Sampling ethods for Estimation- An Introduction
结构机构可靠性及可靠性灵敏度分析——10章_展望）
第十章结构机构可靠性和可靠性灵敏度分析的展望可靠性是一个古老而又面临着新挑战的问题，它涉及 (1) 系统行为的描述和模拟，(2)系统行为的定量化，(3) 不确定性的描述、定量化和传递。
本书只是着重介绍了结构机构可靠性和可靠性灵敏度分析的一些经典方法和现在发展的新方法，研究在输入变量与系统行为之间关系确定，并且输入变量随机不确定性已知的条件下，不确定性的传递问题。
本书所介绍的这些方法只是可靠性工程涉及众多问题中的一个基本问题。
在结束本书的理论方法探讨之前，联系本书所研究的内容，对结构机构可靠性未来所需要研究的问题进行简单的展望。
1、输入变量不确定性的描述和定量化[1-14]一般输入变量的随机不确定性采用概率密度函数来描述，依据经典的概率统计理论，获取概率密度函数需要大量的样本数据，尤其是要准确获取密度函数的尾部时，则需要更大量的样本数据，而且往往影响系统行为失效概率的部分就是输入变量概率密度函数的尾部。
然而值得指出的是：由于经费和时间的限制，工程问题中的大样本数据往往是不可得的。
这使得可靠性研究人员投入了大量的精力和时间来研究小样本情况下母体概率密度函数的估计问题。
尽管挖掘小样本中关于母体信息的思路以及在同类产品中获取更多信息的方法是可取的，并且在今后相当长一段时间内基于这种思路的研究将在可靠性领域持续开展，但值得注意的是这种信息的挖掘和获取毕竟是有限的，因为小样本中本身所包含的信息量只是完整信息的一部分。
以有限的信息去推断完整的信息将承受一定的风险，了解并控制推断过程中的风险水平是保证所作推断有意义的前提。
另外，建立小样本情况下，输入变量不确定性的合适的描述模型也是解决信息不足问题的一个补充手段，如现在已在可靠性领域广泛研究的凸集描述模型和模糊描述模型等，还有各种描述的混合模型。
作为不足以获得概率密度函数情况下的必要补充，研究与样本信息量匹配的不确定性描述模型是输入变量不确定性描述和定量化方面的一项重要研究内容，并且在此基础上的各种不确定性描述模型的相容性也是今后可靠性领域的重要研究内容。
CFA考试《CFA一级》历年真题精选08(附详解)
CFA考试《CFA一级》历年真题精选08（附详解）1、The following sample of 10 items is selected from a population. The population variance is unknown.The standard error of the sample mean is closest to:【单选题】A.3.4.B.3.6.C.10.8.正确答案:A答案解析:“Sampling and Estimation,” Richard A. DeFusco, Dennis W. McLeavey, Jerald E. Pinto, and David E. Runkle2012 Modular Level I, Vol. 1, p. 557Study Session 3-10-fCalculate and interpret the standard error of the sample mean.A is correct. When the population variance is unknown, the standard error of the sample mean is calculated aswhere s is the sample standard deviation and n is the size of the sample.The sample standard deviation isIn this problem,The standard error of the sample mean is, therefore,2、A company prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP (generally accepted accounting principles). It expected to be the sole supplier for a state-wide school milk program and had production facilities valued at $28.4 million. Recently several other companies were also granted milk-supply contracts throughout the state and the company now estimates that it will only be able to generate cash flows of $3 million per year for the next 7 years with its facilities. The firm has a cost of capital of 10%.The impairment loss (in $-millions) on the production faciliti es will most likely be reported in the company’s financial statements as a:【单选题】A.13.8 reduction in operating cash flows. .B.13.8 impairment loss in the income statementC.7.4 reduction in the balance sheet carrying amount.正确答案:B答案解析:“Long-Lived Assets,” R. Elaine Henry, CFA and Elizabeth A. GordonImpairment Loss: Carrying Value –Fair Value: 28.4 - 14.6 = 13.8 to be reported on the income statement3、Business risk most likely incorporates operating risk and:【单选题】A.sales risk.B.financial risk.C.interest rate risk.正确答案:A答案解析:“Measures of Leverage,” Pamela Peterson Drake, CFA, Raj Aggarwal, CFA, Cynthia Harrington, CFA, and Adam Kobor, CFABusiness risk is sales risk and operating risk combined.4、Which of the following statements is the most appropriate treatment of floatation costs for capital budgeting purposes? Floatation costs should be:【单选题】A.expensed in the current period.B.incorporated into the estimated cost of capital.C.deducted as on e of the project’s initial-period cash flows.正确答案:C答案解析:“Cost of Capital,” Yves Courtois, CFA, Gene C. Lai, and Pamela Peterson Drake, CFAC is correct. Floatation costs are an additional cost of the project and should be incorporated as an adjustment to the initial-period cash flows in the valuation computation.5、Consider a U.S. Treasury bond futures contract where the hypothetical deliverable bond has a coupon of 3.0%. At expiration of the futures contract, the short chooses to deliver a bond with a coupon of 3.8%. The conversion factor of this bond is most likely:【单选题】A.equal to 1.B.less than 1.C.greater than 1.正确答案:C答案解析:“Futures Markets and Contracts,” Don M. Chance, CFAC is correct. If the short delivers a bond with a coupon greater than the coupon of the hypothetical deliverable bond, the conversion factor is greater than 1.6、Two amortizing bonds have the same maturity date and same yield to maturity. The reinvestment risk for an investor holding the bonds to maturity is greatest for the bond that is:【单选题】A.a zero-coupon bond.B.a coupon bond selling at a discount to par.C.a coupon bond selling at a premium to par value.正确答案:C答案解析:“Risks Associated with Investing in Bonds,” Frank J. FabozziBecause they have the same yield to maturity, we know that the bond selling for a premium has the higher coupon rate. Reinvestment risk refers to the risk that interest rates will decline causing the future income expected from reinvesting coupon payments to decline. The more coupon interest being paid, the greater the reinvestment risk.7、An investment strategy that seeks to grow portfolio value over time through capital gains and reinvestment of current income is most likely appropriate if the investment objective is:【单选题】A.total return.B.current income.C.capital preservation.正确答案:A答案解析:“The Asset Allocation Decision”, Frank K. Reilly and Keith C. BrownA is correct. A total return objective is consistent with an investment strategy that seeks to grow portfolio value over time through capital gains and reinvestment of portfolio income.8、Evelyn Mastakis, CFA, manages a portfolio with $ 2 000 000 for a high-net-worthclient.The client needs to withdraw $ 100 000 for a charity in one yearwithout invading principal.Mastakis gathers the following information aboutthree possible allocations of assets.According to Roy's safety-first criterion, which of the following allocationsMastakis should choose?【单选题】A.Allocation 1.B.Allocation 2.C.Allocation 3.正确答案:C答案解析:基准收益率（threshold level return）=100 000/2 000 000 = 5%，根据Roy 的安全第一法则，可得：因此，选择指标最大的方案3。
2017年CFA一级公式表
(1 r1 )(1 r2 )(1 r3 )...(1 rn ) 1
Then annualize the time-weighted return. BDY = Bank Discount Yield =
rBD
( FV P0 ) 360 FV t
365/t -1
EAY = Effective annual yield = (1+HRY) Money market yield = HPY × (360/t)
Ly (n 1)
y 100
Arithmetic mean: sum of all observation values in sample/population,divided by number of observations. Geometric mean: used when calculating investment returns over multiple periods or to measure compound growth rates.
Coefficient of Variation(CV):express how much dispersion exists relative to mean of a distribution.
Geometric mean:
G N X1 X 2 X 3 ... X N ( X i )1/ N
Normal Distribution: 1. Completely described by mean and variance (μ, σ2) 2. It is symmetric with skewness measure of 0, i.e., mean = mode = median 3. Kurtosis = 3 4. Linear combinations of normal random variables are normally distributed. Z-score:
SCI论文摘要中常用的表达方法
SCI论文摘要中常用的表达方法要写好摘要，需要建立一个适合自己需要的句型库（选择的词汇来源于SCI高被引用论文）引言部分（1）回顾研究背景，常用词汇有review, summarize, present, outline, describe等（2）说明写作目的，常用词汇有purpose, attempt, aim等，另外还可以用动词不定式充当目的壮语老表达（3）介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围，常用词汇有study, present, include, focus, emphasize, emphasis, attention等方法部分（1）介绍研究或试验过程，常用词汇有test study, investigate, examine,experiment, discuss, consider, analyze, analysis等（2）说明研究或试验方法，常用词汇有measure, estimate, calculate等（3）介绍应用、用途，常用词汇有use, apply, application等结果部分（1）展示研究结果，常用词汇有show, result, present等（2）介绍结论，常用词汇有summary, introduce,conclude等讨论部分（1）陈述论文的论点和作者的观点，常用词汇有suggest, repot, present, expect, describe 等（2）说明论证，常用词汇有support, provide, indicate, identify, find, demonstrate, confirm, clarify等（3）推荐和建议，常用词汇有suggest,suggestion, recommend, recommendation, propose,necessity,necessary,expect等。
摘要引言部分案例词汇review•Author(s): ROBINSON, TE; BERRIDGE, KC•Title:THE NEURAL BASIS OF DRUG CRA VING - AN INCENTIVE-SENSITIZATION THEORY OF ADDICTION•Source: BRAIN RESEARCH REVIEWS, 18 (3): 247-291 SEP-DEC 1993 《脑研究评论》荷兰SCI被引用1774We review evidence for this view of addiction and discuss its implications for understanding the psychology and neurobiology of addiction.回顾研究背景SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例词汇summarizeAuthor(s): Barnett, RM; Carone, CD; 被引用1571Title: Particles and field .1. Review of particle physicsSource: PHYSICAL REVIEW D, 54 (1): 1-+ Part 1 JUL 1 1996:《物理学评论，D辑》美国引言部分回顾研究背景常用词汇summarizeAbstract: This biennial review summarizes much of Particle Physics. Using data from previous editions, plus 1900 new measurements from 700 papers, we list, evaluate, and average measuredproperties of gauge bosons, leptons, quarks, mesons, and baryons. We also summarize searches for hypothetical particles such as Higgs bosons, heavy neutrinos, and supersymmetric particles. All the particle properties and search limits are listed in Summary Tables. We also give numerous tables, figures, formulae, and reviews of topics such as the Standard Model, particle detectors, probability, and statistics. A booklet is available containing the Summary Tables and abbreviated versions of some of the other sections of this full Review.SCI摘要引言部分案例attentionSCI摘要方法部分案例considerSCI高被引摘要引言部分案例词汇outline•Author(s): TIERNEY, L SCI引用728次•Title:MARKOV-CHAINS FOR EXPLORING POSTERIOR DISTRIBUTIONS 引言部分回顾研究背景，常用词汇outline•Source: ANNALS OF STATISTICS, 22 (4): 1701-1728 DEC 1994•《统计学纪事》美国•Abstract: Several Markov chain methods are available for sampling from a posterior distribution. Two important examples are the Gibbs sampler and the Metropolis algorithm.In addition, several strategies are available for constructing hybrid algorithms. This paper outlines some of the basic methods and strategies and discusses some related theoretical and practical issues. On the theoretical side, results from the theory of general state space Markov chains can be used to obtain convergence rates, laws of large numbers and central limit theorems for estimates obtained from Markov chain methods. These theoretical results can be used to guide the construction of more efficient algorithms. For the practical use of Markov chain methods, standard simulation methodology provides several Variance reduction techniques and also gives guidance on the choice of sample size and allocation.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例回顾研究背景presentAuthor(s): L YNCH, M; MILLIGAN, BG SC I被引用661Title: ANAL YSIS OF POPULATION GENETIC-STRUCTURE WITH RAPD MARKERS Source: MOLECULAR ECOLOGY, 3 (2): 91-99 APR 1994《分子生态学》英国Abstract: Recent advances in the application of the polymerase chain reaction make it possible to score individuals at a large number of loci. The RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) method is one such technique that has attracted widespread interest.The analysis of population structure with RAPD data is hampered by the lack of complete genotypic information resulting from dominance, since this enhances the sampling variance associated with single loci as well as induces bias in parameter estimation. We present estimators for several population-genetic parameters (gene and genotype frequencies, within- and between-population heterozygosities, degree of inbreeding and population subdivision, and degree of individual relatedness) along with expressions for their sampling variances. Although completely unbiased estimators do not appear to be possible with RAPDs, several steps are suggested that will insure that the bias in parameter estimates is negligible. To achieve the same degree of statistical power, on the order of 2 to 10 times more individuals need to be sampled per locus when dominant markers are relied upon, as compared to codominant (RFLP, isozyme) markers. Moreover, to avoid bias in parameter estimation, the marker alleles for most of these loci should be in relatively low frequency. Due to the need for pruning loci with low-frequency null alleles, more loci also need to be sampled with RAPDs than with more conventional markers, and sole problems of bias cannot be completely eliminated.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例词汇describe•Author(s): CLONINGER, CR; SVRAKIC, DM; PRZYBECK, TR•Title: A PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL MODEL OF TEMPERAMENT AND CHARACTER•Source: ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY, 50 (12): 975-990 DEC 1993《普通精神病学纪要》美国•引言部分回顾研究背景，常用词汇describe 被引用926•Abstract: In this study, we describe a psychobiological model of the structure and development of personality that accounts for dimensions of both temperament and character. Previous research has confirmed four dimensions of temperament: novelty seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and persistence, which are independently heritable, manifest early in life, and involve preconceptual biases in perceptual memory and habit formation. For the first time, we describe three dimensions of character that mature in adulthood and influence personal and social effectiveness by insight learning about self-concepts.Self-concepts vary according to the extent to which a person identifies the self as (1) an autonomous individual, (2) an integral part of humanity, and (3) an integral part of the universe as a whole. Each aspect of self-concept corresponds to one of three character dimensions called self-directedness, cooperativeness, and self-transcendence, respectively. We also describe the conceptual background and development of a self-report measure of these dimensions, the Temperament and Character Inventory. Data on 300 individuals from the general population support the reliability and structure of these seven personality dimensions. We discuss the implications for studies of information processing, inheritance, development, diagnosis, and treatment.摘要引言部分案例•（2）说明写作目的，常用词汇有purpose, attempt, aimSCI高被引摘要引言部分案例attempt说明写作目的•Author(s): Donoho, DL; Johnstone, IM•Title: Adapting to unknown smoothness via wavelet shrinkage•Source: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN STATISTICAL ASSOCIATION, 90 (432): 1200-1224 DEC 1995 《美国统计学会志》被引用429次•Abstract: We attempt to recover a function of unknown smoothness from noisy sampled data. We introduce a procedure, SureShrink, that suppresses noise by thresholding the empirical wavelet coefficients. The thresholding is adaptive: A threshold level is assigned to each dyadic resolution level by the principle of minimizing the Stein unbiased estimate of risk (Sure) for threshold estimates. The computational effort of the overall procedure is order N.log(N) as a function of the sample size N. SureShrink is smoothness adaptive: If the unknown function contains jumps, then the reconstruction (essentially) does also; if the unknown function has a smooth piece, then the reconstruction is (essentially) as smooth as the mother wavelet will allow. The procedure is in a sense optimally smoothness adaptive: It is near minimax simultaneously over a whole interval of the Besov scale; the size of this interval depends on the choice of mother wavelet. We know from a previous paper by the authors that traditional smoothing methods-kernels, splines, and orthogonal series estimates-even with optimal choices of the smoothing parameter, would be unable to perform in a near-minimax way over many spaces in the Besov scale.Examples of SureShrink are given. The advantages of the method are particularly evident when the underlying function has jump discontinuities on a smooth backgroundSCI高被引摘要引言部分案例To investigate说明写作目的•Author(s): OLTV AI, ZN; MILLIMAN, CL; KORSMEYER, SJ•Title: BCL-2 HETERODIMERIZES IN-VIVO WITH A CONSERVED HOMOLOG, BAX, THAT ACCELERATES PROGRAMMED CELL-DEATH•Source: CELL, 74 (4): 609-619 AUG 27 1993 被引用3233•Abstract: Bcl-2 protein is able to repress a number of apoptotic death programs. To investigate the mechanism of Bcl-2's effect, we examined whether Bcl-2 interacted with other proteins. We identified an associated 21 kd protein partner, Bax, that has extensive amino acid homology with Bcl-2, focused within highly conserved domains I and II. Bax is encoded by six exons and demonstrates a complex pattern of alternative RNA splicing that predicts a 21 kd membrane (alpha) and two forms of cytosolic protein (beta and gamma). Bax homodimerizes and forms heterodimers with Bcl-2 in vivo. Overexpressed Bax accelerates apoptotic death induced by cytokine deprivation in an IL-3-dependent cell line. Overexpressed Bax also counters the death repressor activity of Bcl-2. These data suggest a model in which the ratio of Bcl-2 to Bax determines survival or death following an apoptotic stimulus.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例purposes说明写作目的•Author(s): ROGERS, FJ; IGLESIAS, CA•Title: RADIATIVE ATOMIC ROSSELAND MEAN OPACITY TABLES•Source: ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL SUPPLEMENT SERIES, 79 (2): 507-568 APR 1992 《天体物理学杂志增刊》美国SCI被引用512•Abstract: For more than two decades the astrophysics community has depended on opacity tables produced at Los Alamos. In the present work we offer new radiative Rosseland mean opacity tables calculated with the OPAL code developed independently at LLNL. We give extensive results for the recent Anders-Grevesse mixture which allow accurate interpolation in temperature, density, hydrogen mass fraction, as well as metal mass fraction. The tables are organized differently from previous work. Instead of rows and columns of constant temperature and density, we use temperature and follow tracks of constant R, where R = density/(temperature)3. The range of R and temperature are such as to cover typical stellar conditions from the interior through the envelope and the hotter atmospheres. Cool atmospheres are not considered since photoabsorption by molecules is neglected. Only radiative processes are taken into account so that electron conduction is not included. For comparison purposes we present some opacity tables for the Ross-Aller and Cox-Tabor metal abundances. Although in many regions the OPAL opacities are similar to previous work, large differences are reported.For example, factors of 2-3 opacity enhancements are found in stellar envelop conditions.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例aim说明写作目的•Author(s):EDV ARDSSON, B; ANDERSEN, J; GUSTAFSSON, B; LAMBERT, DL;NISSEN, PE; TOMKIN, J•Title:THE CHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF THE GALACTIC DISK .1. ANALYSISAND RESULTS•Source: ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS, 275 (1): 101-152 AUG 1993 《天文学与天体物理学》被引用934•Abstract:With the aim to provide observational constraints on the evolution of the galactic disk, we have derived abundances of 0, Na, Mg, Al, Si, Ca, Ti, Fe, Ni, Y, Zr, Ba and Nd, as well as individual photometric ages, for 189 nearby field F and G disk dwarfs.The galactic orbital properties of all stars have been derived from accurate kinematic data, enabling estimates to be made of the distances from the galactic center of the stars‘ birthplaces. 结构式摘要•Our extensive high resolution, high S/N, spectroscopic observations of carefully selected northern and southern stars provide accurate equivalent widths of up to 86 unblended absorption lines per star between 5000 and 9000 angstrom. The abundance analysis was made with greatly improved theoretical LTE model atmospheres. Through the inclusion of a great number of iron-peak element absorption lines the model fluxes reproduce the observed UV and visual fluxes with good accuracy. A new theoretical calibration of T(eff) as a function of Stromgren b - y for solar-type dwarfs has been established. The new models and T(eff) scale are shown to yield good agreement between photometric and spectroscopic measurements of effective temperatures and surface gravities, but the photometrically derived very high overall metallicities for the most metal rich stars are not supported by the spectroscopic analysis of weak spectral lines.•Author(s): PAYNE, MC; TETER, MP; ALLAN, DC; ARIAS, TA; JOANNOPOULOS, JD•Title:ITERA TIVE MINIMIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR ABINITIO TOTAL-ENERGY CALCULATIONS - MOLECULAR-DYNAMICS AND CONJUGA TE GRADIENTS•Source: REVIEWS OF MODERN PHYSICS, 64 (4): 1045-1097 OCT 1992 《现代物理学评论》美国American Physical Society SCI被引用2654 •Abstract: This article describes recent technical developments that have made the total-energy pseudopotential the most powerful ab initio quantum-mechanical modeling method presently available. In addition to presenting technical details of the pseudopotential method, the article aims to heighten awareness of the capabilities of the method in order to stimulate its application to as wide a range of problems in as many scientific disciplines as possible.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例includes介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围•Author(s):MARCHESINI, G; WEBBER, BR; ABBIENDI, G; KNOWLES, IG;SEYMOUR, MH; STANCO, L•Title: HERWIG 5.1 - A MONTE-CARLO EVENT GENERA TOR FOR SIMULATING HADRON EMISSION REACTIONS WITH INTERFERING GLUONS SCI被引用955次•Source: COMPUTER PHYSICS COMMUNICATIONS, 67 (3): 465-508 JAN 1992:《计算机物理学通讯》荷兰Elsevier•Abstract: HERWIG is a general-purpose particle-physics event generator, which includes the simulation of hard lepton-lepton, lepton-hadron and hadron-hadron scattering and soft hadron-hadron collisions in one package. It uses the parton-shower approach for initial-state and final-state QCD radiation, including colour coherence effects and azimuthal correlations both within and between jets. This article includes a brief review of the physics underlying HERWIG, followed by a description of the program itself. This includes details of the input and control parameters used by the program, and the output data provided by it. Sample output from a typical simulation is given and annotated.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例presents介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围•Author(s): IDSO, KE; IDSO, SB•Title: PLANT-RESPONSES TO ATMOSPHERIC CO2 ENRICHMENT IN THE FACE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONSTRAINTS - A REVIEW OF THE PAST 10 YEARS RESEARCH•Source: AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST METEOROLOGY, 69 (3-4): 153-203 JUL 1994 《农业和林业气象学》荷兰Elsevier 被引用225•Abstract:This paper presents a detailed analysis of several hundred plant carbon exchange rate (CER) and dry weight (DW) responses to atmospheric CO2 enrichment determined over the past 10 years. It demonstrates that the percentage increase in plant growth produced by raising the air's CO2 content is generally not reduced by less than optimal levels of light, water or soil nutrients, nor by high temperatures, salinity or gaseous air pollution. More often than not, in fact, the data show the relative growth-enhancing effects of atmospheric CO2 enrichment to be greatest when resource limitations and environmental stresses are most severe.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围emphasizing •Author(s): BESAG, J; GREEN, P; HIGDON, D; MENGERSEN, K•Title: BAYESIAN COMPUTATION AND STOCHASTIC-SYSTEMS•Source: STATISTICAL SCIENCE, 10 (1): 3-41 FEB 1995《统计科学》美国•SCI被引用296次•Abstract: Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) methods have been used extensively in statistical physics over the last 40 years, in spatial statistics for the past 20 and in Bayesian image analysis over the last decade. In the last five years, MCMC has been introduced into significance testing, general Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood estimation. This paper presents basic methodology of MCMC, emphasizing the Bayesian paradigm, conditional probability and the intimate relationship with Markov random fields in spatial statistics.Hastings algorithms are discussed, including Gibbs, Metropolis and some other variations. Pairwise difference priors are described and are used subsequently in three Bayesian applications, in each of which there is a pronounced spatial or temporal aspect to the modeling. The examples involve logistic regression in the presence of unobserved covariates and ordinal factors; the analysis of agricultural field experiments, with adjustment for fertility gradients; and processing oflow-resolution medical images obtained by a gamma camera. Additional methodological issues arise in each of these applications and in the Appendices. The paper lays particular emphasis on the calculation of posterior probabilities and concurs with others in its view that MCMC facilitates a fundamental breakthrough in applied Bayesian modeling.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围focuses •Author(s): HUNT, KJ; SBARBARO, D; ZBIKOWSKI, R; GAWTHROP, PJ•Title: NEURAL NETWORKS FOR CONTROL-SYSTEMS - A SURVEY•Source: AUTOMA TICA, 28 (6): 1083-1112 NOV 1992《自动学》荷兰Elsevier•SCI被引用427次•Abstract:This paper focuses on the promise of artificial neural networks in the realm of modelling, identification and control of nonlinear systems. The basic ideas and techniques of artificial neural networks are presented in language and notation familiar to control engineers. Applications of a variety of neural network architectures in control are surveyed. We explore the links between the fields of control science and neural networks in a unified presentation and identify key areas for future research.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围focus•Author(s): Stuiver, M; Reimer, PJ; Bard, E; Beck, JW;•Title: INTCAL98 radiocarbon age calibration, 24,000-0 cal BP•Source: RADIOCARBON, 40 (3): 1041-1083 1998《放射性碳》美国SCI被引用2131次•Abstract: The focus of this paper is the conversion of radiocarbon ages to calibrated (cal) ages for the interval 24,000-0 cal BP (Before Present, 0 cal BP = AD 1950), based upon a sample set of dendrochronologically dated tree rings, uranium-thorium dated corals, and varve-counted marine sediment. The C-14 age-cal age information, produced by many laboratories, is converted to Delta(14)C profiles and calibration curves, for the atmosphere as well as the oceans. We discuss offsets in measured C-14 ages and the errors therein, regional C-14 age differences, tree-coral C-14 age comparisons and the time dependence of marine reservoir ages, and evaluate decadal vs. single-year C-14 results. Changes in oceanic deepwater circulation, especially for the 16,000-11,000 cal sp interval, are reflected in the Delta(14)C values of INTCAL98.SCI高被引摘要引言部分案例介绍论文的重点内容或研究范围emphasis •Author(s): LEBRETON, JD; BURNHAM, KP; CLOBERT, J; ANDERSON, DR•Title: MODELING SURVIV AL AND TESTING BIOLOGICAL HYPOTHESES USING MARKED ANIMALS - A UNIFIED APPROACH WITH CASE-STUDIES •Source: ECOLOGICAL MONOGRAPHS, 62 (1): 67-118 MAR 1992•《生态学论丛》美国•Abstract: The understanding of the dynamics of animal populations and of related ecological and evolutionary issues frequently depends on a direct analysis of life history parameters. For instance, examination of trade-offs between reproduction and survival usually rely on individually marked animals, for which the exact time of death is most often unknown, because marked individuals cannot be followed closely through time.Thus, the quantitative analysis of survival studies and experiments must be based oncapture-recapture (or resighting) models which consider, besides the parameters of primary interest, recapture or resighting rates that are nuisance parameters. 结构式摘要•T his paper synthesizes, using a common framework, these recent developments together with new ones, with an emphasis on flexibility in modeling, model selection, and the analysis of multiple data sets. The effects on survival and capture rates of time, age, and categorical variables characterizing the individuals (e.g., sex) can be considered, as well as interactions between such effects. This "analysis of variance" philosophy emphasizes the structure of the survival and capture process rather than the technical characteristics of any particular model. The flexible array of models encompassed in this synthesis uses a common notation. As a result of the great level of flexibility and relevance achieved, the focus is changed from fitting a particular model to model building and model selection.SCI摘要方法部分案例•方法部分•（1）介绍研究或试验过程，常用词汇有test，study, investigate, examine,experiment, discuss, consider, analyze, analysis等•（2）说明研究或试验方法，常用词汇有measure, estimate, calculate等•（3）介绍应用、用途，常用词汇有use, apply, application等SCI高被引摘要方法部分案例discusses介绍研究或试验过程•Author(s): LIANG, KY; ZEGER, SL; QAQISH, B•Title: MULTIV ARIATE REGRESSION-ANAL YSES FOR CATEGORICAL-DATA •Source:JOURNAL OF THE ROY AL STA TISTICAL SOCIETY SERIES B-METHODOLOGICAL, 54 (1): 3-40 1992《皇家统计学会志，B辑：统计方法论》•SCI被引用298•Abstract: It is common to observe a vector of discrete and/or continuous responses in scientific problems where the objective is to characterize the dependence of each response on explanatory variables and to account for the association between the outcomes. The response vector can comprise repeated observations on one variable, as in longitudinal studies or genetic studies of families, or can include observations for different variables.This paper discusses a class of models for the marginal expectations of each response and for pairwise associations. The marginal models are contrasted with log-linear models.Two generalized estimating equation approaches are compared for parameter estimation.The first focuses on the regression parameters; the second simultaneously estimates the regression and association parameters. The robustness and efficiency of each is discussed.The methods are illustrated with analyses of two data sets from public health research SCI高被引摘要方法部分案例介绍研究或试验过程examines•Author(s): Huo, QS; Margolese, DI; Stucky, GD•Title: Surfactant control of phases in the synthesis of mesoporous silica-based materials •Source: CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS, 8 (5): 1147-1160 MAY 1996•SCI被引用643次《材料的化学性质》美国•Abstract: The low-temperature formation of liquid-crystal-like arrays made up of molecular complexes formed between molecular inorganic species and amphiphilic organic molecules is a convenient approach for the synthesis of mesostructure materials.This paper examines how the molecular shapes of covalent organosilanes, quaternary ammonium surfactants, and mixed surfactants in various reaction conditions can be used to synthesize silica-based mesophase configurations, MCM-41 (2d hexagonal, p6m), MCM-48 (cubic Ia3d), MCM-50 (lamellar), SBA-1 (cubic Pm3n), SBA-2 (3d hexagonal P6(3)/mmc), and SBA-3(hexagonal p6m from acidic synthesis media). The structural function of surfactants in mesophase formation can to a first approximation be related to that of classical surfactants in water or other solvents with parallel roles for organic additives. The effective surfactant ion pair packing parameter, g = V/alpha(0)l, remains a useful molecular structure-directing index to characterize the geometry of the mesophase products, and phase transitions may be viewed as a variation of g in the liquid-crystal-Like solid phase. Solvent and cosolvent structure direction can be effectively used by varying polarity, hydrophobic/hydrophilic properties and functionalizing the surfactant molecule, for example with hydroxy group or variable charge. Surfactants and synthesis conditions can be chosen and controlled to obtain predicted silica-based mesophase products. A room-temperature synthesis of the bicontinuous cubic phase, MCM-48, is presented. A low-temperature (100 degrees C) and low-pH (7-10) treatment approach that can be used to give MCM-41 with high-quality, large pores (up to 60 Angstrom), and pore volumes as large as 1.6 cm(3)/g is described.Estimates 介绍研究或试验过程SCI高被引摘要方法部分案例•Author(s): KESSLER, RC; MCGONAGLE, KA; ZHAO, SY; NELSON, CB; HUGHES, M; ESHLEMAN, S; WITTCHEN, HU; KENDLER, KS•Title:LIFETIME AND 12-MONTH PREV ALENCE OF DSM-III-R PSYCHIATRIC-DISORDERS IN THE UNITED-STA TES - RESULTS FROM THE NATIONAL-COMORBIDITY-SURVEY•Source: ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY, 51 (1): 8-19 JAN 1994•《普通精神病学纪要》美国SCI被引用4350次•Abstract: Background: This study presents estimates of lifetime and 12-month prevalence of 14 DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders from the National Comorbidity Survey, the first survey to administer a structured psychiatric interview to a national probability sample in the United States.Methods: The DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders among persons aged 15 to 54 years in the noninstitutionalized civilian population of the United States were assessed with data collected by lay interviewers using a revised version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Results: Nearly 50% of respondents reported at least one lifetime disorder, and close to 30% reported at least one 12-month disorder. The most common disorders were major depressive episode, alcohol dependence, social phobia, and simple phobia. More than half of all lifetime disorders occurred in the 14% of the population who had a history of three or more comorbid disorders. These highly comorbid people also included the vast majority of people with severe disorders.Less than 40% of those with a lifetime disorder had ever received professional treatment,and less than 20% of those with a recent disorder had been in treatment during the past 12 months. Consistent with previous risk factor research, it was found that women had elevated rates of affective disorders and anxiety disorders, that men had elevated rates of substance use disorders and antisocial personality disorder, and that most disorders declined with age and with higher socioeconomic status. Conclusions: The prevalence of psychiatric disorders is greater than previously thought to be the case. Furthermore, this morbidity is more highly concentrated than previously recognized in roughly one sixth of the population who have a history of three or more comorbid disorders. This suggests that the causes and consequences of high comorbidity should be the focus of research attention. The majority of people with psychiatric disorders fail to obtain professional treatment. Even among people with a lifetime history of three or more comorbid disorders, the proportion who ever obtain specialty sector mental health treatment is less than 50%.These results argue for the importance of more outreach and more research on barriers to professional help-seekingSCI高被引摘要方法部分案例说明研究或试验方法measure•Author(s): Schlegel, DJ; Finkbeiner, DP; Davis, M•Title:Maps of dust infrared emission for use in estimation of reddening and cosmic microwave background radiation foregrounds•Source: ASTROPHYSICAL JOURNAL, 500 (2): 525-553 Part 1 JUN 20 1998 SCI 被引用2972 次《天体物理学杂志》美国•The primary use of these maps is likely to be as a new estimator of Galactic extinction. To calibrate our maps, we assume a standard reddening law and use the colors of elliptical galaxies to measure the reddening per unit flux density of 100 mu m emission. We find consistent calibration using the B-R color distribution of a sample of the 106 brightest cluster ellipticals, as well as a sample of 384 ellipticals with B-V and Mg line strength measurements. For the latter sample, we use the correlation of intrinsic B-V versus Mg, index to tighten the power of the test greatly. We demonstrate that the new maps are twice as accurate as the older Burstein-Heiles reddening estimates in regions of low and moderate reddening. The maps are expected to be significantly more accurate in regions of high reddening. These dust maps will also be useful for estimating millimeter emission that contaminates cosmic microwave background radiation experiments and for estimating soft X-ray absorption. We describe how to access our maps readily for general use.SCI高被引摘要结果部分案例application介绍应用、用途•Author(s): MALLAT, S; ZHONG, S•Title: CHARACTERIZATION OF SIGNALS FROM MULTISCALE EDGES•Source: IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PATTERN ANALYSIS AND MACHINE INTELLIGENCE, 14 (7): 710-732 JUL 1992•SCI被引用508次《IEEE模式分析与机器智能汇刊》美国•Abstract: A multiscale Canny edge detection is equivalent to finding the local maxima ofa wavelet transform. We study the properties of multiscale edges through the wavelet。
2005 CFA level 1 Junwei Notes 03
“Sampling and Estimation”
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The Standard Error of the Sample Mean (Cont’d)
In most practical applications we need to use this formula because the population standard deviation is almost never available. The sample standard deviation (s) is estimated using the formula below:
A population has a mean µ and a variance σ2. Samples of size n are selected from this population. The sample size n is sufficiently large.
Level 1 Session 3 Quantitative Methods
Use the sample mean to infer the population mean . Construct confidence intervals for the population mean based on the normal distribution.
CFA考试《CFA一级》历年真题精选31(附详解)
CFA考试《CFA一级》历年真题精选31（附详解）1、William Wong, CFA, is an equity analyst with Hayswick Securities. Based on his fundamental analysis, Wong concludes the stock of a company he follows, Nolvec Inc., is substantially undervalued and will experience a large price increase. He delay s revising his recommendation on the stock from “hold” to “buy” to allow his brother to buy shares at a lower price. Wong is least likely to have violated the CFA Institute Standards of Professional Conduct related to:【单选题】A.duty to clients.B.reasonable basis.C.priority of transactions.正确答案:B答案解析:“Guidance for Standards I-VII”, CFA InstituteB is correct because there is nothing to suggest that Wong does not have a reasonable basis for his conclusion related to Nolvec. Standard V (A).2、For an investment portfolio, the coefficient of variation of the returns on the portfolio is best described as measuring:【单选题】A.risk per unit of mean return.B.mean return per unit of risk.C.mean excess return per unit of risk.正确答案:A答案解析:“Statistical Concepts and Market Returns,” Richard A. Defusco, CFA, Dennis W. McLeavey, CFA, Jerald E. Pinto, CFA, and David E. Runkle, CFAThe coefficient of variation is defined as the standard deviation of the portfolio (a measure of risk) divided by the mean return on the portfolio (i.e., risk per unit of mean return). 3、Regarding a company’s production function, both labor costs and capital costs are best described as:【单选题】A.fixed in the long run.B.variable in the long run.C.variable in the short run.正确答案:B答案解析:“Output and Costs,” Michael ParkinIn the short run, a company can vary the quantity of labor but the quantity of capital is fixed. In the long run, a firm can vary both the quantity of labor and the quantity of capital.4、【单选题】A.E.B.G.C.F+H.正确答案:C答案解析:The loss in consumer surplus because of higher prices is represented by area e+f+g+h. This exceeds the gains from producer surplus (E) and government revenues on imports (G). Hence the net welfare effect tothe country is a deadweight loss of[e+f+g+h] –[E] –[G] =Section 3+.15、If the yield to maturity on an annual-pay bond is 7.75%, the bond-equivalent yield is closest to:【单选题】A.7.61%.B.7.90%.C.8.05%.正确答案:A答案解析:“Yield Measures, Spot Rates, and Forward Rates,” Frank J. Fabozzi, CFA6、For a hedge fund investor, a benefit of investing in a fund of funds is least likely the:【单选题】A.multilayered fee structure.B.higher level of due diligence expertise.C.ability to negotiate better redemption terms.正确答案:A答案解析:“Introduction to Alternative Investments”, Terri Duhon, George Spentzos, CFA, and Scott D. Stewart, CFAA is correct because funds of funds typically have a multilayered fee structure that may dilute the returns to the investor.7、The following sample of 10 items is selected from a population. The population variance is unknown.The standard error of the sample mean is closest to:【单选题】A.10.84.B.3.43.C.3.60.正确答案:B答案解析:When the population variance is unknown, the standard error of the sample mean is calculated as:The standard error of the sample mean is therefore CFA Level I"Sampling and Estimation," Richard A.DeFusco, Dennis W. McLeavey, Jerald E. Pinto, and David E.RunkleSection 3.18、The following 10 observations are a sample drawn from an approximately normal population:The sample standard deviation is closest to:【单选题】A.13.18.B.12.50.C.11.92.正确答案:A答案解析:The sample variance is:The sample standard deviation is the (positive) square root of the sample variance.CFA Level I"Statistical Concepts and Market Returns," Richard A. DeFusco, Dennis W. McLeavey, JeraldE.Pinto, and David E. RunkleSection 7.49、An analyst does research about difference between forward market and pared with contracts in the forward market, contracts in the futuresmarket are least likely to be appropriately described as transactions that are:【单选题】A.public.B.customized according to the counterparts' requests.C.based on an agreement to buy or sell an underlying asset at a future date at aprice agreed on today.正确答案:B答案解析:期货市场是公开交易标准化的远期合约的，它与远期市场一样，都是约定在未来的某个时点按约定的价格买卖一项资产，但是期货市场是不能像远期市场那样，根据交易对手的要求来进行定制化。
关于IEC(国际电工委员会)制定的可靠性标准,你知道多少？!
关于IEC（国际电工委员会）制定的可靠性标准，你知道多少？！作为装备综合性能之一的可靠性指标，已作为一项考核要求纳入到研制合同中，而达到可靠性指标要求，不是只靠图纸上的设计就能实现的，因为不管产品可靠性设计得多好，人们不可能预计到所有的错误和不足。
而解决这些问题，除要采用一系列的工程专业技术外，还要采用提高可靠性增长的技术，制定提高可靠性的措施，将有效的纠正措施纳人到系统的设计中去，实现系统的固有可靠性增长，是达到产品可靠性目标要求的有效途径。
而推进可靠性增长技术，就要制定相应的标准来推动可靠性增长技术的标准化。
可靠性标准的发展20世纪80年代，可靠性增长技术开始从军用转为民用，国际电工委员会（International Electro technical Commission，简称IEC）先后制定了4个可靠性增长技术标准，对推进可靠性增长技术、提高和保证军民品的可靠性做出了突出贡献。
IEC的宗旨是促进电工标准的国际统一，电气、电子工程领域中标准化及有关方面的国际合作，增进国际间的相互了解。
IEC的工作领域包括了电力、电子、电信和原子能方面的电工技术。
随着可靠性和标准化发展需要，国际电工委员会(IEC)决定成立一个名为“电子元件和设备可靠性”的技术委员会，即TC56。
伴随可靠性工程技术的不断拓展，维修性和维修保障性的相继提出，该技术委员会的名称也跟着不断发生改变。
1973年起TC 56更名为“可靠性与维修性技术委员会。
1991 年起又更名为“可信性”（Dependability）技术委员会，此名称一致沿用至今。
根据可靠性标准的需要，TC56在编制工作上采取了按专业划分工作组的方式，目前有四个大工作组：可信性名词术语工作组、可信性技术工作组、可信性管理工作组和系统与软件可信性工作组，每个大工作组还根据标准修订任务和专业分工下设若干小组。
可靠性技术标准体系框架如下图所示，可分为：基础标准，过程指南标准、技术标准标准和试验测试标准。
USP38 通用章节目录中文
USP38-通用章节指导目录(附录)Guide to General Chapters 通用章节指导General Requirements for Test and Assays检查与含量分析的一般要求＜1＞INJECTIONS AND IMPLANTED DRUG PRODUCTS (PARENTERALS)—PRODUCT QUALITY TESTS 注射和植入药物产品(注射用) —产品质量测试＜1＞INJECTIONS注射剂＜2＞ORAL DRUG PRODUCTS—PRODUCT QUALITY TESTS 口服药物产品质量测试＜3＞TOPICAL AND TRANSDERMAL DRUG PRODUCTS—PRODUCT QUALITY TESTS 局部和透皮药物产品—产品质量测试＜4＞MUCOSAL DRUG PRODUCTS—PRODUCT QUALITY TESTS 粘膜药物产品质量测试＜5＞INHALATION AND NASAL DRUG PRODUCTS—GENERAL INFORMATION AND PRODUCT QUALITY TESTS 吸入剂产品—产品质量测试＜7＞LABELING 标签＜11＞USP REFERENCE STANDARDS USP标准品Apparatus for Test and Assays用于检查与含量分析的器具＜17＞PRESCRIPTION CONTAINER LABELING处方容器标签＜21＞THERMOMETERS温度计＜31＞VOLUMETRIC APPARATUS容量器具＜41＞BALANCES天平Microbiological Tests 微生物检查法＜51＞ANTIMICROBIAL EFFECTIVENESS TESTING抗菌剂有效性检查法＜55＞BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS—RESISTANCE PERFORMANCE TESTS生物指示剂－耐药性实验＜61＞MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF NONSTERILE PRODUCTS: MICROBIAL ENUMERATION TESTS非无菌产品的微生物限度检查：微生物列举检查法＜62＞MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF NONSTERILE PRODUCTS: TESTS FOR SPECIFIED MICROORGANISMS 非无菌产品的微生物限度检查：特定微生物检查法＜63＞MYCOPLASMA TESTS 支原体检查法＜71＞STERILITY TESTS无菌检查法Biological tests and assays生物检查法与测定法＜81＞ANTIBIOTICS—MICROBIAL ASSAYS抗生素－微生物测定＜85＞BACTERIAL ENDOTOXINS TEST细菌内毒素检查法＜87＞BIOLOGICAL REACTIVITY TESTS, IN VITRO体外的生物反应性检查法＜88＞BIOLOGICAL REACTIVITY TESTS, IN VIVO 体内的生物反应性检查法＜89＞ENZYMES USED AS ANCILLARY MATERIALS IN PHARMACEUTICAL MANUFACTURING 药品生产中酶作为辅料所使用＜90＞FETAL BOVINE SERUM—QUALITY ATTRIBUTES AND FUNCTIONALITY TESTS 牛胎儿血清-质量品质和功能检查法＜91＞CALCIUM PANTOTHENATE ASSAY泛酸钙测定法＜92＞GROWTH FACTORS AND CYTOKINES USED IN CELL THERAPY MANUFACTURING 在细胞疗法中使用生长因子和细胞因子＜111＞DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS 生物测定法的设计与分析＜115＞DEXPANTHENOL ASSAY右泛醇（拟胆碱药）测定法＜121＞INSULIN ASSAYS胰岛素测定法＜121.1＞PHYSICOCHEMICAL ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES FOR INSULINS胰岛素的物理化学分析程序＜123＞GLUCAGON BIOIDENTITY TESTS 高血糖素的生物鉴别检查法＜124＞ERYTHROPOIETIN BIOASSAYS 红细胞生成素的微生物测定＜126＞SOMATROPIN BIOIDENTITY TESTS 生长激素的生物鉴别检查法＜130＞PROTEIN A QUALITY ATTRIBUTES 蛋白质A的质量特征＜151＞PYROGEN TEST热原检查法＜161＞TRANSFUSION AND INFUSION ASSEMBLIES AND SIMILAR MEDICAL DEVICES 输血输液用具以及相类似的医疗器械＜171＞VITAMIN B12 ACTIVITY ASSAY……2548维生素B12活性测定法Chemical Tests and assays化学实验检查与测定法鉴别检查＜181＞IDENTIFICATION—ORGANIC NITROGENOUS BASES鉴别－有机氮碱化合物＜191＞IDENTIFICATION TESTS—GENERAL鉴别实验－通用＜193＞IDENTIFICATION—TETRACYCLINES鉴别－四环素类＜197＞SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC IDENTIFICATION TESTS分光光度计鉴别实验＜201＞THIN-LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHIC IDENTIFICATION TEST薄层色谱鉴别实验Limit Tests 限度检查法＜206＞ALUMINUM铝＜207＞TEST FOR 1,6-ANHYDRO DERIV ATIVE FOR ENOXAPARIN SODIUM依诺肝素钠的酐类衍生物实验＜208＞ANTI-FACTOR Xa AND ANTI-FACTOR IIa ASSAYS FOR UNFRACTIONATED AND LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARINS普通肝素和低分子肝素产品中抗体Xa和抗体IIa测定＜209＞LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN MOLECULAR WEIGHT DETERMINATIONS 低分子肝素钠分子量测定＜211＞ARSENIC砷＜221＞CHLORIDE AND SULFATE氯和硫＜223＞DIMETHYLANILINE二甲基苯胺＜226＞4-EPIANHYDRO-TETRACYCLINE4－？－四环素＜227＞4-AMINOPHENOL IN ACETAMINOPHEN-CONTAINING DRUG PRODUCTS 对乙酰氨酚药物产品中氨基酚＜228＞ETHYLENE OXIDE AND DIOXANE 环氧乙烷和二氧六环＜231＞HEA VY METALS重金属（删除）＜232＞ELEMENTAL IMPURITIES—LIMITS 元素杂质-限度＜233＞ELEMENTAL IMPURITIES—PROCEDURES 元素杂质-规程＜241＞IRON铁＜251＞LEAD铅＜261＞MERCURY汞＜267＞POROSIMETRY BY MERCURY INTRUSION 水银孔隙仪＜268＞POROSITY BY NITROGEN ADSORPTION–DESORPTION 氮吸附-解吸测定孔隙率＜271＞READILY CARBONIZABLE SUBSTANCES TEST易碳化物检查法＜281＞RESIDUE ON IGNITION炽灼残渣＜291＞SELENIUM硒Other Tests and Assays 其它检查法与测定法＜301＞ACID-NEUTRALIZING CAPACITY酸中和容量＜311＞ALGINATES ASSAY藻酸盐测定法＜341＞ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS—CONTENT 抗菌剂－含量＜345＞Assay for Citric Acid/Citrate and Phosphate 柠檬酸/柠檬酸盐和磷酸盐的测定＜351＞ASSAY FOR STEROIDS类固醇（甾类化合物）测定法＜361> BARBITURATE ASSAY 巴比妥类药物测定法＜371＞COBALAMIN RADIOTRACER ASSAY钴铵素放射性跟踪剂测定法＜381＞ELASTOMERIC CLOSURES FOR INJECTIONS 注射剂的弹性密封件＜391＞EPINEPHRINE ASSAY肾上腺素测定法＜401＞FATS AND FIXED OILS脂肪与混合油＜411＞FOLIC ACID ASSAY叶酸测定法＜413＞IMPURITIES TESTING IN MEDICAL GASES 医用气体杂质检查＜415＞MEDICAL GASES ASSAY 医用气体含量检查＜425＞IODOMETRIC ASSAY—ANTIBIOTICS碘量检查法－抗生素＜429＞LIGHT DIFFRACTION MEASUREMENT OF PARTICLE SIZE粒径的光衍射测量法＜431＞METHOXY DETERMINATION甲氧基测定法＜441＞NIACIN OR NIACINAMIDE ASSAY 烟酰或烟酰胺测定法＜451＞NITRITE TITRATION亚硝酸盐滴定＜461＞NITROGEN DETERMINATION氮测定法＜466＞ORDINARY IMPURITIES一般杂质＜467＞RESIDUAL SOLVENTS残留溶剂＜469＞ETHYLENE GLYCOL, DIETHYLENE GLYCOL, AND TRIETHYLENE GLYCOL IN ETHOXYLATED SUBSTANCES乙氧基物质中乙二醇、二甘醇、三甘醇测定＜471＞OXYGEN FLASK COMBUSTION氧瓶燃烧法＜481＞RIBOFLAVIN ASSAY核黄素（维生素B2）测定法＜501＞SALTS OF ORGANIC NITROGENOUS BASES有机氮盐＜503＞ACETIC ACID IN PEPTIDES 多肽类中乙酸测定＜511＞SINGLE-STEROID ASSAY单一的类固醇测定法＜525＞SULFUR DIOXIDE 二氧化硫＜531＞THIAMINE ASSAY硫胺素测定法＜541＞TITRIMETRY滴定法＜551＞VITAMIN E ASSAY维生素E测定法＜561＞ARTICLES OF BOTANICAL ORIGIN植物起源的药品＜563＞IDENTIFICATION OF ARTICLES OF BOTANICAL ORIGIN植物药品的鉴别＜565＞BOTANICAL EXTRACTS植物提取＜571＞VITAMIN A ASSAY维生素A测定法＜581＞VITAMIN D ASSAY维生素D测定法＜591＞ZINC DETERMINATION锌的测定法Physical Test and Determinations物理检查与测定法＜601＞INHALATION AND NASAL DRUG PRODUCTS: AEROSOLS, SPRAYS, AND POWDERS—PERFORMANCE QUALITY TESTS吸入剂、鼻雾剂：气溶胶，喷雾，干粉-质量通则＜602＞PROPELLANTS 推进剂＜603＞TOPICAL AEROSOLS 局部喷雾剂＜604＞LEAK RATE 渗漏率＜610＞ALTERNATIVE MICROBIOLOGICAL SAMPLING METHODS FOR NONSTERILE INHALED AND NASAL PRODUCTS非无菌吸入和鼻雾剂可供选择的微生物取样方法＜611＞ALCOHOL DETERMINATION乙醇测定法＜616＞BULK DENSITY AND TAPPED DENSITY堆密度与振实密度＜621＞CHROMATOGRAPHY色谱法＜631＞COLOR AND ACHROMICITY呈色与消色＜641＞COMPLETENESS OF SOLUTION溶解度＜643＞TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON总有机碳＜645＞W ATER CONDUCTIVITY水电导率＜651＞CONGEALING TEMPERATURE凝点温度＜659＞PACKAGING AND STORAGE REQUIREMENTS 包装和储藏要求＜660＞CONTAINERS—GLASS 容器-玻璃＜661＞CONTAINERS—PLASTICS容器-塑料＜670＞AUXILIARY PACKAGING COMPONENTS 辅助包装部件＜671＞CONTAINERS—PERFORMANCE TESTING容器－性能测试＜691＞COTTON棉花＜695＞CRYSTALLINITY结晶度＜696＞CHARACTERIZATION OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS BY MICROCALORIMETRY AND SOLUTION CALORIMETRY 通过溶液量热学测定结晶性＜697＞CONTAINER CONTENT FOR INJECTIONS 注射剂容器容积＜698＞DELIVERABLE VOLUME抽取体积＜699＞DENSITY OF SOLIDS固体密度＜701＞DISINTEGRATION崩解时限＜705＞QUALITY ATTRIBUTES OF TABLETS LABELED AS HA VING A FUNCTIONAL SCORE ？＜711＞DISSOLUTION 溶出度＜721＞DISTILLING RANGE馏程＜724＞DRUG RELEASE药物释放度＜729＞GLOBULE SIZE DISTRIBUTION IN LIPID INJECTABLE EMULSIONS脂类可注射的乳剂的粒径分布＜730＞Plasma Spectrochemistry 血浆光谱化学？＜731＞LOSS ON DRYING4干燥失重＜733＞LOSS ON IGNITION灼烧失重＜735＞X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETRY X射线光谱＜736＞MASS SPECTROMETRY 质谱＜741＞MELTING RANGE OR TEMPERATURE熔距或熔点＜751＞METAL PARTICLES IN OPHTHALMIC OINTMENTS眼用软膏中的金属粒子＜755＞MINIMUM FILL最低装量＜761＞NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE核磁共振＜771＞OPHTHALMIC OINTMENTS眼用软膏＜776＞OPTICAL MICROSCOPY光学显微镜＜781＞OPTICAL ROTATION旋光度＜785＞OSMOLALITY AND OSMOLARITY渗透压＜786＞PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION ESTIMATION BY ANALYTICAL SIEVING 筛分法估算粒径分布＜787＞SUBVISIBLE PARTICULATE MATTER IN THERAPEUTIC PROTEIN INJECTIONS显微计数法在治疗性蛋白注射剂中应用＜788＞PARTICULATE MATTER IN INJECTIONS注射剂中的不溶性微粒＜789＞PARTICULATE MATTER IN OPHTHALMIC SOLUTIONS眼用溶液中的不溶性微粒＜790＞VISIBLE PARTICULATES IN INJECTIONS 注射剂中可见异物＜791＞pH＜795＞PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOUNDING—NONSTERILE PREPARATIONS药物混合－非无菌制剂＜797＞PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOUNDING—STERILE PREPARATIONS药物混合－无菌制剂＜801＞POLAROGRAPHY极谱法＜811＞POWDER FINENESS粉剂细度＜821＞RADIOACTIVITY放射性＜823＞POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY DRUGS FOR COMPOUNDING, INVESTIGATIONAL, AND RESEARCH USES用于正电子发射断层造影术的放射性药物＜831＞REFRACTIVE INDEX折光率＜841＞SPECIFIC GRAVITY比重＜846＞SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA 比表面积＜851＞SPECTROPHOTOMETRY AND LIGHT-SCATTERING分光光度计与光散射＜852＞ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY 原子吸收光谱＜853＞FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY 荧光光谱＜854＞MID-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY 中红外光谱＜857＞ULTRAVIOLET-VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY 紫外可见光谱＜861＞SUTURES—DIAMETER缝线－直径？＜871＞SUTURES—NEEDLE ATTACHMENT缝线－穿孔实验＜881＞TENSILE STRENGTH张力＜891＞THERMAL ANALYSIS热分析＜905＞UNIFORMITY OF DOSAGE UNITS制剂单位的含量均匀度＜911＞VISCOSITY—CAPILLARY METHODS黏度-毛细管法＜912＞VISCOSITY—ROTATIONAL METHODS 黏度-旋转法＜913＞VISCOSITY—ROLLING BALL METHOD 黏度-球法＜921＞W ATER DETERMINATION水分测定＜941＞CHARACTERIZATION OF CRYSTALLINE AND PARTIALLY CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS BY X-RAY POWDER DIFFRACTION (XRPD)X光衍射General Information通用信息＜1005＞ACOUSTIC EMISSION 声频发射＜1010＞ANALYTICAL DATA—INTERPRETATION AND TREATMENT分析数据－解释与处理＜1015＞AUTOMATED RADIOCHEMICAL SYNTHESIS APPARATUS放射性自动合成装置＜1024＞BOVINE SERUM 牛血清＜1027＞FLOW CYTOMETRY 流式细胞仪＜1030＞BIOLOGICAL ASSAY CHAPTERS—OVERVIEW AND GLOSSARY生物测定章节-综述和术语＜1031＞THE BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF MATERIALS USED IN DRUG CONTAINERS, MEDICAL DEVICES, AND IMPLANTS用于药物容器、医疗设施和植入剂的材料的生物相容性＜1034＞ANALYSIS OF BIOLOGICAL ASSAYS 生物测定分析＜1035＞BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS FOR STERILIZATION灭菌用生物指示剂＜1041＞BIOLOGICS生物制剂＜1043＞Ancillary Material for Cell, Gene, and Tissue-Engineered Products细胞，基因与组织设计产品的辅助材料＜1044＞CRYOPRESERV ATION OF CELLS 细胞低温保存＜1045＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES生物技术提取产品＜1046＞CELLULAR AND TISSUE-BASED PRODUCTS细胞与组织产品＜1047＞GENE THERAPY PRODUCTS 基因治疗产品＜1048＞QUALITY OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCTS: ANALYSIS OF THE EXPRESSION CONSTRUCT IN CELLS USED FOR PRODUCTION OF r-DNA DERIVED PROTEIN PRODUCTS 生物技术产品的质量：从蛋白质产品中提取的r-DNA产品在细胞中表达结构的分析＜1049＞QUALITY OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCTS: STABILITY TESTING OF BIOTECHNOLOGICAL/BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTS生物技术产品的质量：生物技术/生物产品的稳定性实验＜1050＞VIRAL SAFETY EV ALUATION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM CELL LINES OF HUMAN OR ANIMAL ORIGIN从人或动物细胞中提取的生物技术产品的病毒安全性评估＜1051＞CLEANING GLASS APPARATUS玻璃容器的清洗＜1052＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES—AMINO ACID ANALYSIS生物技术提取法-氨基酸测定＜1053＞CAPILLARY ELECTROPHORESIS 毛细管电泳法＜1054＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES—ISOELECTRIC FOCUSING生物技术提取法-等电点聚集＜1055＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES—PEPTIDE MAPPING生物技术提取法-肽谱＜1056＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES—POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL ELECTROPHORESIS 生物技术提取法-凝胶电泳＜1057＞BIOTECHNOLOGY-DERIVED ARTICLES—TOTAL PROTEIN ASSAY生物技术提取法-总蛋白测定＜1058＞ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENT QUALIFICATION 分析仪器要求＜1059＞EXCIPIENT PERFORMANCE 赋形剂＜1061＞COLOR—INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT显色－仪器测量＜1065＞Ion Chromatography 离子色谱法＜1066＞PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS THAT PROMOTE SAFE MEDICATION USE物理环境促使安全使用药物＜1072＞DISINFECTANTS AND ANTISEPTICS 消毒剂和防腐剂＜1074＞EXCIPIENT BIOLOGICAL SAFETY EV ALUATION GUIDELINES赋形剂（辅料）生物安全性评估指导＜1078＞GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR BULK PHARMACEUTICAL EXCIPIENTS 批药品赋形剂的生产管理规范＜1079＞Good Storage and Shipping Practices 良好的贮存与运输规范＜1080＞BULK PHARMACEUTICAL EXCIPIENTS—CERTIFICATE OF ANALYSIS批药品赋形剂-COA＜1084＞GLYCOPROTEIN AND GLYCAN ANALYSIS—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 糖蛋白和多糖分析-一般通则＜1086＞IMPURITIES IN DRUG SUBSTANCES AND DRUG PRODUCTS药物和药物产品中的杂质＜1087＞APPARENT INTRINSIC DISSOLUTION—DISSOLUTION TESTING PROCEDURES FOR ROTATING DISK AND STATIONARY DISK内部的溶出度-旋转和静止溶出检测程序？＜1088＞IN VITRO AND IN VIVO EV ALUATION OF DOSAGE FORMS体内与体外的剂型的评估＜1090＞ASSESSMENT OF DRUG PRODUCT PERFORMANCE-BIOAV AILABILITY, BIOEQUIV ALENCE, AND DISSOLUTION药物产品性能评估：生物利用度、生物等效性和溶出＜1091＞LABELING OF INACTIVE INGREDIENTS非活性成分的标示＜1092＞THE DISSOLUTION PROCEDURE: DEVELOPMENT AND V ALIDATION溶出程序：开发与验证＜1094＞CAPSULES—DISSOLUTION TESTING AND RELATED QUALITY ATTRIBUTES 胶囊-关于产品质量的溶出测定＜1097＞BULK POWDER SAMPLING PROCEDURES：粉末样品取样程序＜1102＞IMMUNOLOGICAL TEST METHODS—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS免疫测试方法-总则＜1103＞IMMUNOLOGICAL TEST METHODS—ENZYME-LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (ELISA) 免疫学测试方法-酶联免疫吸附测定＜1104＞IMMUNOLOGICAL TEST METHODS—IMMUNOBLOT ANALYSIS免疫测试方法-免疫印迹法＜1105＞IMMUNOLOGICAL TEST METHODS—SURFACE PLASMON RESONANCE 免疫测试方法-表面等离子体共振＜1106＞IMMUNOGENICITY ASSAYS—DESIGN AND VALIDATION OF IMMUNOASSAYS TO DETECT ANTI-DRUG ANTIBODIES？＜1111＞MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF NONSTERILE PRODUCTS: ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA FOR PHARMACEUTICAL PREPARATIONS AND SUBSTANCES FOR PHARMACEUTICAL USE非无菌产品的微生物学检查：药用制剂和制药过程使用的物质接受标准＜1112＞MICROBIAL CHARACTERIZATION, IDENTIFICATION, AND STRAIN TYPING 非无菌药物产品水活性测定应用＜1113＞MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF NONSTERILE PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS 非无菌药品中的微生物分布＜1115＞BIOBURDEN CONTROL OF NONSTERILE DRUG SUBSTANCES AND PRODUCTS 非无菌药物和产品的生物负载控制＜1116＞MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTROL AND MONITORING OF ASEPTIC PROCESSING ENVIRONMENTS洁净的房间与其它可控环境的微生物评估＜1117＞MICROBIOLOGICAL BEST LABORATORY PRACTICES 微生物最优实验室规范＜1118＞MONITORING DEVICES—TIME, TEMPERATURE, AND HUMIDITY监控装置－时间、温度与湿度＜1119＞NEAR-INFRARED SPECTROPHOTOMETRY近红外分光光度测定法＜1120＞Raman Spectrophotometry 拉曼分光光度测定法＜1121＞NOMENCLATURE命名＜1125＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—GENERAL 核酸技术-通则＜1126＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—EXTRACTION, DETECTION, AND SEQUENCING 核酸技术-提取、检测、测序＜1127＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—AMPLIFICATION 核酸技术-扩增＜1128＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—MICROARRAY 核酸技术-微阵列＜1129＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—GENOTYPING 核酸技术-基因分型＜1130＞NUCLEIC ACID-BASED TECHNIQUES—APPROACHES FOR DETECTING TRACE NUCLEIC ACIDS (RESIDUAL DNA TESTING)核酸技术-探测微量核酸的应用（残留DNA测试）＜1136＞PACKAGING AND REPACKAGING—SINGLE-UNIT CONTAINERS包装和再包装－单一容器＜1151＞PHARMACEUTICAL DOSAGE FORMS药物剂型＜1152＞ANIMAL DRUGS FOR USE IN ANIMAL FEEDS兽药在动物饲料中的使用＜1160＞PHARMACEUTICAL CALCULATIONS IN PRESCRIPTION COMPOUNDING 按处方混合的药物的计算＜1163＞QUALITY ASSURANCE IN PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOUNDING按处方混合的药物的质量保证＜1171＞PHASE-SOLUBILITY ANALYSIS相溶解分析＜1174＞Powder Flow 粉末流动性＜1176＞PRESCRIPTION BALANCES AND VOLUMETRIC APPARATUS 处方天平与容量器具＜1177＞Good Packaging Practices 良好的包装操作＜1178＞Good Repackaging Practices 良好的再包装操作＜1180＞HUMAN PLASMA 人血浆＜1181＞SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY扫描电子显微镜＜1184＞SENSITIZATION TESTING 致敏测试＜1191＞STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS IN DISPENSING PRACTICE分装操作中稳定性考察＜1195＞SIGNIFICANT CHANGE GUIDE FOR BULK PHARMACEUTICAL EXCIPIENTS 散装药用辅料更换指导原则＜1197＞GOOD DISTRIBUTION PRACTICES FOR BULK PHARMACEUTICAL EXCIPIENTS 散装药用辅料良好的分装操作＜1207＞STERILE PRODUCT PACKAGING—INTEGRITY EV ALUATION无菌产品包装－完整性评估＜1208＞STERILITY TESTING—V ALIDATION OF ISOLATOR SYSTEMS无菌实验－隔离系统的验证＜1209＞STERILIZATION—CHEMICAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL INDICATORS AND INTEGRATORS灭菌－化学与物理化学的指示剂以及二者的综合＜1211＞STERILIZATION AND STERILITY ASSURANCE OF COMPENDIAL ARTICLES 药典物品中的灭菌与灭菌保证＜1216＞TABLET FRIABILITY片剂的脆碎度＜1217＞TABLET BREAKING FORCE 片剂断裂力＜1222＞TERMINALLY STERILIZED PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS—PARAMETRIC RELEASE 药品终端灭菌－放行参数＜1223＞V ALIDATION OF ALTERNATIVE MICROBIOLOGICAL METHODS可供选择的微生物学方法的验证＜1224＞TRANSFER OF ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES 分析方法转移＜1225＞V ALIDATION OF COMPENDIAL PROCEDURES药典方法的验证＜1226＞VERIFICATION OF COMPENDIAL PROCEDURES 药典方法的确认＜1227＞V ALIDATION OF MICROBIAL RECOVERY FROM PHARMACOPEIAL ARTICLES从药物中回收微生物的验证＜1229＞STERILIZATION OF COMPENDIAL ARTICLES 药典灭菌过程＜1229.1＞STEAM STERILIZATION BY DIRECT CONTACT 直接蒸汽灭菌＜1229.2＞MOIST HEAT STERILIZATION OF AQUEOUS LIQUIDS 水溶液的湿热灭菌＜1229.3＞MONITORING OF BIOBURDEN 生物负载监控＜1229.4＞STERILIZING FILTRATION OF LIQUIDS 溶液的无菌过滤器＜1229.6＞LIQUID-PHASE STERILIZATION 液态灭菌＜1229.7＞GASEOUS STERILIZATION 气态灭菌＜1229.8＞DRY HEAT STERILIZATION 干热灭菌＜1229.10＞RADIATION STERILIZATION 辐射灭菌＜1230＞W ATER FOR HEMODIALYSIS APPLICATIONS 血液透析过程用水＜1231＞W ATER FOR PHARMACEUTICAL PURPOSES制药用水＜1234＞VACCINES FOR HUMAN USE—POLYSACCHARIDE AND GLYCOCONJUGATE VACCINES 人用疫苗-多糖和糖复合物疫苗＜1235＞V ACCINES FOR HUMAN USE—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 人用疫苗-通则＜1237＞VIROLOGY TEST METHODS 病毒测试方法＜1238＞V ACCINES FOR HUMAN USE—BACTERIAL V ACCINES 人用疫苗-细菌疫苗＜1240＞VIRUS TESTING OF HUMAN PLASMA FOR FURTHER MANUFACTURE下一步使用人血浆的病毒测试＜1241＞W ATER–SOLID INTERACTIONS IN PHARMACEUTICAL SYSTEMS在药物系统中水与固体的相互作用＜1251＞WEIGHING ON AN ANALYTICAL BALANCE关于分析天平的称重＜1265＞Written Prescription Drug Information－Guidelines 书面的处方药信息－指南＜1285＞PREPARATION OF BIOLOGICAL SPECIMENS FOR HISTOLOGIC AND IMMUNOHISTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS为了组织和免疫组织分析的生物标本制备＜1285.1＞HEMATOXYLIN AND EOSIN STAINING OF SECTIONED TISSUE FOR MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION显微镜观察用苏木精和伊红染色的切片＜1601＞PRODUCTS FOR NEBULIZATION—CHARACTERIZATION TESTS 产品雾化状态-性状描述＜1644＞THEORY AND PRACTICE OF ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY MEASUREMENTS OF SOLUTIONS溶液电导值测量方法的理论与实践＜1660＞EV ALUATION OF THE INNER SURFACE DURABILITY OF GLASS CONTAINERS 玻璃容器内表面耐久性评估＜1724＞SEMISOLID DRUG PRODUCTS—PERFORMANCE TESTS 半固态药物产品-性能测试＜1736＞APPLICATIONS OF MASS SPECTROMETRY 质谱应用＜1761＞APPLICATIONS OF NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY核磁共振光谱应用＜1787＞MEASUREMENT OF SUBVISIBLE PARTICULATE MATTER IN THERAPEUTIC PROTEIN INJECTIONS用显微镜测量方法测量治疗性蛋白注射剂的不溶性微粒＜1788＞METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PARTICULATE MATTER IN INJECTIONS AND OPHTHALMIC SOLUTIONS注射剂和眼用溶液的不溶性微粒测定的方法选择＜1852＞ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY—THEORY AND PRACTICE原子吸收光谱-理论与实践＜1853＞FLUORESCENCE SPECTROSCOPY—THEORY AND PRACTICE荧光光谱-理论与实践＜1854＞MID-INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY—THEORY AND PRACTICE中红外光谱-理论与实践＜1857＞ULTRA VIOLET-VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY—THEORY AND PRACTICE紫外可见光谱-理论与实践＜1911＞RHEOMETRY 流变测定Dietary Supplements营养补充剂General Tests and Assays 一般检查法与测定法＜2021＞MICROBIAL ENUMERATION TESTS—NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS…3080微生物数量实验－营养与食品添加剂＜2022＞MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCEDURES FOR ABSENCE OF SPECIFIED MICROORGANISMS—NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS (3083)不得检出特定微生物的程序－营养与营养补充剂＜2023>MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OF NONSTERILE NUTRITIONAL AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS……3087非无菌的营养与食品添加剂中的微生物分布<2040>DISINTEGRATION AND DISSOLUTION OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS (3089)食品添加剂的崩解与溶出<2091>WEIGHT V ARIATION OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS……3092食品添加剂的重量差异<2750>MANUFACTURING PRACTICES FOR DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS (3093)食品添加剂的生产操作。
CFA一级知识点概要总结
CFA一级知识点概要总结============Quantitative Methods============#05 Time Value of Money1) EAR在离散复利（Monthly，Quarterly，Semi-annually）和连续复利时的计算2) 分期付款下利率、每期支付金额、FV、PV和支付次数的关系#06 Discounted Cash Flow Applications1) 如何计算Time-Weighted Rate of Return2) 如何计算Money-Weighted Rate of Return3) 如何用计算器计算NPV4) 如何用计算器计算IRR#07 Statistical Concepts and Market Return1) 4种Measurement Scle：Norminal Scale，Ordinal Scale，Interval Scale，Ratio Scale2) 车比雪夫不等式（Chebyshev's Inequality）的含义3) Sharp Ratio的定义4) 偏度（Skewness）的定义以及正偏（Positively Skewness）、负偏（Negatively Skewness）的判断5) Sample Skewness (样本偏度)的计算6) 什么是峰度（Kurtosis）以及尖峰的（Leptokurtic）和平峰的（Platykurtic）7) 如何计算样本偏度（Sample Skewness）和样本峰度（Sample Kurtosis）8) 正态分布(Standard Distribution)的几点属性：比如Sample Kurtosis等于3,mean/middle/mode三者相等#08 Probability Concepts1) 两个事件的联合概率（P(AB)），条件概率（P(A|B)）以及概率加法法则和乘法法则#09 Common Probability Distribution1) 什么是置信区间（Confidence Interval），并且记住90%，95%和99%的置信区间幅度2) 如何计算Safty-First Ratio3) 蒙特卡洛模拟（Monte Carlo Simulation）的思路4) 历史模拟（Historical Simulation）的思路5) 蒙特卡洛模拟（Monte Carlo Simulation）与历史模拟（Historical Simulation）的不同6) 正态分布（Normal Distribution）的三点主要特征#10 Sampling and Estimation1) Standard Error of Sample Mean的计算公式以及它的含义2) 什么是t分布（Student's t-distribution）以及其中自由度（Degrees of Freedom，df）的概念3) t分布的特点以及与正态分布的区别#11 Hypothesis Testing1) Hypothesis Testing的7个步骤（顺序）2) 什么是无效假设（Null Hypothesis）和备择假设（Altanative Hypothesis）3) 什么是单尾检验（One-Tailed Test）和双尾检验（Two-Tailed Test）4) 检验统计量（Test Statistic）的定义5) 如何得到Standard Error of Sample Statistic6) 什么是第一类错误（Type I Error）和第二类错误（Type II Error）============Economics============#13 Elasticity1) Price Elasticity of Demand的定义2) 影响Price Elasticity of Demand的三个方面3) Elastic，Inelastic，Perfectly Elastic和Perfectly Inelastic的图形表示4) Cross Elasticity of Demand的定义5) Income Elasticity的定义以及三个不同等级的商品与它的对应关系6) Price Elasticity of Supply的定义7) 影响Price Elasticity of Supply的两种因素8) 理解在直线需求曲线（Straight-Ling Demand Curve）时，High Elasticity，Unitary Elasticity 以及Low Elasticity的位置（Notes V2 P16）9) Demand Curve在价格越高时弹性越大#14 Efficiency & Equity1) MC(Marginal Cost)和MB(Marginal Benefits)的定义以及关系2) 如何计算消费者剩余（Consumer Surplus）以及它在MC-MB图中的位置3) 什么是生产者剩余（Producer Surplus）以及它在MC-MB图中的位置4) 什么是Equilibrium Quantity5) 阻碍资源分配有效性的几个因素6) 什么是Deadweight Loss，以及它在MC-MB图上的表示7) 有关资源分配公平性/有效性的两种学派：Utilitarianism（功利主义）和Symmetry Principle （对称原则）的中心思想#16 Organizing Production1) 机会成本（Opportunity Cost）的含义2) 两种不同的机会成本：Explicit Cost和Implicit Cost3) 两种不同的隐性成本（Implicit Cost）4) 什么是Implicit Rental Rate，并且知道它是Economic Depreciation和Foregone Interest的和5) Economic Profit的定义以及它与Total Revenue，Total Cost（含Opportunity Cost）的关系6) 理解什么是Economic Profit，并且理解为什么Economic Profit小于Accounting Profit7) 理解在Normal情况下，Economic Profit等于08) 对Maximum Profit的三种类型的限制：技术限制、信息限制和市场限制9) 理解什么是技术有效性（Technological Efficiency），什么是经济有效性（Economic Efficiency），并结合例子（Notes V4 P52）10) 公司组织生产的两种形式：Command System和Incentive System，以及它们的不同11) 什么是Principal-Agent Problem，以及减少Principal Agent Problem的三种常用方法：Ownership，Incentive Pay和Long Term Contract12) 商务组织的三种形式的优缺点：Proprietorships，Partnerships，Corporations13) 四种市场类型：Perfect Competition, Monopllistic Competition, Oligopoly和Monoploy等含义和特点14) Her Findahl-Hirschman Index (HHI)指数的定义是什么15) 四公司集中度（Four Firm Concentration Ratio）的定义是什么16) Concentration Measurement的局限性：地理因素、壁垒因素、市场-行业的差异17) 企业比市场更有效的四个原因：Transaction Cost，Economies of Scale，Economies of Scope，Economies of Team Production#17 Output and Costs1) Short Run Decision和Long Run Decision有什么本质区别：Short Run Decision时，投入的资源固定；Long Run Decision时，可以调节投入的资源2) 什么是Total Product，Marginal Product，Average Product（Notes V4 P65）3) 什么是Total Cost（Total Fixed Cost和Total Variable Cost），Marginal Cost，4) 什么是Average Cost（Average Fixed Cost，Average Variable Cost），并熟悉它们的图形关系（Notes V4 P69）5) 什么是一个公司的生产函数（Production Function）以及为什么会产生Diminishing Returns6) Law of Diminishing Returns的中心思想是什么7) 什么是Marginal Product of Capital以及为什么会产生Diminishing Marginal Product of Capital8) LRATC曲线（Long Run Average Total Cost）是什么形状的9) Economies of Scale和Diseconomies of Scale的区别以及在LRATC曲线上的位置10) LRATC曲线上面的三个阶段Economies of Scale, Constant Returns to Scale，Diseconomies of Scale11) A TC = AFC + A VC等式的含义以及图形表示#18 Perfect Competition1) 在完全竞争市场（Perfect Competition Market）中，Price Taker的概念：价格合适可以卖出任意多；价格高出，可以卖出02) Perfect Competition的若干假定3) Perfect Competition的主要特点#19 Monopoly1) Monopoly市场的特点：没有竞争者；没有替代品；高壁垒2) Monopoly市场的两种壁垒形式：Leagal Barriers和Natural Barries3) Monopoly市场的两种价格方式：Single-Price和Price Discrimination4) 理解Price Discrimination的三个前提：Demand Curve右下斜；至少两个具有不同价格需求弹性的消费群体；消费者不能转卖5) 理解Price Discrimination的目的是为了将消费者剩余（Consumer Surplus）转变成经济收益（Economic Profit）6) Price Discrimination对Economic Profit和Consumer Surplus的影响7) 理解为什么在MC=MR时垄断者的产量最佳8) 理解为什么在垄断市场（Monopoly Market）会产生Deadeight Loss：Monoploy Market没有将Consumer Surplus+Producer Surplus最大化#20 Monopoly Competition & Oligopoly1) Monopoly Competition的特征2) 理解Monopoly Competition下，Price Demand Elasticity大3) 理解Kinked Demand Curve Model产生的原因4) 囚徒困境（Prisoners' Dilemma）是什么道理#21 Markets for Factors of Production1) 什么是Derived Demand2) Marginal Product，Marginal Revenue与Marginal Revenue Product的定义和相互关系3) 在完全竞争（Perfect Competition）环境下，MRP（Marginal Revenue Product）曲线的形状和含义4) 理解什么是Wage Rate5) 理解一个公司产出的商品的价格和它雇佣的Labor量成正比6) 理解影响Demand for Labor的几个因素：商品价格、其他生产因素（是否替代品）、技术进步水平7) 影响Labor Supply的两个因素：Substitution Effect，Income Effect是如何相互作用的：Substitution Effect导致工人用休闲时间换更多工资；Income Effect导致工人更多的用Income去休闲8) 工会（Labor Union）设法增加工人Wage Rate和保证工人就业的主要办法：Collective Bargaining，Traing to Increase MP，Restrick for importing，Increasesubstitution price9) Physical Capital和Financial Capital分别是什么10) 理解为什么Non-Renewable Resource的供应曲线是完全弹性的；为什么Renewable Resource的供应曲线是完全非弹性的11) 理解Economic Rent的经济学意义，以及它的供应曲线图形意义：Supply Curve完全弹性时，Economic Rent等于零；Supply Curve完全非弹性时，Economic Rent最大#22 Monitoring Jobs and the Price Level1) 失业率（Unemployment Rate）的计算公式，主要是其中Labor Force的意义（所有已经工作和有意工作的人群）2) 劳动力参加率（Labor-Force Participation Rate）的计算公式3) 就业人口比率（Employment-to-Population Ratio）的计算公式4) 什么是Aggregate Hours5) 什么是Real Wage Rate（一小时劳动可以换回多少商品和劳务，扣除价格水平变化），以及它和Wage Rate比较6) 失业的三种类型（Frictional Unemployment，Structural Unemployment，Cyclical Unemployment），注意区分Frictional Unemployment和Structual Unemployment的区别7) 什么是充分就业（Full Employment）：没有Cyclical Unemployment8) 什么是自然失业率（Natual Rate of Unemployment）：Frictional Unemployment和Structual Unemployment导致的失业率9) 什么是Potential GDP：当失业率维持在自然失业率的时候可以产生的GDP10) CPI（Consumer Price Index）的定义以及如何计算11) 哪个单位负责报告CPI，报告频率（Bureau of Labor Statistics BLS，Monthly）12) 通货膨胀率（Inflation Rate）如何计算13) CPI偏差（CPI Bias）的主要因素：New Goods，Quality Change，Commodity Substitution，Outlet Substitution#23 Aggregate Supply and Aggregate Demand1) 什么是总供给（Aggregate Supply）2) 短期总供给（Short Run Aggregate Supply SAS），长期总供给（Long Run Aggregate Supply LAS）的曲线图是什么样的3) 理解为什么LAS不受价格变化的影响，它反映了potential real output of the economy4) 什么是Potential Output（Full Employment下产生的Output）5) Potential Output正相关的几个因素：Quantity of Labor，Quantity of Capital，Technology6) 影响Money Wage Rate的两个因素：Unemployment（负相关）；Inflation Expectation（正相关）7) Aggregate Demand的四个构成成分（Comsumption，Investment，Government Spending，Net Export）8) 影响Aggregate Demand曲线的三个因素（Expectation About Future Income/Inflation/Profits，Fiscal/Monetory Policies，World Economy）1) Classical Macroeconomics，Keynesian Macroeconomics和Monetarist Macroeconomics三种经济学观点的异同比较#24 Money, the Price Level, and Inflation1) Money的三种职能：Means of Payment；Unit of Account；Store of V alue2) 什么是M1，什么是M23) 理解为什么Checks Outstanding和Credit Card都不属于Money4) 三种主要的储蓄机构：Commercial Banks，Thrift Institution5) 存款机构（Depository Institution）的四种主要功能：提供流动性；金融中介；监控风险；分散贷款风险6) Fed的三种政策工具：贴现率；Bank Reserve Requirement；Open Market Operations7) 银行允许贷款量与Required Reserved Ratio之间的关系（Notes V2 P156）8) 什么是Monetary Base，它由什么构成9) 什么是现金漏损（Currency Drain）10) 货币乘数（Money Multiplier）的计算公式，以及它在Quantity of Money公式中的作用11) 理解Demand for Money与Interest Rate负相关的原理12) 什么是Money Velocity，并理解M*V=P*Y=GDP的含义#25 US Inflation, Unemployment, and Business Cycle1) Cost-Push Inflation是如何产生的：Aggregate Supply减少所致2) Demand-Pull Inflation是如何产生的：Aggregate Demand增加所导致3) 飞利浦线（Phillips Curve）是用来表达什么关系的（Inflation与失业率的关系）4) Short-Run Phillips Curve是什么形态；Long-Run Phillips Curve是什么形态5) 什么是期望通胀（Expected Inflation）：在Full Employment下的通胀6) Natural Rate变化对Long-Run Phillip Curve的影响：Natural Rate增大，Long-Run Phillip Curve向右移动#26 Fiscal Policy1) 什么是Supply-Side Effects（Fiscal Policy对Supply的影响，尤其通过税收）2) 理解Laffer Curve描述的是什么原理（Notes V2 P184）3) Financing for Investment的来源主要包括哪些（National Savings，Government Savings，Borrowing from Foreigners）4) 挤出效应（Crowding Out Effect）：政府扩张财政，挤出私人投资/支出机会#27 Monetary Policy1) Fed的货币政策的三个目标：扩大就业；稳定价格；稳定利率2) 理解Fed的主要货币手段是联邦基金利率（Federal Fund Rate）3) Open Market Operations是如何实现的：买入、卖出Treasury Securities#28 An Overview of Central Bank1) 中央银行实施货币政策（Monetary Policy）的工具有哪些2) Inflation Targeting指什么：将通胀率控制在一个区间内为目标的货币政策============FSA============#29 Financial Statement Analysis: Introduction1) 审计的三种结果的含义：Unqualified，Qualified，Adversed Opinion的分别的含义2) MD&A（Management's Discussion and Analysis）记录的内容是什么：一些Disclosure，Discussion3) Footnotes记录什么东西：Accounting Methods，4) Proxy Statement主要记录什么东西：有关Shareholder的信息5) Standard Auditor's Opinion的三部分内容（Notes V3 P14）6) FSA Framework的六步：State Objective and Context；Gather Data；Process Data；Analyze Date；Report Conclusion；Update#30 Financial Reporting Mechanics1) 什么是Contra Account2) 什么是Asset3) 什么是Liability4) 什么是Owners' Equity5) 什么是Income6) 什么是Expense7) 基本会计等式8) 什么是Double-Entry Accounting原则9) 什么是Accrual Basis Accounting，并解释什么是Unearned Revenue，Accrued Revenue，Prepaid Expense，Accrued Expense10) 什么是Cash Basis Accounting11) 什么是Prepaid Expenses12) 什么是Accrued Expenses13) 会用Balance Sheet、Income Statement和Cash Statement之间的金额互算14) Revenue和Unearned Revenue（Liabilities）的区别15) 知道Ending Retained Earning和Beginning Retained Earning的差等于Net Income减去Dividend Declared#31 Financial Reporting Standards1) 国际会计准则(IFSR)和美国会计准则(GAAP)的大略异同2) 国际会计准则No.1对哪些财务报表是必须的3) 什么是Proxy Statements4) 什么是MD&A5) 报表的质量：Understandability，Comparability，Relevance，Reliability6) 制作报表的两个Assumption：Accrual Basis，Going Concern Assumption分别是什么意思6) 一个完好的报表架构需要满足的几点要求：透明性（Transparency），可理解（Comprehensiveness）和一致性（Consistency）#32 Understanding The Income Statement1) Net Income与Revenue和Expense的关系：Revenue - Expense = Net Income2) 明白GnL（Gain and Loss）是Incidental Transaction产生的3) 什么是COGS：Cost of Goods Sold4) Gross Profit与Revenue的关系：Revenue - COGS = Gross Profit5) 什么是Operating Profit（Operating Profit（EBIT）= Gross Profit - Operating Expense - Depreciation Expense）以及它与Gross Profit的不同6) 明白为什么Unearned Revenue是一种负债7) GAAP下的FASB确认Revenue的四项原则是什么：Evidence of Arrangement；Product Delivered；Price Determined；Seller Sure Collecting Money8) Long-Term Contract下确认Revenue的方法：Percentage of Completion；Completed Contract9) 什么是Installment Sale，并且明白Profit根据收到的Cash确认；更有Cost Recovery Method 要求收到的Cash超过Cost时才确认Profit10) 什么是Barter Transaction以及它在GAAP和IFSR下得到Fair Value的不同方法11) Revenue的两种计量方法：Gross Reporting和Net Reporting的区别是什么（Gross Reporting 分别记Revenue和COGS；Net Reporting只记它们的差值）12) Expense确认的原则之一：Matching Principle是什么含义（Expense确认的时间要与Revenue确认的时间一致）13) Expense中的Period Cost是怎么回事，以及它的确认方式14) Straight-line Depreciation的计算方法（Notes V3 P58）15) Double-Declining Balance Depreciation的计算方法16) 关于Inventory的三种会计记录方法：FIFO、LIFO和Average Cost的原理是什么17) 无形资产（Intangible Assets）如何摊销（Amortization）：分有固定使用期限（如Franchise Agreement）和没有固定使用期限（如Goodwill）两种情况18) 被停止的经营项目（Discontinued Operations）的记账原则：与其他项目分开报；对持续经营项目无影响19) 什么样的事情是Unusual Items（比如：Gain n Loss for Sale Assets）；什么样的事情是Infrequent Items（比如：Impairement，Write Down，Write Off）20) 什么样的事情是Extraordinary Items21) 什么是Basic EPS以及公式，尤其清楚如何计算Weighted Average Shares22) 什么是简单资本结构（Simple Capital Structure）；什么是复杂资本结构（Complex Capital Structure）23) 什么是Antidilutive Securities以及与Dilutive Securities的区别24) 什么是Diluted EPS以及公式25) 什么是Common-Size Income Statement，分母是什么26) Gross Profit Margin和Net Profit Margin的公式分别是什么，并且知道Net Sale就是Revenue27) 列举哪些收入不记入Income Statements：Issuing Stock；Reacquiring Stock；Dividend Paid；Other Comprehensive Income（FX，Pension Liability，HedgingDerivative，Available for Sale Securities）28) 什么是Available for Sale Securities29) 理解Comprehensive Income是Net Income和Other Comprehensive Income之和30) 计量Income的方法：Sale Basis Method，Percentage-of-Completion Method，Completed Contract Method，Installment Methods，Cost Recovery Method#33 Understanding Balance Sheet1) Balance Sheet的几种主要格式：Account Format；Report Format和Classified Balance Sheet2)1) 什么是Working Capital2) Current Asset包括哪些3) Long-Term Asset包括哪些4) Current Liability包括哪些5) Stakeholder Equity包括哪些6) Current Ratio如何计算7) Quick Ratio的计算#34 Understanding the Cash Flow Statement1) 呈现CFO的两种方法：Direct Method和Indirect Method分别是什么原理以及它们的异同2) Direct Method是将Cash-Basis Accounting的Income Statement直接转变成CFO的方法3) 针对CFO的Indirect Method的4个步骤以及其中涉及到的加减（Notes V3，第117页和第119页）4) 什么是Free Cash Flow以及它的计算方法5) 什么是Free Cash Flow to the Firm （FCFF）以及它分别用Net Income和CFO两种方法表示的公式6) 什么是Free Cash Flow to Equity（FCFE）以及它用CFO表示的公式7) 罗列所有Cash Flow Ratios，包括Performance Ratios和Coverage Ratios#35 Inventories1) 什么是LIFO Reserve，以及它的公式2) LIFO Reserve的重要衍生公式：FIFO COGS = LIFO COGS - (Ending LIFO Reserve - Beginning LIFO Reserve)#36 Long-Lived Asset1) 什么是ARO（Asset Retirement Obligation）2) 明白为什么每一年的ARO Expense由Depreciation Expense和Accretion Expense组成#37) Income Taxes1) Tax Payable与Income Tax Paid的不同含义2) Taxable Income的含义以及与Tax Base的不同3) Tax Loss Carryforward的含义4) 什么是Income Tax Expense并且理解它的公式（对于Tax Payable, DTL, DTA）5) 什么是Valuation Allowance并且明白它的作用6) Temporary Difference和Permanant Difference的不同含义7) 可以罗列出四种Permanant Difference的情况#38 Long-Term Liabilities & Leases1) Bond的一些名词定义：face value（maturity value, par value）、coupon rate、coupon payments、market rate、balance sheet liability（bond book value，carryingvalue）、interest expense、par bond、discount bond、premium bond2) Finance Lease和Operating Lease的异同3) Direct Financing Lease和Operating Lease对现金流分别不同的影响4) Market Rate与Bond Rate之间大小关系的比较决定Bond是Premium还是Discount的关系5) 什么是Sale Type Lease#39 Financial Analysis Techniques1) Dividend Declared的概念2) Sustainable Growth Rate的计算方法3) DSO（Days Sales Outstanding）的几种计算方法4) Inventory Turnover的计算方法5) Cash Conversion Cycle的计算方法6) Total Asset Turnover的公式7) Financial Leverage Multiplier的公式#41 Accounting Shenanigans on The Cash Flow Statement1) Stretching Out Payable是如何实现舞弊的2) Financing Of Payable是如何实现舞弊的3) Securitization of Receivable是如何实现舞弊的4) Using Stock Buybacks to Offset Dilution of Earning是如何实现舞弊的5) 如何计算Days' Sales in Accounts Payable（应付账款天数）#42 Financial Statement Analysis: Application1) 如何利用common-sized的报表预测下年的一些财务指标#43 International Standards Convergence1) Marketable Investment Securities的几种类型以及它们对Balance Sheet和Income Statement 的影响================ Corporate Finance ==================#44 Capital Budgeting1) Capital Budgeting的几个基本原则2) 什么是沉没成本（Sunk Cost）3) 什么是外部性（Externalities）4) 什么是同型装配（Cannibalization），以及它对现金流的影响5) Conventional Cash Flow Pattern与Unconventional Cash Flow Pattern的区别6) 什么是机会成本（Opportunity Cost），并且明白Capital Budgeting的现金流基于机会成本考虑7) 评估资本项目的方法之一：NVP法的原理是什么8) 评估资本项目的方法之二：IRR法的原理是什么9) 评估资本项目的方法之三：PBP法的原理是什么10) 评估资本项目的方法之四：Discounted PBP法的原理是什么11) 评估资本项目的方法之五：AAR法的原理和公式12) 罗列为什么NPV方法和IRR方法可能产生不同的衡量结果#45 Cost of Capital1) Marginal Cost of Capital的定义是什么2) 加权资本成本（Weighted Average Cost of Capital）的公式3) 清楚投资机会曲线（Investment Opportunity Schedule）和MCC Curve（Marginal Cost of Capital Curve）的形状、关系。
CFA一级考试《数量分析》考试大纲
CFA一级考试《数量分析》考试大纲CFA一级考试大纲科目《数量分析》中的考纲变化：数量科目权重未变8-12%，但被移动到第一个部分，替代道德的位置。
CFA一级考试总体来说，本科目是新考纲中变动较大的科目，主要体现在协会更加注意学问的有用性，与当前金融行业的进展特别契合。
新增两个章节分别为：Organizing,Visualizing,And Describing Data以及Introduction To Linear Regression,同时删除Statistical Concepts and Market Returns，其余每一个reading 都有少量的增减。
变化分析：第一个新增的"Organizing,Visualizing,and Describing Data'其实是原本"Statistical Concepts and Market Returns'的进阶版本。
在新增的这个章节中，除了保留对数据描述性的分析介绍之外，更加注意对数据进行系统性的分类、整理和可视化分析，介绍了在实务中常用的一些数据分析手段和方法论，比如热力图、树状图、云图、气泡线图等。
另一个新增的章节"Introduction to Linear Regression'原本是二级数量中的一个章节，这个章节主要讲的是线性回归的基本规律和原理，是为二级数量中多元回归打基础的一个章节。
另外，线性回归是金融数据分析中常用的一个量化分析模型，更加偏重应用，突出了协会对量化建模的重视。
详细变动内容：STUDY SESSION 1-QUANTITATIVE METHODS（1）Reading 1.THE TIME VALUE OF MONEY（原Reading 6-R6）：（1）由solve time value of money problems for different frequencies ofcompounding变为calculate the solution for time value of moneyproblems with different frequencies of compounding，考纲描述变化。
MBA统计学第6章Sampling & Parameter Estimation
X
8
2. Sampling Distribution
2.2 The Chi-square Distribution (see p127) (Asymmetric Distribution) X1……. Xn iid follow N(0,1), 2 =∑Xi2 ∽ 2(n) n—df (degree of freedom) Generally compute 2 :P(2 (n)> 2 )= , (critical value 2 ) see the distribution table at page 370 Example: =0.05, n=10, then 20.05(10)=18.307 see p128, density function of 2(n)
Chapter 6
Sampling & Parameter Estimation
1.Sampling & Sampling Distributions 2.Parameter Estimation 3.Interval Estimation for Population Mean & Population proportion 4. Interval Estimation for the difference between two population means
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2. Sampling Distribution
2.3 student t Distribution (symmetric distributiom) When n≥30, it approximates the Normal Distribution It also has the degree of freedom . (p130) We often compute: t/2 two-tailed percentile：P（T> t/2）= (critical value t/2 ) t one-tailed percentile： P（T>t）= see the table at page 368 For example: =0.1 t/2(21)=1.721, t (21)=1.323
CFA一级每日一练(含详细解析)80
CFA一级每日一练（含详细解析）801、A sample of 240 managed portfolios has a mean annual return of 0.11 and a standard deviation of returns of 0.23. The estimate of the standard error of the sample mean is closest to:【单选题】A.0.00096.B.0.00710.C.0.01485.正确答案:C答案解析:“Sampling and Estimation,” Richard A. DeFusco, CFA, Dennis W. McLeavey, CFA, Jerald E. Pinto, CFA, and David E. Runkle, CFA2013 Modular Level I, Vol. 1, Reading 10, Section 3.1Study Session 3– 10– fCalculate and interpret the standard error of the sample mean.C is correct.For a sample, the standard error of the mean is Here,2、George Soros, CFA, is a private lender in a local bank.Soros will lend moneyat a stated annual rate of 10% and compounded continuously.The principal andinterest are paid at the end of the loan term.If Soros will lend ￥20 000 000 for200 days, based on 365 days in a year, the amount due at the end of the loanterm is closest to:【单选题】A.￥21 095 890B.￥21 126 471C.￥21 142 555正确答案:B答案解析:连续复利的计算如下：20 000 000 ×= 21 126 471 ( ￥)。
调研报告英文
调研报告英文Research Report Writing: Cases and TipsA research report is a common document in academic, business, and public sectors. It is designed to present findings and insights from systematic investigations of one or more research questions or hypotheses. The purpose of a research report is to communicate the scope, methods, results, and implications of a study to a particular audience, such as fellow researchers, managers, clients, investors, or policymakers. Writing a good research report requires a good command of research methods, data analysis, and presentation skills. In this article, we will introduce three cases of research reports and offer some tips and guidelines for writing effective research reports.Case 1: A Marketing Research Report on Social Media Usage for a Fashion BrandA marketing research firm was hired by a fashion brand to investigate the social media habits of its target audience. The goal was to gain insights into what types of content, platforms, and influencers the audience liked and disliked, how they used social media for fashion-related interactions, and what factors motivated them to follow or unfollow the brand. The study involved a sample of 500 female consumers aged 18-35, who were recruited from social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter. The data were collected through a mix of online surveys, focus groups, and social listening tools. The findings showed that the audience preferred visual and interactive content, such as short videos, live streaming, and AR/VR experiences, and that theytended to follow celebrities and micro-influencers who shared authentic and relatable experiences. The recommendations for the brand included developing a social media strategy that aligned with the audience's preferences and behaviors, collaborating with selected influencers to create high-quality content, and monitoring the social media performance through analytics tools.Tips:- Define the research problem clearly and concisely, and specify the research objectives and hypotheses.- Use a representative and relevant sample, and employ appropriate sampling methods and size estimation.- Combine multiple data sources and methods to increase the validity and reliability of the data collection and analysis.- Use appropriate data analysis techniques and software tools, and present the results in an engaging and informative way.- Draw insightful and actionable conclusions and recommendations based on the research findings, and provide clear evidence and rationale for them.Case 2: A Scientific Research Report on the Effects of Climate Change on Forest EcosystemsA team of environmental scientists conducted a longitudinal study on the impacts of climate change on the growth, health, and biodiversity of forest ecosystems in a mountainous area. The study involved a combination of field observations, experiments, and remote sensing data analysis, and covered a period of 15 years. The research questions included how different climatic factorsaffected the phenology and productivity of tree species, how the changes in vegetation patterns influenced the carbon uptake and release of the forests, and how the interactions between biotic and abiotic factors affected the insect populations and their ecological roles. The findings showed that the warmer and drier conditions had negative effects on the growth and survival of some tree species, while benefiting others, and that the changes in vegetation structure and composition altered the carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling of the forests. The recommendations for the forest management included adapting the silvicultural practices to the changing climate, adopting more diverse and resistant tree species, and preserving the forest areas that served as biodiversity hotspots.Tips:- Frame the research questions in a clear and testable way, and contextualize them within the relevant theoretical and empirical literature.- Conduct the study in a systematic, controlled, and standardized way, and minimize the sources of bias and confounding factors.- Use appropriate statistical methods and models to test the hypotheses and analyze the data, and report the results in a transparent and comprehensive way.- Use visual aids, such as graphs, maps, and images, to enhance the clarity and persuasiveness of the data presentation and interpretation.- Discuss the implications and significance of the study for the scientific field, public policy, and social awareness, and suggest future research directions and limitations.Case 3: A Business Research Report on the Customer Satisfaction of an E-commerce PlatformA customer service department of an e-commerce platform conducted a survey on the customer satisfaction of its users, aiming to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the platform, as well as the needs and expectations of the customers. The survey was administered to a random sample of 1000 users, who were asked to rate their satisfaction on various aspects of the platform, such as ordering process, product quality, delivery time, customer support, and overall experience. The data were collected through an online questionnaire, and were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings showed that the users were generally satisfied with the platform, but there were some areas that needed improvement, such as faster delivery, more personalized recommendations, and clearer policies and procedures. The recommendations for the platform included streamlining the order tracking and delivery systems, using predictive analytics to customize the user interface and recommendations, and enhancing the human touch and empathy of the customer service.Tips:- Define the population and sample of the study, and use appropriate sampling and data collection methods to ensure the representativeness and reliability of the data.- Design the questionnaire in a user-friendly and non-biased way, and pre-test it with a pilot study or a focus group.- Use appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics to analyzethe data, and report the results in a concise and informative way. - Use tables, charts, and graphs to highlight the key findings and make them more accessible and visually appealing.- Provide actionable and feasible recommendations for the business based on the research results, and emphasize the value and impact of the research for the business growth and sustainability.Overall, writing a research report requires a combination of skills and techniques, such as planning, drafting, revising, editing, and proofreading. The key is to have a clear and structured outline, a logical and coherent argument, and a professional and engaging style. By following these cases and tips, you can improve your research report writing skills and achieve your research goals more effectively.In addition, it is important to consider the intended audience of the research report and tailor the content and tone accordingly. For example, a report intended for a scientific community may require a more formal and technical style, with detailed descriptions of the methodology and results, while a report intended for a business or policy audience may require a more concise and actionable style, with emphasis on the practical implications and recommendations.Another crucial aspect of research report writing is to ensure the ethical and legal compliance of the study. This includes obtaining informed consent from the participants, protecting their privacy and confidentiality, avoiding plagiarism and self-plagiarism, and citing the sources accurately and appropriately. Moreover, it is necessary to follow the ethical codes and guidelines of the relevant professional associations or regulatory bodies, and to report any potential conflicts of interest or biases.In summary, writing a research report is a challenging yet rewarding task that requires attention to detail, creativity, and critical thinking. By following the cases and tips presented in this article, you can enhance your research skills, increase your impact and visibility, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge and practice in your field.好的，那我接着写。
（转）Parameterestimationfortextanalysis暨LDA学习小结
（转）Parameterestimationfortextanalysis暨LDA学习⼩结Reading Note : Parameter estimation for text analysis 暨LDA学习⼩结原⽂：伟⼤的Parameter estimation for text analysis！当把这篇看的差不多的时候，也就到了LDA基础知识终结的时刻了，意味着LDA基础模型的基本了解完成了。
所以对该模型的学习告⼀段落，下⼀阶段就是了解LDA⽆穷⽆尽的变种，不过那些不是很有⽤了，因为LDA已经被⼈⽔遍了各⼤“论坛”……抛开LDA背后复杂深⼊的数学背景不说，光就LDA的内容，确实不多，虽然变分法还是不懂，不过现在终于还是理解了“LDA is just a simple model”这句话。
总结⼀下学习过程：1.：CDF、PDF、Bayes’rule、各种简单的分布Bernoulli，binomial，multinomial、包括对prior、likelihood、postprior的理解（PRML1.2）2.共轭：？3.概率图模型 Probabilistic Graphical Models: PRML Chapter 8 基本概念即可4.采样算法：，Sampling Methods（PRML Chapter 11），，Gibbs Sampling5.6.进阶资料：《》、本⽂——————————————– 伟⼤的分割线！PETA！——————————————–⼀、前⾯⽆关部分⼆、模型进⼀步记忆从本图来看，需要记住：1.θm是每⼀个document单独⼀个θ，所以M个doc共有M个θm，整个θ是⼀个M*K的矩阵（M个doc，每个doc⼀个K维topic分布向量）。
2.φk总共只有K个，对于每⼀个topic，有⼀个φk，这些参数是独⽴于⽂档的，也就是对于整个corpus只sample⼀次。
不像θm那样每⼀个都对应⼀个⽂档，每个⽂档都不同，φk对于所有⽂档都相同，是⼀个K*V的矩阵（K个topic，每个topic⼀个V维从topic产⽣词的概率分布）。
管理统计Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Sampling and InferenceSampling and Inference (抽样推断）Point Estimation and Interval Estimation（点估计与区间估计）Sampling Methods（抽样调查方法）Determining the Sample size （确定样本容量）6.1. Sampling and Inference6.1.1 Sampling and InferenceThe purpose of statistical inference is to develop estimates and test hypotheses about the characteristics of a population using information contained in a sample.统计推断的目的是利用样本信息建立对总体性质的估计和检验对总体性质的假设。
抽样推断概念：是在抽样调查的基础上，利用样本的实际资料计算样本指标，并据此推断总体相应数量特征的一种统计分析方法.重复抽样(sampling with replacement,放回抽样)不重复抽样(sampling without replacement，无放回抽样)抽样推断特点：总体的各单位都有一个指定的概率被抽取调查单位的选取必须按照随机原则进行从数量上推断总体，并可控制抽样误差的大小采用概率估算的方法抽样推断作用：可以解决全面调查无法或难以处理的问题可以检查、修正和补充全面调查的结果可以应用于生产过程中的质量控制可以应用于假设检验6.1.2Terminology population and sample 全及总体（N）、样本总体（n）population mean and sample mean 总体平均数（X）、样本平均数（x）population proportion and sample proportion 总体成数（P）、样本成数（p）)、样本方差(S2)population variance and sample variance 总体方差(2A tire manufacturer developed a new tire designed to provide an increase in mileage over the firm’s current line of tires. To estimate the mean number of miles provided by the new tires, the manufacturer selected a sample of 120 new tires for testing. The test results provided a sample mean of 36,500 miles. Hence, an estimate of the mean tire mileage for the population of new tires was 36,500 miles.某轮胎制造商开发了一种新型轮胎，它的设计里程数超过了公司目前的轮胎产品．为了估计新轮胎的平均里程数，制造商选取了一个包括120条新轮胎的样本进行检测。
ACCA知识点：Sampling methods
ACCA知识点：Sampling methods本文由高顿ACCA整理发布，转载请注明出处Sampling methods· Random sampling 随机抽样· Stratified random sampling 分层抽样· Systematic sampling 系统抽样· Multistage sampling 多级抽样· Cluster sampling 集群采样Random sampling 随机抽样Random sampling means every item in the population has an equal chance of being selected.Stratified random sampling 分层抽样This involves dividing the total population into strata or categories (for example age groups) and then taking random samples from each of the strata or categories.Systematic sampling 系统抽样Systematic sampling is a sampling method which works by selecting every nth item after a random start. The gap is the sampling interval.Multistage sampling 多级抽样Multistage sampling involves dividing the population into a number of sub-populations and then selecting a small sample of these sub-populations at random.Cluster sampling (non-random) 集群采样· Cluster sampling involves splitting the population into convenient groups and then selecting a number of groups at random. Every item in the sample is then investigated.· This is a non-random sampling method.Quota sampling 配额抽样In quota sampling， randomness is forfeited in the interests of cheapness and administrative simplicity. Investigators are told to interview all the people they meet up to a certain quota.更多ACCA资讯请关注高顿ACCA官网：。
Data Sampling Methods
Data Sampling MethodsData sampling methods are essential in the field of data analysis as they help researchers and analysts to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. There are various data sampling methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages. In this response, we will explore different data sampling methods, including simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and convenience sampling. We will also discuss the importance of choosing the right sampling method and the potential biases that can arise from using certain methods.Simple random sampling is one of the most basic and commonly used data sampling methods. It involves selecting a random sample from the entire population, where each individual has an equal chance of being chosen. This method is relatively easy to implement and helps to ensure that the sample is representative of the population. However, it can be time-consuming and costly to obtain a complete list of the population in order to select a random sample.Systematic sampling is another method that is relatively easy to implement. It involves selecting every kth individual from the population, where k is calculated as the population size divided by the sample size. This method is less time-consuming than simple random sampling and still ensures a degree of randomness in the sample. However, if there is a pattern in the population, systematic sampling can lead to a biased sample.Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata based on certain characteristics, such as age, gender, or income level, and then selecting a random sample from each stratum. This method ensures that each subgroup is represented in the sample, which can lead to more accurate results when analyzing the data. However, it requires prior knowledge of the population characteristics and can be more complex and time-consuming to implement.Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters, such as geographic areas or schools, and then randomly selecting clusters to include in the sample. This method is often more practical and cost-effective than other sampling methods, especially when thepopulation is large and dispersed. However, it can lead to clusters being overrepresented or underrepresented in the sample, which can introduce bias.Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method that involves selecting individuals who are easily accessible or convenient to the researcher. This method is quick and inexpensive, making it a popular choice for many researchers. However, it can lead to a biased sample, as individuals who are easily accessible may not be representative of the entire population.When choosing a data sampling method, it is important to consider the specific research question, the characteristics of the population, and the resources available. Each sampling method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method can have a significant impact on the results of the analysis. It is also important to be aware of potential biases that can arise from using certain sampling methods, such as selection bias or non-response bias, and to take steps to minimize these biases.In conclusion, data sampling methods play a crucial role in the field of data analysis, as they help researchers and analysts to draw conclusions about a population based on a sample of data. There are various data sampling methods, each with its own advantages and disadvantages, and it is important to choose the right method based on the specific research question and the characteristics of the population. It is also important to be aware of potential biases that can arise from using certain sampling methods and to take steps to minimize these biases in order to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results.。
ASTM E112_2004
Designation:E112–96(Reapproved2004)Standard Test Methods forDetermining Average Grain Size1This standard is issued under thefixed designation E112;the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original adoption or,in the case of revision,the year of last revision.A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval.A superscript epsilon(e)indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.INTRODUCTIONThese test methods of determination of average grain size in metallic materials are primarily measuring procedures and,because of their purely geometric basis,are independent of the metal or alloy concerned.In fact,the basic procedures may also be used for the estimation of average grain, crystal,or cell size in nonmetallic materials.The comparison method may be used if the structure of the material approaches the appearance of one of the standard comparison charts.The intercept and planimetric methods are always applicable for determining average grain size.However,the comparison charts cannot be used for measurement of individual grains.1.Scope1.1These test methods cover the measurement of average grain size and include the comparison procedure,the planimet-ric(or Jeffries)procedure,and the intercept procedures.These test methods may also be applied to nonmetallic materials with structures having appearances similar to those of the metallic structures shown in the comparison charts.These test methods apply chiefly to single phase grain structures but they can be applied to determine the average size of a particular type of grain structure in a multiphase or multiconstituent specimen.1.2These test methods are used to determine the average grain size of specimens with a unimodal distribution of grain areas,diameters,or intercept lengths.These distributions are approximately log normal.These test methods do not cover methods to characterize the nature of these distributions. Characterization of grain size in specimens with duplex grain size distributions is described in Test Methods E1181.Mea-surement of individual,very coarse grains in afine grained matrix is described in Test Methods E930.1.3These test methods deal only with determination of planar grain size,that is,characterization of the two-dimensional grain sections revealed by the sectioning plane. Determination of spatial grain size,that is,measurement of the size of the three-dimensional grains in the specimen volume,is beyond the scope of these test methods.1.4These test methods describe techniques performed manually using either a standard series of graded chart images for the comparison method or simple templates for the manual counting methods.Utilization of semi-automatic digitizing tablets or automatic image analyzers to measure grain size is described in Test Methods E1382.1.5These test methods deal only with the recommended test methods and nothing in them should be construed as defining or establishing limits of acceptability orfitness of purpose of the materials tested.1.6The measured values are stated in SI units,which are regarded as standard.Equivalent inch-pound values,when listed,are in parentheses and may be approximate.1.7This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns,if any,associated with its use.It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.8The paragraphs appear in the following order:Section Number Scope1 Referenced Documents2 Terminology3 Significance and Use4 Generalities of Application5 Sampling6 Test Specimens7 Calibration8 Preparation of Photomicrographs9 Comparison Procedure10 Planimetric(Jeffries)Procedure11 General Intercept Procedures12 Heyn Linear Intercept Procedure13 Circular Intercept Procedures14 Hilliard Single-Circle Procedure14.2 Abrams Three-Circle Procedure14.3 Statistical Analysis15 Specimens with Non-equiaxed Grain Shapes16 Specimens Containing Two or More Phases or Constituents171These test methods are under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E04onMetallography and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E04.08on GrainSize.Current edition approved Nov.1,2004.Published November2004.Originallyapproved st previous edition approved1996as E112–96e3.Copyright©ASTM International,100Barr Harbor Drive,PO Box C700,West Conshohocken,PA19428-2959,United States.--` , , , ` , , -` -` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` ---Report18Precision and Bias 19Keywords 20Annexes:Basis of ASTM Grain Size NumbersAnnex A1Equations for Conversions Among Various Grain Size Measurements AnnexA2Austenite Grain Size,Ferritic and Austenitic Steels AnnexA3Fracture Grain Size Method AnnexA4Requirements for Wrought Copper and Copper-Base Alloys AnnexA5Application to Special Situations AnnexA6Appendixes:Results of Interlaboratory Grain Size Determinations Appen-dix X1Referenced Adjuncts Appen-dix X22.Referenced Documents 2.1ASTM Standards:2E 3Practice for Preparation of Metallographic Specimens E 7Terminology Relating to MetallographyE 407Practice for Microetching Metals and AlloysE 562Practice for Determining V olume Fraction by Sys-tematic Manual Point CountE 691Practice for Conducting an Interlaboratory Study to Determine the Precision of a Test MethodE 883Guide for Reflected-Light PhotomicrographyE 930Test Methods for Estimating the Largest Grain Ob-served in a Metallographic Section (ALA Grain Size)E 1181Test Methods for Characterizing Duplex Grain Sizes E 1382Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size Using Semiautomatic and Automatic Image Analysis 2.2ASTM Adjuncts:2.2.1For a complete adjunct list,see Appendix X23.Terminology3.1Definitions —For definitions of terms used in these test methods,see Terminology E 7.3.2Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:3.2.1ASTM grain size number —the ASTM grain size number,G ,was originally defined as:N AE 52G 21(1)where N AE is the number of grains per square inch at 100X magnification.To obtain the number per square millimetre at 1X,multiply by 15.50.3.2.2grain —that area within the confines of the original (primary)boundary observed on the two-dimensional plane-of-polish or that volume enclosed by the original (primary)boundary in the three-dimensional object.In materials contain-ing twin boundaries,the twin boundaries are ignored,that is,the structure on either side of a twin boundary belongs to the grain.3.2.3grain boundary intersection count —determination ofthe number of times a test line cuts across,or is tangent to,grain boundaries (triple point intersections are considered as 1-1⁄2intersections).3.2.4grain intercept count —determination of the number of times a test line cuts through individual grains on the plane of polish (tangent hits are considered as one half an interception;test lines that end within a grain are considered as one half an interception).3.2.5intercept length —the distance between two opposed,adjacent grain boundary intersection points on a test line segment that crosses the grain at any location due to random placement of the test line.3.3Symbols:Symbols:a =matrix grains in a two phase (constituent)microstructure.A =test area.A —=mean grain cross sectional area.AI ,=grain elongation ratio or anisotropy index for a longitudinally oriented plane.d —=mean planar grain diameter (Plate III).D —=mean spatial (volumetric)grain diameter.f =Jeffries multiplier for planimetric method.G =ASTM grain size number.,=mean lineal intercept length.,—a =mean lineal intercept length of the a matrix phase in a two phase (constituent)microstructure.,—,=mean lineal intercept length on a longitu-dinally oriented surface for a non-equiaxed grain structure.,—t =mean lineal intercept length on a trans-versely oriented surface for a non-equiaxed grain structure.,—p =mean lineal intercept length on a planar oriented surface for a non-equiaxed grain structure.,0=base intercept length of 32.00mm for defining the relationship between G and ,(and N L )for macroscopically or micro-scopically determined grain size by the intercept method.L =length of a test line.M =magnification used.M b =magnification used by a chart picture series.n =number of fields measured.N a =number of a grains intercepted by the test line in a two phase (constituent)micro-structure.N A =number of grains per mm 2at 1X.N A a =number of a grains per mm 2at 1X in a two phase (constituent)microstructure.N AE =number of grains per inch 2at 100X.N A ,=N A on a longitudinally oriented surface for a non-equiaxed grain structure.2For referenced ASTM standards,visit the ASTM website,,or contact ASTM Customer Service at service@.For Annual Book of ASTM Standards volume information,refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on the ASTMwebsite.--`,,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---N At=N A on a transversely oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.N Ap=N A on a planar oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.N i=number of intercepts with a test line.N Inside=number of grains completely within a testcircle.N Intercepted=number of grains intercepted by the testcircle.N L=number of intercepts per unit length oftest line.N L,=N L on a longitudinally oriented surface fora non-equiaxed grain structure.N Lt=N L on a transversely oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.N Lp=N L on a planar oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.P i=number of grain boundary intersectionswith a test line.P L=number of grain boundary intersectionsper unit length of test line.P L,=P L on a longitudinally oriented surface fora non-equiaxed grain structure.P Lt=P L on a transversely oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.P Lp=P L on a planar oriented surface for anon-equiaxed grain structure.Q=correction factor for comparison chartratings using a non-standard magnifica-tion for microscopically determined grainsizes.Q m=correction factor for comparison chartratings using a non-standard magnifica-tion for macroscopically determined grainsizes.s=standard deviation.S V=grain boundary surface area to volumeratio for a single phase structure.S V a=grain boundary surface area to volumeratio for a two phase(constituent)struc-ture.t=students’t multiplier for determination ofthe confidence interval.V V a=volume fraction of the a phase in a twophase(constituent)microstructure.95%CI=95%confidence interval.%RA=percent relative accuracy.4.Significance and Use4.1These test methods cover procedures for estimating and rules for expressing the average grain size of all metals consisting entirely,or principally,of a single phase.The test methods may also be used for any structures having appear-ances similar to those of the metallic structures shown in the comparison charts.The three basic procedures for grain size estimation are:4.1.1Comparison Procedure—The comparison procedure does not require counting of either grains,intercepts,or intersections but,as the name suggests,involves comparison of the grain structure to a series of graded images,either in the form of a wall chart,clear plastic overlays,or an eyepiece reticle.There appears to be a general bias in that comparison grain size ratings claim that the grain size is somewhat coarser (1⁄2to1G number lower)than it actually is(see X1.3.5). Repeatability and reproducibility of comparison chart ratings are generally61grain size number.4.1.2Planimetric Procedure—The planimetric method in-volves an actual count of the number of grains within a known area.The number of grains per unit area,N A,is used to determine the ASTM grain size number,G.The precision of the method is a function of the number of grains counted.A precision of60.25grain size units can be attained with a reasonable amount of effort.Results are free of bias and repeatability and reproducibility are less than60.5grain size units.An accurate count does require marking off of the grains as they are counted.4.1.3Intercept Procedure—The intercept method involves an actual count of the number of grains intercepted by a test line or the number of grain boundary intersections with a test line,per unit length of test line,used to calculate the mean lineal intercept length,,—.,—is used to determine the ASTM grain size number,G.The precision of the method is a function of the number of intercepts or intersections counted.A preci-sion of better than60.25grain size units can be attained with a reasonable amount of effort.Results are free of bias; repeatability and reproducibility are less than60.5grain size units.Because an accurate count can be made without need of marking off intercepts or intersections,the intercept method is faster than the planimetric method for the same level of precision.4.2For specimens consisting of equiaxed grains,the method of comparing the specimen with a standard chart is most convenient and is sufficiently accurate for most commer-cial purposes.For higher degrees of accuracy in determining average grain size,the intercept or planimetric procedures may be used.The intercept procedure is particularly useful for structures consisting of elongated grains.4.3In case of dispute,the intercept procedure shall be the referee procedure in all cases.4.4No attempt should be made to estimate the average grain size of heavily cold-worked material.Partially recrystallized wrought alloys and lightly to moderately cold-worked material may be considered as consisting of non-equiaxed grains,if a grain size measurement is necessary.4.5Individual grain measurements should not be made based on the standard comparison charts.These charts were constructed to reflect the typical log-normal distribution of grain sizes that result when a plane is passed through a three-dimensional array of grains.Because they show a distri-bution of grain dimensions,ranging from very small to very large,depending on the relationship of the planar sectionand --` , , , ` , , -` -` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` ---the three-dimensional array of grains,the charts are not applicable to measurement of individual grains.5.Generalities of Application5.1It is important,in using these test methods,to recognize that the estimation of average grain size is not a precise measurement.A metal structure is an aggregate of three-dimensional crystals of varying sizes and shapes.Even if all these crystals were identical in size and shape,the grain cross sections,produced by a random plane(surface of observation) through such a structure,would have a distribution of areas varying from a maximum value to zero,depending upon where the plane cuts each individual crystal.Clearly,no twofields of observation can be exactly the same.5.2The size and location of grains in a microstructure are normally completely random.No nominally random process of positioning a test pattern can improve this randomness,but random processes can yield poor representation by concentrat-ing measurements in part of a specimen.Representative implies that all parts of the specimen contribute to the result, not,as sometimes has been presumed,thatfields of average grain size are selected.Visual selection offields,or casting out of extreme measurements,may not falsify the average when done by unbiased experts,but will in all cases give a false impression of high precision.For representative sampling,the area of the specimen is mentally divided into several equal coherent sub-areas and stage positions prespecified,which are approximately at the center of each sub-area.The stage is successively set to each of these positions and the test pattern applied blindly,that is,with the light out,the shutter closed,or the eye turned away.No touch-up of the position so selected is allowable.Only measurements made onfields chosen in this way can be validated with respect to precision and bias.6.Sampling6.1Specimens should be selected to represent average conditions within a heat lot,treatment lot,or product,or to assess variations anticipated across or along a product or component,depending on the nature of the material being tested and the purpose of the study.Sampling location and frequency should be based upon agreements between the manufacturers and the users.6.2Specimens should not be taken from areas affected by shearing,burning,or other processes that will alter the grain structure.7.Test Specimens7.1In general,if the grain structure is equiaxed,any specimen orientation is acceptable.However,the presence of an equiaxed grain structure in a wrought specimen can only be determined by examination of a plane of polish parallel to the deformation axis.7.2If the grain structure on a longitudinally oriented speci-men is equiaxed,then grain size measurements on this plane,or any other,will be equivalent within the statistical precision of the test method.If the grain structure is not equiaxed,but elongated,then grain size measurements on specimens with different orientations will vary.In this case,the grain size should be evaluated on at least two of the three principle planes,transverse,longitudinal,and planar(or radial and transverse for round bar)and averaged as described in Section 16to obtain the mean grain size.If directed test lines are used, rather than test circles,intercept counts on non-equiaxed grains in plate or sheet type specimens can be made using only two principle test planes,rather than all three as required for the planimetric method.7.3The surface to be polished should be large enough in area to permit measurement of at leastfivefields at the desired magnification.In most cases,except for thin sheet or wire specimens,a minimum polished surface area of160mm2(0.25 in.2)is adequate.7.4The specimen shall be sectioned,mounted(if neces-sary),ground,and polished according to the recommended procedures in Practice E3.The specimen shall be etched using a reagent,such as listed in Practice E407,to delineate most,or all,of the grain boundaries(see also Annex A3).8.Calibration8.1Use a stage micrometer to determine the true linear magnification for each objective,eyepiece and bellows,or zoom setting to be used within62%.8.2Use a ruler with a millimetre scale to determine the actual length of straight test lines or the diameter of test circles used as grids.9.Preparation of Photomicrographs9.1When photomicrographs are used for estimating the average grain size,they shall be prepared in accordance with Guide E883.parison Procedure10.1The comparison procedure shall apply to completely recrystallized or cast materials with equiaxed grains.10.2When grain size estimations are made by the more convenient comparison method,repeated checks by individuals as well as by interlaboratory tests have shown that unless the appearance of the standard reasonably well approaches that of TABLE1Suggested Comparison Charts for Metallic Materials N OTE1—These suggestions are based upon the customary practices in industry.For specimens prepared according to special techniques,the appropriate comparison standards should be selected on a structural-appearance basis in accordance with8.2.the sample,errors may occur.To minimize such errors,the comparison charts are presented in four categories as follows:310.2.1Plate I —Untwinned grains (flat etch).Includes grain size numbers 00,0,1⁄2,1,11⁄2,2,21⁄2,3,31⁄2,4,41⁄2,5,51⁄2,6,61⁄2,7,71⁄2,8,81⁄2,9,91⁄2,10,at 100X.10.2.2Plate II —Twinned grains (flat etch).Includes grain size numbers,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,at 100X.10.2.3Plate III —Twinned grains (contrast etch).Includes nominal grain diameters of 0.200,0.150,0.120,0.090,0.070,0.060,0.050,0.045,0.035,0.025,0.020,0.015,0.010,0.005mm at 75X.10.2.4Plate IV —Austenite grains in steel (McQuaid-Ehn).Includes grain size numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,at 100X.10.3Table 1lists a number of materials and the comparison charts that are suggested for use in estimating their average grain sizes.For example,for twinned copper and brass with a contrast etch,use Plate III.N OTE 1—Examples of grain-size standards from Plates I,II,III,and IV are shown in Fig.1,Fig.2,Fig.3,and Fig.4.10.4The estimation of microscopically-determined grain size should usually be made by direct comparison at the same magnification as the appropriate chart.Accomplish this by comparing a projected image or a photomicrograph of a representative field of the test specimen with the photomicro-graphs of the appropriate standard grain-size series,or with suitable reproductions or transparencies of them,and select the photomicrograph which most nearly matches the image of thetest specimen or interpolate between two standards.Report this estimated grain size as the ASTM grain size number,or grain diameter,of the chart picture that most closely matches the image of the test specimen or as an interpolated value between two standard chart pictures.10.5Good judgment on the part of the observer is necessary to select the magnification to be used,the proper size of area3Plates I,II,III,and IV are available from ASTM Headquarters.Order Adjunct:ADJE11201P (Plate I),ADJE11202P (Plate II),ADJE11203P (Plate III),and ADJE11204P (Plate IV).A combination of all four plates is also available.Order Adjunct:ADJE112PS.FIG.1Example of Untwinned Grains (Flat Etch)from Plate I.Grain Size No.3at100XFIG.2Example of Twin Grains (Flat Etch)from Plate II.GrainSize No.3at100XFIG.3Example of Twin Grains (Contrast Etch)from Plate III.Grain Size 0.090mm at75X--`,,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---(number of grains),and the number and location in the specimen of representative sections and fields for estimating the characteristic or average grain size.It is not sufficient to visually select what appear to be areas of average grain size.Recommendations for choosing appropriate areas for all pro-cedures have been noted in 5.2.10.6Grain size estimations shall be made on three or more representative areas of each specimen section.10.7When the grains are of a size outside the range covered by the standard photographs,or when magnifications of 75X or 100X are not satisfactory,other magnifications may be em-ployed for comparison by using the relationships given in Note2and Table 2.It may be noted that alternative magnifications are usually simple multiples of the basic magnifications.N OTE 2—If the grain size is reported in ASTM numbers,it is conve-nient to use the relationship:Q 52log 2~M /M b !(2)56.64log 10~M /M b !where Q is a correction factor that is added to the apparent micro-grain size of the specimen,as viewed at the magnification,M ,instead of at the basic magnification,M b (75X or 100X),to yield the true ASTM grain-size number.Thus,for a magnification of 25X,the true ASTM grain-size number is four numbers lower than that of the corresponding photomi-crograph at 100X (Q =−4).Likewise,for 400X,the true ASTMgrain-sizeFIG.4Example of Austenite Grains in Steel from Plate IV.GrainSize No.3at 100XTABLE 2Microscopically Determined Grain Size Relationships Using Plate III at Various MagnificationsN OTE 1—First line—mean grain diameter,d,in mm;in parentheses—equivalent ASTM grain size number,G.N OTE 2—Magnification for Plate III is 75X (row 3data).MagnificationChart Picture Number (Plate III)123456789101112131425X 0.015(9.2)0.030(7.2)0.045(6.0)0.060(5.2)0.075(4.5)0.105(3.6)0.135(2.8)0.150(2.5)0.180(2.0)0.210(1.6)0.270(0.8)0.360(0)0.451(0/00)0.600(00+)50X 0.0075(11.2)0.015(9.2)0.0225(8.0)0.030(7.2)0.0375(6.5)0.053(5.6)0.0675(4.8)0.075(4.5)0.090(4.0)0.105(3.6)0.135(2.8)0.180(2.0)0.225(1.4)0.300(0.5)75X 0.005(12.3)0.010(10.3)0.015(9.2)0.020(8.3)0.025(7.7)0.035(6.7)0.045(6.0)0.050(5.7)0.060(5.2)0.070(4.7)0.090(4.0)0.120(3.2)0.150(2.5)0.200(1.7)100X 0.00375(13.2)0.0075(11.2)0.0112(10.0)0.015(9.2)0.019(8.5)0.026(7.6)0.034(6.8)0.0375(6.5)0.045(6.0)0.053(5.6)0.067(4.8)0.090(4.0)0.113(3.4)0.150(2.5)200X 0.0019(15.2)0.00375(13.2)0.0056(12.0)0.0075(11.2)0.009(10.5)0.013(9.6)0.017(8.8)0.019(8.5)0.0225(8.0)0.026(7.6)0.034(6.8)0.045(6.0)0.056(5.4)0.075(4.5)400X —0.0025(14.3)0.0037(13.2)0.005(12.3)0.006(11.7)0.009(10.7)0.011(10.0)0.0125(9.7)0.015(9.2)0.0175(8.7)0.0225(8.0)0.030(7.2)0.0375(6.5)0.050(5.7)500X——0.003(13.8)0.004(13.0)0.005(12.3)0.007(11.4)0.009(10.6)0.010(10.3)0.012(9.8)0.014(9.4)0.018(8.6)0.024(7.8)0.030(7.2)0.040(6.3)--`,,,`,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---number is four numbers higher(Q=+4)than that of the corresponding photomicrograph at100X.Similarly,for300X,the true ASTM grain-size number is four numbers higher than that of the corresponding photomi-crograph at75X.10.8The small number of grains perfield at the coarse end of the chart series,that is,size00,and the very small size of the grains at thefine end make accurate comparison ratings difficult.When the specimen grain size falls at either end of the chart range,a more meaningful comparison can be made by changing the magnification so that the grain size lies closer to the center of the range.10.9The use of transparencies4or prints of the standards, with the standard and the unknown placed adjacent to each other,is to be preferred to the use of wall chart comparison with the projected image on the microscope screen.10.10No particular significance should be attached to the fact that different observers often obtain slightly different results,provided the different results fall within the confidence limits reasonably expected with the procedure used.10.11There is a possibility when an operator makes re-peated checks on the same specimen using the comparison method that they will be prejudiced by theirfirst estimate.This disadvantage can be overcome,when necessary,by changes in magnification,through bellows extension,or objective or eyepiece replacement between estimates(1).510.12Make the estimation of macroscopically-determined grain sizes(extremely coarse)by direct comparison,at a magnification of1X,of the properly prepared specimen,or of a photograph of a representativefield of the specimen,with photographs of the standard grain series shown in Plate I(for untwinned material)and Plates II and III(for twinned mate-rial).Since the photographs of the standard grain size series were made at75and100diameters magnification,grain sizes estimated in this way do not fall in the standard ASTM grain-size series and hence,preferably,should be expressed either as diameter of the average grain or as one of the macro-grain size numbers listed in Table3.For the smaller macroscopic grain sizes,it may be preferable to use a higher magnification and the correction factor given in Note3, particularly if it is desirable to retain this method of reporting. N OTE3—If the grain size is reported in ASTM macro-grain size numbers,it is convenient to use the relationship:Q m52log2M(3)56.64log10Mwhere QM is a correction factor that is added to the apparent grain size ofthe specimen,when viewed at the magnification M,instead of at1X,toyield the true ASTM macro-grain size number.Thus,for a magnificationof2X,the true ASTM macro-grain size number is two numbers higher(Q=+2),and for4X,the true ASTM macro-grain size number is fournumbers higher(Q=+4)than that of the corresponding photograph.10.13The comparison procedure shall be applicable forestimating the austenite grain size in ferritic steel after aMcQuaid-Ehn test(see Annex A3,A3.2),or after the austenitegrains have been revealed by any other means(see Annex A3,A3.3).Make the grain-size measurement by comparing themicroscopic image,at magnification of100X,with the stan-dard grain size chart in Plate IV,for grains developed in aMcQuaid-Ehn test(see Annex A3);for the measurement ofaustenite grains developed by other means(see Annex A3),measure by comparing the microscopic image with the platehaving the most nearly comparable structure observed in PlatesI,II,or IV.10.14The so-called“Shepherd Fracture Grain SizeMethod”of judging grain size from the appearance of thefracture of hardened steel(2),involves comparison of thespecimen under investigation with a set of standard fractures.6It has been found that the arbitrarily numbered fracture grainsize series agree well with the correspondingly numberedASTM grain sizes presented in Table4.This coincidencemakes the fracture grain sizes interchangeable with the auste-nitic grain sizes determined microscopically.The sizes ob-served microscopically shall be considered the primary stan-dard,since they can be determined with measuringinstruments.11.3)Procedure11.1In the planimetric procedure inscribe a circle or rect-angle of known area(usually5000mm2to simplify thecalculations)on a micrograph or on the ground-glass screen ofthe metallograph.Select a magnification which will give atleast50grains in thefield to be counted.When the image isfocused properly,count the number of grains within this area.The sum of all the grains included completely within theknown area plus one half the number of grains intersected bythe circumference of the area gives the number of equivalentwhole grains,measured at the magnification used,within thearea.If this number is multiplied by the Jeffries’multiplier,f,in the second column of Table5opposite the appropriatemagnification,the product will be the number of grains persquare millimetre N A.Count a minimum of threefields toensure a reasonable average.The number of grains per squaremillimetre at1X,N A,is calculated from:N A5f S N Inside1N Intercepted2D(4)where f is the Jeffries’multiplier(see Table5),N Inside is thenumber of grains completely inside the test circle and NIntercepted is the number of grains that intercept the test circle.The average grain area,A¯,is the reciprocal of N A,that is,1/N A,while the mean grain diameter,d,as listed on Plate III(see10.2.3),is the square root of A¯.This grain diameter has no4Transparencies of the various grain sizes in Plate I are available from ASTM Headquarters.Order Adjunct:ADJE112TS for the set.Transparencies of individual grain size groupings are available on request.Order Adjunct:ADJE11205T(Grain Size00),ADJE11206T(Grain Size0),ADJE11207T(Grain Size0.5),ADJE11208T (Grain Size1.0),ADJE11209T(Grain Size1.5),ADJE11210T(Grain Size2.0), ADJE11211T(Grain Size 2.5),ADJE11212T(Grain Sizes 3.0, 3.5,and 4.0), ADJE11213T(Grain Sizes4.5,5.0,and5.5),ADJE11214T(Grain Sizes6.0,6.5, and7.0),ADJE11215T(Grain Sizes7.5,8.0,and8.5),and ADJE11216T(Grain Sizes9.0,9.5,and10.0).Charts illustrating grain size numbers00to10are on81⁄2 by11in.(215.9by279.4mm)film.Transparencies for Plates II,III,and IV are not available.5The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references appended to these test methods.6A photograph of the Shepherd standard fractures can be obtained from ASTM Headquarters.Order Adjunct:ADJE011224.--` , , , ` , , -` -` , , ` , , ` , ` , , ` ---。
安德森-商务与经济统计习题答案（第8版,中文版）
Preface
The purpose of Statistics for Business and Economics is to provide students, primarily in the fields of business administration and economics, with a sound conceptual introduction to the field of statistics and its many applications. The text is applications-oriented and has been written with the needs of the nonmathematician in mind.
Thomas A. Williams
Rochester Institute of Technology
2002 by South-Western/Thomson Learning Cincinnati, Ohio
Contents
Chapter 1. Data and Statistics 2. Descriptive Statistics: Tabular and Graphical Approaches 3. Descriptive Statistics: Numerical Methods 4. Introduction to Probability 5. Discrete Probability Distributions 6. Continuous Probability Distributions 7. Sampling and Sampling Distributions 8. Interval Estimation 9. Hypothesis Testing 10. Statistical Inference about Means and Proportions With Two Populations 11. Inferences about Population Variances 12. Tests of Goodness of Fit and Independence 13. Analysis of Variance and Experimental Design 14. Simple Linear Regression 15. Multiple Regression 16. Regression Analysis: Model Building 17. Index Numbers 18. Forecasting 19. Nonparametric Methods 20. Statistical Methods for Quality Control 21. Sample Survey