英语专业文献的翻译
英语专业文献的翻译
简单句的翻译一、转换法英汉两种语言在造句方式和表达习惯上有较大区别，翻译中如果词类、成分一一对应直译，会使译文不通顺、难理解甚至无法交流，其最大的原因就是不会用转换法。
转换法包括词类或词性转换、句子成分转换、修饰词与被修饰词的转换等。
词类转换就是翻译处理时将某种词类的词译成另一种词类，因此句子结构也随之发生改变。
1、转化为汉语动词最常见的是英语中的名词、动名词或名词化结构转化为汉语中的动词，其原因是英语动词发达，而汉语则是动词占优势。
还有英语的形容词、副词、介词等结构转化为汉语的动词。
We also realized the growing need and necessity to industrialize certain sectors of the economy.我们也认识到越来越需要将某些经济部门工业化。
A successful scientist must be a good observer, accurate, patient and objective.一位成功的科学家必须善于观察，准确、耐心而客观。
With such knowledge one can decide which properties are relevant to one’s problem and whether the list values for specific properties are directly applicable.有了这样的知识，我们就能确定那些性能和我们考虑的特定问题有关，以及某些特定性能所列数值是否可以直接应用。
形容词转化为汉语动词更常见的是“the ＋形容词”组成的名词性结构如“theold, the infirm, the ill, the very young”（老、弱、病、幼者）。
此外还有一些作表语的形容词，包含感觉、知觉、情感、想法、信含、欲望等含义，其后常搭配一定的介词、不定式或that从句。
英语专业研究参考文献
1.交际法英语教学和考试评估，徐强，上海外语教育出版社2002. 12.英语教学策略论，王笃勤外语教学与研究出版社2003. 93.语言问题求教集，王宗炎，外语教学与研究出版社2003.34.现代语言学的特点和发展趋势，戚雨村，上海外语教育出版社2001. 25. A New Introduction to Pragmatics新编语用学概要, 何兆熊, 上海外语教育出版社2001.86.中国大学生英语作文评改毛荣贵Dorine S.Houston 上海交通大学出版社1998. 47.英语教师行动研究，王蔷外语教学与研究出版社2002，118.Concise History of the English Language 英语简史, 费尔南德。
莫塞，水天同等译，外语教学与研究出版社，2000。
89.英语课堂教学形成性评价研究, 罗少茜，外语教学与研究出版社2003. 4nguage, Culture and Translating, Eugene A. Nida 上海外语教育出版社, 1999,911.The Learner-centered Curriculum A Study in Second Language Teaching, David Nunan 学习者为中心的课程研究, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 312.Linguistics, H.G. Widdowson语言学, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 313.Sociolinguistics, Bernard Spolsky社会语言学, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 314.Psycholinguistics, Thomas Scovel心理语言学上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 315.Second Language Acquisition, Rod Ellis第二语言习得, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 316.Pragmatics, George Y ule语用学上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 3nguage and Culture, Clair Kramsch语言与文化, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 318.英语词汇学教程, A Survey of English Lexicology, 汪榕培，卢晓娟，上海外语教育出版社, 1998, 419.The English Language，R. W.Burchfield，话说英语，牛津大学出版社，外研社1992, 120. A Survey of Modern Second Language Learning & Teaching, 王立菲，现代外语教学论，上海教育出版社, 2000,1121. A History of English Language Teaching, A. P.R. Howatt语言教学史, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 622.具有中国特色的英语教学法, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 823.Context and Culture in Language Teaching, Claire Kramsch语言教学的环境与文化, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1224.Teaching Language as Communication, H. G. Widdowson语言教学交际法, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1225.Aspects of Language Teaching, H. G. Widdowson语言教学面面观, 上海外语教育出版社,1999, 1226.Discourse and Literature, Guy Cook话语与文学, 上海外语教育出版社, 1999, 1227.外语教学心理学, 朱纯, 上海外语教育出版社, 2000, 328.V ocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press29.Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching, Hatch and Brown语言教学课程设计原理, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press30.Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Yalden语言学习与语言教学的原则, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Cambridge University Press31.Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied Linguistics: A Handbook for Language Teaching,Johnson and Johnson应用语言学百科词典：语言教学手册, 外语教学与研究出版社，剑桥大学出版社Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Cambridge University Press 32. 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Linguistic Introduction to English FictionalProse小说文体论：英语小说的语言学入门Thomborrow，J．et al Patterns in Language：Stylistics for Students of Language andLiterature语言模式：文体学入门Wright，L．et al Stylistics：A Practical Coursebook 实用文体学教程Typology语言类型学Croft．W．Typology and Universals语言类型学与普遍语法特征Anthropological Linguistics人类语言学Foley，W．An Anthropological Linguistics: An Introduction人类语言学入门Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Coulmas，F．(ed) The Handbook of Sociolinguistics社会语言学通览Crystal．D English as a Global Language英语：全球通用语Fasold．R The Sociolinguistics of Language社会语言学Hudson．R．A Sociolinguistics Second edition社会语言学教程Wardhaugh，R Introduction to Sociolinguistics Third edition社会语言学引论Psycholinguistics心理语言学Aitchison，J The Articulate Mammal：An Introduction to PsycholinguisticsFourth edition 会说话的哺乳动物：心理语言学入门Carroll．D．W Psychology of Language Third edition语言心理学Intercultural Communication文化交际Samovar．L．A．et al Communication Between Cultures Second edition跨文化交际Scollon．R．et aI． Intercultural Communication：A Discourse 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Linguistics语料库语言学入门Statistics in Linguistics语言统计学Woods．A．et al． Statistics in Language Studies 语言研究中的统计学History of the English Language 英语史Baugh．A．C．et al A History of the English Language Fourth Edition英语史Freeborn．D From old EnglishtoStandard Englishecond edition英语史：从古代英语到标准英语First Language Acquisition 第一语言习得Foster-Cohen，S．H． An Introduction to Child Language Development儿童语言发展引论Goodluck．H． Language Acquisition：A Linguistic Introduction从语言学的角度看语言习得Peccel，J．S． Child Language New edition 儿童语言Second Language Acquisition第二语言习得Cohen．A．D Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language学习和运用第二语言的策略Cook．V Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition语言学和第二语言习得Cook．V Second Language Learning and Language Teaching Second edition 第二语言学习与教学James，C Errors in Language Learning and Use：Exploring Error Analysis语言学习和语言使用中的错误：错误分析探讨Larsen-Freeman．D．et a1 An Introduction Second Language Acquisition Research第二语言习得研究概况Nunan．D Second Language Teaching and Learning第二语言教与学Reid，J．M Learning Styles in the ESL／EFL Classroom ESL／EFL英语课堂上的学习风格Richards，J．C．et al Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms第二语言课堂教学反思Language Education语言教育Brown．H．D Principles of Language Learning and Teaching Third edition语言学习和语言教学的原则Brown．H．D Teaching by Principles： An Interactive Approach to LanguagePedagogy 根据原理教学：交互式语言教学Brown，J．D The Elements of Language Curriculum: A Systematic Approach to Program Development语言教学大纲要素：课程设计系统法Harmer，J How to Teach English怎样教英语Hatch，E．et a1 Vocabulary, Semantics and Language Education词汇、语义学和语言教育Johnson，K An Introduction to Foreign Language Learning and Teaching外语学习与教学导论Richards，J．et a1 Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching语言教学的流派Trudgill，P．et al International English Third edition英语：国际通用语Ur．P A Course in Language Teaching：Practice and Theory语言教学教程：实践与理论Research Method研究方法McDonotlgh，J．et al Research Methods for English Language Teachers英语教学科研方法Slade．C Form and Style：Research Papers，Reports，Theses Tenth edition如何写研究论文与学术报告Thomas，J．et al. 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英文论文(外文文献)翻译成中文的格式与方法
英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文关键词：外文，英文，中文，翻译成，文献英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文简介：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找英文论文（外文文献）翻译成中文的格式与方法本文内容：在撰写毕业设计（论文）或科研论文时，需要参考一些相关外文文献，了解国外的最新研究进展，这就需要我们找到最新最具代表性的外文文献，进行翻译整理，以备论文写作时参考，外文文献中英文文献占绝大多数，因此英文论文准确的翻译成中文就显得尤为重要！一、外文文献从哪里下载1、从知网国际文献总库中找，该数据库中包含14,000多家国外出版社的文献，囊括所有专业的英文文献资料。
2、一些免费的外文数据库或网站，为了方便大家查找，编者整理成文档供大家下载：国外免费文献数据库大全下载3、谷歌学术检索工具，检索时设置成只检索英文文献，键入与专业相关的关键词即可检索。
二、英文论文翻译格式与要求翻译的外文文献的字符要求不少于1.5万（或翻译成中文后至少在3000字以上）。
字数达到的文献一篇即可。
翻译的外文文献应主要选自学术期刊、学术会议的文章、有关着作及其他相关材料，应与毕业论文（设计）主题相关，并作为外文参考文献列入毕业论文（设计）的参考文献。
并在每篇中文译文首页用＂脚注＂形式注明原文作者及出处，中文译文后应附外文原文。
需认真研读和查阅术语完成翻译，不得采用翻译软件翻译。
中文译文的编排结构与原文同，撰写格式参照毕业论文的格式要求。
参考文献不必翻译，直接使用原文的（字体，字号，标点符号等与毕业论文中的参考文献要求同），参考文献的序号应标注在译文中相应的地方。
医学专业英语翻译
医学专业英语翻译既使没有生词,没有复杂的句子结构,要想理解医学英语专业文献,对于非医学人士也非易事，下面小编为大家分享医学专业英语翻译，希望对大家有用。
医学专业英语翻译如下：silver clip 银夹子silvering 镀银silverized catgut 银肠线silver nitrate 硝酸银silver probe 银探子silver stick 硝酸银棒silver transfusion canula 银质输血导管silver wire suture 银丝缝线simple 简单的，单纯的simple articulator 简易咬合器simple cut 单切simple microscope 单式显微镜simple oxygen system 简易供氧装置simple resuscitator 简易复苏器simplified microtome 简易切片机simplify 简化simply respirator 简易呼吸器simply rib approximator 简易肋骨合拢器Sims's speculum 席姆斯氏窥镜（鸭嘴形阴道窥镜）simulation 模拟，仿真simulator 模拟器，模拟设备，仿真器simultaneous 同时的，同时发生的simultaneous multisection radiographic adapter 多层快速摄影接合器simultaneous X-ray quantometer 同步X 射线光量计singing 蜂鸣，振鸣single beam speotrophotometer 单光束分光光度计single channel blown balloon 单道鼓气球single crystal camera 单晶照像机single cut 单切single-ended amputating knife 单刃截肢刀single hyperbaric oxygen chamber 单人高压氧舱single lens reflex camera 单镜头反光照像机single mlcroscope 单目显微镜single mode 单模single needle monitor 单针监视器（血液透析用）single patient dialysis unit 单人透析装置single patient haemodialysis machine artificial kidney 单人血液透析人工肾single prong hook 单尖头钩single prlse laser 单脉冲激光器single range balance 电子天平single side razor blade 单面保险刀片single ureter cystoscope 单侧输尿管膀胱镜sinistro- 左，左侧sinistrogyration 左旋sink 洗涤盒，槽sinking pump 浸没泵sino- 窦sino-atrial 窦房的sino-atrial node 窦房结sinogram 窦腔X 射线（照）片sinography 窦腔X 射线照像术sinoscope 窦镜（用于上颌窦额窦等诊断）sinotest 液晶乳腺癌诊断或（商品名）sinus 窦房结，窦sinus applicator 鼻窦卷棉子sinus forceps 鼻窦钳sinus hook 窦钩sinusopuncture 窦穿刺术sinus rasp 鼻窦锉sinus tachycardia 窦性心动过速siphon 虹吸，虹吸管siphon sound 虹吸探子siphon tube 虹吸管sipping nozzle 喷口，喷嘴site 地点，位置，场所site plan 平面布置图sitotoxism 食物中毒situation 位置，场所，处境size 大小，尺寸，号码skeleto- 骨胳skeleton ①骨胳②轮廓，计划skenoscope 尿道旁腺镜sketch 草图，设计图，概略skewing ①时滞，相位差②偏移，弯曲skia- 影像（多指X 射线的）skiagram X 线照片skiagraph X 线照片skiagraphy X 射线照像术skiameter X 射线量测定器，X 射线量计skiametry ①X 射线量测定法②视网膜镜检查skiascope ①视网膜镜②X 射线透视镜skiascope optometer 检影视力计skiascopic chimney 视网膜镜灯罩skiascopy X 射线透视检查skimmer 撇渣器，分液器skin ①皮肤②外壳skin amalysor 皮肤分析器skin forceps 皮镊skin graft 皮移植片skin grafting knife 植皮刀skin grafting retractor 皮肤移植拉钩skin grafting spatula 植皮板铲skin hook 皮肤钩skin potential 皮肤电位skin temperature transducer 皮肤温度传感器skirt ①裙子②套筒，边缘skoliosis 脊柱侧凸skoliosometer 脊柱侧凸计skopometer 浊度计，视测浊度计skoto- 暗，盲skotogram X 射线照片，暗室显影片skotograph X 射线照片，暗室显影片skull 头颅skull breaker 头盖骨破裂器skull chisel 颅骨凿skull clamp 头颅夹skull clamp adaptor 头颅夹接头skull clamp pin 头颅夹针skull cutting forceps 颅骨钳skull elevator 颅骨起子，颅骨橇skull forceps 颅骨钳skull gouge 颅骨圆凿skull hook 颅骨钩skull membrane dissector 颅骨膜剥离器skull perforator set 颅骨钻skull plate 颅骨板skull punch 颅骨打孔器skull rongeur 咬颅骨钳skull saw 颅骨锯skull tongs 头颅钳skull traction tongs 颅骨牵引钳skull trephine 头颅环钻slab 板，片slabber 涎，唾液slaked lime 熟石灰，消石灰slave ①从属的，受控制的②从动装置slave monitor 从动监视器slay 心子，铁心sledge 橇，滑板sledge microtome 滑动式切片机sleeve ①袖子②套筒，套管slice 薄切片，切片slicer ①切片机②活组织切片slide ①载玻片②滑板③幻灯片slide box 载玻机盒slide cabinet 载玻片柜slide gauge 游标卡尺，滑尺slide micrometer 载玻片测微计slide plateform 幻灯片座slide projector 幻灯机slide rule 计算尺slide stainer 组织切片染色机sliding caliper 游标卡尺sliding microtome 滑动式切片机slight 轻微的，纤细的sling 悬带sling dogs 吊钩sling psychrometer 悬摇式空气湿度计sling bottle 吊钩slip ①纸片②套，罩③滑动slipper ①滑动部分，滑板②游标slippers 拖鞋slit 裂隙，槽slit image 裂隙像slit lamp 裂隙灯slit lamp corneal microscope 裂隙灯角膜显微镜slit lamp microscope 裂隙灯显微镜slitter 纵断器，切刀slit ultramicroscope 超裂隙显微镜slope 斜度，斜率，斜面slope type traction frame 斜坡式牵引架slop pail 污水桶slot 缝，槽slotted bone plate 长孔接骨板slow scan 慢扫描slurry ①膏剂，软膏②粘合液Sm (samarium) 钐small bone cutting forceps 小切骨钳small cervical retractor 小型颈牵开器small dissecting instruments 微型解剖器械small hook 小钩small intestinal fiberscope 小肠纤维镜small intestine 小肠smear 涂片，污点smell 乏味，实味Smellie's scissors 斯梅利氏剪（外刃颅骨剪）smoke 烟，烟雾smoked drum 烟纸鼓smoked paper 熏烟纸smoked recorder 熏烟纸记录器smoked spectacles 墨镜smooth 平滑的，光滑的smooth broach 平滑髓针smooth forceps 无齿钳smooth pliers 平嘴钳smudge 斑点，黑点，光点Sn (stannum) 锡snapshot 快照，快照拍摄snare 圈断器，勒除器，圈套器snare wire 圈套器钢丝snide ①假的，伪造的②低劣的snow ①雪，下雪②（电视屏幕上出现的）雪花效应snow glasses 雪镜snubber 减震器，缓冲器，消音器soap 肥皂（高级脂肪酸钠盐或钾盐）soap box 肥皂盒society 学会，协会，会socket ①座，插座②孔，槽臼soda 苏打，碳酸钠sodalime 内石灰sodalime cartridge 苏打石灰筒soda soap 钠皂，硬皂sodium (abbr. Na) 钠sodium amalgam 钠汞合金，钠汞齐sodium borate 硼砂，硼酸钠sodium carbonate 碳酸钠sodium carboxymethylcellulose 羧甲基纤维素钠sodium chloride 氯化钠sodium hydroxide 氢氧化钠，苛性钠sodium byposulfite 硫代硫酸的，大苏打sodium iodide 碘化钠sodium lamp 钠光灯sodium potassium analyzer 钠钾分析器soft catheter 软导管soft palate retractor 软颚拉钩soft rubber catheter 橡皮导尿管soft soap 软皂，绿皂software 软件，软设备，程序设备soft water 软水，去离子水soil ①土壤②污物，脏东西soiled dressing pail 污敷料桶soil pipe 污水管sol 溶胶，溶液solaode 太阳能电池solar 太阳的，日光的solar battery 太阳能电池solar cell 太阳能电池solar energy 太阳能solarization 日晒，曝晒solder 焊剂，焊片soldering block 焊板soldering clamp 焊夹soldering flux paste 合金助焊剂soldering pliers 焊钳sole ①单独的，唯一的②底基，底板solenoid 螺线管，筒形线圈，电磁线圈solenoid valve 电磁阀solicitor 律师solid 固体的，坚固的solid blade forceps 实叶钳solidify 固结，固化solidmicyowowesourceprotatg therapy system 固态微玻源前列腺治疗仪solidography 实体放射线摄影法solid particle 固体微粒solid state diathermy generator 晶体透热电疗机solt 盐，食盐solubility 溶解度，可溶性soluble ①可溶解的②可解决的soluble bougie 可溶探条soluble ligature 可溶化结扎线solute 溶质，溶解物solution 溶液solvent 溶剂，溶媒soma 体，躯体somatic effector 躯体效应器somato- 躯体，身体somatogram 躯体X 射线照片somatome 胎体刀，载胎刀somatometry 人体测量术somatoscopy 体格检查somatosensory stimulator 身体感觉刺激器somatotype 体型，体式somni- 睡眠somnocinematograph 睡眠运动记录器sonar 声讷，声波定位仪sonarography 超声扫描术sonde ①探子，探针②探测器sone 宋（响度单位）sonic 声音的，声波的sonic applicator 声波治疗仪sonicator 远距离声波定位器soniclizer 超声波雾化器（商品名）sonic stimulator 音刺激器sonic vibration 声振动sonic wave 声波sonifer 助听器SONOAN (sonic nose analyzer) 噪声分析仪sonochemistry 声化学sonoencephalograph 超声波测脑仪sonogram 声波图sonograph 声谱仪sonolator （可见语言）声谱显示仪sonolayer 音层仪sonolayergraph 超声波诊断装置sonometer 听力计sonoprobe 探声器，声纳探测器sonoradiography 超声放射照像术sorbefacient ①吸收剂②促吸收的sorbent 吸着剂Sorby's cell 索比氏容器（血液分光镜检查用）Soresi cannula 血管吻合套管sorption 吸收作用，吸附sort 种类，类别，分类sorter 分拣器，分类机soterocyte 血小板souffle 杂音，吹气音soul 灵魂，精华sound ①声音②探子，探条（用于放置体腔内，探测异物或扩大狭窄的器械）sound analyzer 声分析器sound board 共鸣（振）板sound conducting apparatus 传音器sound deadener 减声器sound detector 检声器，测音器sounder ①音响器②探测器，探针sound head 录音头，拾声头sounding 探通术sound level calibrator 声级校准器sound level meter 声级计，噪声计soundlocator 声波定位器，声纳soundmeter 噪音计，测声计sound monitor 监听器sound perceiving appartus 觉音器sound pick-up 拾音器sound source 声源sound spectrograph 声谱仪sound synthesis analyzor 音（响）综合分析器sound volume 音量sound wave 声波source ①源，来源②电源source book 原始资料source index 资料索引spc (single photon counting) 单光子计数CT；单光子CT（R-CT 的一手中）source of light 光源sovereignty 主权，统治权space 空间，距离，腔space maintainer 间隙保持器spacer 垫片，衬垫space simulator 空间模拟器spacing 间距，间隔spade 铲spagirism 炼丹术，练金术spanner 扳手，螺旋钳spano- 减少，稀少spanopnea 呼吸减少sparadrap 膏药，药绷带spare ①多余的，备用的②备件spare lamp 备用灯泡spare parts 备用件spare parts kit 备用零件箱，零件箱spare parts list 备用零件清单spark 电花，火花spark ball electrode 火花球电极spark gap 放电器，避雷器spatial 立体的，空间的spatial vectorcardiography 空间心电向量描记法spatula ①药刀，软膏刀②铲③压舌板SPCG (spectral phonocardiogram) 频谱心音图speak 说，讲，陈述speaker 扬声器，话筒，喇叭speaking tube 传音筒spear drill 矛状锥，剑尖锥spear point drill 剑尖锥spear poing flat drill 剑尖平锥Spec. (1.specification 2.specimen) ①说明书②标本special ①特殊的，专门的②专刊special accessories 专用附件special digital computer 专用计算机special effect generator 特技效果发生器specialist 专家speciality 特点，专业specialize 专门化，特殊化，限定special licence 特别许可证special procedure equipment 特殊程序设备special purpose computer 专用计算机species 种类specific 特有的，专门的，比（的）specific activity 比活性specification (abbr. Spec.) ①说明书②规格，规范specific density 比重specific gravity (abbr. sp. gr.) 比重specific gravity balance 比重天平specific gravity bottle 比重瓶specific heat 比热specific ion electrode 离子选择电极specificity 特异性，专一性specific ratio 比率specific resistance 电阻率，比电阻specific value 比值specific volume 比容specific weight 比重specify ①规定，指定②详细说明specillum 探子，探杆specimen 标本，样品specimen bottle 样本瓶specimen copy 样本specimen disc 样品盘specimen holder 标本夹specimen jar 标本缸specimen trap 标本收集器specimen trimmer 标本粗割机specimen vial 标本管形瓶spectacles 眼镜，平光眼镜spectral 光谱，频谱的spectral lamp 光谱灯spectral line 光谱线spectral phonoangiography 光谱血管音描记术spectral phonocardiogram 光谱心音图spectral phonocardiograph 光谱心音描记器spectro- 光谱，分光spectrochrome 色光谱的spectrocolorimeter ①分光比色计②单色盲分光镜spectrocolorimetry 光谱色度学spectrocomparator 光谱比较仪spectrofluorimeter 荧光分光计spectrofluorometer 荧光分光计spectrofluorometry 荧光光谱测定法spectrofluorophotometer 荧光分光光度计spectrogram 光谱图spectrogrph 摄谱仪，光谱仪spectrographic camera 光谱照像机spectrography 摄谱术spectrometer 分光计，光谱计spectrometry 分光术，光谱测定法spectromicroscope 分光显微镜spectromonitor 分光监视器spectrophotometer 分光光度计，分光比色计spectrophotometer cell 分光光度计比色皿spectrophotometry 分光光度测定法spectropolarimeter 分光偏振计，旋光分光计spectropyrheliometer 日射光谱仪spectroradiometer 分光辐射谱仪spectroscope 分光镜，分光仪spectroscopy 分光镜检查spectrum 光谱，光系，谱specular image 镜像speculum ①窥器，张开器②窥镜speculum forceps 窥器钳speech 语言，演说speech amplifier 音频放大器speech coder 语言编码器speech recognizing machine 语言识别机speed 速率，速度，转数speed autoclave 快速灭菌器speedometer 示速器，里程计spermatangium 精子器SPF (spectrophotofluorometer) 荧光分光光度计sp. gr. (specific gravity) 比重spheno- 楔形，蝶骨sphenoidal rasp 蝶骨锉sphenoid sinus canula 蝶窦套管sphenoid sinus curette 蝶窦刮匙sphenoid sinus rongeur 鼻蝶窦咬骨钳sphenometer （楔形）骨片测量器sphenotribe 碎颅器sphere 球体，区域，范围，界sphere introducer 眼球置入器spherical aberration 球面像差spherical lens 球面镜片spherical projection perimeter 球形投影视野计spherocylinder 球柱透镜spheroid ①球形的②球形体spherometer 球径计sphincter 括约肌sphincteroscope 肛门括约肌镜sphincteroscopy 肛门括约肌匀检查sphincterotome 括约肌切开器sphygmo- 脉，脉搏sphygmobologram 脉能图，胸压曲线sphygmobolograph 脉能描记器sphygmobolometer 脉能描记器，脉压计sphygmobolometry 脉能描记法，脉压测量术sphygmocardiogram 脉搏心动图sphygmocardiograph 脉搏心动描记器sphygmocardioscope 脉搏心音描记器sphygmochronograph 脉搏自动描记器sphygmochronography 脉搏自动描记法sphygmodynamometer 脉搏力计sphygmodynamometry 脉搏测量法sphygmogram 脉搏图，脉搏曲线sphygmograph 脉搏描记器，脉搏计sphygmograph transducer 脉搏计换能器sphygmography 脉搏描记法sphygmoid 脉样的，脉搏状的sphygmology 脉学，脉搏学sphygmomanometer 血压计sphygmomanometroscope 复式血压计sphygmomanometry 血压测量法sphygmometer 脉搏计sphygmometrograph 血压描记器(记录最高和最低动脉血压)sphygmometroscope 听脉血压计，听力测压器sphygmo-oscillometer 示波血压计，振动血压计sphygmopalpation 按脉（法），切脉（法）sphygmophone 脉音听诊器sphygmoplethysmogrph 脉搏体积描记器，脉搏容积计sphygmoscope 脉搏检视器，脉镜sphygmoscopy 脉搏检查sphygmosignal 脉（搏振）辐检视器，脉搏信号器sphygmosystole 收缩期脉搏曲线sphygmotachograph 血流速度描记器sphygmotachymeter 脉搏速度计sphygmotonogram 血压脉搏图skphygmotonograph 血压脉搏描记器，脉动力描记器sphygmotonometer ①脉动力计，动脉管壁弹力计②眼底血压计sphygmous 脉搏的sphygmoviscosimetry 血压血液粘度测量法spica 穗形绷带，人字形绷带spica bandage 人字形绷带spider ①蜘蛛②三脚架，支座spider- web antenna 蛛网天线spigot ①插口，插销②龙头spike ①钉②脉冲，波峰（示波图）spike potential 峰电位spinal bone plate 脊柱接骨板spinal cord 脊髓spinal forceps 脊柱钳spinal fusion curette 脊柱凑合术刮匙spinal fusion osteotome 脊凑合术骨凿spinal fusion plate 脊柱接合板spinal manometer 脊椎测压计spinal marrow 骨髓spinal needle 脊椎穿刺针spinal retractor 脊柱牵开器spinal rongeur 棘突咬骨钳spinal screw 脊柱螺钉spinal support 脊柱支持器spinawl 破皮锥，破皮钻spine ①脊柱②棘，刺spine chisel 脊柱凿spine saw 脊柱锯spinner 旋转器spinogram ①脊柱X 射线（照）片②脊髓造影照片spinthariscope 闪烁镜spintherometer X 射线透度计spintometer X 射线透度计spiral ①螺旋的②螺旋管③螺旋钻spiral agitator 螺旋式搅拌器spiral bandage 螺旋绷带spiral drill 螺丝钻头spiral separator 螺旋分离器spirit 酒精，醑剂spirit blowtorch 酒精喷灯spirit gauge 酒精比重计spirit lamp 酒精灯spirit thermometer 酒精温度计spiro- 呼吸spiroanalyzer 呼吸功能分析器spirocomputer 呼吸功能计算器spirogram 呼吸（描记）图spirograph 呼吸量描记器，肺功能测定仪spirography 呼吸描记法spiroid 螺旋样的spiro-index 呼吸指数spirometer 呼吸量计，呼吸气量测定器spirometer alarm 呼吸量计报警器spirometric 肺量测定的spirometry 肺量测定法，呼吸量测定法spirophore 柜式人工呼吸器spiropulsator 吸入麻醉器spiroscope 呼吸量测视器spiroscopy 呼吸量测视法spittoon 痰盂splanchna 内脏splanchnic retractor 内脏牵开器splanchno- 内脏splanchnoscopy 内窥镜检查splanchnotribe 夹肠器spleen 脾spleen pedicle clamp 脾蒂钳splenic venography 脾门静脉造影术spleno- 脾splenogram 脾X 射线照片splenography 脾 X 射线照像术splenoportography 脾门静脉X 射线造影术splice ①缝接②加板splint 夹板，夹splint and bandage 夹板绷带splinter 裂片，碎片屑splinter forceps 取裂片镊splint of wood 木夹板split antenna 隙缝天线split stream inyector 分流注射器splitter ①分裂器②分离器③分流器splitting chisel 裂片凿splitting forceps 分劈钳splitting instrument 分解器split ventricular trocar 裂隙室套管spokeshave 鼻用环形刀sponge 海绵sponge biopsy 棉拭活组织检查sponge bowl 海绵碗sponge dressing forceps 弹性敷料镊sponge forceps 海绵钳sponge holder 海绵夹，持绵器sponge holding forceps 海绵夹持钳，持海绵钳sponge probang 海绵除鲠器sponge tent 海绵塞条spongia 海绵sponsor ①发起人，资助人②发起，主办spontaneous 任意的，自发的spontaneous brain wave 自发性脑电波spool 线圈，卷盘spoon 匙spoonful 匙，一匙量spoon knife 匙型刀spoon shaped clamp 匙型夹spoon shaped speculum 匙形窥器spoon type anastomosis forceps 匙型吻合钳spot 斑，光点，部位spot film device X 射线点片器spot film radiography 适时X 射线照像术spot film roentgenography 适时X 射线照像术spotlight 聚光灯，反光灯spotlighting illuminator 焦点照明器spot paper 点滴反应用滤纸spout 喷嘴，槽spray ①喷雾器，喷嘴②喷雾剂spray bottle 喷雾瓶spray bottle heater 喷雾瓶加热器spray bottle nozzle 喷雾瓶嘴spray bottle warmer 喷雾瓶加温器spray dryerin lab 实验室喷雾干燥器sprayer ①喷雾器②喷嘴spray jet 喷雾器spray nozzle 喷嘴spray pistol 喷雾枪spreader 摊开器，扩张器spreading forceps 扩张钳spring ①弹簧②弹性spring balance 弹簧天平，弹簧称spring bending pliers 曲簧钳spring forceps 弹簧钳spring guide 弹簧导子SRS X-knife(stereotactil Radiosuryerysystem) 立体定位放射外科系统（简称X 刀）SRT 多向立体定位放射疗法spring knife 弹簧刀spring kymograph 弹簧记波器spring lancet ①弹簧刀②弹簧刺血针spring manometer 弹簧测压计spring mattress 弹簧褥子spring phlebotome 弹簧静脉刀spring scarificator 弹簧划痕器spring socket 弹簧插座spring washer 弹簧垫圈spring wire 弹簧丝sprue former 铸道形成针spud 铲，剥皮刀spur crusher 骨刺压碎器spurious 假的，伪造的spurt 喷出，喷射sputum 痰sputum bottle 痰瓶sputum cup 痰杯sputum tube 容痰管square 正方形，平方squared paper 方格纸square punch 方型钻孔器square shaped 方型的square tray anth cap 有盖方盘squeeze 压缩，挤sqyeeze dtbanineter 手握力计squeezer 压榨器squeezing forceps 砂眼压榨镊SQUID 超导量子干涉仪squint hook 斜视钩squint knife 斜视刀Sr (strontium) 锶SRS 立体安位射线外科SSEG (segmental spinal electrogram) 节段性脊电图stab ①刺②杆SQUID (superconduction quantum interference device) 超导量子干涉仪（测量心磁脑磁信息）stabber 锥，穿索针stability 稳定性stabilivolt 稳压管stabilization 稳定stabilizator ①稳压器②稳定器stabilizer ①稳压器②固位器，稳定器stabilograph 稳定性测定器stabilovolt tube 稳压管stab knife 穿刺刀stable tracer isotope 稳定示踪同位素stack ①堆积，叠②捆，束，组，套stacked antenna 多层天线stacker ①可升降摄像机台②叠式存储器stactometer 测滴计，滴量计stadia computer 视距计算器stadiometer 测距仪staff ①探杆，导引探子②杆stage （显微镜）载物台，镜台stage micrometer 镜台测微器（显微镜）stagonometer （表面张力）滴重计stain 着色剂，染料stained preparation 染色标本stainer 染色器staining 染色，染色法staining bottle 染色瓶staining dish 染色皿staining jax 染色缸staining machine 染色机staining technique 染色技术stainless 不锈的，不锈钢的stainless steel 不锈钢=yustlessstcel stainless steel silk 不锈钢丝stainless steel wire 不锈钢丝stain smear 染色涂片stalagmometer 表面张力滴定计，滴数计stall 手指护套stalloy 硅钢片stamp ①图章②盖印，标出③邮票stand 台，座，支架standard (abbr.Std.) 标准，规格，样品standard accessory 标准附件standard candle 标准烛光standard cell 标准电池standard curve 标准曲线standard deviation 标准偏差standard electrode 标准电极standard emitron 光电摄像管standard error (abbr.S.E.) 标准误差standardizition 标准化，标定法standard lead 标准导程standard lens 标准镜头standard rocking microtome 标准摇动式切片机standard set-up 标准装置standard solution 标准溶液standard specifications 标准规格standard technique 标准技术，标准法standard volume 标准容积（理想气体在标准温度和压力下的体积，即 =22. 公升）stand-by ①备用品②准备standing ①放置②固定的，直立的stand magnet 立式吸铁器standpoint 立场，观点stannum (abbr.Sn) 锡staphylagra 悬雍垂钳staphyle 悬雍垂staphylo- 悬雍垂staphylorrhaphy elevator 软腭缝合用起子staphylotome 悬雍垂切除刀staple ①U 形钉，肘钉②钉书钉staple driver 骨科U 形钉起子stapler ①小钉书机②中药袋封口机star 星，星形物starch 淀粉starch-sugar 糊精star connection 星形联接start 起动，开始starter 起动器，发射器stasimetry 稠度测量法stat. 镭射气单位（计算镭放射量的单位相当于0. 毫居里）state ①状态，情况②叙述，说明statement 声明，报告书statement of claims 索赔清单static ①静电的②固定的static campimeter 静态平面视野计，中心量光觉视野计static electrical apparatus 间动电疗机static electricity 静电static electrometer 静电计static probe 固定探头（B 超）statics ①静电学②静电干扰station 电台，站，地点stationary grid 静止滤线栅statistical distribution 统计分布statistics 统计学statometer 眼球突出计statoscope 自记微气压计，微动气压计status 状况，地位stay suture clamp 支座缝合夹std. atm. (standard atmosphere) 标准大气压steadiness apparatus 共济失调描记器steady 稳定的，均匀的steam 蒸汽，汽steam autoclave 蒸汽灭菌器steam disinfecting apparatus 蒸汽消毒器steam disinfector 蒸汽消毒器steam gage 汽压计，蒸汽压力表steam inhalar apparatus 蒸汽吸入器steam inhaler 蒸汽吸入器steam kettle 蒸汽锅steam piston 蒸汽活塞steam pressure gauge 蒸汽压力表steam pressure respirator 蒸汽加压呼吸器steam sterilization 蒸汽灭菌法steam sterilizer 蒸汽灭菌器steam under pressure 加压蒸汽steam vapor cabinet 蒸汽浴箱steam vaporiser 蒸汽喷雾器steel 钢steel bending wire 钢曲丝steel bur 钢钻steel measure tape 钢卷尺steel rule 钢尺steel spoon 钢匙steel strip 钢条steel tape 钢卷尺steel thimble 钢套管steel wire 钢丝steering 操纵，控制stellite 钨铬钴合金stem 柄，杆，把stem-pessary 有杆子宫托stencil ①模绘板②蜡纸Stender dish 施滕德氏皿（组织标本制备及染色的大小形状不同的器皿）stenocompressor 腮腺管压闭器stenopaic spectacles 小孔镜stenosis 狭窄step ①极，档，阶梯②间歇式的step-down transformer 降压器step lens 棱镜stepless 连续的，均匀的step-penetrameter 楔形梯级式X 射线透度计step-up 升高，加快step-up transformer 升压器step-wedge 楔形梯级step-wedge penetrameter 楔形梯级式X 射线透度计steradian 球面度（立体角单位）stere 千升，立方米（容量单位）stereo ①立体，实体②立体镜③立体照片stereo- 立体，实体stereo-amplifier 立体声放大器stereobinocular microscope 立体双目显微镜stereo-camera 立体摄像机stereocampimeter 立体视野计stereocardiography 空间心电向量描记法stereo-cinefluorography 立体荧光电影摄像术stereo effect 立体声效应stereoencephaloscope 立体窥脑器，脑检视仪stereoencephalotome 立体脑切开器，脑定点切开器stereoencephalotomy 脑定点切开术stereofluoroscopy 立体荧光屏透视检查stereogram 立体照片，立体X 射线照片stereograph 立体照片，立体X 射线照片stereography 立体X 射线照像术stereoisomer 立体异构体stereoisomerism 立体异构stereo-magnifier 立体放大镜stereometer ①体积计②比重计stereometry ①体积测定法②比重测定法stereomicrography 立体显微摄影stereomicroscope 实体显微镜，体视显微镜stereomodel 立体模型stereomonoscope 双眼单体镜stereo-movie 立体电影stereo-ophthalmoscope 双目检眼镜，立体检眼镜stereo-orthoptor 视轴矫正实体镜，体视矫正器stereophantoscope 体视绘图器stereophenomenon 体视现象stereophonic broadcast 立体声广播stereophony 立体声stereophorometer 立体隐斜视矫正器stereophoroscope 活动影片检视器stereophotogrammetry 立体照像测量术stereophotograph 立体照片stereophotography 立体摄影，立体照像术stereophotomicrograph 立体显微照片stereoplotter 立体绘图仪stereopter 实体视力检查器stereopti con ①幻灯②幻灯机，投影放大器stereoradiographic unit 立体摄影装置stereoradiography 实体X 射线照像术stereo receiver 立体声收音机stereo recorder 立体声录音机stereo reflex camera 立体反射线照像机stereoroentgenograph 立体X 射线照片stereoroentgenoscopy 立体X 线透视检查stereoscan photograph 扫描电镜照片stereoscope 立体镜，体视镜stereoscope picture 立体照片stereoscopic 立体的，体视的stereoscopic camera 立体照像机stereoscopic film 立体电影，立体影片stereoscopic fluoroscopy 实体荧光屏透视检查stereoscopic image 立体影像stereoscopic microscope 立体显微镜stereoscopic radiograph 立体X 射线照片stereoscopic television 立体电视stereoscopic zoom microscope 体视变焦显微镜stereoscopy 实体镜检查法stereoskiagraphy 立体X 射线照像术stereostroboscope 立体动态镜，体视频闪观测器stereotactic 立体定位的stereo tape 立体声录音带stereotactic Rodiosurgery srstem(SRS) 立体立位放射手术系统（简称 X-xnife）stereotaxic apparatus 立体定位仪stereotelevision 立体电视stereo viewer 立体观片灯sterilamp 灭菌灯sterile 灭菌的，消毒的sterile chamber 无菌容器，灭菌室sterile solution 无菌溶液sterile working 无菌操作steriliser 消毒器，灭菌器sterility detector 灭菌检验器sterilization 灭菌，消毒sterilize 灭菌，消毒sterilized dressing 无菌敷料sterilizer 消毒器，灭菌器sterilizing forceps 消毒钳sterilizing lamp 灭菌灯sterilizing room 无菌室sterilometer 消毒测定器sternal 胸骨的sternal biopsy 胸骨髓活组织检查sternal knife 胸骨刀sternal needle holder 胸骨持针器sternal punch 胸骨钻孔器sternal puncture needle 胸骨穿刺针sternal retractor 胸骨牵开器sterno- 胸骨sternogoiometer 胸骨角度测量器sternotomy air saw 风动胸骨锯sternum 胸骨sternum chisel 胸骨凿sternum knife 胸骨刀sternum shears 胸骨剪stethendoscope 胸部X 射线透视机stetho- 胸stethocyrtograph 胸廓曲度描记器stethogoniometer 胸廓曲度计stethograph 胸动描记器stethography ①胸动描记法②心音描记法stethokyrtograph 胸廓曲度描记器stethometer 胸围计，胸廓张度计stethophone ①胸音传播器②听诊器stethophonometer ①胸音计②听诊测音器stethopolyscope 多管听诊器（教学用）stethoscope 听诊器stethoscope chestpiece 胸部听诊头stethoscope diaphragm 听诊器薄膜stethoscope transducer 听诊器传感器stethoscopy 听诊器检查stew ①噪声②热浴室stheno- 力量sthenometer 肌力计sthenometry 体力测量法stibium (abbr. Sb) 锑stick 棍，棒，操纵杆stiffness 硬度，稳定性stigma ①气孔，小孔②斑，点stigmatic ①像散校正的②小孔的stigmatometer 视网膜检视镜stigmatoscope 细孔屈光镜stilb 熙提（表面亮度单位）stilet ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③锥刺stilette ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③锥刺still 蒸馏器stilligout 点滴管stilling 蒸馏stilus ①通管丝，管心针②细探子③棒剂stimulant 兴奋剂，刺激物stimulating electrode 刺激电极stimulation 兴奋，刺激stimulation level 刺激级stimulator ①刺激器②刺激物stimulator ophthalmoscope 刺激检眼镜stimulus threshold 刺激阀stipulation ①规定，限制②合同，契约stir 搅拌stirrer ①搅拌器②搅棒stirrer bar 搅棒stirring machine 搅拌机stirring rod 搅棒stirrup 镫形件，U 形卡stitch 缝线stiching instrument 缝合器stitch scissors 缝合剪stochastic 随机的，机遇的stock ①原料，存货②台，座，架stock-cutter 切料机stocking 长袜，袜套stoechiometer 化学计算器，化学计量器stoichiometer 化学计算器，化学计量器stomach 胃stomach brush 胃刷stomach catheter 胃导管stomach cells adopter 胃细胞取样器stomach clamp 胃夹，胃钳stomach evacuator 洗胃排液器stomach forceps 胃钳stomach irrigator 洗胃器stomach model 胃模型stomach pump 胃抽器，胃唧筒stomach resection and suturing clamp 胃切除缝合器stomach siphon 胃虹吸管stomach tube 胃管stomach washer 胃脏冲洗器stomat- 口，口腔stomatic 口的stomatology 口腔学stomatoscope 口腔镜stomatoscopy 口腔镜检查-stomy 造口术，吻合术stone 石，结石stone breaker 碎石器stone dislodger 取结石器stone searcher 膀胱石探杆（检查膀胱石用）stools ①凳子②托架，座stop ①停止②制动器③光圈stopcock 开关，活塞，龙头stop-needle 有档针stopper ①充填器②塞子③制动器stop speculum 固定开睑器stop watch 秒表，跑表storage ①储藏，储存②仓库，存储器storage battery 蓄电池组storage cabinet 储藏柜storage capsule 储存容器storage cell 蓄电池storage oscilloscope 存储示波器store 记忆装置，存储器story 故事，经历stove 炉子，加热器stoving machine 烘干机S.T.P. (standard temperature and pressure) 标准温度和压力STR (systolic time intervals) 收缩时间间期（心脏）strabism 斜视，斜眼strabismometer 斜视计strabismus forceps 斜视镊strabismus hook 斜视钩strabismus knife 斜视刀strabismus needle 斜视眼针strabismus scissors 斜视剪strabometer 斜视计strabotome 斜视刀straight 直的，直线straight adapter 直接管straight angle 平角straight B/L 直运提单straight handpiece 直机头straight knife 直刀strain ①张力，应变②过滤strainer 滤过器strain gauge 拉力计，应变计strain tube 应变管strand 线，导线束，丝条strap 皮带，条带stratification 层，层次stratigram X 射线断层图，X 射线体层照片stratigraphy 体层X 射线照像术，断层X 射线照像术stratum 层streak 条纹，划线stream 流，气流，水流street (abbr.st.;Str.) 街道strength ①体力，力量②强度③浓度strephotome 螺钻形刀stress 压力，张力，应力stress amplifier 应变压力放大器stress brdaker 应力中断器stretch 伸展，拉长stretcher ①担架②拉直器stretching pliers 扩张钳striascope 屈光检查器striation 纹，条纹strict 严格的，精确的stricture 狭窄stricture explorer 检狭窄探杆stricturoscope 直肠狭窄镜stricturotome 直肠狭窄切开刀string electrometer 弦线电流计string galvanometer 弦线电流计strip ①磨带，条②剥离strip-cutter 切条器strip penetrameter 条状X 射线透度计stripper 剥离器strobe ①闸门②闪频观测器strobolaryngoscope 动态喉镜，回旋喉镜stroboscope ①动态镜②闪光仪stroboscopic disc 动态镜盘，斜视镜盘strobostereoscope 立体动态镜stroke 发作，冲程stroke volume (abbr. SV) 心搏排血量stromuhr 血流速度计strong 强的，有力的strong anion exchanger 强阴离子交换器（色谱法）strong cation exchanger 强阳离子交换器strontium (abbr. Sr) 锶strontium ophthalmic applicator 眼科用Sr90 敷贴器structure 结构，构成struggle 斗争S-T segment S-T 节段（心电图）stud 大头钉，栓钉student microscope 教学显微镜study model 研究模型stuff 材料，原料stump bur 牙残根钻stump elevator 牙残根梃子stump file 牙残根锉stump splinter forceps 牙残根碎片钳style ①式样，型②描笔③细探子，管心针stylet ①通管心针，通管丝②细探子stylet mandrel 管心针stylus ①描笔，记录笔②细探子，通管丝，管心针stylus tracer 细探子描记器（牙科）stype 药栓，药布styptic cotton 止血棉sthptic sponge 止血海绵sub- 在下面，亚，不足，副subarachnoid screw 蛛网膜下螺丝subarachnoid screw driver 蛛网膜下螺丝装拆器subarachnoid twist drill 蛛网膜下旋钻subassembly ①组件，机组②局部装配subaudible 次声（频）的subcutaneous 皮下的subinfuse-port 皮下埋藏灌注器subcutaneous syringe 皮下注射器subdermal 皮下的subaermal needle electrod 皮下针状电极（EEG）subdivision ①细分，重分②一部分subduce 扣除，减去subintegumental electrode 皮下电极subject ①主题，学科②使从属subjective 主观的，自觉的。
医学英语文献翻译技巧
医学英语文献翻译技巧在当今医学领域，英语文献的重要性不言而喻。
无论是进行医学研究、学术交流还是临床实践，准确翻译医学英语文献都是至关重要的。
然而，医学英语具有独特的词汇、语法和文体特点，给翻译工作带来了一定的挑战。
下面，我将为您介绍一些医学英语文献翻译的实用技巧。
一、医学英语词汇的特点及翻译技巧医学英语词汇量大，且来源广泛。
其中包括来自拉丁语、希腊语的词根、词缀，还有大量的专业术语和缩略词。
对于词根、词缀构成的词汇，我们需要掌握常见的词根、词缀含义，例如“cardio”表示“心”，“itis”表示“炎症”。
通过对词根、词缀的理解，可以推测出许多生词的意思。
专业术语的翻译要求准确性和规范性。
比如，“myocardial infarction”应准确翻译为“心肌梗死”，而不能随意翻译为“心脏肌肉的梗塞”。
缩略词在医学英语中也很常见，如“MRI”（Magnetic Resonance Imaging，磁共振成像）、“ECG”（Electrocardiogram，心电图）等。
对于常见的缩略词，我们要牢记其全称和对应的准确翻译。
在翻译词汇时，还需要注意一词多义的情况。
例如“cell”，在普通英语中是“细胞”的意思，但在医学英语中，可能指“电池”或“小室”等。
二、医学英语语法的特点及翻译技巧医学英语的语法结构较为复杂，长句和复合句较多。
句子常常包含多个从句和修饰成分，这就需要我们理清句子的结构。
对于长句，首先要找出句子的主干，即主、谓、宾，然后再分析各个从句和修饰成分的作用。
比如：“The drug which was developed by the new research team has shown remarkable effects in treating the rare disease that has puzzled doctors for years” 这个句子中，“The drug has shown remarkable effects”是主干，“which was developed by the new research team”是定语从句，修饰“drug”，“that has puzzled doctors for years”是定语从句，修饰“disease”。
英语专业翻译类论文参考文献
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Reprinted by World Book Publishing Corp. in 1992.Hickey, Leo. (ed.) The Pragmatics of Translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1998. Hodges, J. C. & Whitten, M. E. Harbrace College Handbook. New York: Harbrace Jovanovich. 1982.Hopper, P. J. & Traugott, E. C. Grammaticalization. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching & Research Press , Cambridge University Press. 2001.Kahn, J. E. The Right Word at the Right Time. London: TheReader’s Digest A ssociation. 1985. Kelly, Jeanne and Nathan K. Mao. Fortress Besieged. Indiana: Indiana Univ. Press. 1979. Landers, Clifford E. Literary Translation: A Practical Guide. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 2008.Lao, She. Camel Xiangzi. trans. Shi Xiaoqing. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press. 1981.Leech,G.N. Style in Fiction. New York: Longman. 1983.Li, C. N. & S. A.Thompson. Subject and topic: a new typology of language. In Charles N. Li (ed.) Subject and Topic. London/New York: Academic Press, 1976. 457-490.Newmark, Peter. 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After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.Swan, M. Practical English Usage. Oxford : Oxford University Press. 1980.Toury, Gideon. Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995. Venuti, L. The Translator’s Invisibility. London & New York: Routledge. 1995.Wilss,W. The Science of Translation: Problems and Methods. Shanghai: Shanghai Language Education Press. 2001.Zeiger, A. Encyclopaedia of English. New York: Arco Publishing Company. 1978.四、学术期刊翻译相关论文举例爱泼斯坦、林戊荪、沈苏儒. 呼吁重视对外宣传中的外语工作. 中国翻译, 2000 (6).蔡春露. 论《木匠的哥特式古屋》叙述的别确定性. 外国文学研究, 2004 (4).蔡春露. 论悲剧《李尔王》中的意象. 辽宁师范大学学报, 2002 (4).丁衡祁. 对外宣传中的英语质量亟待提高. 中国翻译, 2002 (4).丁金国. 汉英对照研究中的理论原则. 外语教学与研究，1996 (3).范敏、陈天祥. 论汉语成语的英译. 山东外语教学，200 (5).封宗颖、邵志洪.英汉第三人称代词深层回指对照与翻译. 外语学刊，2004 (5).冯寿农. 翻译是“异化”, 或是“化异”? 法国研究, 2002 (2).傅似逸. 试论对外宣传材料英译“以语篇为中心”的原则. 外语与外语教学, 2001 (11).高健. 语言个性与翻译. 外国语，1999 (4).关坤英. 朱自清散文的朦胧美——从《荷塘月XXX》谈起. 北京师范大学学报，1987 (5).郭建中. 翻译中的文化因素：异化与归化. 外国语，1998 (2).郭建中. 汉语歇后语翻译的理论与实践. 中国翻译，1996 (2).韩庆果. “歇后语”一词的英译名及歇后语翻译初探. 外语与外语教学, 2002 (12).何兆熊. 英语人称代词使用中的语义模糊. 外国语. 1986 (4).侯维瑞. 文体研究和翻译. 外语教学与研究，1988 (3).胡密密. 从思维差异看汉英科技文体与科技论文的英译. 中国科技翻译. 2002 (3).胡兆云. 晚清以来Jury、Juror汉译考察与辨误. 外语与外语教学, 2009 (1).胡兆云. 柏拉图、黑格尔灵感论与文学翻译中灵感现象浅析. 外国语言文学, 2003 (3).胡兆云. 从康德的人类“共通感”看异化翻译法. 华南师范大学学报, 2003 (3).胡兆云. 华盛顿交还军权与还权对答翻译探索. 外国语言文学, 2005 (3).胡兆云. 克罗齐表现主义翻译观及其进展浅析. 外语与外语教学, 2003 (5).胡兆云. 论英语和汉语的词汇借用. 山东外语教学, 1998 (3).胡兆云. 论英语学习中的重要输入法—阅读. 山东大学学报, 2000 (增刊).胡兆云. 中英美四大政法文化词语系统与对应翻译策略. 外语与外语教学, 2005 (9).胡兆云. Administration与GoverXXXent文化语义辨析及其翻译. 外语与外语教学, 2006 (9).胡兆云. 自然语法与书本语法浅论. 山东大学学报, 1995 (3).黄爱华. 文学文体的语言特征及其运作. 浙江大学学报. 1996 (3).黄龙. 古诗文英译脞语. 南京师范大学学报. 1985 (3).黄友义. 坚持“外宣三贴近”原则，处理好外宣翻译中的难点咨询题. 中国翻译, 2004 (6).纪玉华. 帕尔默文化语言学理论的构建思路. 外国语, 2002 (2).江宛棣、闫昕霞. 翻译是“文化的翻译”——赵启正谈对外传播之中的翻译事业. 对外大传播, 2004 (10).金积令. 汉英词序对照研究——句法结构中的前端分量原则和末端分量原则. 外国语. 1998(1).李正栓. 文化背景与学习风格—中国语境下英语专业学生学习风格调查. 中国外语, 2007(2). 李正栓. 徐忠杰的翻译原则研析.外语与外语教学, 2005(10).李正栓. 唐诗宋词英译研究：比较与分析. 中国外语, 2005(3).李正栓. 实践、理论、比较：翻译教学的几个重要环节. 河北师范大学学报（教育版）, 2003(4). 李正栓. 忠实对等：汉诗英译的一条重要原则. 外语与外语教学, 2004(8).李正栓. 汉诗英译中的忠实对等原则. 广东外语外贸大学学报, 2004(2).林大津. Meme的翻译. 外语学刊, 2008(10.林大津. 国外英汉对照修辞研究及其启发. 外语教学与研究. 1994 (3).凌云. 汉语类比造词初探. 语言教学与研究, 1999 (2).刘莉. 论法律文体翻译的准确性咨询题. 西南民族学院学报. 1999 (3).。
医学英语文献阅读二翻译
Unit OneText A： Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal1.Perhaps the most enduring --- certainly the most quoted --- tradition in thehistory of medicine is the Hippocratic Oath. Named after the famous Greek physicianHippocrates, this oath was written as a guideline for the medical ethics of doctors.Although the exact words have changed over time, the general content is the same- an oath to respect those who have imparted their knowledge upon the science ofmedicine, and respect to the patients as well as the promise to treat them to thebest of the physicians' ability.或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人，尊重病人，尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
Who was Hippocrates, and Did he Write the Oath?2.For a man considered by many to be the 'Father of Medicine', little is known aboutHippocrates of Cos. He lived circa 460-380 BC, and was the contemporary of Socratesas well as a practising physician. He was certainly held to be the most famousphysician and teacher of medicine in his time. Over 60 treatises of medicine, calledthe Hippocratic Corpus have been attributed to him; however, these treatises hadconflicting contents and were written some time between 510 and 300 BC, and thereforecould not all have been written by him.作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.3.The Oath was named after Hippocrates, certainly, although its penmanship is stillin question. According to authorities in medical history, the contents of the oath suggest that it was penned during the 4th Century BC, whichmakes it possible that Hippocrates had himself written it. Anyway, regardless ofwhether or not Hippocrates himself had written the Hippocratic Oath, the contentsof the oath reflect his views on medical ethics.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的，虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
1专英翻译的基本方法
Like any precision device, the monitor of methane requires careful treatment.
译：跟任何精密仪器一样，瓦斯监测仪也需要精心维护。（不 译“待遇”）
The factors which are likely to influence investment spending do not stop here.
专业文献翻译的基本方法
直译
转换
增减
直译
直译包括：一是保留原文的语法 结构，即对原语序和词序基本上不 作变动；二是保留原文词语的字面 意义。
例 Internet is of great help to our work.
例 Bridges and tunnels are great symbols of mankind’s conquest of obstruction
译：“激光”这个术语指的是利用辐射的受激发射放大光波。 （介词转译成动词）
Both of the substances are not soluble in water.
译：这两种物质都不溶于水。（形容词转译成动词）
In this case the temperature in furnace is up.
译：许多人要求建立阿拉伯共同市场。（不译“许多声音”）
词义的抽象化
翻译时把原文中词义较具体的词引申 为词义较抽象的词，或把词义较形象的词 引申为词义较一般的词。
The major contributors in component technology have been the semi-conductor components.
译：我们要完全掌握集成电路，还必须经过三个阶段。（不译”毕业于 “）
专业英语课文翻译
Lesson 16 Basic Concepts of MechanismsA combination of interrelated parts(相关零件的组合体) having definite（确定的）motions and capable of performing useful work may be called machine.具有确定的运动轨迹,并且能做有用的功联接在一起的零件的组合称为机器.A mechanism is a component of a machine consisting of two or more bodies arranged so that the motion of one compels the motion of the others.机构是机器的组成要素.机器由二个及以上的机构组合而成.因此其中一个构件的运动会带动其它的构件的连锁运动.Kinematics is the study of motion in mechanisms without reference to the forces that act on the mechanism运动学仅研究机构的运动而不考虑作用在机构上的力.Dynamics is the study of motion individual bodies and mechanisms under the influence of forces and torques.动力学研究独立构件的运动及力和扭矩作用下对机构的影响.The study of forces and torques in stationary systems (and systems with negligible inertial effects) is called statics研究平衡中的力和扭矩,该系统忽略惯性影响,称之为静力学.Synthesis is the procedure by which a product (a mechanism, for example) is developed to satisfy a set of performance requirements合成是一个程序,通过该程序能够不断改进一个产品(例如一个机构)直到满足一系列的性能要求.If a product configuration is tentatively specified and then examined to determine whether the performance requirements are met, the process is called analysis.如果需要探索性的详细阐述产品的构造结构,然后检验,判断该产品是否满足性能要求,这个过程称为分解.The design of mechanisms involves both synthesis and analysis.机构设计包括合成和分解.The design process begins with the recognition of a need. A set of requirements is then listed设计从对于需求的确认开始,罗列出一系列的要求.Detailed analyses of displacements, velocities, and accelerations are usually required通常需要对位移,速度,加速度进行具体分析.This part of the design process is followed by an analysis of forces and torques. 设计过程中的这个部分是紧跟在对力和扭矩的分析之后.The design process may continue long after（很久以后）the first models have been produced and may include redesigns of components that affect velocities, accelerations, forces, and torques在制造完毕第一个模型之后,该设计过程仍有可能持续很长一段时间. 并且有可能会重新设计这些会影响速度,加速度及所知扭矩的零部件In order to successfully compete from year to year, most manufactures must continuously modify their product and their methods of production为了在年复一年的技术中取得优势,大多数制造商必须不断调整修改他们的产品及加工方式.Increases in the production rate, upgrading of product performance, redesign for cost and weight reduction are frequently required,为了增加出产率,提高产品的性能,经常需要重新设计来降低成本以及减轻重量. Success may hinge on（决定于） the accuracy of the kinematic and dynamic analysis 对问题进行正确的运动学和动力学分析是成功的关键.Many of the basic linkage configurations have been incorporated into（成为……的一部分）machines designed centuries ago, and the terms we use to describe them have changed over the years很久以前,许多基本的连杆构造就已经运用在机器设计中去了,并且我们用来称呼它们的术语在不断的变化,.Thus, definitions and terminology are not consistent throughout thetechnical literature.因此技术供应文献中的定义和说明不是一成不变的In most cases, however, meanings will be clear from the context of the descriptive matter.在大多数的情况下,然而定义,义意可以在的解释性的描述内容中清晰的获得,A few terms of particular interest to the study of kinematics and dynamics of machines are defined below下面定义了在学习,研究机构运动学和动力学中一些特别重要的术语.Link A link is one of the rigid bodies or members joined together to form a kinematic chain.杆件是一个刚体或者连接在一起形成运动链的零部件,因此被称为刚性构件或者是简单构件.The term rigid link, or sometimes simply link, is an idealization used in the study of mechanisms that does not consider small deflections due to strains in machine members刚性构件是在机械装置中的理想化模型.这样就不无需考虑由机器零部件所产生的应力造成的微小偏移量.A perfectly rigid or inextensible link can exist only as a textbook type of model of a real machine member.一个绝对刚性或不可延展的构件只能存在于教科书上的机械零部件的模型.For typical machine parts, the maximum changes in dimension are on the order of only a one-thousandth of the part length.对于典型的零部件,最大的尺寸变化量仅仅是沿着该部件长度方向的千分之一.We are justified（合理的） in neglecting this small motion when considering the much greater motion characteristic of most mechanisms当考虑到大多数的机构相对较为显着的运动特征,忽略这点微量的偏移是合情合理的. The word link is used in a general sense to include cams, gears, and other machine members in addition to cranks, connecting rods and other pin-connected（铰接） components通常意义所说的杆件包括凸轮,齿轮以及它的机器零件的曲柄,连杆机构和其它的销件连接部分.Frame The fixed or stationary link in a mechanism is called the frame机架机械装置中固定或静止不动的构件称为机架.When there is no link that is actually fixed, we may consider one as being fixed and determine the motion of the other links relative to it如果实际中确实没有构件是固定的,我们可以假设其中某个是固定的,这样可以判断出其它与之相连构件的运动.In an automotive engine, for example, the engine block (see Fig.14.1) isconsidered the frame, even though the automobile may be moving例如汽车发动机,我们通常是把发动机气缸视为机架,让它保持静止不动,实际上整部汽车者是运动的.Degree of Freedom The number of degrees of freedom of a linkageis the number of independent parameters required to specify the position of every link relative to the frame or fixed link自由度连杆机构的自由度是给定独立参数的数目，需要自由度来确定某一个与机架或固定杆件相连接的构件的位置，If the instantaneous configuration of a system may be completely defined bespecifying one independent variable, that system has one degree of freedom如果系统的瞬间结构完全可以由一个独立的变量来确定，这样系统就具有一个自由度，An unconstrained rigid body has six degrees of freedom:大多数实际上运用的机构装置只有一个自由度。
各专业课程英文翻译(精心整理)
各专业课程英文翻译(精心整理)生物及医学专业课程汉英对照表应用生物学 Applied Biology 医学技术 Medical Technology细胞生物学 Cell Biology 医学 Medicine生物学 Biology 护理麻醉学 Nurse Anesthesia进化生物学 Evolutionary Biology 口腔外科学 Oral Surgery海洋生物学 Marine Biology 口腔/牙科科学 Oral/Dental Sciences微生物学 Microbiology 骨科医学 Osteopathic Medicine分子生物学 Molecular Biology 耳科学 Otology医学微生物学 Medical Microbiology 理疗学 Physical Therapy口腔生物学 Oral Biology 足病医学 Podiatric Medicine寄生物学 Parasutology 眼科学 Ophthalmology植物生物学 Plant Physiology 预防医学 Preventive Medicine心理生物学 Psychobiology 放射学 Radiology放射生物学 Radiation Biology 康复咨询学 Rehabilitation Counseling理论生物学 Theoretical Biology 康复护理学 Rehabilitation Nursing野生生物学 Wildlife Biology 外科护理学 Surgical Nursing环境生物学 Environmental Biology 治疗学 Therapeutics运动生物学 Exercise Physiology 畸形学 Teratology有机体生物学 Organismal Biology 兽医学 V eterinary Sciences生物统计学 Biometrics 牙科卫生学 Dental Sciences生物物理学 Biophysics 牙科科学 Dentistry生物心理学 Biopsychology 皮肤学 Dermatology生物统计学 Biostatistics 内分泌学 Endocrinology生物工艺学 Biotechnology 遗传学 Genetics生物化学 Biological Chemistry 解剖学 Anatomy生物工程学 Biological Engineering 麻醉学 Anesthesia生物数学 Biomathematics 临床科学 Clinical Science生物医学科学 Biomedical Science 临床心理学 Clinical Psychology细胞生物学和分子生物学 Celluar and Molecular Biology精神病护理学 Psychiatric Nursing力学专业数学分析 Mathematical Analysis 高等代数与几何 Advanced Algebra and Geometry 常微分方程 Ordinary Differential Equation 数学物理方法 Methods in Mathematical Physics 计算方法 Numerical Methods 理论力学 Theoretical Mechanics材料力学 Mechanics of Materials 弹性力学 Elasticity流体力学 Fluid Mechanics 力学实验 Experiments in Solid Mechanics机械制图 Machining Drawing 力学概论 Introduction to Mechanics气体力学 Gas Dynamics 计算流体力学 Computational Fluid Mechanics 弹性板理论 Theory of Elastic Plates 粘性流体力学 V iscous Fluid Flow弹性力学变分原理 V ariational Principles inElasticity 有限元法 Finite Element Method 塑性力学 Introduction of Plasticity经典力学中的数学方法 Mathematical Methods of ClassicalMechanics机器人动力学 Dynamics of Robots 自动控制原理 Principles of Automatic Control 优化计算与最化控制 Optimization and OptimalControl计算机图形学 Computer Graphics 概率与统计 Probability and Statistics专业英语 English for Mechanics 振动理论 Theory of V ibration程序设计方法(C和FORTRAN) Programming in C & FORTRAN水动力学 Hydrodynamics 计算机图象处理 Image Processing光测力学 Photo Mechanics 断裂力学 Fracture Mechanics高等动力学 Advanced Dynamics 摄动方法 Perturbation Methods机械设计与Auto CAD Machinery Designing and AutoCAD信息显示(可视化) V isualization微机原理 Principles of Personal Computer 复变函数 Complex Function企业管理专业管理学 Principles of Management 微观经济学 Microeconomics宏观经济学 Macroeconomics 管理信息系统 Systems of Management Information 产业经济学 Industrial Economics 财务管理 Financial Management项目评估 Projects Appraisal 战略管理 Strategic Management管理沟通 Management Negotiation 国际商务谈判 Negotiation on Business Affairs跨国公司专题研究 Special Researchof multinational corporation国际贸易 InternationalTrade 国际营销研究 International Marketing Research公司组织与管理 Organization and Managementof Corporate战略管理 Strategic Management 生产管理研究 Operation Management企业伦理 Enterprise Ethics 组织行为学 Organizational Behavior运筹学 Operational Research 人力资源管理 Human Resource Management信息管理专业高等数学 Higher Mathematics 信息存储与检索 Information Retrieval andStorage数据库系统 Database 信息服务与用户 information Service and UserStudy 信息管理概论 Introduction to InformationManagement信息经济学 Information Economics 企业信息化工程 Enterprise Informationalization社会实践 Practical Work 信息分析与决策Information Analysis andPolicy Making 管理学原理 Principles of Management 信息政策与法规 Information Policy and Law信息组织 Information Organization 计算机网络 Computer Networks管理信息系统 Management Information System 线性代数 Linear Algebra决策分析 Policy Making 离散数学 Discrete Mathematics概率统计 Statistics and ProbabilityTheory 生产与运作管理 Production Management 电子商务 Electronic Commerce 信息系统安全与保密 Information System Security 政府信息化工程 Government Informationalization广告实务 Practice of Advertisement 多媒体技术 Multimedia操作系统 Operating System 信息科学基础 Foundations of InformationScience 经济信息管理 Economic Information Management 专业英语 Specialty English微机基础 Principles of Microcomputers 文献计量学 Bibliometrics电子出版技术 Electronic Publishing 广告概论 Introduction to Advertisement信息环境论 Information Environments 传播学原理 Principles of CommunicationTheory 知识产权法学 Law of Intelligence Property 组织行为学 Studies of Organization货币银行学专业货币银行学 Money and Banking 管理信息系统 System of Management Information 宏观经济学 Macroeconomics 运筹学 Operational Research策略管理 Strategic Management 保险学 Insurance银行会计 Bank Accounting 管理会计 Managerial Accounting运筹学 Operational Research 国际贸易 International Trade财务管理 Financial Management 国际金融 International Finance租赁与信托 Hiring and Affiancing 证券投资学 Security Analysis and Investment商业银行实务 Practice of Business Bank 国际结算 International Balance项目评估 Projects Appraisal 金融市场学 Financial Marketing人力资源管理 Human Resource Management财务报告分析 Analysis of Financial Statement财务案例分析 Case Analysis of FinancialManagement物理专业热学 Thermodynamics 力学 Mechanics光学 Optics 电磁学 Electromagnetism计算概论 Computing Generality 普通物理实验 General Physics Laboratory固体磁性及应用基础 Magnetism of the Solid Stateand its Application衍射物理（固体结构分析） Diffraction Physics (Structureof Solid Analysis)科研实用软件 Utility Software for ScientificResearch计算机模拟方法 Computer Simulation Methods激光原理、技术与应用 The Principle, Techniqueand Application of Laser材料物理 Materials Physics 近代光学和光电子学 Modern Optics and Optoelectronics 现代固体物理 Modern Solid State Physics 粒子物理 Particle Physics物理宇宙学基础 Elements of Cosmology Physics 固体物理 Solid State Physics原子物理 Atomic Physics 量子力学 Quantum Mechanics理论力学 Theoretical Mechanics 电动力学 Electrodynamics普通物理综合实验 Synthetical Experiments ofGeneral Physics市场营销学专业营销管理 Marketing Management 公共关系 Public Relationship国际贸易 International Trade 消费者行为 Consumer Behavior管理信息系统 Systems of Management Information 营销调研 Marketing Research推销学 Sales Strategies 国际金融 International Finance营销预测与规划 Marketing Forecasting andPlanning销售渠道管理 ales Channels Management 管理学 Principles of Management国际市场营销 International Marketing 商业谈判 Business Negotiation广告管理 Advertising Management 营销案例分析 Case Studies of Marketing国际贸易实务 Practice of InternationalTrade 服务业营销 Service Industry Marketing企业伦理 Enterprise Ethics 新产品开发 New Products Development财务学专业货币银行学 Money and Banking 证券投资学 Security Analysis and Investment 财务报告分析 Analysis of Financial Statement 国际金融 International Finance保险学 Insurance 财务案例分析 Case Analysis of FinanceManagement 国际财务管理 International Financial Management 资产评估 Assets Appraisal项目评估 Projects Appraisal 宏观经济学 Macroeconomics财务管理 Financial Management 管理信息系统 Systems of Management Information 运筹学 Operational Research 策略管理 Strategic Management管理会计 Managerial Accounting 微观经济学 Microeconomics管理学 Principles of Management 微积分 Calculus统计学 Principles of Statistics会计专业会计学 Accounting Principles 成本会计 Cost Accounting管理会计 Managerial Accounting 审计学 Auditing Principles会计信息系统 Accounting Information Systems 投资学 Investment Principles财务管理 Financial Management 货币银行学 Money and Banking财务报告分析 Analysis of Financial Statement 国际金融 International Finance国际会计 International Accounting 统计学 Principle of Stat财税法规与税务会计 Laws and Regulations of Financeand Taxes预算会计 Budget Accounting 会计研究方法 Accounting Research Methods 内部审计与政府审计 Internal Auditing and GovernmentAuditing会计审计实务 Accounting and Auditing Practice 经济计量学 Economic Metrology会计职业道德与责任 Accounting Ethics and Responsibilities国际会计专题 International AccountingSpecial Subject 微观经济学 Microeconomics。
八大英文文献翻译神器
你值得拥有的八大英文文献翻译神器不管是做科研还是写SCI论文，开始都需要阅读大量的文献，做课题至少查阅600篇，粗看300篇，细看100篇，研读50篇，在看到一叠叠论文后，由于语言问题，往往会觉得无从下手，下面分享几款常用的文献翻译神器。
1、谷歌浏览器翻译优点：页面简洁，使用方便，随开随用，多种语言随时切换，只要有网就能翻译。
缺点：功能比较单一，排版比较乱，界面不是很美观。
2、SCI Translate9.0目前有9.0普通版以及VIP版，VIP版内置Google 人工智能云翻译引擎，翻译精准度很强；没有广告。
3、LinggleLinggle是一个可用来进行英语语法、句子写作的工具，可为学习者提供更准确的英文写作建议。
4、NetSpeakNetSpeak是一个提供免费线上单词、词组、语句翻译的工具，其特点是可以在线搜索和比较各种英文词汇、短句、语法、单词解释等内容，并且可以统计出这个用语的变化形态，还可以分析使用频率和情境，堪比谷歌翻译。
5、CNKI翻译CNKI翻译助手是一款专业的学术翻译工具，由“中国知网”开发制作，汇集了从CNKI系列数据库中挖掘的大量常用词汇、专业术语、成语俚语及双语例句等，形成海量中英在线词典和双语平行语料库。
6、LingoesLingoes是一款简明易用的词典与文本翻译软件，支持全球超过80多种语言的词典查询、全文翻译、屏幕取词、划词翻译、例句搜索、网络释义和真人语音朗读功能。
7、有道词典有道词典是个神器，尤其是查词、划词、取词的方面特别突出，词库中有所有专业用语的补充包，可以让你瞬间翻译出各种专业的英文单词，从复杂的有机化合物，到稀奇古怪的动物名，哪里不会点哪里。
8、Copy Translator比较适用于即时翻译，内置了谷歌翻译、百度翻译、有道翻译、搜狗翻译、彩云翻译和腾讯翻译几种不同的翻译引擎，随意切换，总有一个适合你。
十个最好的外语翻译网站
十个最好的外语翻译网站1. 译言网人气最高的协作翻译平台，你可以在上面阅读翻译好的文章，有译文和原文对照便于学习，你也可以参与翻译锻炼能力。
2. 知网翻译助手这个网站的专业术语翻译功能非常强大，一般查不到的专业词汇基本爱上都可以再这里找到答案，就是没有的还有相关信息供你参考，极大提高你翻译专业文献的能力3. Proz国际翻译平台这个是访问量巨大的国际性翻译人社区，你要是水平高的可以在上面接国外的翻译做赚外汇，也可以在上面学习提高翻译能力。
4. 51UC英语角之所以把这个聊天网站选上来是因为其英语聊天室人气非常高，加入聊天需要下载新浪 UC聊天软件，类似QQ的，然后进入英语角聊天室那里人气非常高，你可以马上找到人和你语音或视频练习口语。
5. 007翻译培训这个网站由一群精英自由翻译人创办，不同于一般的翻译培训，其目的是培训成为能独立接到翻译独立完成翻译的自由翻译人，算是个独一无二的特殊翻译培训网站。
6. 译网情深翻译界比较有名的翻译人才和资讯网站，可以在上面了解翻译行业和查看翻译招聘信息。
7. 沪江外语/沪江英语论坛有海量的外语学习资料，可以到这里看看是否有你要学习的内容8. 54翻译论坛一个比较专业的翻译人网络社区，可以在上面交翻译朋友，讨论翻译话题，其特色是有做翻译相关的问题发上去马上就有人给你解答，还算不错吧。
9. China Daily /中国日报的网络版，相信很多外语学习者对这份报纸都非常熟悉，现在网络版阅读的也非常方便了，而且电脑上众多翻译工具会让你很方便理解文章意思。
10. 谷歌翻译/language_tools?hl=zh-CNGoogle搜索引擎上的翻译工具，这个应该是目前最好的整段文字翻译工具，比较接近正确译文，不过也是有很多问题的还远不能取代人工翻译，其对有些专业词汇的翻译也非常准，可以利用其查询。
各专业课程英文翻译精品
各专业课程英文翻译(精心整理)生物及医学专业课程汉英对照表应用生物学Applied Biology医学技术Medical Technology细胞生物学Cell Biology医学Medicine生物学Biology护理麻醉学Nurse Anesthesia进化生物学Evolutionary Biology口腔外科学Oral Surgery海洋生物学Marine Biology口腔/牙科科学Oral/Dental Sciences微生物学Microbiology骨科医学Osteopathic Medicine分子生物学Molecular Biology耳科学Otology医学微生物学Medical Microbiology理疗学Physical Therapy口腔生物学Oral Biology足病医学Podiatric Medicine寄生物学Parasutology眼科学Ophthalmology植物生物学Plant Physiology预防医学Preventive Medicine心理生物学Psychobiology放射学Radiology放射生物学Radiation Biology康复咨询学Rehabilitation Counseling理论生物学Theoretical Biology康复护理学Rehabilitation Nursing 野生生物学Wildlife Biology外科护理学Surgical Nursing环境生物学Environmental Biology治疗学Therapeutics运动生物学Exercise Physiology畸形学Teratology有机体生物学Organismal Biology兽医学Veterinary Sciences生物统计学Biometrics牙科卫生学Dental Sciences生物物理学Biophysics牙科科学Dentistry生物心理学Biopsychology皮肤学Dermatology生物统计学Biostatistics内分泌学Endocrinology生物工艺学Biotechnology遗传学Genetics生物化学Biological Chemistry 解剖学Anatomy生物工程学Biological Engineering麻醉学Anesthesia生物数学Biomathematics临床科学Clinical Science生物医学科学Biomedical Science临床心理学Clinical Psychology细胞生物学和分子生物学Celluar and Molecular Biology精神病护理学Psychiatric Nursing力学专业数学分析Mathematical Analysis高等代数与几何Advanced Algebra and Geometry常微分方程Ordinary Differential Equation数学物理方法Methods in Mathematical Physics计算方法Numerical Methods理论力学Theoretical Mechanics材料力学Mechanics of Materials弹性力学Elasticity流体力学Fluid Mechanics力学实验Experiments in Solid Mechanics 机械制图Machining Drawing力学概论Introduction to Mechanics气体力学Gas Dynamics计算流体力学Computational Fluid Mechanics弹性板理论Theory of Elastic Plates粘性流体力学Viscous Fluid Flow弹性力学变分原理Variational Principles inElasticity有限元法Finite Element Method塑性力学Introduction of Plasticity经典力学中的数学方法Mathematical Methods of ClassicalMechanics机器人动力学Dynamics of Robots自动控制原理Principles of Automatic Control优化计算与最化控制Optimization and OptimalControl计算机图形学Computer Graphics概率与统计Probability and Statistics 专业英语English for Mechanics振动理论Theory of Vibration程序设计方法(C和FORTRAN)Programming in C&FORTRAN水动力学Hydrodynamics计算机图象处理Image Processing光测力学Photo Mechanics断裂力学Fracture Mechanics高等动力学Advanced Dynamics摄动方法Perturbation Methods机械设计与Auto CAD Machinery Designing and AutoCAD信息显示(可视化)Visualization微机原理Principles of Personal Computer复变函数Complex Function企业管理专业管理学Principles of Management微观经济学Microeconomics宏观经济学Macroeconomics管理信息系统Systems of Management Information产业经济学Industrial Economics财务管理Financial Management项目评估Projects Appraisal战略管理Strategic Management管理沟通Management Negotiation国际商务谈判Negotiation on Business Affairs跨国公司专题研究Special Researchof multinational corporation国际贸易InternationalTrade国际营销研究International Marketing Research公司组织与管理Organization and Managementof Corporate战略管理Strategic Management生产管理研究Operation Management企业伦理Enterprise Ethics组织行为学Organizational Behavior运筹学Operational Research人力资源管理Human Resource Management 信息管理专业高等数学Higher Mathematics信息存储与检索Information Retrieval andStorage数据库系统Database信息服务与用户information Service and UserStudy信息管理概论Introduction to InformationManagement信息经济学Information Economics 企业信息化工程Enterprise Informationalization社会实践Practical Work信息分析与决策Information Analysis andPolicy Making管理学原理Principles of Management信息政策与法规Information Policy and Law 信息组织Information Organization计算机网络Computer Networks管理信息系统Management Information System线性代数Linear Algebra决策分析Policy Making离散数学Discrete Mathematics概率统计Statistics and ProbabilityTheory生产与运作管理Production Management电子商务Electronic Commerce信息系统安全与保密Information System Security政府信息化工程Government Informationalization广告实务Practice of Advertisement多媒体技术Multimedia操作系统Operating System信息科学基础Foundations of InformationScience经济信息管理Economic Information Management专业英语Specialty English微机基础Principles of Microcomputers 文献计量学Bibliometrics电子出版技术Electronic Publishing广告概论Introduction to Advertisement信息环境论Information Environments传播学原理Principles of CommunicationTheory知识产权法学Law of Intelligence Property组织行为学Studies of Organization 货币银行学专业货币银行学Money and Banking管理信息系统System of Management Information宏观经济学Macroeconomics运筹学Operational Research策略管理Strategic Management保险学Insurance银行会计Bank Accounting管理会计Managerial Accounting运筹学Operational Research国际贸易International Trade财务管理Financial Management国际金融International Finance租赁与信托Hiring and Affiancing证券投资学Security Analysis and Investment商业银行实务Practice of Business Bank国际结算International Balance项目评估Projects Appraisal金融市场学Financial Marketing人力资源管理Human Resource Management财务报告分析Analysis of Financial Statement财务案例分析Case Analysis of FinancialManagement物理专业热学Thermodynamics力学Mechanics光学Optics电磁学Electromagnetism计算概论Computing Generality普通物理实验General Physics Laboratory 固体磁性及应用基础Magnetism of the Solid Stateand its Application衍射物理（固体结构分析）Diffraction Physics(Structureof Solid Analysis)科研实用软件Utility Software for ScientificResearch计算机模拟方法Computer Simulation Methods激光原理、技术与应用The Principle,Techniqueand Application of Laser材料物理Materials Physics近代光学和光电子学Modern Optics and Optoelectronics现代固体物理Modern Solid State Physics粒子物理Particle Physics物理宇宙学基础Elements of Cosmology Physics固体物理Solid State Physics原子物理Atomic Physics量子力学Quantum Mechanics理论力学Theoretical Mechanics电动力学Electrodynamics普通物理综合实验Synthetical Experiments ofGeneral Physics市场营销学专业营销管理Marketing Management公共关系Public Relationship国际贸易International Trade消费者行为Consumer Behavior管理信息系统Systems of Management Information营销调研Marketing Research 推销学Sales Strategies国际金融International Finance营销预测与规划Marketing Forecasting andPlanning销售渠道管理ales Channels Management 管理学Principles of Management国际市场营销International Marketing商业谈判Business Negotiation广告管理Advertising Management营销案例分析Case Studies of Marketing国际贸易实务Practice of InternationalTrade服务业营销Service Industry Marketing企业伦理Enterprise Ethics新产品开发New Products Development财务学专业货币银行学Money and Banking证券投资学Security Analysis and Investment财务报告分析Analysis of Financial Statement国际金融International Finance保险学Insurance财务案例分析Case Analysis of FinanceManagement国际财务管理International Financial Management资产评估Assets Appraisal项目评估Projects Appraisal宏观经济学Macroeconomics财务管理Financial Management管理信息系统Systems of Management Information运筹学Operational Research策略管理Strategic Management管理会计Managerial Accounting微观经济学Microeconomics管理学Principles of Management微积分Calculus统计学Principles of Statistics会计专业会计学Accounting Principles成本会计Cost Accounting管理会计Managerial Accounting审计学Auditing Principles 会计信息系统Accounting Information Systems投资学Investment Principles财务管理Financial Management货币银行学Money and Banking 财务报告分析Analysis of Financial Statement国际金融International Finance国际会计International Accounting统计学Principle of Stat 财税法规与税务会计Laws and Regulations of Financeand Taxes预算会计Budget Accounting会计研究方法Accounting Research Methods内部审计与政府审计Internal Auditing and GovernmentAuditing会计审计实务Accounting and Auditing Practice经济计量学Economic Metrology会计职业道德与责任Accounting Ethics and Responsibilities国际会计专题International AccountingSpecial Subject微观经济学Microeconomics欢迎您的下载，资料仅供参考！致力为企业和个人提供合同协议，策划案计划书，学习资料等等打造全网一站式需求。
考研英语翻译—学科专业及相关词汇总结
考研翻译学习资料学科、专业名称中英文互译及相关词汇补充哲学Philosophy逻辑学Logic伦理学Ethics美学Aesthetics宗教学Science of Religion科学技术哲学Philosophy of Science and Technology经济学Economics理论经济学Theoretical Economics政治经济学Political Economy经济思想史History of Economic Thought经济史History of Economic西方经济学Western Economics世界经济World Economicss国民经济学National Economics区域经济学Regional Economics计量经济学Quantitative Economics应用经济学Applied Economic财政学（含税收学）Public Finance (including Taxation)金融学（含保险学）Finance (including Insurance)统计学Statistics (注意也可能为“统计数据”)法学Law / Science of Law/ Legal Science法律史Legal History宪法学与行政法学Constitutional Law and Administrative Law刑法学Criminal Jurisprudence民商法学(含劳动法学、社会保障法学) Civil Law and Commercial Law (including Science of Labour Law and Science of Social Security Law )诉讼法学Science of Procedure Laws经济法学Science of Economic Law国际法学(含国际公法学、国际私法学、国际经济法学) International law (including International Public law, International Private Law and International Economic Law)军事法学Science of Military Law政治学Political Science国际政治学International Politics政治制度Political Institution外交学Diplomacy (注意diplomatism 外交手段，外交手腕)国际关系学International Relations社会学Sociology人口学Demography人类学Anthropology教育学Education/ Education Science教育学原理Educational Principle心理学Psychology应用心理学Applied Psychology行为学behaviorism文学Literature语言学Linguistics应用语言学Applied Linguistics新闻传播学Journalism and Communication电影学Film历史学History专门史History of Particular Subjects近现代史Modern and Contemporary History世界史World History考古学Archaeology博物馆学Museology数学Mathematics应用数学Applied Mathematics概率论与数理统计Probability and Mathematical Statistics运筹学与控制论Operational Research and Cybernetics物理学Physics理论物理Theoretical Physics粒子物理与原子核物理Particle Physics and Nuclear Physics原子与分子物理Atomic and Molecular Physics等离子体物理学Plasma Physics凝聚态物理学Condensed Matter Physics声学Acoustics光学Optics化学Chemistry无机化学Inorganic Chemistry有机化学Organic Chemistry天文学Astronomy天体物理学Astrophysics天体测量学Astrometry地球物理学Geophysics大气科学Atmospheric Sciences气象学Meteorology大气物理学与大气环境Atmospheric Physics and Atmospheric Environment海洋科学Marine Sciences (另：oceanology 海洋资源开发研究，海洋地理研究) 地质学Geology构造地质学Structural Geology生物学Biology微生物学Microbiology植物学Botany动物学Zoology生理学Physiology遗传学Genetics生物化学与分子生物学Biochemistry and Molecular Biology生物物理学Biophysics生态学Ecology系统科学Systems Science力学Mechanics固体力学Solid Mechanics流体力学Fluid Mechanics理学Natural Science工学Engineering机械工程Mechanical Engineering机械制造及其自动化Mechanical Manufacture and Automation测试计量技术及仪器Measuring and Testing Technologies and Instruments 材料学Materialogy材料加工工程Materials Processing Engineering电气工程Electrical Engineering信息与通信工程Information and Communication Engineering计算机科学与技术Computer Science and Technology计算机应用技术Computer Applied Technology建筑学Architecture城市规划与设计Urban Planning and Design水利工程Hydraulic Engineering矿业工程Mineral Engineering采矿工程Mining Engineering石油与天然气工程Oil and Natural Gas Engineering油气井工程Oil-Gas Well Engineering油气田开发工程Oil-Gas Field Development Engineering交通运输工程Communication and Transportation Engineering航空宇航科学与技术Aeronautical and Astronautical Science and Technology 核科学与技术Nuclear Science and Technology核技术及应用Nuclear Technology and Applications农业工程Agricultural Engineering农业机械化工程Agricultural Mechanization Engineering兽医学Veterinary Medicine临床兽医学Clinical Veterinary Medicine林学Forestry水土保持Soil and Water Conservation荒漠化防治Desertification Combating医学Medicine基础医学Basic Medicine临床医学Clinical Medicine免疫学Immunology内科学Internal medicine外科学Surgery老年医学Geriatrics神经病学Neurology精神病学Psychiatry护理学Nursing康复医学与理疗学Rehabilitation Medicine & Physical Therapy 运动医学Sports Medicine急诊医学Emergency Medicine公共卫生Public Health营养与食品卫生学Nutrition and Food Hygiene中医学Chinese Medicine方剂学Formulas of Chinese Medicine药学Pharmaceutical Science管理学Management Science工商管理学Science of Business Administration会计学Accounting情报学Information Science通用前缀：比较－comparative应用－applied临床－clinic后－post相关：广义general狭义restricted/ special辩证法/辩证法的，辩证的dialectic悖论paradox谬论fallacy边缘学科/交叉学科interdisciplinary跨学科cross-disciplinary实地研究/现场研究field study理论研究theoretical study文献研究literary study/research评论criticism方法论methodology女权主义feminism现代主义modernism后现代主义post-modernism现实主义realism唯物主义materialism唯心主义idealism （有时为理想主义）内涵connotation(文化内蕴)/ intension外延denotation（字面意义）/extension归纳induction演绎deductionhumanism 人本主义，人文主义humanitarianism 人道主义，博爱主义relativism 相对主义(注意不等于物理学中的“相对论”！) 这学名词A theory that conceptions of truth and moral values are not absolute but are relative to the personsor groups holding them.相对主义：认为真理的概念及道德价值不是绝对的而是相对于持有它们的人或集团的理论relativity 相对论（物理学名词）Encyclopedia 百科全书Renaissance 文艺复兴（时期的）各种学位名称B.A. or BA 文学士（Bachelor of Arts）B.S. or BS 理学士（Bachelor of Science）M.A. or MA 文科硕士（Master of Arts）M.S. or MS 理科硕士（Master of Science）M.B.A. 工商管理硕士（Master of Business Administration）Ph.D 哲学博士（Doctor of Philosophy）（注意并非所有的博士都是Ph. D）D.S. 理学博士（Doctor of Science）M. D. 医学博士（Doctor of Medicine）Eng.D 工学博士（Doctor of Engineering）。
英语专业--短文翻译讲解
• 他常常选择不同的时间和季节，多次 重游各地名山，反复观察变换的奇景 。
• 他常常选择不同的时间和季节，多次重游 各地名山，反复观察变换的奇景。 • 译文1：He would revisit famous mountains at different time and in different seasons to observe the changing magnificent views time and again.
• 译文1：During his life time, Xu Xiake visited and explored 16 provinces, leaving his footprints in nearly every corner of the country. • 译文2：During his life time, Xu Xiake traveled around and conducted surveys in 16 provinces. he left his footprints in virtually every part of the country.
• 为了弄清大自然的真相，他总是挑选道路艰险的 山区，人迹稀少的森林进行考察，发现了许多奇 山秀景； • 弄清：find out; make clear • 真相：real situation（区别于表面或造假的情况 ）；the actual state of affairs; fact; truth • 真相大白come out in the wash; The truth is out; The facts are clear now. • 弄清真相：get a clear picture of
• 译文2： In order to develop a true picture of the natural world, he made it a point of undertaking his expeditions in those mountain areas where roads were difficult to travel and in those woods that were sparsely populated.
化学专业英语文献翻译
专业英语文献翻译Quantifying the Cluster of Differentiation 4 Receptor Density on Human T Lymphocytes Using Multiple Reaction Monitoring Mass Spectrometry. ABSTRACT: Cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) is an important glycoprotein containing four extracellular domains, a transmembrane portion and a short intracellular tail. It locates on the surface of various types of immune cells and performs a critical role in multiple cellular functions such as signal amplification and activation of T cells. It is well-known as a clinical cell surface protein marker for study of HIV progression and for defining the T helper cell population in immunological applications. Moreover, CD4 protein has been used as a biological calibrator for quantification of other surface and intracellular proteins. However, flow cytometry, the conventional method of quantification of the CD4 density on the T cell surface depends on antibodies and has suffered from variables such as antibody clones, the ommatophore and conjugation chemistries, the fixation conditions, and the flow cytometric quantification methods used. In this study, we report the development of a highly reproducible na no liquid chromatography−multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry-based quantitative method to quantify the CD4 receptor density in units of copy number per cell on human CD4+ T cells. The method utilizes stable isotope-labeled full-length standard CD4 as an internal standard to measure endogenous CD4 directly, without the use of antibodies. The development of the mass spectrometry-based approach of CD4 protein quantification is important as a complementary strategy to validate the analysis from the cytometry-based conventional method. It also provides new support for quantitative understanding and advanced characterization of CD4 on CD4+ T cells.Cluster of differentiation 4 (CD4) is a glycoprotein that locates on the surface of immune cells such as T helper cells, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells. As a co receptor, CD4 amplifies the signal generated by the T cell receptor, which is essential for activation of many molecules involved in the signaling cascade of an activated T cell. In human T lymphocytes, CD4 receptor protein is encoded by the CD4 gene1and has four distinct extracellular domains (D1 to D4), a transmembrane portion, and a short intracellular tail.2The use of antihuman CD4 monoclonal antibodies generated against the four extracellular domains has been widely used to define T helper cells in phenotypical. Although the number of CD4+ T cells decreases in the progression of HIV-1 viral infection deriving from the gp120 viral protein binding to the CD4 receptor, Ponce let et al. reported that the surface CD4 density stillremained constant on T helper cells of HIV-1 infected individuals.3Since then, multiyear research has supported the theory that CD4 expression/density can be used as a biological calibrator for quantification of other surfaceand intracellular proteins.4Quantitative multicolor flow cytometry incorporating anti- bodies and a fluorescence detection method has played a critical role in clinical diagnostics and immunotherapies. Though the ultimate objective of quantitative flow cytometry is to measure the number of antigens or ligand binding sites associated with a cell, the task is carried out by measuring the number of antibodies bound per cell (ABC). It is critically important to produce biological cell reference materials that bear well-characterized protein markers such as CD4 for the trans-formation of a calibrated linear fluorescence intensity scale of a flow cytometer channel to a biologically meaningful ABC scale.7The quality of the cytometric measurements is affected by variables such as antibody clones, the ommatophore and conjugation chemistries, the fixation conditions, and the flow cytometric quantification methods used.4,8−11Hence, in addition to characterizing candidate reference cell preparations that use antibody-based cytometric methods,12it is necessary to develop a complementary approach to validate the absolute quantification of reference marker proteins such as CD4 without the use of antibodies.Liquid chromatography coupled mass spectrometry has emerged as a versatile platform for quantitative protein/proteges analysis due to its high specificity and sensitivity. Relative quantification of proteins can be achieved without the use of any internal standard for comparative analysis under the same catalytical conditions. However, in many analyses such as clinical biomarker tests, absolute quantification of protein(s) in terms of molecule copy number per cell or per unit weight/volume of biological samples is required.Absolute quantitative data enable valuable comparisons across different studies and conclusive interpretations of the disease states or treatment efficacy as well as the understanding of the whole body system biology probed from different angles in different studies. Multiple reaction monitoring mass spectrometry (MRM MS) combining proper separation and/or fractionation techniques has been proven to be an effective platform for protein quantification in biological samples.16−18In the present study, we report the development of an MRM MS-based approach that combines scalepan liquid chromatography and a stable isotope-labeled full-length protein as the internal standard, enabling the quantificationof the CD4 receptor density in units of copy number per cell on human CD4+ T cells without the use of antibodies.EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONMaterials. All chemicals and reagents, unless indicated specifically, were from Sigma-Ald rich Inc.Determination of the Human CD4+ T Cell Count.Cryopreserved, negatively selected human CD4+ T cells with a purity of 98.5% were purchased from Astarte Biologics (Redmond, WA), confirmed internally, and used without further purification. The thawed cryopreserved CD4+ T cells were slowly added to 9 L of RPMI-1640 containing 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) in a 15 L conical tube. After the tube was inverted three times, the cells were centrifuged at 400gnfor 10 min, and the supernatant was discarded. The resulting cells were washed once and re suspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) with 1% FBS. The number of CD4+ T cells was counted by using both a hemocytometer and a flow cytometry with which Count beads from BD Bioscience (San Jose,CA) were used as the internal counting standard. Mouse antihuman CD4 fluorescein isocyanate (FITC; clone SK3,catalog number 340133, BD Biosciences) was used for cell staining, and CD4+ cells were counted using an Aria II flow sorter from BD Biosciences. Gating of CD4+ and Count beads was performed on a FITC histogram. The ratio of the respectively gated events of CD4+ cells and Count beads was used for obtaining the CD4+ cell number according to the manufacturer’s procedure. The CD4+ cell numbers measured by the hemocytometer and flow cytometry were fairly consistent with a difference of no more than 6%, and therefore, the averaged cell count from both methods was used to derive the CD4 receptor density/copy number per cell.Characterization of Isotope-Labeled Standard CD4.Isotope label (13C and15N) was introduced on arginine and lysine residues in a standard CD4 protein from Orig ene Technologies (Rockville, MD). The amino acid sequence of this standard CD4 protein is provided in the Supporting Information, Table S1. Since the isotope incorporation of the standard protein is not 100%, the percentage of isotope labelingwas evaluated using MRM MS by comparing the chroma to-graphic peak intensities of transitions from the isotope-labeled peptides to the peak intensities of the corresponding transitions from the unlabeled peptides. The concentration of the isotope-labeled internal standard CD4 was then determined using a recombinant CD4 protein (rCD4) (obtained from the NIH AIDS Research & Reference ReagentProgram) with a known concentration. The rCD4 purity was determined to be above 96% using sodium dodecastyle sulfate−polyacrylamide gel electro-phoresis(SDS−PAGE), and the concentration was calculated t o be 31.84 μmol/L by amino acid analysis determined from averaging the concentrations of seven amino acid residuals,Spartacist acid, glutamine acid, glycine, alanine, leucine, lysine, and arginine, using Standard Reference Material (SRM) 2389 of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)(amino acids in 0.1 mol/L Cl) as the amino acid calibration standard on an amino acid analyzer from Hitachi Instruments(Dallas, TX). Sample Preparation for MRM MS. A preparation procedure of human CD4+ T cells for MRM MS measure- aments is illustrated in Figure 1. The isotope-labeledfull-length standard CD4 of known concentration was mixed with a known number of human T cells in 150 μL of 25 Mold/L ammonium bicarbonate buffer (Abb), pH 7.9, with 2% SDS. The cell and protein mixture was lysed by sonication on ice at 20 W using three 10 s continuous cycles (Diatonically 3000 from Miso,Farmingdale, NY). The mixture was treated with 20 Mold/LDTT and incubated at room temperature for 60 min to allow reduction of cysteines and was then treated with 50 Mold/L acetamid for another 60 min for alkylation. The cell lysate was centrifuged at 175000gnfor 30 min to remove insoluble fragments. Proteins in the supernatant were precipitated using chloroform/methanol19,20to remove salts and lipids. Briefly, 1volume of sample solution was combined with 4 volumes of methanol, 1 volume of chloroform, and 3 volumes of water. The solution was mixed by vortex and centrifuged at20000gnat room temperature for 10 min. The upper phase was removed carefully, and 4 volumes of methanol was added to the lower phase and interphase, which contained precipitated proteins. The mixed solution was centrifuged again at 20000gn for 10 min to pellet the protein. The precipitated protein mixture was then reconstituted in 100 μL of 25 Mold/L Abb followed by protease digestion using trypsin (sequence grade modified, Pr omega, 1:50 w/w trypsin/protein) overnight at 37°C. After enzymatic digestion, the sample was treated with 0.5%fluorometric acid and centrifuged at 175000gnfor 30 min. The supernatant, which contained soluble peptides, was transferred to a fresh centrifuge's tube and dried by vacuum centrifugation (Elmendorf AG, Hamburg, Germany) for subsequent mass spectrometry analysis.Fano-LC−MRM MS Analys is. The digested peptides were reconstituted in Dilli-QH2O with 3% acetonitrile (ACN) containing 0.1% formic acid followed byKano-LC−MRM MS analysis. Peptide separation and mass spectrometry analysis were performed on a hybrid triple-quadrupole/linear ion trap mass spectrometer (4000 QTRAP, ABI/MDS-SCIEX) coupled to an Intransigent canola-2D system (Dublin, CA). Peptides were separated and eluted at a flow rate of 300 nL/min over 30 min with a gradient of acetonitrile from 15% to 35% in H2O containing 0.1% formic acid using an Intransigent Chipley-flexional system equipped with a Kano Chipley column, 15cm × 75 μm, packed with Reposal-Pur C18-AQ, 3 μm (Dr.Ischuria, Germany). The eluted peptides were directed into the mass spectrometer with a pranayama source. The subsequent MRM detection of CD4 signature peptides was performed in the positive ion mode with the following key parameters: ion spray voltage of 2200 V, curtain gas pressure of 15 psi, source gas pressure of 20 psi, interface heating temperature of 170 °C,blustering potentials of 76 V for +2 precursor ions and 65 V for +3 precursor ions, collision cell exit potentials of 16 V for +2 precursor ions and 13 V for +3 precursor ions, and dwell time of 40 ms for each transition pair. The collision energy of each target transition was optimized empirically using peptides from unlabeled rCD4 and isotope-labeled standard CD4. The peptides detected and optimized collision energy (CE) values are listed in the Supporting Information, Table S2. The mass spectrometer was operated using Analyst 1.5.1 (AB SCIEN).Since the detectable ions of different peptides from a single protein can be different in different mass spectrometers, we selected and optimized the target CD4 peptides from human T cells and working MS parameters using our MRM analysis for the standard proteins based on favorable transition peak intensities, stable retention times, and minimum biological matrix effects. Considering the complexity of the cell lysate, the similarity of the intensity ratios of multiple transitions from the selected peptides from standard CD4 and the counterpart in the cell lysate confirmed minimal interference from the biological matrix. Each selected peptide was further confirmed as a unique CD4 peptide by sequence blast against the human nonredundant genome database (NCBI).Data Analysis. Calibration curves showed linearity and low scatter over the range of 0.1−5 mol/μL tested for the internal standard. The concentration of the stableisotope-labeled standard CD4, Miso, was calculated according to the following equation:Isopodan Ir refer to the intensity of the isotope-labeled peptide peak and intensity of the rCD4 peptide peak, respectively. In‑ISO corresponds to the intensity of the totalnon-isotope-labeled peptide peak detected, and the constant 0.23 is the ratio of the non labeled to the labeled peptide obtained from the internal standard CD4. Aris the concentration (mol/L) of rCD4 derived from the amino acid analysis. The endogenous CD4 protein concentration, Bend, was derived in the same fashion from the ratio of the non labeled and labeled MRM transition peak intensities multiplied by the known amount of standard spiked into the sample on the basis of the following equation: Bedstands for the intensity of the endogenous CD4 peptide peak.The identities of the selected peptides were confirmed on the basis of the two parameters of the internal standard run under the same conditions, the retention time of the given peptide,and the proportional ratio among the MRM transitions. Each pair of transitions from a given peptide was treated as an independent measure for the peptide, resulting in a concentration value expressed as the copy number of thequantified peptide per cell. Analysis of each selected signature peptide was based on the mean value of multiple transitions from the peptide. Three signature peptides were employed to evaluate the endogenous CD4 concentration. Each sample was measured in triplicate, and a total of three cell lysate replicates were prepared and measured independently.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONConcentration and Isotope Incorporation Efficiency of Stable Isotope-Labeled Standard CD4. With the Kano-LC−MRM MS approach, we applied the stable isotope-labeled internal standard CD4 for quantification of the endogenous CD4 receptor protein from human CD4+ T cells. Therefore,the isotope incorporation and the concentration of the internal standard CD4 protein are key factors for accurate quantification of endogenous CD4 on T cells in the MRM MS-based quantification scheme and were carefully investigated in the present study using mass spectrometry. We measured the isotope incorporation efficiency in the standard CD4 using MRM MS based on the intensity ratio of the natural isotope abundance peptide to the stable isotope-labeled peptide within the standard protein sample. The selected peptides and the isotope incorporation percentage are listed in Table 1. Each individual peptide was analyzed by at least three transitions, and the isotope incorporation percentage of each peptide was the average value of multiple transitions.The average isotope incorporation of the standard CD4 is 81.6±0.7% based on four peptides per multiple-replicate experiment. The ratio of non labeled to labeled protein wascalculated to be 0.23 and used for calculations of the endogenous CD4 density.By comparing the peak intensity ratio of the targeted peptides of the stable isotope-labeled standard CD4 and rCD4 with a known concentration, the concentration of the heavily labeled standard CD4 is calculated to be 0.22 ±0.03 μmol/L according to eq 1 (Table 2). Six peptides and at least three transitions per peptide were employed to determine the concentration of the isotope-labeled standard protein. These 6 peptides contain 61 amino acids and cover 13.3% of the full-length CD4, ranging across the extracellular portion of the protein (Supporting Information, Table S1). This experiment was repeated three times. The mean value of all the peptides measured was taken as the concentration of the isotope-labeled internal standard CD4.Quantification of Endogenous CD4 Receptor on the Surface of Human T Cells. The target peptides employed for CD4 quantification were selected on the basis of favorable transition intensities and minimum matrix effects from our empirical data. Representative ion chromatograms of selected transitions from the signature peptides are shown in Figure 2.Each peptide was evaluated using no less than three pairs of transitions. The comparable intensity ratios of the transition pairs from the different peptides indicated that the unique target CD4 protein was measured. The CD4 quantification in our study was performed with a total of three replications from different cell lysates for statistical purposes. The protein density per copy number on the surface of the CD4+ T cell was derived from the mean values of all selected signature peptides according to eq 2. The results of endogenous CD4 quantification are summarized in Table 3. On the basis of our data, the copy number of CD4 protein receptors on a human CD4+ T cell varies from 1.43 × 10^5to 1.50 × 10^5with a mean of 1.46 ×105. The results are larger than those obtained using the conventional flow-cytometry-based method (∼(0.90−1.10) × 105measured), which relies on the affinity binding between CD4 receptors and anti-CD4 antibodies.In normal resting human helper T cells, CD4 glycoproteins controlled by the encoding gene are exclusively distributed on the cell surface.1,2Down-modulated CD4 cell surface expression and subcellular localization21and depletion of the surface CD4 protein22have been reported in the literature in the case of HIV infection. For the present study, purified CD4+helper T cells were obtained from a normal blood donor tested for blood-borne pathogens HIV-1 and -2, hepatitis B, Hepatica, and HTLV-1. Hence, endoplasmic CD4 proteins are expected to be negligible. With the methoddescribed, we avoided using an antibody-based affinity assay as it is used in the conventional cytometry approach. Thus, the variations resulting from the antibody clone and binding specificity and fluorescent label specific issues do not interfere with our CD4 measurement. Moreover, the antibody-based approach only measures protein quantity through recognition of a single protein epitope. The association of CD4 receptor with lipid rafts23could affect the affinity binding by the anti-CD4 antibody, resulting in a lower detectable CD4 density. The quantification by the MRM MS approach was based on multiple unique peptides of CD4, providing more quantitative information on the full length of the protein. It would be of particular interest for CD4 analysis in cells in different biological conditions since various protein functions are usually associated with unknown cleavages and modifications. We did not detect any membrane-associated and cytoplasmic CD4 peptides in this study due to the limitation of the peptide length and detection sensitivity. Additional effort will be taken to resolve both the intracellular portion and membrane-associated portion of CD4 in a future study.CONCLUSIONSWe reported the development of a Kano-LC−MRM MS-based quantitative method to quantify the CD4 density on a human CD4+ T cell. The full-length stable isotope-labeled CD4 servedas the internal standard for the quantification of the CD4 receptor density on a human CD4+ T cell based on the MRM transition intensity ratio of selected peptides. Application of isotope-labeled full-length proteins as internal standards overcomes potential quantitative errors from protein hydrolysis and variations associated with complex biological sample processing such as sample fractionation. This MRM MS-based method is relatively simple to implement with less variation compared to other available approaches. The quantification method in our study showed great reproducibility with low standard deviations. The method can be applied for quantification of other cell marker proteins.It would be of great interest to examine the limit of detection of this method on Proterozoic biomarkers with diverse expression levels. As demonstrated in this study, MRM MS is a powerful tool for biomolecule quantification and can potentially assist the biomolecular analysis in clinical laboratories.摘要：集群分化4(CD4)是一种重要的糖蛋白，它包含四个胞外区域,横跨膜的部分和短的细胞内尾巴。
给水排水工程专业英语文献翻译原文第三篇
Journal of Membrane Science 376 (2011) 196–206Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of MembraneSciencej o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /m e m s ciFouling and cleaning of RO membranes fouled by mixtures of organic foulants simulating wastewater effluentWui Seng Ang 1,Alberto Tiraferri,Kai Loon Chen 2,Menachem Elimelech ∗Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering,P.O.Box 208286,Yale University,New Haven,CT 06520-8286,USAa r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 6December 2010Received in revised form 7April 2011Accepted 9April 2011Available online 20 April 2011Keywords:Reverse osmosis FoulingWastewater effluent CleaningOrganic foulantsWastewater treatment Effluent organic matter Wastewater reclamation Membranesa b s t r a c tThe fouling and subsequent cleaning of RO membranes fouled by a mixture of organic foulants sim-ulating wastewater effluent has been systematically investigated.The organic foulants investigated included alginate,bovine serum albumin (BSA),Suwannee River natural organic matter,and octanoic acid,representing,respectively,polysaccharides,proteins,humic substances,and fatty acids,which are ubiquitous in effluent organic matter.After establishing the fouling behavior and mechanisms with a mixture of organic foulants in the presence and absence of calcium ions,our study focused on the clean-ing mechanisms of RO membranes fouled by the mixture of organic foulants.The chemical cleaning agents used included an alkaline solution (NaOH),a metal chelating agent (EDTA),an anionic surfactant (SDS),and a concentrated salt solution (NaCl).Specifically,we examined the impact of cleaning agent type,cleaning solution pH,cleaning time,and fouling layer composition on membrane cleaning effi-ciency.Foulant–foulant adhesion forces measured under conditions simulating chemical cleaning of a membrane fouled by a mixture of the investigated organic foulants provided insights into the chemical cleaning mechanisms.It was shown that while alkaline solution (NaOH)alone is not effective in dis-rupting the complexes formed by the organic foulants with calcium,a higher solution pH can lead to effective cleaning if sufficient hydrodynamic shear (provided by crossflow)prevails.Surfactant (SDS),a strong chelating agent (EDTA),and salt solution (NaCl)were effective in cleaning RO membranes fouled by a mixture of foulants,especially if applied at high pH and for longer cleaning times.The observed cleaning efficiencies with the various cleaning agents were consistent with the related measurements of foulant–foulant intermolecular forces.Furthermore,we have shown that an optimal cleaning agent con-centration can be derived from a plot presenting the percent reduction in the foulant–foulant adhesion force versus cleaning agent concentration.© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionAs demand for potable water increases worldwide,the paradigm for selecting water sources to meet this demand is transitioning from conventional sources,such as reservoirs and lakes,to less con-ventional sources,such as treated secondary wastewater effluent.In order to produce water of superior quality,the use of mem-branes in desalination and wastewater reclamation has become more widespread.Membrane fouling is a major impediment to the use of membrane technology for such applications,because fouling is inevitable.Despite research efforts to develop better anti-fouling membranes [1]and improved fouling-control strategies [2,3],membrane fouling still occurs over time.Thus,a long-term∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+12034322789;fax:+12034324387.E-mail address:menachem.elimelech@ (M.Elimelech).1Current address:Public Utility Board of Singapore,Singapore.2Current address:Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering,Johns Hopkins University,Baltimore,MD 21218,United States.solution would be to remove the foulant deposited on the mem-brane via chemical cleaning.To select the appropriate cleaning agents and adopt an effective chemical cleaning protocol for fouled membranes in wastewater reclamation,the implications of wastewater effluent characteris-tics on membrane fouling have to be well-understood.Wastewater effluent contains dissolved organic matter,commonly known as effluent organic matter (EfOM),which comprises polysaccha-rides,proteins,aminosugars,nucleic acids,humic and fulvic acids,organic acids,and cell components [2–4].Organic fouling of the RO membranes by the EfOM can be extensive since EfOM is gener-ally small enough to pass through the pores of pretreatment (MF or UF)membranes [4].In particular,recent findings suggest that while biofouling can prevail on the tail-element of the membrane module,fouling of the lead-element exposed to reclaimed water is dominated by EfOM adsorption [5].In addition,higher potential of fouling was observed for the higher molecular weight hydropho-bic/aromatic fraction of the EfOM [6,7].The presence of Ca 2+in the feed source for the RO membranes has been reported to form complexes with the constituents of EfOM,such as polysaccharidesW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206197[8]and natural organic matter[9],and to significantly enhance membrane fouling.While our previous studies have addressed the fouling of RO membranes by individual organic foulant types,such as polysaccharides[10],proteins[11],and fatty acids[12],only recently have investigations reported on the effects of a combina-tion or mixture of foulants on the fouling of RO membranes[13,14].A variety of chemical cleaning agents are commonly used to clean RO membranes fouled by organic matter[15].Alkaline solutions remove organic foulants on membranes by hydroly-sis and solubilization of the fouling layer.Alkaline solutions also increase the solution pH,and,therefore,increase the negative charges and solubility of the organic foulant.Metal chelating agents remove divalent cations from the complexed organic molecules and weaken the structural integrity of the fouling layer matrix[16]. Surfactants solubilize macromolecules by forming micelles around them[17],thereby facilitating removal of the foulants from the membrane surface.In our earlier study on salt cleaning of organic matter-fouled RO membranes[18],we demonstrated that NaCl and other common inert salts can be used as an effective alternative for the cleaning of RO membranes fouled by gel-forming hydrophilic organic foulants.In the presence of a salt solution,the fouling layer swells and becomes more porous.As a result,this would facil-itate the diffusion of Na+into the fouling layer and breakup of Ca2+–alginate bonds by ion exchange.Understanding the fouling layer characteristics and the interaction of chemical agents with foulants is therefore critical for the effective cleaning of organic matter-fouled RO membranes.Atomic force microscopy(AFM)has been applied in mem-brane fouling/cleaning research to quantify intermolecular forces [10,19–21].Our research has shown that foulant–foulant inter-actions could be determined by performing force measurements using a carboxylate-modified latex colloid probe in an AFMfluid cell[10,20].The technique has been used to quantify the foul-ing behavior of a nanofiltration membrane fouled by humic acid and the cleaning efficiencies of EDTA and SDS[20],and has been extended to quantify RO membrane fouling by organic foulant in the form of alginate[10],BSA[11],and octanoic acid[12].In this study,the AFM has also been employed as an alternative tool to indicate the optimal concentration of cleaning agent for cleaning fouled membranes.The original protocol[11,12]for using the AFM has been modified to investigate the intermolecular adhesion force between different foulants.The objective of this study is to explore the mechanisms govern-ing the fouling of RO membranes by mixtures of organic foulants simulating wastewater effluent,and the ensuing chemical cleaning of the fouled membranes by cleaning agents.To make this study rel-evant to wastewater reclamation,we systematically investigate the fouling of RO membranes by each individual organic foulant type (polysaccharides,proteins,humic acids,or fatty acids)and mix-tures containing several types of organic foulants in the absence and presence of calcium ions.Cleaning experiments are performed with the fouled membranes using NaOH,EDTA,SDS,and NaCl as model alkaline solution,metal chelating agent,surfactant,and salt cleaning solution,respectively.The intermolecular adhesion forces between the different foulants and estimated aggregate sizes in foulant mixtures were used to explain the fouling mechanism of RO membranes and the cleaning behavior of a cleaning agent on the fouled membranes.2.Materials and methodsanic foulants Louis,MO),Suwannee River natural organic matter(SRNOM) (International Humic Substances Society,St.Paul,MN),bovine serum albumin(BSA)(Sigma–Aldrich,St.Louis,MO),and octanoic acid(OA)(Sigma–Aldrich,St.Louis,MO),respectively.According to the manufacturer,the molecular weight of the sodium alginate ranges from12to80kDa.Other characteristics of SRNOM,includ-ing molecular weight and mass fraction of hydrophobic NOM,can be found elsewhere[22,23].According to the manufacturer,the molecular weight of the BSA is about66kDa.BSA is reported to have an isoelectric point at pH4.7[24].Octanoic acid(Sigma–Aldrich,St. Louis,MO)was selected to model fatty acids in EfOM because of its presence in food and solubility in water(saturation concentration of4.7mM at20◦C)[12].Sodium alginate,BSA,and SRNOM were received in powder form,and stock solutions(2g/L)were prepared by dissolving each of the foulants in deionized(DI)water.DI water was supplied from a Milli-Q ultrapure water purification system(Millipore,Billerica, MA).Mixing of the stock solutions was performed for over24h to ensure complete dissolution of the foulants,followed byfil-tration with a0.45-mfilter(Durapore,Millipore,Billerica,MA). Thefiltered stock solutions were stored in sterilized glass bottles at4◦C.Octanoic acid was received in solution(≥98%concentra-tion)and was stored at room temperature.To achieve the intended octanoic acid concentration during fouling,octanoic acid was dis-solved separately for at least8h prior to fouling so that,at the initiation of fouling,octanoic acid could be introduced as a solu-tion.A few hours before the initiation of fouling,the ionic strength of the stock solution was adjusted to the same concentration as that of the feed solution(10mM)and the stock solution pH was elevated,as needed,from ambient pH of3.9–9.0by adding small amounts of1M NaOH.2.2.Chemical cleaning agentsThe chemical cleaning agents used were:NaOH(pH11.0)as an alkaline solution,certified grade disodium ethylenediaminete-traacetate(Na2–EDTA)as a metal chelating agent,certified grade sodium dodecyl sulfate(SDS)as an anionic surfactant,and NaCl as a salt cleaning solution.The agents were purchased from Fisher Sci-entific(Pittsburgh,PA)and used with no further purification.The stock chemical solutions were prepared fresh by dissolving each chemical in deionized(DI)water.The pH of the EDTA,SDS,and NaCl cleaning solutions was adjusted with1.0M NaOH as necessary.2.3.RO membraneThe relatively well-characterized thin-film composite LFC-1 membrane(Hydranautics,Oceanside,CA)was used as a model RO membrane.The average hydraulic resistance was determined to be 9.16(±0.11)×1013m−1corresponding to a hydraulic permeabil-ity of10.9(±0.13)×10−11m s−1Pa−1.The observed salt rejection was98.7–99.3%,determined with a10mM(584mg/L)NaCl feed solution at an applied pressure of300psi(2068.5kPa)and a cross-flow velocity of8.6cm/s.Membrane samples were received as dry large sheets,and were cut and stored in DI water at4◦C.The membrane has been reported to be negatively charged at solu-tion chemistries typical to wastewater effluents,with an isoelectric point at about pH4.6[25].The membrane has been reported to be coated with a neutral polyalcohol layer rich in–COH functional groups,which renders the surface less charged than the surfaces of other polyamide RO membranes without a coating layer[25,26].2.4.Crossflow test unit198W.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206unit consists of a membrane cell,pump,feed reservoir,temper-ature control system,and data acquisition system.The membrane cell consisted of a rectangular plate-and-frame unit,which con-tained aflat membrane sheet placed in a rectangular channel with dimensions measuring7.7cm long,2.6cm wide,and0.3cm high. Both permeate and retentate were recirculated back to the feed reservoir.Permeateflux was registered continuously by a digital flow meter(Optiflow1000,Humonics,CA),interfaced with a com-puter.Afloating disc rotameter(King Instrument,Fresno,CA)was used to monitor the retentateflow rate.The crossflow velocity and operating pressure were adjusted using a bypass valve(Swagelok, Solon,OH)in conjunction with a back-pressure regulator(U.S.Para Plate,Auburn,CA).Temperature was controlled by a recirculating chiller/heater(Model633,Polysciences)with a stainless steel coil submerged in the feed water reservoir.2.5.Fouling and cleaning experimentsThe membrane wasfirst compacted with DI water until the permeateflux became constant,followed by the initial baseline performance for1h.The membrane was then stabilized and equi-librated with a foulant-free electrolyte solution for2h.Theflux at which the baseline run was performed was predetermined so that the initialflux would drop to a specifiedflux of2.3×10−5m s−1(or 83L m−2h−1)after adding the electrolyte solution.The chemistry of the foulant-free electrolyte solution and operating conditions adjusted in this stage were similar to those used for the ensuing fouling runs.As octanoic acid takes time to dissolve completely,the mixture of organic foulant solution has to be prepared8h before the fouling run.The feed foulant solution was prepared separately in another container.The chemistry of the feed foulant solution was adjusted to be identical to that of the foulant-free electrolyte solution so that the overall ionic strength and solution chemistry would not change when the feed foulant solution was added to initiate fouling. Fouling runs were carried out for17h.At the end of the fouling run, the solution in the feed reservoir was disposed off and chemical cleaning solution was added to the feed reservoir to clean the fouled membrane.At the end of the cleaning stage,the chemical cleaning solution in the reservoir was discarded,and both the reservoir and membrane cell were rinsed with DI water toflush out the residual chemical cleaning solution.Finally,the cleaned RO membrane was subjected to the second baseline performance with DI water to re-determine the pure waterflux.The crossflow velocity throughout the experiment,except dur-ing cleaning,was maintained at8.6cm/s.The operating conditions (i.e.,initialflux,crossflow velocity,and temperature)at this stage were identical to those applied during the initial baseline perfor-mance,so as to determine the cleaning efficiency by comparing the pure waterfluxes determined before fouling and after clean-ing.Throughout all the fouling/cleaning stages,the feed water in the reservoir,which was located on top of a magnetic stirrer,was mixed rigorously to ensure complete mixing of the feed water and cleaning solution.To confirm the reproducibility of determined cleaning effi-ciency,selected fouling/cleaning runs were duplicated.Results showed that fouling rate and cleaning efficiency obtained from the duplicate runs were within less than a5%difference.To investigate the change in the permeate quality during the fouling stage,permeate samples taken before and at the start and end of fouling were analyzed for salt(NaCl)rejection using an ICP-AES(ICP Optima3000,Perkin Elmer,Waltham,MA).Permeate and feed samplings obtained before the fouling run were collected at the end were collected during thefinal40min of the fouling run.2.6.AFM adhesion force measurementsAtomic force microscopy(AFM)was used to measure the inter-facial force between the foulant in the bulk solution and the foulant in the fouling layer on the membrane.The force measurements were performed with a colloid probe,modified from a commercial-ized SiN AFM probe(Veeco Metrology Group,Santa Barbara,CA).A carboxylate modified latex(CML)particle(Interfacial Dynam-ics Corp.,Portland,OR)was used as a surrogate for the organic foulants,because organic foulants(alginate and SRNOM)carry pre-dominantly carboxylic functional groups.To make a colloid probe, a CML particle with a diameter of4.0m was attached using Nor-land Optical adhesive(Norland Products,Inc.,Cranbury,NJ)to a tipless SiN cantilever.The colloid probe was cured under UV light for20min.The AFM adhesion force measurements were performed in a fluid cell using a closed inlet/outlet loop.The solution chemistries of the test solutions injected into thefluid cell were identical to those used in the bench-scale fouling/cleaning experiments.Once all the air bubbles had beenflushed out of thefluid cell,the injection would stop and the outlet was closed.The membrane was equilibrated with the test solution for30–45min before force measurements were performed.The force measurements were conducted at three tofive different locations,and at least10measurements were taken at each location.Because the focus of this study was on the foulant–foulant interaction(adhesion),only the raw data obtained from the retracting force curves were processed and converted to obtain the force versus surface-to-surface separation curves.The force curves presented were the averages of all the representative force curves obtained at the different locations.The protocol for AFM analysis has been modified slightly to investigate the interaction between different foulant types. The AFM colloidal probe is soaked in organic foulant solution (2000mg/L alginate,BSA,or SRNOM,or>98%octanoic acid)for at least24h(at4◦C for alginate,BSA,and SRNOM solutions to prevent organic degradation,and at room temperature for octanoic acid). The membrane is fouled with200mg/L organic foulant(alginate, BSA,SRNOM,or octanoic acid)using the crossflow unit for about 17h.After transferring the colloidal probe to the AFMfluid cell and the membrane to the AFM disc puck,an electrolyte solution con-taining0.5mM CaCl2and8.5mM NaCl(adjusted to pH6.5±0.2) (identical solution chemistry as during fouling)is injected into the fluid cell.The volume of electrolyte solution added is just enough tofill up thefluid cell so as to minimize the possibility offlush-ing away the foulants on the membrane and probe surfaces.AFM force measurements are taken after20min of equilibration time.To investigate the effect of cleaning agent on the intermolecular adhe-sion force,the cleaning agent was added to the electrolyte solution at the same concentration as that used in the cleaning experiments.2.7.Light scatteringDynamic light scattering experiments were performed on foulant solution to determine the effective hydrodynamic diam-eters of the foulant aggregates in foulant mixtures using a multi-detector light scattering unit(ALV-5000,Langen,Germany). New glass vials(Supelco,Bellefonte,PA)for containing foulant solu-tions under various solution chemistries were cleaned prior to use by soaking overnight in a cleaning solution(Extran MA01,Merck KGaA,Darmstadt,Germany),rinsing with DI water,and drying inW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206199Fig.1.Influence of individual foulant type on fouling of LFC-1membranes:(a)in the absence of Ca2+and(b)in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.The total ionic strength of the feed solution wasfixed at10mM by adjusting with NaCl and the feed solution pH was adjusted to6.0±0.2,as necessary,by adding NaOH.Fouling conditions: foulant concentration of25mg/L,initial permeateflux of23m/s(or83L m−2h−1), crossflow velocity of8.6cm/s,and temperature of21.0±0.5◦C.of1M NaOH.The vial containing the foulant solution was vortexed (Mini Vortexer,Fisher Scientific)to homogenize the solution.The vial was then allowed to sit for30min before starting the light scattering experiment.All light scattering measurements were conducted by employ-ing the detector positioned at a scattering angle of90◦from the incident laser beam.The detector signal was fed into the correla-tor,which accumulated each autocorrelation function for15s.The intensity-weighted hydrodynamic radius of the colloidal aggre-gates was determined with second-order cumulant analysis(ALV software)[27].The reported size is the average of thefirst20mea-surements.3.Results and discussion3.1.Membrane fouling3.1.1.Fouling with individual foulantsFig.1presents the normalizedflux profiles for LFC-1mem-branes fouled by each individual foulant(alginate,BSA,SRNOM, or octanoic acid)in the absence(Fig.1a)and presence(Fig.1b)of Ca2+,respectively.In the absence of Ca2+,theflux decline profiles of membranes fouled by the various foulants are insignificant.The 2+Fig.2.Influence of a mixture of(a)2foulants or(b)more than2foulants on fouling of LFC-1membranes in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.The total ionic strength of the feed solution wasfixed at10mM by adjusting with NaCl and the feed solution pH was adjusted to6.0±0.2,as necessary,by adding NaOH.Fouling conditions were identical to those in Fig.1.RO membranes by BSA,SRNOM,or octanoic acid is minimal.How-ever,we have observed that the presence of Ca2+can affect fouling behavior when the foulant concentrations are higher(300mg/L BSA;2mM or288mg/L octanoic acid)[11,12].3.1.2.Fouling with mixture of foulantsTo investigate the implications for wastewater reclamation, the effect of Ca2+on fouling of RO membranes by all possible combinations of two or more foulant types is investigated.The con-centration of each foulant type was maintained at25mg/L.Fig.2a shows the normalizedflux profiles of membranes fouled by a mix-ture of two foulants in the presence of Ca2+.The effect of Ca2+is most significant for feed solutions containing alginate as one of the two foulant types.This mechanism will be further investigated with the aid of DLS and AFM paring theflux profiles of mem-branes fouled by alginate as a co-foulant,theflux-decline profile of membrane fouled by alginate and octanoic acid is the least sig-nificant due to the formation of octanoic acid–calcium complexes, which increase the hydrophilicity of the fouling layer[12].Fig.2b shows the normalizedflux profiles of membranes fouled by a mixture of three foulant types and all foulant types in the presence of Ca2+.In the presence of Ca2+,for membranes fouled by mixtures containing alginate,the effect of Ca2+onflux profiles is most significant,especially for the membrane fouled by a mixture of alginate,BSA,and SRNOM(without octanoic acid).In compar-ing the latter with theflux profile of the membrane fouled by all200W.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206Fig.3.Sodium ion(Na+)rejection of RO membranes measured before,and at the start and end of the fouling runs,at an adjusted feed solution pH of6.0.The membranes were fouled by combined foulant types,composed of25mg/L each of alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid.Permeate and feed samples obtained before the fouling run were collected30min before the onset of fouling.Samples taken at the start of the fouling run were initiated afterfirst discarding20mL of permeate(duration of8min).Permeate and feed samples taken at the end were collected during thefinal40min of the fouling run.Error bars indicate one standard deviation.Fouling conditions were identical to those in Fig.1.contained alginate and octanoic acid in the presence of Ca2+.The inhibitory effect of octanoic acid onflux-decline profiles can also be observed by comparing theflux profile of combined foulant types of alginate,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in Fig.2b with the profile of alginate and SRNOM in Fig.2a.3.1.3.Impact of fouling on salt rejectionFig.3presents Na+rejection of the RO membranes fouled by combined foulant types of alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in the presence of Ca2+,at the start and end of the fouling runs.The trend of observed Na+rejection is similar both in the absence and presence of Ca2+.At the onset of fouling,the Na+rejection instan-taneously increases.This phenomenon is consistent with previous observations,which attributed the decrease in Na+permeability to the fouling layer acting as an additional selective barrier[12]. Toward the end of the fouling runs,the fouling layer becomes thicker and denser,resulting in even higher Na+rejection.It can be inferred that the presence of Ca2+resulted in a more compact fouling layer,which improves the ability of the fouling layer to fur-ther act as a selective barrier against the transport of Na+across the membrane.3.2.Fouling mechanisms3.2.1.Role of foulant–foulant interaction and foulant sizeRecent studies have demonstrated that the long-term organic fouling of RO membranes and the consequent behavior of water flux are dominated by the feed water chemistry and strong foulant–foulant interactions[4,20,21,28].Quantifying these inter-actions provides a basis for the understanding of the fouling mechanisms and for the rational selection of a suitable cleaning strategy.As discussed in Section3.1.2,fouling behavior becomes significant when alginate is one of the co-foulants.When alginate is absent from the feed solution,regardless of the other foulant types present,fouling is relatively insignificant.This behavior can be explained by evaluating the interaction forces among the differ-ent foulants.To investigate the effect of interactions of alginate with other foulant types,DLS analysis is performed on a solution contain-ing2foulant types(200mg/L alginate plus200mg/L of another foulant type)in the presence of Ca2+.Fig.4a shows that the alginate molecules in the solution have an effective hydrodynamic diame-ter of84nm,which is larger than the effective diameter of51nm of alginate molecules in a solution in which the foulant concentration is halved.The results imply that aggregation of alginate molecules is concentration dependent.The larger effective diameter of aggre-gates formed in400mg/L alginate solution as opposed to those formed in200mg/L alginate solution also implies a more exten-sive gel network at a higher concentration.The effective diameters of the foulant molecules in mixtures of alginate and BSA,alginate and SRNOM,and alginate and octanoic acid are,respectively,48, 63,and73nm.The effective diameter is an indirect indication of the foulant size due to aggregation between the foulants.Because of the varying interactions between alginate and another foulant type in the presence of Ca2+,the aggregate size differs for foulant aggregates of different foulant combinations.Fig.4b shows the intermolecular forces between foulant adsorbed on a colloidal probe and a membrane fouled by algi-nate as determined by AFM.For a membrane fouled by alginate and octanoic acid,the dominant foulant interactions are between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m)and between octanoic acid and octanoic acid molecules(0.90mN/m).For a membrane fouled by alginate and SRNOM,the dominant foulant interaction is between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m).For a membrane fouled by alginate and BSA,the dominant foulantinter-Fig.4.(a)Effective diameter of foulant aggregates in solutions of various foulant combinations that contain alginate as co-foulant.The foulant solution consists of200mg/L alginate plus200mg/L of another foulant type in an electrolyte solution of0.5mM CaCl2and8.5mM NaCl(same solution chemistry as that used in fouling experiments).TheW.S.Ang et al./Journal of Membrane Science376 (2011) 196–206201Fig.5.Proposed structure of fouling layer on membrane surface under different combinations of foulants.actions are between alginate and alginate molecules(1.03mN/m) and between alginate and BSA molecules(0.73–0.79mN/m).We observe that when alginate is present in the feed,regardless of the co-foulant,the interaction of alginate molecules among them-selves is most dominant,with the possibility of alginate molecules interacting with other molecules,especially BSA molecules.Comparing the effective diameters of the foulant aggregates in various2-foulant mixtures(Fig.4a)with the intermolecular adhe-sion force between different foulants(Fig.4b)reveals that there is an inverse correlation between the foulant aggregate size and the intermolecular adhesion force(foulant aggregate size generally decreases as intermolecular adhesion force increases).It is hypoth-esized that the interaction among the foulant types within the aggregates would affect the conformation,and hence,the size of the aggregates in the foulant solution.For example,the relatively stronger intermolecular adhesion force between alginate and BSA molecules in the feed solution in the presence of Ca2+results in a more‘compact’or‘tighter’conformation of the foulant aggregates as compared to the foulant aggregates formed from a solution of alginate and SRNOM.The deposition of the smaller and more‘com-pact’alginate–BSA aggregates results in a tighter fouling layer and a lowerfinalflux(Fig.5)[29].We note that the SA–SA aggregate does not follow the trend of a decrease in aggregate size with increasing adhesion force because alginate molecules tend to form extended gel networks in the presence of calcium ions[29],as opposed to the other combinations of foulants.3.2.2.Proposed structure of fouling layerThe fouling experiments reveal that membrane fouling in the presence of Ca2+is controlled by alginate.From the AFM force mea-surement analysis and the DLS experiments,the proposed structure of the fouling layer when severe fouling occurs under various solu-tion chemistries is schematically shown in Fig.5.The top drawing shows the likely conformation of the cross-linked alginate fouling layer when the feed contains alginate in the presence of Ca2+.In this case,the fouling layer has the typical structure resulting from the formation of an‘egg-box’shaped gel network on the mem-brane surface[29].The middle drawing shows the proposed fouling layer formed by a feed solution containing a mixture of alginate, BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid(each foulant has the same concen-tration).The DLS experiments show that the aggregates of foulant mixtures containing alginate as a co-foulant have smaller effective feed solution in which alginate is the sole foulant.When the algi-nate concentration is increased while maintaining the same total foulant concentration,the fouling layer becomes more porous due to the increase in the highly ordered alginate–calcium complexes on the membrane surface.The state of the fouling layer would affect the transfer of a cleaning agent to the fouling layer,and hence,the cleaning efficiency of the cleaning agent as delineated in the next sections.3.3.Cleaning of fouled membranes3.3.1.Type of cleaning agentFig.6presents the cleaning efficiencies of various cleaning agents on membranes fouled by combined foulant types compris-ing alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid in the presence of 0.5mM Ca2+.Cleaning was performed for15min without an oper-ating pressure(i.e.,no permeate)and at a crossflow velocityfive times higher than that during fouling.Cleaning the fouled mem-brane with DI water resulted in19%cleaning efficiency,which implies that the fouling layer on the membrane surface was largely irreversible.Conventional cleaning agents,such as NaOH(pH11),Fig.6.Cleaning efficiencies of various cleaning agents on membranes fouled by combined foulant types comprising alginate,BSA,SRNOM,and octanoic acid,with the concentration of each foulant type at25mg/L,in the presence of0.5mM Ca2+.Cleaning conditions:time,15min;temperature,21±0.5◦C;and no applied。
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英语专业文献的翻译：简单句的翻译简单句的翻译一、转换法英汉两种语言在造句方式和表达习惯上有较大区别，翻译中如果词类、成分一一对应直译，会使译文不通顺、难理解甚至无法交流，其最大的原因就是不会用转换法。
转换法包括词类或词性转换、句子成分转换、修饰词与被修饰词的转换等。
词类转换就是翻译处理时将某种词类的词译成另一种词类，因此句子结构也随之发生改变。
1、转化为汉语动词最常见的是英语中的名词、动名词或名词化结构转化为汉语中的动词，其原因是英语动词发达，而汉语则是动词占优势。
还有英语的形容词、副词、介词等结构转化为汉语的动词。
We also realized the growing need and necessity to industrialize certain sectors of the economy.我们也认识到越来越需要将某些经济部门工业化。
A successful scientist must be a good observe r, accurate, patient and objective.一位成功的科学家必须善于观察，准确、耐心而客观。
With such knowledge one can decide which properties are relevant to one’s problem and whether the list values for specific properties are directly applicable.有了这样的知识，我们就能确定那些性能和我们考虑的特定问题有关，以及某些特定性能所列数值是否可以直接应用。
形容词转化为汉语动词更常见的是“the ＋形容词”组成的名词性结构如“the old, the infirm, the ill, the very young”（老、弱、病、幼者）。
此外还有一些作表语的形容词，包含感觉、知觉、情感、想法、信含、欲望等含义，其后常搭配一定的介词、不定式或that从句。
如sure（肯定）、certain （确知）、desirable（希望），其它介词结构有aware of（知道，认识道）、suggestive of（显示）、familiar with（熟悉）、ignorant of（不知道，无视）、conscious of（感觉到，意识到）、skeptical of（怀疑）、accustomed to（适应）、content with（满意于，满足于）、doubtful of（怀疑）、suspicious of （怀疑）等。
副词、介词转化为动词的例子如：In those years the Republicans were in.那些年是共和党执政。
The European Community is the best instrument for this purpose.欧共体是服务于这一目的的最好工具。
2、转化为汉语的名词英语的动词、形容词或起形容词作用的分词可转化为汉语的名词。
Formality has always characterized their relationship.他们之间的关系有一个特点，就是以礼相待。
The new measuring machine features high efficiency, great reliability and low cost.新型量仪的特点是高效，可靠，成本低。
In fission processes, the fission fragments are quite radioactive.裂变过程中裂变碎片的放射性很强。
3、转化为汉语的形容词英语中的名词、副词有时可以译为汉语的形容词。
名词中一些结构如“the + 抽象名词+ of + 普通名词”的抽象名词译成形容词更符合汉语习惯。
“of + 抽象名词”的强调结构也可译作形容词。
如：The testing was quite a success.测试很成功。
Independent thinking is an absolute necessity in study.独立思考在学习中是绝对必要的。
The hard facts have shown the objectivity and correctness of the report..铁一般的事实证明了这一报告是客观而正确的。
The matter is of no significance.这事无关紧要。
More often than not the researchers are wrongly impressed in the absence of such detailed information.在欠缺这种详细资料的情况下，研究人员就常常得到错误的印象。
此外，形容词或分词、名词或动词在某些情况下与汉语的副词进行相互转译。
4、句子成分的转换英译汉有时可将英语的谓语动词、宾语、表语、定语转化为汉语的主语，也可将英语的主语转换为汉语的定语、谓语、状语等成分，目的是使译文更符合汉语表达习惯，更易于理解。
这种转换在长句拆分时会自然进行。
如：Electricity travels much faster than sound.电的运动速度比声音快得多。
Water has a density of 62.4 pounds per cubic foot.水的密度是每立方英尺62.4磅。
Serious corrosion occurs in salt water.在盐水中会发生严重的腐蚀现象。
5、修饰词转换修饰结构转换的例子有wire conductors（导线）、carbon dioxide（二氧化碳）、bar magnet（磁铁棒）、electric leakage（漏电）、electrical measurement （测量电）等。
二、增减法增减法指增补法和省译法。
1、增补法（增词法）增词法是指在必要时增补语义上和修辞上需要的词，或原文中的省略成份和隐含含义。
通常是在名词前增加动词，或在形容词、名词或动词后增加名词。
After the banquets, the concerts and table tennis exhibition,…在参加宴会，出席音乐会，观看乒乓球表演之后，…This typewriter is indeed cheap and fine.这部打字机真是物美价廉。
All these transformations are taking place every minute and everywhere in our daily life and production.所有这些能量的转换现象在我们日常生活和生产中时时处处在发生着。
类似于上句中由动词或形容词派生来的抽象名词，翻译时可根据上下文在其后增添适当的名词，使译文更合乎规范。
相关的词还有oxidation（氧化作用）、evaporation（蒸发现象）、preparation（准备工作）、processing（加工方法）、persuasion（说服工作）、tension（紧张局势）backwardness（落后状态）、antagonism（敌对态度）、modification（修改方案）等。
其他增译情况如增加重叠词、数词等翻译复数名词，增加副词或短语等翻译时态的词，增加概括词使意义清晰，增加关联词使表达符合思维逻辑，增加解释性的词突显原文含义，培加形容词或副词达到某种修辞效果等。
Air is a mixture of gases.空气是多种气体的混合物。
He was and still is my teacher.他过去是我的老师，现在也仍然是我的老师。
This article has reviewed the latest achievements made in cybernetics, informatics and their application in various fields.文章综述了控制论、信息论及其在各个领域中的应用等三方面最新成果。
There is in the structure a unit of pattern containing copper, sulphur, and oxygen atoms in the same proportions as that in which they occur in the molecule.每个硫酸铜单位晶格所含有的铜、硫、氧这三种元素的原子数的比例和每个硫酸铜分子中这三种元素的原子数的比例，二者是相一致的。
Take a handful of air and you will hold billions of atoms.如果你抓住一把空气，你就抓到了几十亿个原子。
2、省译法（减词法）省译法是将译不出的、不言而喻、可有可无的或违背译文语言习惯的词省略或删去，可以是冠词、代词、介词、连词、动词、同位语和复合名词等的省译。
表示类别的不定冠词a（或an）、定冠词the，及表示独一无二的事物的定冠词the通常可省略不译，但当不定冠词表示“一”、“每一”，不定冠词强调“这”“那”时不宜省略。
The crocodile is a dangerous animal.鳄鱼是危险的动物。
表示时间和地点的英语前置词，译成汉语如出现在句首，一般可以省略。
表示地点的英语前置词若放在动词后面却一般不省略。
The people’s Republic of China was founded in 1949.一九四九年中华人民共和国成立。
英语连接词用得多，而汉语逻辑关系常常是暗含的，由词序顺序来表示，词语之间连接词用得不多。
因此，英译汉时在很多情况下可将连接词省译。
If winter comes, can spring be far behind?冬天来了，春天还会远吗？I can do it, and so can you.我能做，你也能做。
科技英语中多用名词，动词往往并不具有实际动作行为的含义，汉译时通常省译。
作谓语的连系动词也常省略。
With regard to their products, they have the same concerns of the interrelationship of design, materials, and manufacturing process.关于产品，他们同样要考虑其设计、材料和制造工艺之间的相互关系。
The result of their experiment is quite good.他们的实验结果相当好。