14,1789, they stormed and took the Bastille, where political prisoners were kept. Ever since that day, July 14 has been the French National Day. Louis tried to flee the country in 1792 to get support from Austria and Prussia. However, he was caught and put in prison. In September 1792, the monarchywas abolished. In the same year, Louis was executed. A few months later his wife, Marie also had her head cut off.The Revolution of France had frightened the other kings of Europe. Armies from Austria and Prussia began to march against France. The French raised republican armies to defend the nation. The Revolution went through a period of terror. Thousands of people lost their lives. In the end, power passed to Napoleon Bonaparte. (190 words)法国大革命于1789年爆发。
以君主专制不断加强的历史小作文
以君主专制不断加强的历史小作文英文回答：Throughout history, the power of monarchs has continuously strengthened, leading to a rise in authoritarian rule. This trend can be observed in various countries and regions around the world. One example is the absolute monarchy in France during the reign of Louis XIV.During the reign of Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, the power of the French monarchy reached its peak. Louis XIV centralized power in his own hands and established a system of absolute rule. He believed in the divine right of kings, which meant that he believed he had been chosen by God to rule and that his power was absolute and unquestionable.Under Louis XIV's rule, the French monarchy became increasingly centralized and authoritarian. He appointed intendants, who were responsible for enforcing his policiesand maintaining control over the provinces. This allowedhim to exert his authority and ensure obedience throughout the kingdom.Louis XIV also strengthened his control over the nobility. He required the nobles to live at his palace in Versailles, where he could keep a close eye on them and prevent any potential rebellions. By doing so, heeffectively neutralized any potential threats to his power and solidified his position as the absolute ruler of France.Another example of the strengthening of monarchialpower can be seen in the history of Imperial China. The emperors of China, particularly during the Ming and Qing dynasties, held absolute power and ruled with an iron fist.During the Ming Dynasty, the emperor was considered the Son of Heaven and was believed to have a divine mandate to rule. This belief in the emperor's absolute authority was reinforced by the strict hierarchical system and the emphasis on filial piety and obedience to authority.The emperors of the Qing Dynasty further consolidated their power through a series of reforms and policies. They implemented a system of centralized bureaucracy and established the Eight Banners, a military andadministrative organization that ensured their control over the vast empire.In addition to these examples, there are numerous other instances in history where the power of monarchs has been strengthened. From the pharaohs of ancient Egypt to the tsars of Russia, monarchs have used various means to consolidate their power and establish authoritarian rule.中文回答：历史上，君主的权力不断加强，导致了专制统治的崛起。
法国历史(英文版)
Empire of Napoleon[拿破仑帝国]（拿破仑） the Restoration of Louis XVIII[路易十八世时期] the reign of Louis-Philippe[路易-菲利普朝代] the Second Empire of Napoleon III[拿破仑三
随后，第五共和国开始，戴高乐在 1958 年 6 月出任总理， 那年12 月当选总统。
HISTORY
Succeeding Charles de Gaulle as president of France have been（在戴高乐之后的法国总统接班人）
Gaullist Georges Pompidou (1969-74)
在佛朗哥—普鲁士战役后，第三帝国建立，并且一直延续到 1940年的军事战败后。
HISTORY
France was defeated early in World War II, however, and was occupied in June 1940.
在二次世界大战中法国很早就被 击败了，并在1940年6月被占领。
historysucceedingcharlesdegaullefrancehavebeen在戴高乐之后的法国总统接班人gaullistgeorgespompidou196974戴高乐主义者乔治让蓬皮杜independentrepublicanvalerygiscardd?estaing197481独立共和党总统德斯坦socialistfrancoismitterrand198195社会主义者弗朗索瓦密特朗neogaullistjacqueschirac19952007新戴高乐主义者雅克希拉克centerrightnicolassarkozy2007present中间偏右尼古拉historynapolonbonaparte拿破仑波拿巴napoleonbonaparteaugust151769letiziabonaparte
西班牙和法国的帝国崛起【英文】
1520 Aztec Rebellion: Aztec regain capital only to lose it again in 1521 to Cortés.
New Spain Expands
After destroying Tenochtitlán, Cortés ordered a new city, named Mexico, to be built in its place. It became the capital of the Spanish colony of New Spain. Cortés sent other expeditions into what is present-day Mexico and Central America. The people who led the expeditions became known as conquistadors, or “conquerors.” One conquistador, Francisco Pizarro, explored Peru and conquered the Inca emgy
法国历史英文作文
法国历史英文作文France has a long and rich history, filled with wars, revolutions, and cultural achievements. The country has been home to some of the world's most famous leaders, artists, and thinkers.The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a turning point in the country's history. It led to the end of the monarchy and the rise of the First Republic. The revolution also brought about significant social and political changes, and its impact is still felt today.Napoleon Bonaparte, a military leader who rose to power during the French Revolution, had a major impact on France and the rest of Europe. He expanded the French Empire and implemented a series of legal and administrative reforms known as the Napoleonic Code.France played a key role in both World War I and World War II. The country suffered heavy casualties in bothconflicts, and the wars had a profound impact on French society and politics.In addition to its political and military history, France has also made significant contributions to art, literature, and philosophy. The country has been home to famous writers such as Victor Hugo and Marcel Proust, as well as artists like Claude Monet and Paul Cézanne.Today, France is known for its rich cultural heritage, beautiful landscapes, and delicious cuisine. The country continues to be a major player on the world stage, and its history and traditions are an important part of its identity.。
The French Revolution
The profound intellectual and cultural shift known as the Enlightenment（启蒙运动）
The Enlightenment
With the development of capitalism, the emerging bourgeoisie had an increasingly strong desire to get rid of the feudal autocracy（封建专制）and the oppression of the church, thus setting off a vigorous ideological liberation movement, known as the Enlightenment in history.
Why did the French Revolution happen?
01 Background
02
Direct Cause
Background
01 Class Factor
Resentment among the bourgeoisie（资产阶级） The ancient regime（制度） of three rigid social classes called Estates: • the monarch: King Louis XVI — divine right（君权神授） • the First Estate: the Catholic clergy • the Second Estate: the nobles • the Third Estate: merchants, craftsmen, over 20 million peasants
法国大革命英文翻译
French RevolutionThe French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of radical social and political upheaval in French and European history. The absolute monarchy that had ruled France for centuries collapsed in three years. French society underwent an epic transformation as feudal, aristocratic and religious privileges evaporated under a sustained assault from liberal political groups and the masses on the streets. Old ideas about hierarchy and tradition succumbed to new Enlightenment principles of citizenship and inalienable rights.The French Revolution began in 1789 with the convocation of the Estates-General in May. The first year of the Revolution witnessed members of the Third Estate proclaiming the Tennis Court Oath in June, the assault on the Bastille in July, the passage of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in August, and an epic march on V ersailles that forced the royal court back to Paris in October. The next few years were dominated by tensions between various liberal assemblies and a conservative monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms. A republic was proclaimed in September 1792 and King Louis XVI was executed the next year. External threats also played a dominant role in the development of the Revolution. The French Revolutionary Wars started in 1792 and ultimately featured spectacular French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian peninsula, the Low Countries and most territories west of the Rhine—achievements that had defied previous French governments for centuries. Internally, popular sentiments radicalized the Revolution significantly, culminating in the Reign of Terror from 1793 until 1794 during which between 16,000 and 40,000 people were killed.After the fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins, the Directory assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799, when it was replaced by the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte.The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French Revolution. The growth of republics and liberal democracies, the spread of secularism, the development of modern ideologies and the invention of total war[citation needed] all mark their birth during the Revolution. Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, two separate restorations of the monarchy and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. In the following century, France would be governed at one point or another as a republic, constitutional monarchy and two different empires.CausesAdherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the Ancien Régime as being among the causes of the Revolution. Economic factors included hunger and malnutrition in the most destitute segments of the population, due to rising bread prices (from a normal eight sous for a four-pound loaf to 12 sous by the end of 1789),,after several years of poor grain harvests. The combination of bad harvests (due to abnormal/severe weather fluctuations) and rising food prices was further aggravated by an inadequate transportation system which hindered the shipment of bulk foods from rural areas to large population centers, contributing greatly to the destabilization of French society in the years leading up to the Revolution.Another cause may have been France's near bankruptcy as a result of the many wars foughtby previous rulers, as well as the financial strain caused by French participation in the American Revolutionary War. The national debt amounted to almost 2 billion livres. The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the loss of France's colonial possessions in North America and the growing commercial dominance of Great Britain. France's inefficient and antiquated financial system was unable to manage the national debt, something which was both partially caused and exacerbated by the burden of an inadequate system of taxation. To obtain new money to head off default on the government's loans, the king called an Assembly of Notables in 1787.Meanwhile the royal court at V ersailles was perceived by many as being isolated from, and indifferent to the hardships of the lower classes. While in theory King Louis XVI was an absolute monarch, in practice he was often indecisive and known to back down when faced with strong opposition. While he did reduce government expenditures, opponents in the parlements successfully thwarted his attempts at enacting much needed reforms. Those who were opposed to Louis' policies further undermined royal authority by distributing pamphlets (often reporting false or exaggerated information) that criticized the government and its officials, stirring up public opinion against the monarchy.Many other factors involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals. These included resentment of royal absolutism; resentment by peasants, laborers and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by the nobility; resentment of the Church's influence over public policy and institutions; aspirations for freedom of religion; resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy; aspirations for social, political and economic equality, and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism; hatred of Queen Marie-Antoinette, who was (falsely) accused of being a spendthrift and an Austrian spy; and anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker, among others, who were popularly seen as representatives of the people.Pre-revolutionFinancial crisisLouis XVI ascended to the throne amidst a financial crisis; the nation was nearing bankruptcy and outlays outpaced income. This was because of France’s financial obligations stemming from involvement in the Seven Y ears War and its participation in the American Revolutionary War. In May 1776, finance minister Turgot was dismissed, after he failed to enact much needed reforms. The next year, Jacques Necker, a foreigner, was appointed Comptroller-General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant. Necker realized that the country's tax system, which was perceived as quite regressive, subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden; while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy. He argued that the country could not be taxed higher, that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced, and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country's fiscal shortages. Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million livres, and proposed restricting the power of the parlements. This was not received well by the King's ministers and Necker, hoping to bolster his position, argued to be made a minister. The Kingrefused, Necker was fired, and Charles Alexandre de Calonne was appointed to the Comptrollership. Calonne initially spent liberally, but he quickly realized the critical financial situation and proposed a new tax code. The proposal included a consistent land tax, which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the Assembly of Notables. But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of the Estates-General, for May 1789, the first time the body had been summoned since 1614. This was a signal that the Bourbon monarchy was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people.Estates-General of 1789The Estates-General was organized into three estates, respectively: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. On the last occasion that the Estates-General had met, in 1614, each estate held one vote, and any two could override the third. The Parlement of Paris feared the government would attempt to gerrymander an assembly to rig the results. Thus, they required that the Estates be arranged as in 1614. The 1614 rules differed from practices of local assemblies, wherein each member had one vote and third estate membership was doubled. For instance, in the province of Dauphinéthe provincial assembly agreed to double the number of members of the third estate, hold membership elections, and allow one vote per member, rather than one vote per estate. The "Committee of Thirty," a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against voting by estate. This group, largely composed of the wealthy, argued for the Estates-General to assume the voting mechanisms of Dauphiné. They argued that ancient precedent was not sufficient, because "the people were sovereign." Necker convened a Second Assembly of the Notables, which rejected the notion of double representation by a vote of 111 to 333. The King, however, agreed to the proposition on 27 December; but he left discussion of the weight of each vote to the Estates-General itself.National Assembly (1789)On 10 June 1789 AbbéSieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People." They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor real tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreednot to separate until they had given France a constitution. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June, the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and V ersailles. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities.Storming of the BastilleBy this time, Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his overt manipulation of public opinion. Marie Antoinette, the King's younger brother the Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the King's privy council urged him to dismiss Necker as financial advisor. On 11 July 1789, after Necker published an inaccurate account of the government's debts and made it available to the public, the King fired him, and completely restructured the finance ministry at the same time.Many Parisians presumed Louis's actions to be the start of a royal action against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving soldiers—mostly foreign mercenaries—had been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly. The Assembly, meeting at V ersailles, went into nonstop session to prevent eviction from their meeting place once again. Paris was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of some of the French Guard, who were armed and trained soldiers.On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a cease fire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city. Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Régime. Returning to the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery and he was butchered by the mob.The King, alarmed by the violence, backed down, at least for the time being. La Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath, became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a tricolore cockade, to cries of V ive la Nation "Long live the Nation" and Vive le Roi "Long live the King". Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour. He also felt he could save France all by himself, despite having few new ideas.As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country, the nobility began to leave France as émigrés, some of whom started plotting civil war and agitating for a European alliance against the Revolution.By late July, the spirit of popular sovereignty had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion: someattacked the châteaux of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). In addition, wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.。
法国大革命__英文资料
第五节法国大革命和法兰西第一帝国一、专有名词自由、平等、博爱liberty, Equality, Fraternity第三等级the Estate-General路易十六Louis XVI国民议会National Assembly制宪议会Constituent Assembly巴士底监狱the Bastille法国大革命French Revolution《人权宣言》Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen雅各宾派the Jacobins罗伯斯庇尔Maximilien de Robespierre热月政变Thermidorian Reaction督政府Directory Government雾月政变Coup d’Etat of Brumaire拿破仑Napolenon Bonaparte执政府the Consulate法兰西第一帝国the First French Empire《拿破仑法典》the Code Napoleon滑铁卢战役Battle of Waterloo二、图片及解释The Taking of the Bastille攻占巴士底狱Demolition of the Bastille, with a gleeful tiers état figure漫画：巴士底狱的遗址For the first time, the will of the people appeared to be an irresistible force. Many observers considered that this event had a profound symbolic significance and most of the prints sought to communicate this idea and celebrate a new political consciousness.大意：在法国，民众的意愿第一次成为一股不可遏制的力量。
法国大革命__英文资料
第五节法国大革命和法兰西第一帝国一、专有名词自由、平等、博爱liberty, Equality, Fraternity第三等级the Estate-General路易十六Louis XVI国民议会National Assembly制宪议会Constituent Assembly巴士底监狱the Bastille法国大革命French Revolution《人权宣言》Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen雅各宾派the Jacobins罗伯斯庇尔Maximilien de Robespierre热月政变Thermidorian Reaction督政府Directory Government雾月政变Coup d’Etat of Brumaire拿破仑Napolenon Bonaparte执政府the Consulate法兰西第一帝国the First French Empire《拿破仑法典》the Code Napoleon滑铁卢战役Battle of Waterloo二、图片及解释The Taking of the Bastille攻占巴士底狱Demolition of the Bastille, with a gleeful tiers état figure漫画：巴士底狱的遗址For the first time, the will of the people appeared to be an irresistible force. Many observers considered that this event had a profound symbolic significance and most of the prints sought to communicate this idea and celebrate a new political consciousness.大意：在法国，民众的意愿第一次成为一股不可遏制的力量。
拿破仑的英文简介
拿破仑的英文简介拿破仑，十九世纪法国伟大的军事家、政治家，法兰西第一帝国的缔造者。
历任法兰西第一共和国第一执政，法兰西第一帝国皇帝。
下面是店铺给大家整理的拿破仑的英文简介，供大家参阅!拿破仑简介Napoléon Bonaparte / Italian: Napoleone Buonaparte, August 15, 1769 - May 5, 1821), Napoléon I, born in Corsica, nineteenth century France's great military strategist, politician, founder of the first empire of France. Served as the first ruling of the first republic of France (1799-1984), the first emperor of France (1804 - 1815).Napoleon on November 6, 1804 crowned emperor, the Republic into the empire. During the reign of the "French emperor", is also the history of Charles III after the second to enjoy the name of the French emperor.He has enacted the "Napoleonic Code", which has perfected the world legal system and laid the social order of the Western capitalist countries. Foreign forces led by the United States, the United States, Russia and other countries of the anti-French alliance, to win more than 50 field of large-scale campaign, a heavy blow to the European countries feudal system, to defend the results of the French Revolution. During his reign in France, he extended to the Napoleonic Wars, became the Protector of the King of Italy, the Protector of the Rhine Confederation, the Swiss Federal Arbitrator, the French Empire Colonial (including the French colonies, the Dutch colonies, the Spanish colonies, etc.). In the most glorious period, Europe, except the United Kingdom, the rest of the country to Napoleon surrender or alliance. Formed a huge Napoleonic empire system, creating aseries of military and political miracles and short glorious achievements.Napoleon abdicated in 1814 and then exiled to Elba Island. After the establishment of the 100th dynasty in 1815 again after the defeat of Waterloo was exiled. May 5, 1821, Napoleon died in St. Helena Island. In 1840, his coffin was greeted in Paris, France, a grand buried in the French banks of the Seine River in Paris (the old hospital in Paris disabled).拿破仑为政举措politicalLaunched a coup, seized power, achieved a centralized monarchy, developed capitalism, protected the bourgeoisie.Napoleon was a well-deserved bourgeois revolutionist. He repeatedly repulsed anti-French coalition invasion and repression of reactionary rebellions at home and abroad, protected the results of the French Revolution, overthrew the old autocratic regime.Napoleon defended the results of the French Revolution during the Great Revolution and protected the vested interests of the bourgeois revolution in the French republic. Making the 1815 French monarch despotic finally restored when the people were opposed. Napoleon's ruling measures not only had a far-reaching impact in France, but also affected his conquest. Napoleon through the campaign, the French bourgeois revolution victory fruit spread to varying degrees to the French wherever he went. The social impact of the French bourgeois revolution has become an overwhelming force in the developing countries of Western capitalism. Napoleon made an important contribution in laying the bourgeois political system and promoting the development of capitalism. Napoleon'sdominance is a concentrated expression of the French bourgeois nature, and his domestic and foreign policies represent the interests of the bourgeoisie and protect the capitalist economic base.Napoleon also has a huge indirect impact on the history of Latin America. His invasion of Spain weakened the strength of the local government, so that it will not control its colonies in Latin America in the next few years. Based on the current actual period of autonomy, the independent movement of Latin America began.In addition, Napoleon was the first to put forward the idea of the United States of Europa, and tried to achieve through the force of people. Although he did not succeed in achieving this dream, but the twenty-first century, Europe is moving towards the goal of integration.Economy1. Economic liberalism and state interventionThe liberalization of agriculture and trade (in the late imperial intervention in the state), the government can take a series of measures as needed. Set up a series of economic associations to guide the supervision of economic activities. 1801 set up the "National Economic Association", 1803 set up manufacturing associations, set up in 1810 "factory workshop management committee", set up in 1811 Ministry of Industry and Commerce. Restoration of industrial exhibitions to encourage the development of animal husbandry, breeding horses, cattle and other livestock, to encourage the cultivation of potatoes, beets, cotton.The economy becomes a political subsidiary, and all economic activities are subject to political needs.2. Establish a bank to rectify the financial systemIn 1998, fiscal reform was carried out to raise taxes such as land tax and real estate tax. In 1800 founded the French bank, unified currency, to encourage the development of capitalist industry and commerce. This series of initiatives is conducive to the stability of the military and the development of capitalism.3. Tariff Protection and "Mainland Economic Blockade" PolicyNapoleon's "continental economic blockade" policy was detrimental to the subsequent development of the European continent, but when capitalism was taking root in Western countries, the continental economic blockade protected the early development of capitalism. Napoleon is the representative of the French big bourgeoisie, he used the "mainland economic blockade" policy to protect the French bourgeoisie dominance.4. Industrial Rise and Reward PolicyAt the beginning of the 19th century, France opened the prelude to the industrial revolution. Napoleon has always been the attitude of the industrial revolution. At that time the French cotton textile industry was the rise of the purchase of a large number of British Jenny machine, production increased by four times.LawIn 1804 promulgated the "Napoleonic Code" (the "Civil Code"), issued in 1807, "Commercial Code", issued in 1810, "Criminal Code", these statutes became the modern capitalist legal system of legal norms."Napoleon Code" was originally known as the "Civil Code of the Republic of France", is a typical bourgeois civil code, divided into three, 35 chapters, 2281, the Code was introduced in 1804, most of the terms Napoleon personally involved in thediscussion, , Napoleon had attended more than 90 times at the 100 meetings of the Civil Code, and the Napoleonic Code was no longer simply a legal work, but a distinctive era and political color , Because of Napoleon made outstanding contributions, "French Civil Code" is also known as "Napoleon Code"."Napoleon Code" includes criminal law, criminal procedure law, civil law, civil procedure law, constitution, commercial law, the establishment of a relatively complete legal system, constitute the Napoleonic era and even for a long time in the French six law system. The enactment of these statutes has greatly contributed to the legal norms of French legal society at that time and for a long time to come. "Napoleon Code" also includes property rights, claims, marriage, inheritance, and many people still use the concept of civil law, is the first to the basic principles, the essence of integrity to modern civil society."Napoleon Code", in the law to protect the newly established small land tenure. Which ensured the sacred inviolability of the ownership of private property, established the commodity trade and the order of value under the market economy, and further disseminated the fruits of the French bourgeois revolution and maintained the basic human rights of the French ordinary people. It is because of this, many people think that "Napoleon Code" is an important symbol and product of the end of the French revolution, the basic human rights in the Declaration of Human Rights on property rights and reputation.The Napoleonic Code was practiced in the territory occupied by the Napoleonic Army, so it was widely circulated in history, and all the laws of the European capitalist countries almost all borrowed the code, which regulated the social order of the Western capitalist countries, The interests of the bourgeoisie,embodies the principles of the French Revolution, the essence, When Napoleon was defeated and exiled to St. Helena, he said, "I am truly glorious, not the forty victories (more than fifty times), and the Waterloo war has wiped out all about it All the memory, but one thing is not forgotten by people, it will be immortal - that is my "French Civil Code."Science and educationDuring the First Empire of France, the retention of the national education system was established, the establishment of public schools and the University of France to cultivate talents to encourage the rise of scientific research and technology education.In December 1797, from the Italian triumph of Napoleon was awarded the title of the Academy of France academician. Napoleon expedition to Egypt also set up the Egyptian Academy of Sciences, the appointment of dean as dean, since the vice president, and often the Academy of Sciences gathered to discuss the issue. The expedition opened the scientific research of ancient Egyptian civilization, many precious cultural relics, minerals and flora and fauna were shipped to France, the famous Rosetta stone is found in the expedition.Napoleon is extremely concerned about the cause of science and culture. After taking office, he regularly attended the meeting of the Institute, invited the academicians to report on scientific progress, many awards awarded to scientists, including Volt, David and other foreign scientists. In the early days of his administration, he divided the two sides into the foundation and application of the Polytechnic, Artillery, Road and Bridge and other colleges and universities (the "university"). Paris Polytechnic was originally born in the Republican system,Napoleon coronation of the emperor, in the second day of the parade, will be embroidered with "for the motherland, science and honor," a few words of the banners, personally awarded to participate in the review of the Polytechnic Of the students, thus winning their loyalty. Napoleon each time set off, have graduates of Polytechnic to follow. In the first empire of France, Polytechnic graduates, and later became the French Academy of Sciences on the 16 people.Napoleon's concern for the cause of science and culture has contributed to the prosperity of the French science. It can be said that the Napoleonic era was one of the most abundant scientific achievements in French history. Laplacas, Lagrangian, Mongolian, Sadi Carnot, Fourier, Gay Lusack, Lamarck, Juwei leaves a large number of dazzling scientific stars.Napoleon reorganized the institute, making it the official representative of the French culture and serving the national interest. In the light of the blueprint drawn by enlightenment thinkers, the Institute since the French Revolution was under the national education system, while Napoleon laid the national education system that continued the centralized management so far. Among them, the university is to monitor the entire education system and the establishment of the central authorities have absolute control. The head of state directly appointed director, director of the university district, by the school district governor management, supervision of the city's universities and primary and secondary schools. Teachers become part of the national bureaucracy, thus realizing the state's monopoly on education.In 1808, Napoleon ordered the restoration of higher normal schools to become a model school dedicated to the development of national secondary school teachers. The education ofvocational and specialized schools trained well-trained staff for the army and government. Centralized science and education system to a certain extent, to promote scientific prosperity, but scientific results can only be fully applied to the whole society in order to truly realize the country's strong.拿破仑人物评价Hugo: failed to turn the losers become more noble, down the Bonaparte seems to be even higher than the Napoleon even higher. Napoleon is the war of Michelangelo. He is the master of the reconstruction of the ruins of the master, is Charlie the Great, Louis XI, Henry IV, Richelieu, Louis XIV, the successor of the Public Security Committee, he certainly has a blemish, there is no doubt, even evil, that he Is a man; but he is still solemn in the negligence, in the stain is still excellent, in the evil is still a male only.Stern: No one in this world can be compared with him, Napoleon is to prove to the world: after a few centuries, Caesar and Alexander finally succeeded.Goethe: In my opinion, Napoleon's fairy tale is like "John Revelation", and everyone feels that there is something hidden, but will not know what it is.On the day when Napoleon failed in Leipzig, Goeton wrote a classic poem for Napoleon for hundreds of years: "Heroes are lofty in their hearts, and they set sail toward the throne."Hegel: the balance of the world is because there is the existence of God, the reason why the balance of the European scales, because there Napoleon, Napoleon is the presence of God.Marx: Napoleon has learned the true nature of the modern state; he has understood that the unimpeded development of the bourgeois regime and the free movement of private interests are the basic manifestations of these countries, he decided torecognize and protect this foundation.Engels: bring his code to the country he conquered, and this code is much better than the previous code, and it recognizes equality in principle.Churchill: No one in the world is greater than Napoleon.Roman Roland: short, pale, seemingly dark at the end of the eye, a thick black hair. Often wearing a floating black robe, with a thick belt tied, like pilgrims like. Not trendy, nor to comply with the narrow rules of society. Sitting in a chair uncomfortable, but often cross-legged on the stool, or perched in the windowsill; sometimes lively and laughing, sometimes sank in hesitation. In short, a big dreamer living in a dream.Lenin: The war of the French Revolution was at first the war of liberation, and indeed it needed such a war. These wars were inherently revolutionary, protecting the great revolutionary movement against the rebel monarchy. When Napoleon established the Napoleonic Empire, enslaved many of Europe's long-established, viable nation, the state, the French nationalist war became the imperial capitalist war, and this aggression and expansion of the war has become opposed Napoleonic Empire system of self-defense fight back.Liddell Hart: Three decades have passed, and a "great war" prelude began to open. Napoleon Bonaparte's genius made the war shine. As in the last century, France posed a serious threat to the rest of Europe, making these countries united against it. However, the development of this war is different from the past. After the revolution in France there were many sympathizers, but they were neither national authorities nor national ones. When France began to war alone, it was forced to be isolated from other nations, as if it were an infectious disease. However, France notonly defeated the kind of joint forces that wanted to put it to death, but also formed a serious military threat to other European countries after the revolution, and eventually became the master of a large part of Europe.Zhou Enlai: the hero of the times, if it is also its public, but not my theory in Xiang Yu, Napoleon also. Husband two of the world's strange geek also. With the annexation of eight heart of the heart, all-powerful wind; Yong crown million husband, wisdom extraordinary vulgar; invincible, attack all take; enemy of the smell of the shock, women and children thinking and chic; under the century, still 懔懔There is anger, not just I of the male Kazuya! If the relationship between the advance and retreat of the world, the rise and fall of mankind, not a moment Haojun, two or three scholars can be the same day. Although the emperor's respect, the power of religion, the trend of money, easy to easy. So the second of those who, my so-called heroes of the times also made. A person should develop the habit of relying on their own, even in the most critical time, but also to believe their courage and perseverance.George Lefebvre (French bourgeois historian): Napoleon gave it a whole set of administrative institutions when the new nation after the French Revolution had not yet been finalized, which was clearly a masterpiece of the master. The French Revolution in 1789 had forced the bourgeoisie to gain power, but then the democratic forces of the fight against them, under the protection of the emperor, the upstart was able to keep the regime, to proliferate its wealth and expand its power; The threat of the poor, they are prepared to own the stage to rule, and to restore liberalism. In Europe, the spread of France, the influence of Britain, the development of capitalism, and the consequentgrowth of the bourgeoisie, all lead to the same consequences, Napoleon shook the old system of European countries, and modern European countries The principles of the new order extended to other parts of Europe, greatly accelerating the process of this evolution. The vigorous development of the culture, the declaration of the people's sovereignty, the spread of romanticism and so all indicate the awakening of nationalism, Napoleon's territorial adjustment and various reforms to promote this awakening. ... Napoleon's personal influence is precious, but only to follow the historical trend of promoting the process of European civilization, his influence can play a role.Zhang Zhilian (Chinese historian): Napoleon's bourgeois regime to achieve the war, emperor, interests, can not overthrow the results, the Code, the revolutionary anti-feudal significance.。
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The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
Louis XIII becomes king at the age of 9 Cardinal Richelieu runs the country Louis XIII dies in 1643
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
Conclusion
Constitutional Monarchy develops in England after struggles between King and Parliament
Absolutism established in France after long process of centralization
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
Louis XIV brings France into wars to advance its position in Europe
Wars of the Devolution (1667-1668)
France vs. Holland, England, and Sweden
Louis XIV becomes king in 1643 Cardinal Mazarin in charge during his minority Mazarin continues policy of Richelieu The Fronde (1649 and 1652) Louis XIV takes over after Mazarin’s death in 1661
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
Henry IV becomes King of France in 1589, Beginning of Bourbon Dynasty Conflict between King and Nobility Began creating a centralized government Henry IV was assassinated in 1610
Louis XIV (1643-1715)
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
The War of the Spanish Succession
The King of Spain dies in 1700 Louis XIV’s grandson to inherit Spain and its colonies England, Holland, and the Holy Roman Empire form Grand Alliance against Louis XIV War ends in stalemate in 1713 eat-grandson, Louis XV succeeds
Invasion of the Netherlands 1672-1678 War of the League of Augsburg (16881697)
France vs. League of Augsburg (England, Spain,
Sweden, Holand, German states)
Louis XIV (1643-1715)
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
Louis XIV controls the nobility He builds up the bureaucracy French military modernized Louis XIV revokes the Edict of Nantes in 1685
The Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France
1589-1715
France
Weak monarchy before 17th century Powerful nobles rule parts of France Bourbon Dynasty begins centralization of France