自考英语词汇学 第二章 英语词汇的发展史
英语词汇发展简史
英语词汇发展简史
英语词汇的发展经历了几个重要的阶段，以下是一个简要的概述：1.古英语时期（450-1150年）：在这个时期，英语词汇的起源可以追溯
到日耳曼语族，特别是西日耳曼语支。
这个时期的词汇大多与农业、战争、家庭、工具等有关，例如：land（土地）、swine（猪）、kin （家族）等。
2.中古英语时期（1150-1500年）：在这个时期，由于法语和拉丁语的
入侵，英语词汇得到了极大的丰富和发展。
许多新词被引入到英语中，这些新词涵盖了政治、宗教、法律、医学等领域。
例如：confess（忏悔）、parish（教区）、charity（慈善）等。
3.现代英语时期（1500年至今）：在这个时期，英语词汇经历了更大
的变革。
文艺复兴、科学革命、工业革命等事件都对英语词汇的发展产生了深远的影响。
许多新词被创造出来，例如：telephone（电话）、radio（收音机）、robot（机器人）等。
同时，一些旧的词汇被赋予了新的含义，例如：menu（菜单）、mouse（鼠标）等。
总的来说，英语词汇的发展是一个长期的过程，受到了多种语言和文化的影响。
了解英语词汇的发展历史有助于更好地理解英语语言的演变和特点。
英语单词的起源和历史
英语单词的起源和历史英语单词的起源和历史可以追溯到数千年前，经历了多个阶段的发展。
本文将简要介绍英语单词的起源、发展及其历史演变。
1. 盎格鲁-撒克逊时期（公元5-11世纪）英语的最早起源可以追溯到公元5世纪，当时盎格鲁-撒克逊人来到大不列颠岛，带来了他们的语言——古英语。
古英语是一种日耳曼语，与荷兰语、德语等有密切关系。
在这个阶段，英语词汇相对简单，主要涉及日常生活中的事物和自然现象。
2. 诺曼征服时期（公元11世纪）公元11世纪，诺曼人征服了法国北部的诺曼底地区。
他们的语言——古法语，对英语产生了深远的影响。
随着诺曼人征服英国，古法语成为统治阶级的语言，大量法语词汇进入英语，使得英语词汇变得更加丰富。
3. 中世纪英语（公元11-15世纪）在这一阶段，英语逐渐演变为中世纪英语。
随着文学作品的兴起，尤其是莎士比亚戏剧的出现，英语开始变得更加规范。
此外，由于与欧洲其他国家的交流日益密切，英语吸收了大量拉丁语和希腊语词汇。
4. 近代英语（公元16-18世纪）公元16世纪，英语开始进入近代阶段。
这一时期的英语以英王詹姆斯钦定的《圣经》英译本和莎士比亚戏剧为代表。
在此阶段，英语的词汇和语法结构发生了巨大变化，逐渐形成了现代英语的雏形。
5. 现代英语（公元19世纪至今）从19世纪开始，英语的书面语与现在我们所看到的基本上一致。
随着英国殖民地的扩张，英语吸收了来自其他语言的众多词汇，使得英语词汇更加丰富。
此外，科学技术的飞速发展、全球化进程的加速以及互联网的普及，都为英语词汇的拓展创造了条件。
总结：英语单词的起源和历史经历了古英语、中世纪英语、近代英语和现代英语四个阶段。
在这个过程中，英语不断吸收其他语言的词汇，逐步发展成为全球最通用的语言之一。
如今，英语词汇丰富多样，蕴含着世界各地的文化和知识。
了解英语单词的起源和历史，有助于我们更好地学习和使用这一世界语言。
英语词汇的发展历程
英语词汇的发展历程
英语词汇的发展历程可以追溯到古代英格兰和盎格鲁-撒克逊时期。
随着时间的推移，英语词汇受到了多种外来影响和文化交流的影响，进而形成了现代英语词汇。
以下是英语词汇的主要发展历程：
1. 古英语（5世纪-1066年）
古英语是指5世纪至1066年之间使用的英语。
最早的英语词汇主要来自古日耳曼语言，如古弗里西亚语、古挪威语和古丹麦语。
此外，古英语还受到了古拉丁语和基督教教义的影响。
2. 中古英语（1066年-1485年）
中古英语时期是指1066年贝伐根之战后到1485年约克王朝结束之前的历史时期。
在这个时期，英语接受了来自诺曼法语和拉丁语的影响，词汇量大大增加。
3. 现代英语的初期（1485年-1650年）
这一时期，莎士比亚和培根等重要文学作品的出现标志着英语的进一步发展。
在此期间，英语吸收了意大利语、西班牙语等其他欧洲语言的影响，并形成了一些现代英语词汇。
4. 现代英语（1650年至今）
现代英语时期是指1650年到现在的时期。
在这个时期，英语
词汇不断地吸收来自其他语言的影响，例如法语、德语、希腊语、拉丁语、阿拉伯语和汉语等。
同时，随着英语的全球化，英语词汇也不断增加。
例如，许多科技、商业和流行文化术语都进入了英语词汇表。
英语词汇的来龙去脉
英语词汇的来龙去脉摘要：1.英语词汇的起源和发展2.英语词汇的演变过程3.英语词汇的现状和未来趋势正文：英语词汇的来龙去脉：英语词汇作为全球使用最广泛的语言之一，其起源和发展历程悠久。
英语词汇并非一成不变，而是经历了漫长的演变过程。
如今，英语词汇已进入全球化时代，其现状和未来趋势引人关注。
一、英语词汇的起源和发展英语词汇起源于印欧语系日耳曼语族的盎格鲁- 撒克逊语，这可以从早期的英语文学作品中找到证据。
在公元5 世纪，盎格鲁- 撒克逊人定居英国，他们的语言逐渐与当地居民的凯尔特语和拉丁语融合，形成了古英语。
古英语经历了几个阶段，从公元7 世纪的《贝奥武甫》到1066 年诺曼征服英格兰后的中古英语，再到15 世纪的早期现代英语。
二、英语词汇的演变过程1.借词：英语词汇在演变过程中，不断吸收其他语言的词汇。
例如，在诺曼征服英格兰后，大量法语和拉丁语词汇进入英语，使得英语词汇变得更加丰富。
此后，英语继续吸收希腊语、拉丁语等古典语言的词汇，以及荷兰语、法语等现代语言的词汇。
2.创造新词：英语在演变过程中，不断创造新词以满足社会发展的需要。
例如，在科学技术领域的词汇，如"electronics"（电子学）和"computer"（计算机）等，都是20 世纪新创造的词汇。
3.词义的变化：随着时代的变迁，许多英语词汇的意义也发生了变化。
例如，"gay"一词在古代意为"快乐"，现在则主要指代同性恋者。
三、英语词汇的现状和未来趋势随着全球化的推进，英语词汇已成为国际交流的重要工具。
英语词汇的现状表现在词汇量的增加、新词的涌现以及词汇的跨文化传播等方面。
在未来，英语词汇将继续吸收其他语言的优秀词汇，同时也将为世界语言的发展做出贡献。
总之，英语词汇的来龙去脉见证了英语的发展和演变，展现了语言的丰富多样性和包容性。
英语词汇的发展的概况[英语词汇的历史发展]
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英语词汇的发展的概况[英语词汇的历史发展]根据以英语作为母语的人数计算，英语可能是世界上第三大或第四大语言，但它是世界上最广泛的第二语言。
上两个世纪英国和美国在文化、经济、军事、政治和科学上的领先地位使得英语成为一种国际语言。
英语也是联合国的工作语言之一。
了解英语词汇的历史发展对英语词汇学习至关重要。
一种语言的历史就是该语言词汇的历史。
词汇的发展变化与其所属语言的发展变化是同步的。
一、英语词汇的历史发展阶段英语作为一种独立的语言，已经拥有1500年的悠久历史。
它大致可分为三个阶段：公元450年～1150年是古英语（Old English）时期；公元1150年～1500年是中古英语（Middle English）时期；公元1500年到现在是现代英语（Modern English）时期。
现代英语又可分为早期现代英语（Early Modern English，从1500年～1700年）和后期现代英语（Later Modern English，从1700年至今）。
一种语言的历史发展就是其词汇的历史发展，因此要更好的了解掌握英语词汇就要研究英语这门语言的历史发展。
1、古英语（Old English）（450－1150）古英语时期从公元450年开始，一直延续到公元1150年，持续了大约700年之久。
古英语时期共有四种主要方言：（1）诺森伯里亚方言——洪伯河（the Humber）以北的方言（2）梅尔西亚方言——界乎洪伯河与泰晤士河之间的英国中部地区的方言（3）肯特（Kentish）方言——居住在英国东南部地区的朱待人的方言（4）西撤克逊（方言——泰晤士河以南的方言。
诺森伯里亚和悔尔西亚这两种方言又合称盎格里亚方言，即盎格鲁人居住地区的方言。
大约在公元450年居住在北欧沿海地区的盎格鲁人（Angles）、撒克逊人（Saxons）和朱特人（Jutes）征服了凯尔特人，定居在英格兰地区。
他们讲盎格鲁-撒克逊语（Anglo-Saxon），一种由西日耳曼方言汇合而成的语言。
2英语词汇的发展
思考题： 1． 什么是印欧语系？ 2. 英语词汇扩大的途径是什么？试举例 说明。
2. 英语词汇扩大的途径
（1）创造（creation） 即利用现存手段，如 词根、词缀或其他成分创造新词。这是词汇扩 大 的 最 重 要 的 方 式 。 例 如 ： supermarket, super –jumbo; workholic, beerholic; newcast, radiocast; blue –collar workers, pink-collar workers; baby boom, baby bust; highrise, lowrise; generation gap, theme park; ASCII, Basic等。 Creation is the formation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes, and other elements.
印欧语系(The Indo-European Language Family)
东部诸语族(Eastern Set)
西部诸语族 (Western Set) 意大利语 （拉丁语） 族 (Italic/Lati n) 葡萄牙语 (Portuguese) 西班牙语 (Spanish) 法语 (French) 意大利语 (Italian) 罗马尼亚语 (Rumanian)
英语词汇的历史纵览（A historical overview of the English vocabulary）
不列颠群岛的最早居民是盖尔特人（Celts, 或 kelts），其方言为盖尔特语（Celtic）；公元 前５5年，罗马人在凯撒大帝的率领下入侵不 列颠群岛，盖尔特人被赶入威尔士和苏格兰的 深山之中。直到公元410年，罗马占领时期才 告结束。罗马人所使用的语言为拉丁语 （Latin）；随后，来自德国北部平原的三个 日 耳 曼 部 落 盎 格 鲁 人 (Angles) 、 撒 克 逊 人 (Saxons)和朱特人(Jutes)开始来到不列颠定居。 英语就是盎格鲁-撒克逊人的语言。
词汇学Chapter-2-the development of the English vocabulary
2.1 Indo-European Language Family
Eastern Set
Western Set Celtic Italic Hellenic Germanic
Indo-Iranian Balto-Slavic Armenian Albanian
2.1 The Indo-European Language Family
1. Hellenic希腊语族 ➢ Greek
2. Celtic凯尔特语族 ➢ Scotish苏格兰语 ➢ Irish爱尔兰语 ➢ Welsh威尔士 ➢ Breton布列塔尼语 ➢ Pictish皮克特语
3. Hittite希泰语族 4. Tocharian吐火罗语族
Norwegian挪威语
Icelandic冰岛语
➢ Scandinavian languages
Swedish瑞典语
Three periods of development
➢Old English/AngloSaxon English (449-1150 AD)
➢Middle English (1100-1500AD)
➢Modern English (1500-present)
➢ Russian俄罗斯语
2. Indo-Iranian印伊语族 ➢ Persian波斯语 ➢ Bengali 孟加拉语 ➢ Hindi 北印度语 ➢ Romany吉普赛语
3. Armenian亚美尼亚语族 ➢ Armenian
4. Albanian阿尔巴尼语族 ➢ Albanian
The Western Set
The first peoples known to inhabit the land were Celts.
自考英语词汇学 第二章课件
In fact, more than twenty-five percent of modern English words come almost directly from classical languages. 事实上，现代英语词汇 中有 25%以上几乎是直接从古典语言中直接介入的 （WBD）。 In modern English, word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. It can be concluded that English has evolved from a synthetic language (Old English) to the present analytic language.在现代英语中，除了少数几个 词之外，词尾几乎都消失了。可以这样说，英语已 从古英语的综合型语言发展成了现在的分析型语言 。
2
- The Indo-European is one of them. It is made up of most of the languages of Europe, the Near East, and India. 印欧 语就是其中之一。该语系包括欧洲的大多数 语言、近东诸语言和古梵语。
2.2.2 Middle English (1150-1500) -中古英语 Although there were borrowings from Latin, the influence on English was mainly Germanic. 虽然英语也从拉丁语中借词，但影响英语的主要还 是日耳曼语。 Between 1250 and 1500 about 9000 words of French origin poured into English. Seventy-five percent of them are still in use today.从 1250 年 到 1500 年的 250 年间，大约有 9000 个法语词汇 进入到英语中，其中 75%仍在使用。 If we say that Old English was a language of full endings. Middle English was one of leveled endings. 如果说古英语是全词尾的话，那么中古英 语的词尾已去了一半
英语词汇发展史
英语词汇发展史简介语言史家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期：①古英语（Old English）时期（AD450-1100）；②中古英语（Middle English）时期（AD1100-1500）；③现代英语（Modern English）时期（AD1500至今）1 古英语时期（又称盎格鲁-撒克逊时期the Anglo-Saxon Period）日耳曼部落在不列颠定居以后，各自占领一些地区。
盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰大部分地区和苏格兰的低地，朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区，撒克逊人占领了泰晤士河以南的大部分地区。
各个部落建立了一些小王国，出现了英语史上的七国时代（the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy）。
直到公元830年，阿尔弗烈德大王（Alfred the Great）才统一了整个英格兰地区。
由于全国长期没有统一，所以古英语时期存在着多种方言，主要的方言有四种：西撒克逊语（West Saxon）、肯特语（Kentish）、莫西亚语（Mercian）和北恩布瑞安语（Northumbrian）。
这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。
西撒克逊语保存下来的手稿最多，其它方言在形成英语的过程中也起到了重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日耳曼语族的特点。
这主要表现为复合法是重要的构词方法，复合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。
据统计，在史诗《贝奥武夫》（Beowulf）3183行的诗句中，竟有1069个复合词。
有些复合词中不重读的部分，渐渐失去独立地位，而演变为词缀，如for-，in-，-ful等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用，共有24个名词后缀、15个形容词后缀，-dom，-hood，-ship，-ness，-the，-ful，-ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时期。
古英语时期诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法，即头韵（alliteration），由此产生的许多短语一直保留至今，如might and main（全力地），friend and foe（敌友），a labour of love（出自喜爱而做的事）。
自考2英语词汇学考试重点精华整理
自考2英语词汇学考试重点精华整理一、词汇学概述1、语言与词汇的关系：语言是词汇和语法规则的总和，而词汇则是语言中最基本的元素。
2、词汇学的定义：词汇学是研究语言的词汇以及词汇的起源、演变、语义和语用等方面的学科。
3、词汇学的研究对象：主要包括词汇的起源、演变过程、语义变化、文化背景等。
二、英语词汇的历史演变1、英语的起源：英语起源于古代日耳曼语，经过长时间的演变和发展，形成了今天的英语。
2、英语词汇的演变：英语词汇经历了许多变化，包括词义的变化、词形的变化、外来词的引入等。
3、英语词汇的分类：英语词汇可以根据其来源、语义、语法等方面进行分类。
三、英语词汇的语义关系1、同义词与反义词：同义词是指具有相同或相似意义的词汇，而反义词则是指具有相反意义的词汇。
2、上下义词与下义词：上下义词是指在一个词汇的语义场中，一个词可以表示另一个词的上层概念或下层概念。
3、词汇的文化意义：词汇的文化意义是指词汇在特定文化背景中所具有的意义。
四、英语词汇的记忆与运用1、记忆策略：记忆策略是指通过一定的方法来提高记忆效率，包括联想记忆、语境记忆等。
2、运用技巧：运用技巧是指在使用词汇时需要注意的事项，包括语用、语法等方面。
3、常见错误分析：常见错误分析是指对学生在使用词汇时容易犯的错误进行分析和纠正。
五、英语词汇的学习方法与技巧1、学习策略：学习策略是指通过一定的方法来提高学习效率，包括制定学习计划、使用学习工具等。
2、学习技巧：学习技巧是指在学习过程中需要注意的事项，包括如何集中注意力、如何提高学习效率等。
3、学习资源：学习资源是指在学习过程中可以使用的各种资源，包括书籍、网站、课程等。
词汇学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究词汇的起源、发展、变化和用法。
它涉及对单词的音、形、义、语法特征和语用意义等方面的研究。
词汇学有一些基本概念，包括词、词汇、词素、词义、语境等。
词是语言中最小的、可以独立使用的意义单位，词汇是语言中所有词的总和，词素是构成词的要素，词义是词的含义，语境是指词所处的语言环境。
自考_00832_英语词汇学-自考本科词汇学重点笔记
自考本科词汇学重点笔记Lexicology（词汇学）: is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology：English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent to：English Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形态学), semantics(语义学),etymology(词源学),styl istics（文体论）and lexicography(词典学)The reason for a student to study English lexicology：According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1--Basic concepts of words and vocabularyWord（词的定义）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）: almost ar bitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself”Sound and form（读音和形式）:不统一的四个原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years（3）some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4）the borrowings is an important channel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词汇）: all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words：By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary By notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词汇）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本词汇的特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性most important）2)Stability（相对稳定性）3)Productivity（多产性）4)Polysemy（多义性）5)Collocability（可搭配性）没有上述特征的words:(1)Terminology(术语) (2)Jargon（行话）(3)slang（俚语）(4)Argot（暗语）（5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古语）(7) Neologisms（新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email)Content words/notional words实词(cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently) and functional words/empty words 虚词(on, of, and, be, but)Native Words and Borrowed WordsNative words（本族语词）: known as Anglo-Saxon words (50,000-60,000), are words brought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. (mainstream of the basic word-stocks).Two other features:(1)neutral in style (2)frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（外来语词）: words taken over from foreign languages.(80% of modern EV)4 Types of loan words: 1) denizens(同化词): (shirt from skyrta(ON))2) aliens（非同化词/外来词）:are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling (kowtow (CH)磕头)3) translation loans(译借词):按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see (from China)4) semantic loans（借义词）：they are not borrowed with reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedChapter 2 the development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(印欧语系)The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation创造新词：the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式)2)semantic change旧词新义:does not increase the number of word forms but create many more new useages of the words.3) borrowing借用外来词:constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new words Reviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Chapter 3 Word Formation IMorpheme(词素):the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph(词素变体): is a different variant form of a morpheme，differ in phonological and spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme(词素的分类)（1）Free Morphemes（自由词素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (independent).（2）Bound Morpheme(粘着语素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: (1) bound root(粘附词根) (2)Affix(词缀)Affixes can be put into two groups:1)Inflectional affixes (屈折词缀):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2)Derivational affixes(派生词缀): A) prefix: A prefix comes before words. B)suffix:An adjective suffix（形容词后缀）that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root（自由词根）Morpheme(词素)Bound rootbound derivationalaffix suffixinflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(构词法)1.Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.（1）Prefixation(前缀法)：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes(否定前缀): un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes（逆反前缀）: un-,de-，dis- etc. unwrap(open)3) Pejorative prefixes: mis（贬义前缀）：mis-，mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)4) Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,ect. overweight5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude（倾向态度前缀）:contra-,counter-,anti-,pro- etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes（方位前缀）:extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc. extraordinary(more than ordinary)7) Prefixes of time and order（时间和顺序前缀）:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(one rail)8) Number prefixes（数字前缀）:uni-，mono-, bi-，di-, tri-,multi-，poly- ，semi-，etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)9) Miscellaneous prefixes（混杂前缀）：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputy chairman)(2)Suffixation（后缀法）: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes 2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixespounding复合法（also called composition）Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid连写(airmail)，hyphenated带连字符(air-conditioning)and open分开写(air force, air raid)Formation of compounds（复合词的形式）（1）noun compounds ：e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot（2）adjective compounds ： e.g. acid + head = acid-head（3）verb compounds ：e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class.（功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation）4.Blending拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN5.Clipping截短法Clipping:is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone. 四种形式：1).Front clippings删节前面(phone from telephone) 2).Back clippings删节后面(dorm from dormitory) 3).Front and back clippings 前后删节(flu from influenza) 4).Phrase clippings 短语删节(pop from popular music) 6.Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.（1）Initialism（首字母缩写词法）: initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.: BBC(for British Broadcasting corporation)（2）Acronym（首字母拼音法）:Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation（逆生法，逆构词）Back-formation is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation. It‟s the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name(专有名词转成法):Names of people, places, book, and tradenames (e.g.: sir watt siemens(人名) -- watt（瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “Meaning” (“意义”的意义)Reference(所指):It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition(认识),reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense（意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the language. …The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.‟Motivation(理据)：It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.1) Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, for these words were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2)Morphological motivation （形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many are the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniskirt .例外：black market, ect.3)Semantic motivation（词义理据）：refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain(foot)4)Etymological motivation （词源理据）:the history of the word explains the meaning of the word. E.g:pen-feather Types of meaning(词义的类别)1.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships (becomes important only in actual context)2.Lexical Meaning （词汇意义）(Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning)Lexical meaning has 2 components内容: Conceptual meaning(概念意义) and associative meaning(关联意义)1）Conceptual meaning(概念意义): also known as denotative meaning(外延意义) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.2）Associative meaning(关联意义):is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning.[4types:（1）Connotative（内涵意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.(例如“母亲”经常与“爱”“关心”“温柔”联系起来)（2）Stylistic（文体意义）：many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.（3）Affective（感情意义）：indicates the speaker‟s attitude towards the person or thing in question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义appreciative & pejorative（4）Collocative（搭配意义）：is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion.]Chapter 6 --Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to polysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）:1.diachronic approach(历时方法) ：from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings.2. synchronic approach (共时方法) : synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning , 次要意义是derived meaning. Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）:1.radiation（辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondarymeanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. (e.g: face, neck)2.concatenation（连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word move gradually away from itsfirst sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.(e.g:treacle)3.In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning. In concatenation, eachof the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced back to the original, there is no direct connection in between.4.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiationprecedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms(同音同形异义关系的类别)1）Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.2)Homographs（同形异义词）:words identical only in spelling, but different in sound and meaning.(最多最常见) 3）Homophones（同音异义词）：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms (同形同音异义词的来源)1）change in sound and spelling ：(eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long)2）borrowing (feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball )3）Shortening(缩略): (ad-advertisement,)The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别)：1)The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.2)One important criterion is to see their etymology(词源)：Homonymys are from different sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3)The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness(语义关联): The various meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listedas separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms(同形同音异义词的修辞特色)：As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy (同义关系): one of two or more words in the English language which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy(同义词的类别) :(1)Absolute synonyms（完全同义词）：also known as complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning inall aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings.[ Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology. ](2)relative synonyms（相对同义词）:also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly the same in denotation, butembrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.(e.g: change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer, idle/lazy/indolent)Sources of synonyms(同义词的来源) :1)Borrowing（借词）：最重要的来源(room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase)2)Dialects and regional English （方言和地区英语）3)Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer--star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4)Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致）:win-gain the upper hand, decide-make up one‟s mind, finish-get through, hesitate-be in two minds, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonyms(1)difference in denotation外延不同. Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity of meaning.(rich-wealthy,work-toil, want-wish-desire)(2)difference in connotation内涵不同. By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Somewords share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness. (借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual, unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal.中性词：policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古语词、诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadful, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )(3)difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. Theyform different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply to the letter)Antonymy (反义关系) :it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词): these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点：①The assertion of one is the denial of the other. ②Such antonyms are non-gradable. They cannot be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs of intensity like “very” to qualify them . (e.g: single/married)2)contrary terms（对立反义词）: antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes.(e.g: old/young, rich/young, big/small) The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.3)relative terms（关系反义词）：this type consists of relational opposites.（parent/child, husband/wife, employee/employer, sell/buy, receive-give）Some of the characteristics of antonyms(反义关系的特点):1)antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition(语义对立)2)a word which has more than one meaning can have more than one antonym3)antonyms differ in semantic inclusion（语义内涵）4)contrary terms are gradable antonyms，differing in degree of intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite.(hot/warm: hot-cold/warm-cool)The use of antonyms（反义词的使用）1）Antonyms are helpful and valuable in defining the meaning of words.2)To express economically the opposite of a particular thought for the sake of contrast.(e.g :now or never, rain or shine, friend or foe敌友，weal and woe哀乐)3）To form antithesis(对比法) to achieve emphasis by putting contrasting idea together. (proverbs and sayings: easy come , easy go./ more haste, less speed.)Hyponymy(上下义关系): Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. For example, a cat is hyponym of animal Superordinate and Subordinate (上义词和下义词)：use subordinates which are concrete and precise ,presenting a vivid verbal picture before the reader. Superordinates which convey only a general and vague idea.Semantic Field(语义场)Viewing the total meaning in this way is the basis of field theory.e.g.(apple, pear, peach, date, mango, orange, lemon, etc. make up the semantic field of …fruits‟)The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different language.e.g.(aunt in English, may means “父亲的姐姐，妈妈的姐姐，父亲哥哥的妻子” in Chinese.(122)Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning词义的演变Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively the content is even more unstable than the form.Types of Changes (词义变化的种类)1.Extension /generalization(词义的扩大): is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.(e.g: manuscript, fabulous, picture, mill, journal, bonfire, butcher, companion)2.Narrowing/ specialization(词义的缩小)：is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special meaning in present-day English.(e.g: deer, corn, garage, liquor, meat, disease, poison, wife, accident, girl). [ when a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly. ]3.Elevation /amelioration(词义的升华):refers to the process by which words rise from humble（粗陋的）beginnings to positions of importance. [nice, marshal, constable, angel, knight, earl, governor, fond, minister, chamberlain ]4.Degradation / pejoration(词义的降格):A process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective words come to used in derogatory（贬损的）sense.[boor, churl, wench, hussy, villain, silly, knave, lewd, criticize, lust ]5.Transfer(词义的转移): Words which were used to designate指明one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer.Causes of Semantic Change(词义变化的原因)1.Extra-linguistic factors(词义演变的语言外部因素):1) Historical reason(历史原因)：Increased scientific knowledge and discovery, objects, institutions, ideas change in the course of time. E.g: pen, car, computer.2 )Class reason(阶级原因)：The attitude of classes have also made inroads into lexical meaning in the case of elevation or degradation.3) Psychological reason(心理原因)：the associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of words are often due to psychological factors. Such slow, humble and despised occupations take more appealing names is all due to psychological reasons.2.Linguistic factors（语言内部原因）：the change of meaning may be caused by internal factors with in the language system.1)shorting缩略:gold-gold medal, gas-coal gas, bulb-light bulb, private-private soldier2)borrowing借用:deer-animal-beast3)analogy类推:Chapter 8 Meaning and Context 词义和语境Context in its traditional sense refers to the lexical items that precede or follow a given word. Modern linguists have broadened its scope to include both linguistic and extra-linguistic contexts.Two types of context（语境的种类）1. Extra-linguistic context/ Non-linguistic situation（非语言语境）：In a broad sense, context includes the physical situation as well, which embraces the people, time, place, and even the whole cultural background. (look out, weekend, landlord )2.Linguistic context/ grammatical context(语言语境)：In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses, sentences in which a word appears. It may cover a paragraph, a whole chapter and even the entire book.分为两类：1) Lexical context（词汇语境）：It refers to the word that occurs together with the word in question. (e.g: paper, do)2) Grammatical context（语法语境）：It refers the situation when the meaning of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs. (e.g: become)The role of context(语境的作用)1.Elimination of ambiguity(消除歧义)1）Ambiguity due to polysemy or homonymy. 2）Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity如何消除歧义？——①extend the original sentence ②alter the context a little2.Indication of referents(限定所指)如何限定所指？——①with clear context ②with adequate verbal context3.Provision of clues for inferring word-meaning (提供线索以猜测词义)1)definition 2)explanation 3)example 4)synonymy 5)antonymy 6)hyponymy（上下义关系）7)relevant details 8)word structureChapter 9 English Idioms 英语习语Idioms（习语的定义）: are expressions that are not readily understandable from their literal meaning of individual elements. In a broad sense, idiom may include colloquialisms（俗语）, Catchphrases（标语）,slang expressions （俚语）,proverbs（谚语）,etc. They form an important part of the English vocabulary.Characteristics of Idioms（英语习语的特点）1.Semantic unity （语意的整体性）：words in the idiom they have lost their individual identity. Their meanings are not often recognizable in the meaning of the whole idiom.The semantic unity of idioms is also reflected in the illogical relationship between the literal meaning of each of the idiom.2.Structural stability(结构的稳定性):the structure of an idiom is to a large extent un changeable.1) the constituents of idioms cannot be replaced 2) the word order cannot be inverted or changed3) the constituents of idioms cannot be deleted or added to, not even an article.4) many idioms are grammatically unchangeableThe fixity of idiom depends on the idiomaticity.习语性表达习惯Classification of Idioms（英语习语的分类）1. idioms nominal in nature 名词性习语(white elephant累赘物)2 .idioms adjectival in nature形容词性习语（as poor as a church mouse）3 .idioms verbal in nature 动词性习语（look into）4 .idioms adverbial in nature副词性习语（tooth and nail 拼命）5 .sentence idioms 句式习语（never do things by halves）Use of idioms（习语的使用）1.Stylistic features（文体色彩）：1）colloquialisms（俗语）slang （俚语）2）literary expressions（书面表达）The same idiom may show stylistic differences when it is assigned（指派）different meanings.2.Rhetorical features(修辞色彩)1) phonetic manipulation （语音处理）：（1）alliteration头韵法（2）rhyme尾韵法2）lexical manipulation（词法处理）（1）reiteration（duplication of synonyms）同义词并举[scream and shout] （2）repetition 重复[out and out] （3）juxtaposition (of antonyms) 反义词并置[here and there]3.figures of speech（修辞格）（1）simile明喻（2）metaphor暗喻（3）metonymy换喻/以名词代动作：live by one‟s pen （4）synecdoche提喻/以部分代整体：earn one‟s bread （5）Personification拟人法（6）Euphemism委婉语：kick the bucket(die) （7）hyperbole 夸张：a world of troubleVariations of idioms(习语的变异形式)：1.addition增加2.deletion删除3.replacement替换4.position-shifting位置转移5.dismembering分解Chapter 10 English Dictionaries 英语字典Dictionary: presents in alphabetical order the words of English, with information as to their spelling ,pronunciation, meaning, usage , rules and grammar, and in some, their etymology（语源）.Types of dictionaries(词典的种类):1.Monolingual & bilingual dictionaries（单语词典和双语词典）：最早的词典都是双语的(1).Monolingual dictionary: is written in one language (LDCE, CCELD). The headword or entries are defined and illustrated in the same language.(2).Bilingual dictionary: involve two languages (A New English-Chinese D, A Chinese-English D)2.Linguistic and Encyclopedic dictionaries（语文词典与百科词典）（1）Linguistic dictionary: aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language (spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical, function, usage and etymology etc.)可以是单语或是双语的（2）Encyclopedic dictionary:1）encyclopedia (百科全书):is not concerned with the language per se（本身）but provides encyclopedic information. Concerning each headword (not pronunciation, meanings, or usages) but only information.2）Encyclopedic Dictionaries: have the characteristics of both linguistic D and encyclopedia (<Chamber‟s Encyclopedic English Dictionary>)3.Unabridged, desk and pocket dictionaries(大型词典、案头词典、袖珍词典)（1）Unabridged D: basic information about a word——its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates(同词源的),usage, grammatical, function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, synonyms and homonyms(同音异意) <Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary>（2）Desk D: medium-sized [50,000-150,000]（3）Pocket D: 只有拼写、发音和最重要的意义，很少或者几乎不举例。
自考英语词汇学_第二章_英语词汇的发展史
Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary第二章 英语词汇的发展史1. The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系的谱系关系识记：印欧语系的各个分支和各个分支的主要语言Armenian (亚美尼亚语) –existing till nowAlbanian （阿尔巴尼亚语） –existing till now Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Balto-Slavic(波罗的海语系) Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Eastern set:Slovenian 西洛文尼亚语Russian 俄罗斯语Persian 波斯语Bengali 孟加拉语印度伊朗语系Romany 吉普赛语Scottish 苏格兰语Celtic 凯尔特语 Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 法国布里多尼语 Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语Italic 意大利语系 French 法语Italian 意大利语Rumanian 罗马尼亚语 Western Set :Hellenic 希腊语 Greek 希腊语Norwegian 挪威语Icelandic 冰岛语Danish 丹麦语Germanic 日耳曼语 Swedish 瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Flemish 弗兰德语English 英语2. A historical overview of English vocabulary英语发展的历史回顾考点：英语词汇发展的三个阶段：古英语词汇，中古英语词汇，现代英语词汇及其特点Inhabitants of the Island:Celts(Celtic) – Roman Legions(Latin，55) – German Tribes(Anglo-Saxon，410)-Norwegian and Danish Vikings (Scandinavian，900) – Norman（French, 1066）①Old English 古英语（450-1150）(Anglo-Saxon)Character:1. Latin speaking Roman missionaries under St. Augustine came to spread Christianity at the end of the 6th century. The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on English vocabulary.(New Words: abbot男修道院长, candle, altar圣坛, amen, apostle使徒)2. Didn’t borrow as heavily as later, they changed meaning of native words, the common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.（e.g. handbook）3. Many Scandinavian words came into the English language. Many of the words are alike or interchangeably.4. Old English has a vocabulary of 50000-60000 words, which was highly inflected. Nouns, Pronouns, Adj., verbs, Adv, had complex endings or vowel changes, differ greatly from what we use today. 内部高度曲折，有复杂的词尾原音变化。
英语词汇的发展历程
英语词汇的发展历程英语的历史开始于公元450年左右盎格鲁---撒克逊人对英格兰的占领与统治。
此前，英国本土上的早期语言主要是当地凯尔特人使用的凯尔特语，其中含有一些拉丁语成分。
此后，英语经历了古英语、中古英语和现代英语三个发展阶段：古英语时期(公元449-1150年)：英语词汇量约有五六万，其主体是统治者盎格鲁---撒克逊语，其词汇属于西日耳曼语支的日耳曼语，这部分词汇构成今天被称为本族语词的主体。
中古英语时期(公元1150年-1500年)：这时期引进了数以千计的拉丁语词与古法语词。
因为，这时期使用古法语和拉丁语的诺曼人征服并统治了英国。
(古法语绝大部分是拉丁语源的)现代英语(公元1500年至今)：受到欧洲文艺复兴运动的影响，由于对古希腊和古罗马文化的倾慕与模仿，拉丁语再次大规模涌进英语。
同时，数以万计社会科学和自然科学的希腊词也开始直接或间接地进入英语。
今天，拉丁词与希腊词被统称为古典语词，也叫外来语词，尤其是17世纪，这些外来语词对英语的影响登峰造及。
以致英国人惊呼“反对英语拉丁化”，主张“净化英语”。
18世纪以后，英语词汇继续发展。
一方面，随着英国殖民主义的扩张和美国资本主义的强势发展，英语走向全世界，同时也吸收世界各种语言的词汇。
另一方面，随着社会经济与科学技术的发展与进步，英语又利用古典语的词素为原料，创造出大量表达新事物、新概念的词汇。
据统计，现在英语的总词汇量已超过100万，而且还在不断增加之中。
所以，英语是世界上词汇量最大、语源成分最复杂的语言。
各种语源的单词在英语词汇总量中占的百分比是：日耳曼语源(即本族语源)：33%拉丁与希腊语源(即古典语源):56%凯尔特语源：2%混合语源：3%东方、非洲、美洲等语源：6%不同语源词汇中的词根特点：本族语：词根比较容易掌握，几乎不必再花专门气力支认知它们。
1.大部分是表示基本事物、基本概念与基本关系的使用率很高的常用词；(比如：yes、many、lady、hand)2.词根多是独立使用的自由词根。
英语词汇的历史演变及发展趋势
英语词汇的历史演变及发展趋势The historical evolution of English vocabulary and its development trends.English, a language that has traveled the globe and become a lingua franca, has undergone significant transformations in its vocabulary over the centuries. Its rich tapestry of words is a testament to the language's adaptability and diversity, reflecting the influence of various cultures, historical events, and technological advancements.The earliest English words were derived primarily from Proto-Germanic, a branch of the Indo-European language family. These early Germanic roots gave English its basic vocabulary, including words for everyday concepts such as "water," "fire," and "tree." However, the language's vocabulary expanded significantly during the Middle Ages, when English borrowed heavily from Latin and French. This influx of foreign words occurred primarily due to theNorman invasion of England in 1066, which brought French-speaking nobles to power. As a result, many Latin and French words entered the English lexicon, particularly in the fields of law, government, and religion.During the Early Modern English period (roughly from 1500 to 1700), English vocabulary experienced another significant influx of foreign words, primarily from Greek and Latin. This influx was driven by the Renaissance, a period of intellectual and cultural revival that saw a renewed interest in classical learning. As a result, English borrowed heavily from Greek and Latin, importing words for scientific concepts, philosophy, and literature.The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries further expanded English vocabulary, as new technologies, industries, and social movements gave rise to new words and phrases. This period saw the coinage of numerous technical terms, such as "steam engine," "factory," and "railway," as well as social and political terms like "socialism," "capitalism," and "democracy."In the 20th and 21st centuries, the growth of English vocabulary has been accelerated by the globalization of the language and the rise of new technologies. The internet and social media have given rise to a new breed of words and phrases, known as "internet slang" or "memes," such as "blog," "selfie," and "emoji." At the same time, English has also borrowed words from other languages, particularly those of the world's major economies and cultures. For instance, words like "sushi," "karaoke," and "mahjong" have entered the English lexicon from Japanese, Korean, and Chinese, respectively.Looking ahead, the future of English vocabulary is likely to be shaped by several trends. Firstly, the continued globalization of English will likely lead to the borrowing of more words from non-English languages, particularly as the influence of non-Western cultures and economies grows. Secondly, the rapid pace of technological innovation is likely to give rise to new technical terms and concepts. Finally, changes in social and cultural norms are also expected to influence the coinage of new words and phrases.In conclusion, the historical evolution of English vocabulary is a testament to the language's adaptability and diversity. From its early Germanic roots to its current status as a global lingua franca, English has consistently borrowed and adapted words from various sources, reflecting the influence of diverse cultures and historical events. As the world continues to change, so will English vocabulary, evolving to meet the needs of a globalized world.。
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细
英语词汇学知识点归纳详细英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的起源、发展、结构和功能的学科。
它关注词汇的形成、分布和使用规律，旨在帮助人们更好地理解和运用英语词汇，我将详细讨论英语词汇学的一些重要知识点。
第一部分：英语词汇的起源和发展1.1 词汇的起源英语词汇的起源可以追溯到原始语言，人类追求沟通的需要催生了词汇的出现。
最初，人们通过模仿自然声音或物体特性来命名事物，逐渐形成了最早的词汇系统。
1.2 词汇的发展随着社会的进步和交流的增加，语言发生了演变和变异。
英语词汇的发展经历了几个阶段，包括古英语、中古英语、现代英语等，每个阶段都有其独特的特点和词汇形态。
第二部分：英语词汇的结构2.1 词根词根是词汇的核心部分，它通常具有基本含义，并可以通过前缀和后缀来构成新的词汇。
例如，"write"是一个词根，可以通过添加前缀"re-"构成"rewrite"，通过添加后缀"-er"构成"writer"。
2.2 前缀前缀位于词根之前，用于改变词的意义或形态。
常见的前缀包括"un-"（表示否定）、"re-"（表示再次）等。
例如，"happy"变为"unhappy"表示不快乐，"do"变为"redo"表示重新做。
2.3 后缀后缀位于词根之后，用于改变词的类别或形态。
常见的后缀包括"-er"（表示职业或性别）、"-able"（表示能力或性质）等。
例如，"act"变为"actor"表示演员，"comfort"变为"comfortable"表示舒适的。
第三部分：英语词汇的分类3.1 按词性分类英语词汇可以根据其功能和词法特征分为不同的词性，包括名词、动词、形容词、副词、介词、连词和感叹词等。
英语词汇的来龙去脉
英语词汇的来龙去脉摘要：一、英语词汇的起源与演变1.古英语时期2.中古英语时期3.现代英语时期二、英语词汇的扩展与创新1.拉丁语和希腊语的影响2.法语、西班牙语等其他语言的贡献3.科技、社会、文化发展带来的新词汇三、英语词汇的传播与全球化1.英国的殖民扩张2.美国的影响力3.全球化背景下的英语学习与使用四、英语词汇的未来发展趋势1.网络用语的兴起2.英语与其他语言的交融3.不断发展的英语词汇正文：英语词汇的来龙去脉英语作为一门世界语言，拥有丰富的词汇体系。
它的起源可以追溯到公元5世纪的英格兰，经过漫长的演变过程，逐渐发展成为现代英语。
英语词汇的扩展与创新，得益于多种语言的影响和全球文化交流的推动。
本文将详细介绍英语词汇的起源与演变、扩展与创新、传播与全球化的过程，以及英语词汇的未来发展趋势。
一、英语词汇的起源与演变1.古英语时期（Old English，公元5世纪-11世纪）：古英语是英语的最早形式，词汇量有限，主要用于日常交流。
这时期的英语词汇受到了日耳曼语族的影响，很多词汇与现今德语、荷兰语等语言有相似之处。
2.中古英语时期（Middle English，公元11世纪-15世纪）：随着诺曼征服，法语成为英格兰的官方语言，大量法语词汇进入英语，使得英语词汇得到显著丰富。
同时，由于社会、文化的发展，英语开始出现分化，形成多种地方方言。
3.现代英语时期（Modern English，公元15世纪至今）：随着英国殖民扩张，英语传播到世界各地。
这时期的英语词汇继续扩大，不仅受到拉丁语、希腊语等学术语言的影响，还吸收了其他语言，如西班牙语、汉语等，使得英语词汇更加丰富多样。
二、英语词汇的扩展与创新1.拉丁语和希腊语的影响：在学术领域，英语大量借用拉丁语和希腊语词汇，如医学、生物学、物理学等领域的专业术语。
这些词汇为英语表达提供了更多的准确性。
2.法语、西班牙语等其他语言的贡献：在日常生活和文学作品中，英语吸收了大量法语、西班牙语等语言的词汇，如美食、时尚、音乐等方面的词汇。
英语词汇的起源和发展.
1、英语的各种变体（据说有这样一件事：有一个欧洲国家的女王前往美国访问，到达芝加哥时，人们以接待君主的隆重的礼仪表示欢迎，一切顺利。
访问圆满结束，女王一行即将离开该市，芝加哥市长当然在场，在举行欢送仪式时，市长致颂辞，与会者倾听，市长热情洋溢，为表示友好，他说：The next time you come，bring the kids along．（下次来时把孩子带上。
）会场上的气氛突然发生惊人的变化。
有些人目瞪口呆，感到此语难以置信。
有人发出嗤笑声。
即使有王族在场，人们也忍不住要笑。
负责礼宾的人员个个面红耳赤。
美国人感到困窘，女王随行人员则颇为气愤。
怎么会发生这样举座震惊的场面呢？怎么会有人感到难以置信，有人感到好笑，有人会生气或发言呢？答案是：市长用了kids一词。
‘不能称君王的子女为kids（孩子），应称Princes（王子）或Princesses（公主）。
市长说的这句话相当于在中国对地位高的人说：“下次您老人家光临，带上您的丫头和小子。
”据说确有其事，但笔者无法核实。
此事可以说明：同样的话在不同的场合表示不同的意义或产生不同的效果。
语言学家指出，语言在不同社会中有不同的功能；即使在同一社会中，人们也使用同一语言的不同语体或变体。
一种语言的语音、语调、节奏、词语和习语的选择及用法等方面都会体现出地区差别，有时，甚至在句法上也有地区差别，但不常见。
汉语和英语（英国英语，美国英语、加拿大英语及澳大利亚英语）一样，也有地区差别。
如山西话、四川话和东北话在发音上就不一样。
山西人说“山西”的“山”字，n音不清晰，发音有点象法语的鼻音。
四川人把“解放军”一词中的“解”（jie）字读作nai，声调也有所不同，东北人则把“人”（ren）字读作yin等。
再举几个有地方特色的词语和说法为例：“滚水”（gun fu“开水”——晋中方言），“打牙祭”（表示“吃顿好饭”——四川万言），“老鼻子”（表示“多得很”——东北方言），“贼”（表示“很”、“非常”，如“那灯贼亮贼亮的”——东北方言）等。
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Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary第二章 英语词汇的发展史1. The Indo-European Language Family 印欧语系的谱系关系识记：印欧语系的各个分支和各个分支的主要语言Armenian (亚美尼亚语) –existing till nowAlbanian （阿尔巴尼亚语） –existing till now Prussian 普鲁士语 Lithuanian 立陶宛语 Polish 波兰语 Balto-Slavic(波罗的海语系) Czech 捷克语 Bulgarian 保加利亚语 Eastern set:Slovenian 西洛文尼亚语Russian 俄罗斯语Persian 波斯语Bengali 孟加拉语印度伊朗语系Romany 吉普赛语Scottish 苏格兰语Celtic 凯尔特语 Irish 爱尔兰语Welsh 威尔士语Breton 法国布里多尼语 Portuguese 葡萄牙语Spanish 西班牙语Italic 意大利语系 French 法语Italian 意大利语Rumanian 罗马尼亚语 Western Set :Hellenic 希腊语 Greek 希腊语Norwegian 挪威语Icelandic 冰岛语Danish 丹麦语Germanic 日耳曼语 Swedish 瑞典语German 德语Dutch 荷兰语Flemish 弗兰德语English 英语2. A historical overview of English vocabulary英语发展的历史回顾考点：英语词汇发展的三个阶段：古英语词汇，中古英语词汇，现代英语词汇及其特点Inhabitants of the Island:Celts(Celtic) – Roman Legions(Latin，55) – German Tribes(Anglo-Saxon，410)-Norwegian and Danish Vikings (Scandinavian，900) – Norman（French, 1066）①Old English 古英语（450-1150）(Anglo-Saxon)Character:1. Latin speaking Roman missionaries under St. Augustine came to spread Christianity at the end of the 6th century. The introduction of Christianity had a great impact on English vocabulary.(New Words: abbot男修道院长, candle, altar圣坛, amen, apostle使徒)2. Didn’t borrow as heavily as later, they changed meaning of native words, the common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.（e.g. handbook）3. Many Scandinavian words came into the English language. Many of the words are alike or interchangeably.4. Old English has a vocabulary of 50000-60000 words, which was highly inflected. Nouns, Pronouns, Adj., verbs, Adv, had complex endings or vowel changes, differ greatly from what we use today. 内部高度曲折，有复杂的词尾原音变化。
②Middle English （1150-1500）中古英语Character:1.English were defeated, reduced to the status of an inferior people like, Frenchbecame the polite speech. English, Latin and French existing simultaneously for over a century.2.Between 1250-1500, 9000 words of French origin poured into English.75% ofthem are still in use today. 2500 Dutch words found their way to English asBritain had trade relationship with the Low Countries. (荷兰、比利时、卢森堡) 3.Retained much fewer inflections. Endings of Nouns and Adj. making distinctionof number, case and often of gender lost their distinctive forms. The same is true of verb. If we say Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings. 内部曲折形式少了很多，标志名词和形容词的数，格，性词尾形式已经不再明显了，动词情况也是一样。
如果古英语尽是词尾的话，那么中古英语的词尾已经去了一半。
②Modern English 现代英语（1500-up to now）1.Subdivided into Early English(1500-1700) and Late English(1700-Now)2.Borrowed heavily from Latin during 1500-1700 known as Renaissance whichis a new upsurge of leaning ancient Greek and Roman classics, over 10000new words entered English Language, many of which were taken from Latin and Greek by scholars who wanted to replace the forms earlier adoptedform French.3.English absorbed words from all major languages of the world.(Experienced by Bourgeois Revolution and industrial Revolution, rose to be a greateconomic power and began to stretch tentacles to every corner of globe)4.More words are created by word formation since the world has seenbreathtaking advances in science and technology.5.Word endings were mostly lost with just a few exceptions. English hasevolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic language.英语从古英语的综合型语言变成了现在的分析型语言。
3.Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary 当代英语词汇的发展状况考点：当代英语发展的现状New words sweep in at a rate much faster than any other period in the history. Three main sources of new words: Rapid development of science and technology; Social economic and political changes; Influence of other cultures and languages.4.Modes of Vocabulary Development 词汇发展的方式考点：词汇发展的3个主要方式创造新词，旧词新意，借用外来语。
各种方式的地位和作用①Creation 创造新词: By using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes andother elements. Most important way of vocabulary expansion.②Semantic Changes 旧词新意：Old form takes a new meaning to meet the newneeds. Enrich the vocabulary by creating more new usages of the words.(not increase the number of words)③Borrowing 借用外来词：Vital role in the development of vocabulary, particularin earlier times.。