(林业科学英语)_Unit 1 Tree identification_

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现代农林英语英汉对照

现代农林英语课文英汉对照硕水保163班2016年12月29日contentsUnit 1 Urban Agriculture (I)Unit 2 Forestry Management (III)Unit 3 Biodiversity (VI)Unit 4 Wetlands ............................................................................... V III Unit 5 Agricultural High Technology . (XI)Unit 6 Low-Carbon Agriculture ........................................................ X IV Unit 7 Urban Planning .................................................................... X VI Unit 9 Landscape Gardens .. (XX)Unit 10 Ecological Literature (XXII)现代农林英语英汉对照Unit 1 Urban AgricultureCurrent Situation and IssuesThe United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (F AO) has warned that the 12 megacities (+10 million population) will experience increasing difficulty in feeding themselves. London’s ‘ecological footprint’ is estimated to extend to 125 times the capital’s surface area with food accounting for around 40% of this. London’s residents, visitors and workers consume 2.4 million tons of food and produce 883,000 tons of organic waste per year. The food industry makes a significant contribution to London’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with around 11% of all jobs found in the food sector.联合国粮食及农业组织警告说12个拥有千万人口的超大城市将要在养活自己上遭遇越来越多的困难。

林业三年级英语知识点总结

林业三年级英语知识点总结Forestry is the science and art of managing and caring for forests, as well as the production and use of wood. It is an important field of study that helps us understand the importance of forests, their ecosystems, and the various products and services they provide. Below are some key points about forestry that third-graders should know:1. What is a forest?A forest is a large area covered primarily with trees and other vegetation. It is an important part of the Earth's ecosystem and plays a crucial role in maintaining the balance of nature.2. Importance of forests:Forests provide a wide range of benefits, including:- Providing habitat for a diverse range of plant and animal species- Storing and sequestering carbon, helping to mitigate climate change- Producing oxygen through the process of photosynthesis- Offering recreational opportunities for people to enjoy nature- Providing wood and other forest products for human use3. Types of forests:There are different types of forests, including:- Tropical forests: Found near the equator and characterized by high levels of biodiversity and rainfall.- Temperate forests: Found in regions with four distinct seasons and are known for their hardwood trees such as oak and maple.- Boreal forests: Also known as taiga, these are found in the subarctic regions and are dominated by coniferous trees such as spruce and fir.4. Forest ecosystem:A forest is a complex ecosystem that includes various living organisms and their physical environment. It consists of trees, plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms, all of which interact with each other to form a balanced ecosystem.5. Forest products:Forests provide a wide range of products that are important for human use, including:- Wood for construction, furniture, paper, and other products- Medicinal plants and herbs- Fruits, nuts, and other food products- Resin, rubber, and other industrial materials- Honey, wax, and other bee products6. Forest management:Forestry involves the sustainable management of forests to ensure their long-term health and productivity. This includes techniques such as selective logging, afforestation, and reforestation to maintain the balance between human needs and the conservation of natural resources.7. Forest conservation:Conservation of forests is important to protect biodiversity, maintain healthy ecosystems, and ensure the sustainable use of forest resources. This includes measures such as establishing protected areas, implementing sustainable logging practices, and promoting community-based conservation efforts.8. Forestry careers:There are various careers related to forestry, including:- Forester: Manages and oversees forest resources, including planning and implementing sustainable management practices.- Forest ranger: Protects forests and wildlife, and ensures compliance with conservation laws and regulations.- Wildlife biologist: Studies and monitors wildlife populations in forest ecosystems.- Arborist: Cares for trees in urban and rural settings, including tree planting, pruning, and maintenance.Overall, forestry is a complex and important field of study that provides valuable insights into the management and conservation of forest ecosystems. By understanding the key concepts of forestry, third-graders can develop a deeper appreciation for the importance of forests and the role they play in sustaining life on Earth.。

《林学专业外语》课程大纲

《林学专业外语》课程大纲一、课程概述课程名称（中文）：林学专业外语（英文）：Professional English For Forestry课程编号：14351039课程学分：3.0学分课程总学时：48学时课程性质：专业课二、课程内容简介本课程的主要内容是学习林业有关的专业英文作品，学习和掌握阅读专业英文书刊技巧以及科技文献检索方法，学习和掌握林业科技论文的格式和写作特点。

课程主要内容包括：土壤学、林木种子、林木育苗与树木学、森林生态学、遗传育种、森林经理、森林有害生物管理、森林培育和3S技术等方面。

分别选定若干主题。

每课主要由课文，相应参考译文，阅读材料组成。

通过课程的学习，提高学生林学专业外语文献的阅读理解能力，同时加强专业英语的翻译、写作、交流能力。

三、教学目标与要求林学专业外语是林学专业的专业课程，课程的目标是使学生掌握常用的专业英语词汇、英文专业资料的检索和阅读技巧，具备专业英语的听、说、读、写能力。

课程的基本要求：学生应该掌握1000～1200个林业专业单词和词组；能顺利阅读并正确理解林学专业的书刊和资料；能借助词典将专业文章、资料译成汉语，做到理解正确，译文达意；能用英语写作专业论文和进行专业交流。

四、教学内容与学时安排绪论（2学时）一、课程任务及意义二、经典的专业外语图书和期刊资料简介三、专业外文文献的检索和获取方法四、课程的主要内容及课程要求第一章Seed and Seeding（4学时）1. 教学目的与要求：了解国外林木种苗学领域主要的外语书籍、期刊资料；理解林木种苗学领域主要外文资料的内容及要点；掌握林木种苗学相关的专业英语词汇。

2. 教学重点与难点：教学重点：林木种苗学相关的专业英语词汇及阅读技巧；教学难点：林木种苗学主要外文资料的内容及要点，学生听、说、读、写综合能力的培养。

第一节Seed Development and Harvest（1学时）一、Maturation process of seed二、Methods for Seed Harvest第二节Seed Treatment（1学时）一、Seed Dormancy二、Accelerating Germination第三节Seed Storage（2学时）一、Longevity of Seeds二、Principles for Seed Storage第二章Dendrology（6学时）1. 教学目的与要求：了解国外树木学领域主要的外语书籍、期刊资料；理解树木学领域主要外文资料的内容及要点；掌握树木学相关的专业英语词汇。

树种调查英文专业术语

树种调查英文专业术语Conducting a Tree Species Investigation: A Comprehensive ExplorationThe world around us is teeming with diverse and fascinating flora, each species uniquely adapted to its environment. Among the most captivating of these natural wonders are the myriad tree species that grace our landscapes, providing not only aesthetic beauty but also vital ecological functions. As professionals in the field of environmental science, it is our responsibility to delve deeper into the intricacies of these arboreal marvels, uncovering their taxonomic classifications, physiological characteristics, and roles within their respective ecosystems.At the heart of this endeavor lies the tree species investigation, a meticulous process of identifying, categorizing, and studying the trees that populate a given region. This endeavor requires a comprehensive understanding of botanical terminology, as well as a keen eye for the subtle differences that distinguish one species from another. By mastering the English language lexicon associated with tree taxonomy, we can unlock a wealth of knowledge and unlock the doors to a deeper appreciation of the natural world.To begin our investigation, we must first familiarize ourselves with the fundamental taxonomic hierarchy that governs the classification of trees. At the broadest level, we have the kingdom Plantae, which encompasses all photosynthetic organisms, including both flowering and non-flowering plants. Within this kingdom, trees are classified under the division Tracheophyta, also known as vascular plants, which possess specialized tissues for the transport of water and nutrients.Delving deeper, we find that trees belong to the class Magnoliopsida, or dicotyledons, characterized by the presence of two seed leaves, or cotyledons, upon germination. This class is further divided into numerous orders, each with its own distinctive features and adaptations. For instance, the order Fagales includes the familiar oak, beech, and chestnut trees, while the order Pinales encompasses the coniferous species, such as pines, firs, and spruces.At the species level, the specific epithet, or scientific name, serves as the primary means of identification. This binomial nomenclature system, pioneered by the renowned Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, assigns each plant a unique two-part name, consisting of the genus and species. For example, the common oak tree is known scientifically as Quercus rubra, where Quercus represents the genus and rubra denotes the specific species.In addition to taxonomic classification, the tree species investigation also delves into the morphological characteristics that distinguish one species from another. These include the shape and arrangement of leaves, the texture and pattern of bark, the structure of the branching pattern, and the overall form and size of the tree. By carefully observing and documenting these features, we can build a comprehensive understanding of the trees within a given ecosystem.Beyond the external features, the physiological attributes of trees also play a crucial role in their identification and classification. Factors such as the presence or absence of needle-like leaves, the arrangement and structure of the vascular system, and the unique chemical compounds produced by the tree can all provide valuable insights into its identity and evolutionary relationships.In the context of a tree species investigation, the study of leaf morphology is particularly important. Characteristics such as leaf shape, venation patterns, and the presence of trichomes (hair-like structures) can be used to differentiate between species. For instance, the maple tree (Acer) is known for its distinctive palmate leaves, while the oak tree (Quercus) typically displays lobed or deeply indented leaf blades.Bark texture and pattern also serve as important identificationmarkers, as the outer layer of a tree's trunk can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from the smooth, silvery bark of the birch (Betula) to the deeply furrowed, scaly bark of the shagbark hickory (Carya ovata). By familiarizing ourselves with the diverse range of bark textures and patterns, we can enhance our ability to accurately identify tree species in the field.Another crucial aspect of the tree species investigation is the study of the overall tree form, including the branching pattern, the shape of the crown, and the overall height and diameter of the trunk. These characteristics can provide valuable insights into the tree's adaptation to its environment, as well as its stage of growth and developmental maturity. For example, the towering, columnar shape of the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) is a testament to its ability to thrive in wetland environments, while the broad, spreading canopy of the American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) is an adaptation to life in open, sunny landscapes.As we delve deeper into the world of tree species, we must also consider the unique chemical compounds and secondary metabolites produced by these remarkable organisms. From the fragrant terpenes of the pine (Pinus) to the medicinal alkaloids found in the bark of the willow (Salix), these chemical signatures can serve as valuable tools in the identification and classification of trees. By understanding the role of these compounds in the tree's overallphysiology and ecological interactions, we can gain a more holistic appreciation for the complex and interconnected nature of the natural world.In the course of our tree species investigation, we may also encounter instances of hybridization, where two distinct species interbreed to produce offspring with characteristics intermediate between the parent plants. This phenomenon can present a unique challenge, as the resulting trees may exhibit a blend of features that do not neatly fit into established taxonomic categories. In such cases, a thorough understanding of genetic analysis and molecular techniques may be necessary to accurately identify the hybrid and its parent species.Throughout the tree species investigation, it is essential to maintain meticulous records and documentation. This includes the creation of detailed field notes, the collection of herbarium specimens, and the compilation of comprehensive photographic documentation. By building a robust database of information, we can not only aid in the identification and classification of tree species, but also contribute to the broader scientific understanding of the natural world.As we embark on this journey of tree species investigation, we must remember that our work extends far beyond the mere cataloging of these remarkable organisms. By deepening our knowledge andappreciation of the trees that surround us, we can unlock insights into the complex web of ecological relationships that sustain our planet. From the vital role of trees in the carbon cycle to their importance as habitats for countless other species, our understanding of these arboreal wonders can inform and shape our efforts to protect and preserve the natural environments that we call home.In conclusion, the tree species investigation is a multifaceted and captivating endeavor that requires a deep understanding of botanical terminology, morphological characteristics, and physiological adaptations. By mastering the English language lexicon associated with tree taxonomy, we can unlock a wealth of knowledge and become more effective stewards of the natural world. Through our continued efforts to identify, classify, and study the diverse tree species that grace our landscapes, we can contribute to the greater scientific understanding of the living world and inspire others to appreciate the beauty and complexity of the natural environment.。

现代农林英语英汉对照

木材科学专业词汇大全

木材科学专业词汇大全Mechanical Properties of Wood木材的力学性质木材流变学rheology of wood弹性elasticity塑性plasticity弹性模量modulus of elasticity蠕变creep蠕变恢复creep recovery应变strain应力stress应力—应变曲线stress-strain curve 分应力stress component分应变strain component应力松驰stress relaxation松弛失效failure byrelaxation疲劳fatigue刚性模量modulus of rigidity变形deformation载荷loading各向异性anisotropy正交对称性rhombic symmetry弹性形变elastic deformation弹性常数elastic constant木材弹性异向性the anisotropic elasticity of wood对称轴axis of symmetry柔度compliance泊松比Poisson’s ratio压缩系数compressibility体积模量bulk modulus理想弹性变形ideal elastic deformation粘滞流动形变viscous flow deformation木材硬度hardness of wood屈服点yieldpoint拉伸tension压缩compression弯曲bending木材冲击韧性toughness of wood木材抗劈强度cleavage strength of wood木材抗弯强度bending strength of wood木材静曲弹性模量the modulus of elasticity in static bending of wood木材顺纹抗剪强度shearing strength parallel to grain of wood木材顺纹抗拉强度tensile strength parallel to grain of wood木材顺纹抗压强度compressive strength parallel to grain of wood木材横纹压力compression perpendicular to grain of wood木材横纹抗压弹性模量modulus of elasticity in compression perpendicular to grain of wood静力试验测定determination by static test动态试验测定determination by dynamic test木材断裂力学Fracture Mechanics ofWood断裂韧性FractureToughness裂纹shake(check)径裂heart shake轮裂ring shake环裂round shake弧裂cup shake冻裂frost crack干裂drying shake贯通裂through shake脆性破碎（brittle/brash fracture）：又称做胡萝卜破碎。

农业学课英语---Word List for Unit 1 Passage 1

Word List for Unit 1 Passage 1 What Is a Forest?forestry [ U] /ˈfɒrɪstri/the science or practice of planting and taking care of trees and forests 林学；林业country covered by forests. 林地vegetation /ˌvedʒəˈteɪʃn/[ U] plants in general, especially the plants that are found in a particular area or environment （统称）植物；（尤指某地或环境的）植被，植物群落，草木trillion /ˈtrɪljən/1. 1 000 000 000 000; one million million 万亿；兆HELP You say a, one, two, several, etc. trillion without a final ‘s’ on ‘trillion’. Trillions (of...) can be used if there is no number or quantity before it. Always use a plural verb with trillion or trillions . 说a, one, two, several, etc. trillion时，trillion后面不加s。

若前面没有数目或数量，可用trillions (of ...)。

trillion和trillions均用复数动词。

2. a trillion or trillions ( informal ) a very large amount 大量；无数3. ( old-fashioned) ( BrE ) one million million million; 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 百万兆tropic /ˈtrɑːpɪk/1. [ Cusually sing.] one of the two imaginary lines drawn around the world 23° 26′ north ( the Tropic of Cancer ) or south ( the Tropic of Capricorn ) of the equator 回归线（北回归线称作the Tropic of Cancer，南回归线称作the Tropic of Capricorn）2. the tropics [ pl.] the area between the two tropics , which is the hottest part of the world 热带；热带地区Cancer n. /ˈkænsə(r)/1. [ U] the fourth sign of the zodiac , the Crab 黄道第四宫；巨蟹宫；巨蟹（星）座2. [ sing.] a person born under the influence of this sign, that is between 22 June and 22 July, approximately 属巨蟹座的人（约出生于6月22日至7月22日）Capricorn /ˈkæprɪkɔːrn/1. [ U] the 10th sign of the zodiac , the Goat 黄道第十宫；摩羯宫；摩羯（星）座2. [ C] a person born under the influence of this sign, that is between 21 December and 20 January, approximately 属摩羯座的人（约出生于12月21日至1月20日）temperate zone /ˈtempərət zəʊn/ [ Cusually sing.] ( technical 术语) an area of the Earth that is not near the equator or the South or North Pole 温带subtropics /ˌsʌbˈtrɑːpɪks/N-PLURAL the region lying between the tropics and temperate lands 亚热带temperate adj./ˈtempərət/1. [ usually before noun] ( technical 术语) ( of a climate or region 气候或地区) having a mild temperature without extremes of heat or cold 气候温和的；温带的2. ( formal ) behaving in a calm and controlled way 温和的；心平气和的；自我克制的conifer /ˈkɑːnɪfər/noun [C] one of various types of evergreen tree which produce fruit in the form of cones针叶树coniferous /kəˈnɪfərəs/adj.松类的, 结球果的，松柏科的，针叶的(树林)【根】fer＝to carry（运；载），to bear（忍耐）boreal /ˈbɔːriəl/adj.北方的,北方生物带的,北方气候带的，北的，北风的borealBoreal means northern from the eponymous /ɪˈpɑːnɪməs/（同名的）Boreas/ˈbɔːriəs/北风之神, god of the North Wind in Greek mythology.Definition "Boreal" usually applied to ecosystems localized in subarctic /sʌbˈɑːktɪk/adj.亚北极的；亚北极区的；靠近北极的(in Northen hemisphere) and in subantarctic/,sʌbænt'ɑ:ktik/ adj.亚南极的(in Southern hemisphere) zones. A boreal forest, also known as the taiga/ˈtaɪɡə/[ sing.U]泰加林（北方湿地的针叶林）；北方针叶林, is the set of forest ecosystems than can survive in northern, specifically subarctic, regions.The ecosystems that lie immediately to the south (in Northen hemisphere) or to the north (in Southern hemisphere) of boreal ones are often called hemiboreal. /ˈhemɪˌbɔːriəl/ n. 半寒带森林subject /ˈsʌbdʒekt/[ADJ] v-link ADJ to nTo be subject to something means to be affected by it or to be likely to be affected by it. 可能受…影响的；易遭受…的Prices may be subject to alteration... 价格可能会受变更影响。

植物学单词(1)

《森林植物识别与鉴定（双语）》应知应会植物学单词01.059 科family01.063 属genus01.069 种species01.071 变种variety01.143 乔木tree, arbor01.144 灌木shrub01.153 根root01.154 茎stem01.155 芽bud01.156 叶leaf01.157 花flower01.158 果实fruit01.159 种子seed01.214 双名法binomial nomenclature 又称“二名法”。

01.215 植物园botanical garden02.076 枝[条] branch02.077 长枝long shoot02.078 短枝dwarf shoot02.079 小枝branchlet, ramellus02.089 [棘]刺thorn02.092 顶芽terminal bud02.093 腋芽axillary bud02.097 叶柄下芽infrapetiolar bud, subpetiolar bud02.142 落叶deciduous leaf02.143 常绿叶evergreen leaf02.144 单叶simple leaf02.145 复叶compound leaf02.146 单身复叶unifoliate compound leaf02.147 羽状复叶pinnately compound leaf02.148 掌状复叶palmately compound leaf 02.149 三出复叶ternately compound leaf02.155 互生叶alternate leaf02.156 对生叶opposite leaf02.157 轮生叶verticillate leaf, whorled leaf02.159 簇生叶fascicled leaf02.198 叶枕pad, pedestal02.199 托叶stipule02.202 叶柄petiole02.207 叶端leaf apex 又称“叶尖”。

园林树木学分类-植物分类法1

变种 varietas 变型forma （亚变种）
示例1 槐（国槐）
植物界 Regnum vegetabile 被子植物门 Angiospermae
木兰纲蔷薇亚纲蝶形花目 Magnoliopsida Rosoidae Fabales
蝶形花科
Fabaceae
槐属 Sophora 槐（国槐） Sophora japonica
恩格勒系统是植物分类史上第一个比较完整的自然系统。也是目前应用最广的一个，特别是在欧洲大陆和美洲应用较广，对我国影响也较大，如《中国高等植物图鉴》、《中国植物志》等重要的植物分类著作都采用了这一系统。
（2）哈钦松系统（J.Hutchinson）英国,1925、 1934年
种子植物门裸子植物亚门被子植物亚门双子叶植物纲
• …..科（family）、属(genera,genus)、种(species )、…. •研究内容（ objectives ）： • 分类 (classification) • 命名 (nomenclature) • 鉴定（identification） • 分类系统 (classification systems)
双名法规定：
种名＝属名＋种加词＋命名人名字(常缩写)
例如银杏： Gingkgo biloba L.
马尾松 Pinus massoniana Lamb. 第一个词为属名，第一个字母大写，多数是名词；第二个词为种加词，第一个字母小写，多数是形容词。命名人，多缩写，第一字母大写
*属名和种加词为斜体排印，命名人名字(或缩写)为正
将原毛茛科的芍药属独立成芍药科；
（4）克朗奎斯特系统（A．Cronquist)，美国，1968年把被子植物门分成木兰纲和百合纲；

在森林里分辨树的方法

在森林里分辨树的方法Distinguishing trees in a forest involves observing various characteristics such as leaves, bark, branches, and overall tree structure. Different tree species have unique features that can aid in identification. Here's a basic method to distinguish trees in a forest:1.Leaf Characteristics:•Shape: Examine the overall shape of the leaves. Are they needle-like, scale-like, lobed, simple, or compound?•Arrangement: Observe how leaves are arranged on the branches. Are they opposite, alternate, or whorled?•Margins: Check the leaf edges. Are they smooth, serrated, toothed, or lobed?2.Bark Features:•Texture: Touch and examine the bark texture. Is it smooth, rough, peeling, or furrowed?•Color: Note the color of the bark. Different treespecies have varying shades, from light gray to dark brown.•Presence of Lenticels: Look for small, corky pores called lenticels on the bark. They aid in gas exchange.3.Branching Patterns:•Opposite or Alternate: Determine if the branches are opposite or alternate. Some trees, like maples, haveopposite branching, while others, like oaks, have alternate.•Whorled: Check for whorled branching, where three or more branches arise from the same point on the stem.4.Overall Tree Shape:•Canopy Shape: Observe the general shape of the tree's canopy. Is it conical, rounded, columnar, or irregular?•Height: Consider the tree's overall height. Some species are tall and straight, while others may have a more irregular form.5.Fruit and Seed Structures:•Cones: If the tree is a conifer, examine the cones. Note their size, shape, and whether they are clustered or solitary.•Fruits: For deciduous trees, observe the fruits. Check if they are nuts, samaras, capsules, or berries.6.Flowers and Catkins:•Flowers: If the tree is flowering, observe the size, color, and arrangement of flowers. Some trees have conspicuous flowers, while others have inconspicuous ones.•Catkins: Some trees, like willows and oaks, produce catkins. Observe their size, shape, and color.7.Habitat and Geographic Location:•Local Geography: Consider the geographical location and local climate. Certain trees are more prevalent inspecific regions.•Soil Type: The soil composition can influence tree growth. Some species thrive in sandy soil, while othersprefer loamy or clayey soil.8.Seasonal Changes:•Deciduous vs. Evergreen: Determine if the tree is deciduous or evergreen. Deciduous trees lose their leavesin the fall, while evergreens retain leaves year-round.e Field Guides and Apps:•Identification Guides: Utilize field guides orsmartphone apps designed for tree identification. Theseresources often include detailed images, descriptions, andkey features for accurate identification.Remember, accurate tree identification may require a combination of these characteristics. Field guides, local botanical experts, and online resources can be valuable aids in the identification process. Additionally, familiarizing yourself with the most common tree species in your region can enhance your ability to distinguish trees in a forest.。

林学专业英语词汇

timber 木材annual rainfall年降雨量eucalyptus 桉树drought 干旱cultivate 种植moist 湿润slope 山坡deciduous 落叶hardwood 硬木conifer 针叶树resistant to decay 坑腐蚀性forest science / forestry 林学tree physiology 树木生理学forest soil science 森林土壤学forest ecology 森林生态学 foresttree breeding 森林育种学 forest pathology 森林病理学 forest mensuration 侧树学 virgin forest原始林natural forest 天然林 fast-growing and high-yield plantation coniferous forest 针叶林 mangrove forest 红树林timber forest 用材林 non-timber product forest 经济林 forest for special use 特殊用材林 mixedforest 混交林 evenaged forest 同龄林 uniform stand 单层林分dominant tree species 优势树种association tree species 半生树种pioneer tree species 先锋树种forest tree improvement 林木改良superior tree 优树introduction of exotic species 林木引种seed orchard 种子园clonal seed crchard 无性系种子园rogued seed orchard 去劣种子园clonal test 无性系测定average temperature 平均气温deciduous broadleaf trees 落叶阔叶树shelter belts 防护林带cold waves 寒潮foliage 叶子valley山谷tropical 热带evergreen 常绿softwood 软木broadleaf 阔叶树main trunk主干dendrology树木学forest meteorology森林气象学forest biology森林生物学forest economic 林业经济学forest genetics 森林遗传学forest entomology森林昆虫学forest management 森林经理学secondary forest 次生林forest plantation / man-made forest人工林速生丰产林broad leaved forest 阔叶林forest category 林种protection forest防护林firewood forest薪炭林energy forest 能源林pure forest 纯林uneven aged forest 异龄林mulit-storied stand复层林分subdominant tree species 亚优势树种native tree species 乡土树种selection of tree 林木选择superior stand 优良林分seed production stand 母树林tree breeding 树木育种seedling seed orchard 实生苗种子园progeny test 子代测定 forestation 造林。

4Identification of urban tree

Identiﬁcation of urban tree crown in a tropical environment using WorldView-2data:problems and perspectivesMar´ılia Ferreira Gomes a and Philippe Maillard a,ba Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais(UFMG),Av.Antˆo nio Carlos,6627,Belo Horizonte,Brazil;b Laboratoire d’´Etudes en G´e ophysique et Oc´e anographie Spatiales(LEGOS),18av.EdouardBelin,Toulouse,FranceABSTRACTWith the availability of high-resolution satellite data,much research has been focused on the automatic detection and classiﬁcation of individual tree crowns.Most of these studies were applied to temperate climates of the northern hemisphere,especially for forests of coniferous.Very few studies have been applied to the detection of trees in the tropical regions,least of all in the urban environment.Urban trees play a major role in maintaining or even improving the quality of life in cities by their contribution to the quality of the air,by absorbing rain water,by refreshing the air through transpiration and providing shadow.In this study we explored the potential of high-resolution WorldView-2satellite data for the identiﬁcation of urban individual tree crowns in the city of Belo Horizonte,Minas Gerais,Brazil,through an object-oriented approach.Irrelevant areas were masked(e.g. buildings,asphalt,shadows,exposed soil)using a threshold of NDVI.Three diﬀerent approaches were tested to isolate and delineate individual tree crowns:region growing,watershed and template matching.For theﬁrst two approaches several parameters were tested toﬁnd the best result for the isolation of the individual tree crowns.An in-house program has been developed for template matching using a set of seven diﬀerent templates of diﬀerent species.A set of300individual tree crowns were visually interpreted in the WorldView-2image to serve as validation and to compare the performance of the three diﬀerent approaches.Then,the comparison was performed between the visual interpretation and the results of each approach by calculating the diﬀerence between the areas as a ratio of the validated area.Our results show that the region growing approach provided the best results,with an accuracy of over80%.Keywords:Urban tree crown,WorldView-2,OBIA,Region growing,Watershed,Template matching1.INTRODUCTIONUrban trees play an important role for the welfare of people and quality of life in cities.They contribute to improving air and water quality,mitigate the carbon dioxide and other pollutants,moderate the microclimate and air temperature,help control soil erosion,reduce theﬂow of rainwater and provide biodiversity.1–3A good knowledge of the species planted in cities and their health allows to enhance the understanding of their role,besides contributing with the inventory,and management of these trees.To fulﬁll their role in the urban environment,trees need to be looked after throughout maintenance practices like pruning and this includes acquiring various structural parameters of trees.Becauseﬁeld survey techniques are time-consuming,expensive and usually cannot provide complete coverage of large areas,it is worthwhile to carry surveys using aerial methods.4Remote sensing is a cost eﬀective way to extract information about vegetation and,with the increasing availability of high spatial resolution data and computational power to process it,research in forestry has been focusing more on the identiﬁcation and delineation of individual tree crowns.5,6But with increased spatial resolution new forms of information extraction were necessary.One approach is based on the object-oriented Further author information:(Send correspondence to Mar´ılia Ferreira Gomes)M.F.Gomes:E-mail:mariliafgomes@,Telephone:+55(31)92350617P.Maillard:E-mail:philippe@ufmg.br,Telephone:+33(0)198765432Earth Resources and Environmental Remote Sensing/GIS Applications IV, edited by Ulrich Michel,Daniel L. Civco, Karsten Schulz, Manfred Ehlers, Konstantinos G. Nikolakopoulos, Proc. of SPIEVol. 8893, 88930C · © 2013 SPIE · CCC code: 0277-786X/13/$18 · doi: 10.1117/12.2029073paradigm,witch has the advantage of dealing with groups of pixels instead of isolated pixels like other more traditional classiﬁcation methods.In working with regions,parameters like size,shape,texture and even the relations between neighboring objects can also be used as descriptors to help classiﬁcation schemes.7 Researchers have developed several automatic and semi-automatic methods for the extraction of individual trees and their characteristics using digital aerial photographs of various types and in high spatial resolution satellite images.5Ke and Quackenbush6made a review of methods for automatic individual tree-crown detection and delineation methods from passive remote sensing and describe the main algorithms for their identiﬁcation (local maximumﬁltering,image binarization,scale analysis and template matching)and their delineation(valley-following,region-growing and watershed-segmentation).However,for all the methods described,most of the studies were applied to temperate climates of the northern hemisphere,especially for forests of coniferous or mixed forests.Very few studies have been applied to the detection of trees in the tropical regions,least of all in the urban environment.In their review6the authors found only two studies in tropical environments,both conducted in Australia.In addition to the studies identiﬁed by,6we have identiﬁed only two other studies in tropical environments:1)Gomes et al.8that conducted a study of segmentation and classiﬁcation of forest canopy using Quickbird images in an ecological station in the State of S˜a o Paulo,Brazil;and2)Arasato et al.9who worked with Palm trees in the Brazilian Amazon.For this reason,many methods were developed based on the characteristics of forests of temperate environments on the assumption that tree crowns having a conical shape and appearing as circular shapes in two-dimensional imagery,with the treetops having the strongest reﬂectance within the crown area.6However,these assumptions are not widely valid for tropical trees, in view of high species richness and the great complexity of crown shapes that cannot be simpliﬁed by the conical format.Considering that there are few studies of trees in tropical environments,the same is true for studies of trees in urban environments.Pu and Landry4used IKONOS and WorldView-2for mapping seven urban tree species/groups in the city of Tampa,Florida,jointly with advanced classiﬁers and an OBIA(Object-Based Image Analysis)approach,and achieved high accuracy for the identiﬁcation of species,with values between90 and100%,and observed that WV-2has a greater capability for identifying and mapping tree species/groups when compared to IKONOS.Ardila10used very high resolution(VHR)imagery and OBIA for mapping and monitoring urban trees in residential areas in the Netherlands,with emphasis to the identiﬁcation of trees near streets and parks and found low commission and omission errors for tree identiﬁcation,especially for group of trees and for trees larger than>5m2with a good quality of crown boundary and achieved an overall delineation error<0.24.Zhang and Hu11analysed longitudinal proﬁles from VHR images to improve the classiﬁcation of individual tree species on the York University campus,Ontario,Canada,and found classiﬁcation accuracy greater than84%.Cavayas et al.12examined the feasibility of using WV-2data for mapping urban vegetation cover in the city of Laval,Quebec,Canada,and the experiments showed that a system for automatic inventory of vegetation cover in urban areas is possible.In view of all the diﬀerent approaches possible,the objective of this article is to explore the potential of high resolution WV-2satellite data for the detection and delineation of individual trees in and around a university campus in the city of Belo Horizonte,Brazil.In doing so we want to test and compare the performance of three diﬀerent approaches:template matching,region growing and watershed.2.METHODOLOGY2.1Study areaThe Campus of the Federal University of Minas Gerais(UFMG)(Figure1)in Belo Horizonte,Brazil,was chosen to test the potential of WV-2data for detection and delineation of crowns of individual trees in an urban environments.The study area is inserted into a tropical climate of altitude,with average temperatures of20◦C and an average precipitation of about1200mm per year.The Campus occupies an area of334hectares,partially covered by forest fragments of cerrado and seasonal semi-deciduous forest,as well as planted woodland individual trees alongside roads and parking lots.13Lombardi and Morais14performed an extensive sampling of cultivated tree on the Campus of the UFMG and identiﬁed a high species richness of187species,distributed in52families,native and exotic originating from diﬀerent parts of the world(Asia,Africa,North America,Central America,South America and Oceania).Figure1.Location of the study area.The image on the right is a WorldView-2false color composite.In the study area trees occur in diﬀerent contexts:planted along the streets,in the gardens of the buildings, parking lots and forests.Depending on their location,nearby objects are identiﬁed as grass,asphalt,concrete or other trees.Single trees,pairs of trees and groups of trees intertwined are all observed indiscriminately.As the variation of species and contexts is high,the size and the distance between crowns also varies.Only the trees planted on public roads,parks and gardens were evaluated.2.2Remote sensing dataA WorldView-2satellite image(DigitalGlobe,Inc.,USA),acquired in July28,2012was used for this study.The image had a radiometric resolution of11bits but was further reduced to8bits.The data comes in nine spectral bands:one panchromatic band(450-800nm)with a spatial resolution of50cm,and eight multispectral bands [Coastal(400-450nm),Blue(450-510nm),Green(510-580nm),Yellow(585-625nm),Red(630nm-690),Red Edge(705-745nm),Near-IR1(770-895nm)and Near-IR2(860-1040nm)]with spatial resolution of2m.15The image was already orthorectiﬁed to a UTM projection(WGS84Datum,23S Zone)and radiometrically corrected by DIGITALGLOBE.The scene was adquired at10:30local time,with a average oﬀnadir view angle of13 degrees.2.3Detection and delineation of the tree crownsTheﬁrst problem is the detection of the tree crown,the second is the delineation and the third is the classiﬁcation according to the species.This paper addresses only theﬁrst two problems,the identiﬁcation and delineation of the tree crown.All three methods have been tested and evaluated for detection tree crowns.Only region growing and watershed were tested for delineation and classiﬁcation was used as a means of comparison of the results.The panchromatic band was used as the starting point for all methods in order to take advantage of its higher spatial resolution.Template Matching Template matching is an algorithmic approach to pattern recognition,which allows comparison of the every pixel in an image with a previously stored model.One approach consists in calculating a measure of correlation between the image and the model.16This approach was used as a means of detection oftree crowns.An in-house program was developed in Python2.7to perform template matching between any small image(the template)and a gray scale image of any size.Each template is sequentially moved across the image, in a manner similar to a convolutionﬁlter,and the statistical correlation is computed at each location.17Faced with the impossibility of evaluating all the diﬀerent species in the study area,seven tree species,considered to be of higher occurrence,were chosen to be analyzed:Mangifera indica,Terminalia catappa L.,Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv.,Licania tomentosa(Benth.)Fritsch,Samanea tubulosa(Bentham),Caesalpinia pluviosa var.peltophoroides and Pachira aquatica Aubl.Of these,three species are exotic and four are native.Figure2 gives the classiﬁcation of the tree species and shows a ground perspective photograph as well as top views of the crown from the WV-2panchromatic band and from an aerial photograph with a spatial resolution of10cm. The template’s size varies with the tree crown size.Correlation is computed using Equation1:C=(x ij−¯x)(y ij−¯y)(x ij−¯x)2(y ij−¯y)2(1)where x ij is the intensity for the pixel at the i fh row and j th column in the template;¯x the mean intensity for the template,y ij is the intensity for the corresponding pixel in the image window,and¯y the mean intensity for the corresponding image window.An output image is derived by calculating the correlation between each template and the image.The areas that have the largest correlation values,also have the largest output values in the resulting image and correspond to the locations with the highest probability of being a tree crown.In total seven images were generated,one for each template.Then,for each image,a threshold was set,with the goal of preserving only the values of greater correlation between the model and the image.The resulting raster data was converted to a vector format and the centroid of each polygon was extracted in order to identify just one point by tree crown(optimally its center). Region Growing Initially,the region growing algorithm segments the image using a seed pixel then,neigh-bouring pixels are examined and added to the region,if they are suﬃciently similar to the seed pixel.The statistics of the region are updated with each pixel added.In this paper we used the multiresolution segmen-tation implemented in eCognition Developer8.7software(c 2010,Deﬁniens AG)to create segments(image objects).This algorithm is based on adjustable criteria of homogeneity or spatial and spectral heterogeneity.18 A multilevel segmentation was performed to account for the diﬀerent sizes of objects both trees and others.In this scheme,a series of segmentations are overlaid,each with a successively smaller scale parameter for identifying successively smaller objects.19To improve the performance of the segmenter,object based image analysis(OBIA) was also used in the rule-based classiﬁcation:geometry,texture,neighborly relations,spectral characteristics and fuzzy membership functions.The deﬁnition of the rule set is divided in four steps,consisting of four hierarchical levels of image object network:1)separation of vegetation and non-vegetation,2)separation of the grass,3)identiﬁcation of isolated trees,4)separation of tree clusters.For all segmentations performed,only the scale parameter was changed while keeping shape(0.3)and compactness(0.7)unchanged(Figure3).Theﬁrst segmentation was performed to separate non-vegetation(buildings,water,asphalt,concrete,exposed soil,roofs and some shades),with a scale parameter of10.An Normalized Diﬀerence Vegetation Index(NDVI)threshold≤0.19was deﬁned to classify non-vegetation.In the second level only unclassiﬁed objects(all vegetation theoretically)are used to separate the grass from the trees,which have very similar spectral response.The grass objects are found at two diﬀerent scales,so two segmentations were made at this stage:theﬁrst one with a scale factor of80,in order to separate the larger lawns,and a second with scale factor20to separate smaller areas.The class deﬁnition used a NDVI threshold of≤0.30and of grey level co-occurrence matrix(GLCM)homogeneity of≥0.62.20For smaller grass patches a NDVI threshold(≤0.35)was used jointly used with a membership functions(NIR1,red and green).The third level was used to classify the isolate tree crowns,surrounded by grass or non-vegetation.First, small trees misclassiﬁed as grass were classiﬁed based on relative border with non-vegetation(≥0.3)and the elliptical form(≥0.64).Areas larger than500pixels and a lenght/width relationship of≥1.7were returned toFigure2.Classiﬁcation of the trees species evaluated.For each tree there is ground view,a top view from the WV-2 panchromatic band and from an aerial photograph with a spatial resolution of10cm.Figure3.Flow diagram showing the four steps used in the multiresolution region growing approach for detecting and delineating urban trees on the UFMG campus.the grass class.A new segmentation was performed with scale parameter15.Regions with an elliptical shape ≥0.6)and an area≤600pixels were reclassiﬁed as trees.Objects with relative border to non-vegetation in ≥0.63and an area less than600pixels were classiﬁed as isolated tree crowns.To remove the mislabeled crowns, a lenght/width≥1.7was used.The last level was used to separate the crowns clustered.Unclassiﬁed objects were segmented with a scale parameter of20.Membership functions area(≤700pixels),ellipticﬁt(≥0.6)and lenght/width(≥1.3)was used to classify the crowns.Relative border to non-vegetation and size of objects(≤600pixels)served to select small groups composed of two or three trees.Finally,the remaining objects with NDVI≥0.5were classiﬁed as tree crown.Watershed Watershed is a segmentation technique based on regions,which classiﬁes pixels according to their spatial proximity and the gradient of the gray levels.The image is recognized as a topographic surface where the digital value of each pixel can be considered as an elevation point.The surface is inverted andﬂooded, from the minimum point,preventing the water in adjacent basins to mix with water from upper levels.The boundary of a relief corresponds to the boundaries of adjacent basins.The gradient image is often used in the watershed transformation,because the main criterion of the segmentation is the homogeneity of the grey values of the objects present in the image.21To conduct the image segmentation we used the watershed algorithm implemented into SPRING software (c 1991-2011,DPI/INPE),a Geographic Information System(GIS)developed by Division of Image Processing of the Brazilian’s National Institute for Space Research(Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais-INPE). The Sobel edge extractionﬁlter was previously applied on the panchromatic band for better performance of the segmentation.The Sobelﬁlters consists in an operator that computesﬁnite diﬀerences,giving an approximation of the gradient of the intensity of the image pixels.The watershed algorithm implemented in SPRING considers the gradients of gray level of the original image to generate an gradient image or edge intensity,resulting in an segmented image with each region having a label.22In order to compare the performance of the segmenter,we performed a supervised classiﬁcation with Bhat-tacharya classiﬁer.23In this object-based classiﬁer,statistical separability is measured between a pair of spectral classes.Three classes were deﬁned:non-vegetation,grass and tree crowns.All WV-2bands and NDVI were used for the classiﬁcation.2.4Detection accuracyTo evaluate the performance of the three diﬀerent approaches a sample of300tree crowns was visually interpreted in the WV-2panchromatic band in a semi-random manner.Even though the templates were based on seven species of high occurrence,we did not distinguish between the diﬀerent species in our sample but rather tried tochoose a wide variety of crown shape.It should be noted that the trees sampled are not only isolated and we also picked trees within clusters to account for more diﬃcult situations.To validate the detection phase a simple count of“hit or miss”was performed.First we counted how many of the sampled trees were hit then we took an independent random sample of approximately114trees detected by the three method and counted how many of these were not trees(base on a visual interpretation).This approach made it possible to calculate independently a producer’s and a user’s accuracy for each method with an approximation of overall accuracy being somewhere between the two.Because we did not use a truly random sampling scheme,this was the only possible measures of accuracy we could achieved.Further work will be given a more thorough attention to sampling design.Because many trees are spatially contiguous,the validation of the delineation posed a logical problem:errors of crown overﬂow(commission errors)would eventually be underestimated if a segment overlapped two crowns. To avoid this problem weﬁrst performed an inclusive intersection between the results and our validation sample as shown in Figure4.This way we were assured to test only the capacity of the segmentation approaches to correctly delineate trees.Figure4.Illustration of the“inclusive intersection”operation.To evaluate the results for the delineation of the crowns the validation sample was converted to a raster format,with digital numbers(DN)values1and2;1corresponding to no data and2to tree crown.The result of the region growing and watershed were also converted to raster values,with DN3and4;3corresponding to no data value and4to delineated crown.Having the same cell size and coverage,the validation images were then multiplied so that resulting DN values of3and8were considered success for non-tree and tree crown respectively and DN values of4and6represent omission and commission errors respectively.This method made it possible to produce a contingency matrix for the delineation results.3.RESULTS AND DISCUSSION3.1Detection tree crownThe results of template matching for the detection of tree crowns are presented in ing only seven species made it possible to detect a total of17635tree crowns.The method was able to identify232of the300 reference tree crowns for producer’s accuracy(1-omission error)of77.33%.All templates evaluated were able to detect a signiﬁcant number of individual tree crowns but several crowns were present on more than one template result.Conversely,several objects detected were not trees.Out of114randomly selected detected objects (northeast quadrant of the study area),47were not trees for a user’s accuracy(1-commission error)of58.78% and yielding an overall accuracy approximation of68%(average between producer’s and user’s accuracies).User’s accuracy had to be calculated this way because we did not have a sample of non-trees and this approach seemed more“fair”than considering a non-tree sample.It should also be highlighted that the template for the species Licania tomentosa identiﬁed87%of the detected reference crowns alone.These results are somewhat similarTable1.Results of the Template Matching to detect individual tree crowns.Template Total Features ValidatedMangifera indica 2.23065Terminalia catappa 2.36098Spathodea campanulata22521Licania tomentosa 4.607200Samanea tubulosa 1.00316Caesalpinia pluviosa 2.516153Pachira aquatica 3.794136TOTAL17.635(77,3%)232to that found by Quackenbush et al.,17which used the same technique in Huntington Forest,New York State, USA,witch used eight diﬀerent templates and achieved an overall accuracy of71.2%.Figure5(a)shows the distribution of crowns detected by the seven templates used.Note that a single crown can be identiﬁed by templates of diﬀerent species,which means that,even with a largeﬂoristic diversity patterns, shape and texture are similar in some species.The larger trees(Samanea tubulosa and Spathodea campanulata) had the lowest detection score when compared with the other species evaluated(Table1).Although seven templates from seven tree species were used,there does not appear to be speciﬁc characteristics(crown size,tree height,regularity or irregularity of the crown)unique to any species and any template can detect any species.The two object-based approaches were highly eﬀective in detecting individual tree crowns.The watershed approach made it possible to detect all300samples of validation data for a producer’s accuracy of100%,and region growing identiﬁed286samples for a score of98,66%(Table2).Again,the user’s accuracy was tested by counting how many object were actually trees within the northeast quadrant of the study area:watershed achieved a score of91.22%(104correct out of114)and region growing90.35%(103correct out of114).Figure5(b) and(c)show the results for the study area.In both cases,what deﬁnes the success or failure to detect a crown is not only the segmentation process,but also success of the classiﬁcation.If the classiﬁcation had failed to identify the objects pertaining to the tree crowns class,the overall accuracy would be drastically reduced.Table2.Results of the Region Growing and Watershed approaches for the detection of tree crowns.Approach Validated Trees Producer’s accuracy Invalidated Trees User’s accuracyRegion Growing296(/300)98.66%103(/114)90.35%Watershed300(/300)100%104(/114)91.22%3.2Delineation of individual tree crownsThe results for the individual tree crowns delineation are presented in mission errors occur when a pixel classiﬁed as tree crown really belongs to another class and omission errors when the reference crown is not detected.6The region growing approach delineated properly89.79%of the validation crowns.The commission errors were larger than the omission errors,because it tended,in most cases,to overestimate the size of the objects (crown overﬂow).Watershed delineated correctly83.63%of the crowns,with both omission and commission errors about higher by about50%compared to region growing.Figure6presents a comparison between the results obtained by the two methods on a portion of the study area.(a)(b)(c)Figure 5.Results of the detection of individual tree crowns with (a)Template Matching,(b)Region Growing and (c)Watershed.Table 3.Results of the Region Growing and Watershed approaches to delineation individual tree crowns.Approach Tree Crown Delineated Omission Errors Commission Errors Region Growing106.413pixels 12.097pixels 17.394pixels 89.79%10.20%14.68%Watershed 99.080pixels19.430pixels 25.405pixels 83.60%16.40%21.44%(a)(b)Figure 6.Results for delineation with Region Growing (a)and Watershed (b),with omission and comission errors.The watershed approach had problems with subtle edges,such as where the branches of the tree are less dense and irregularly shaped and where the background (shade and ground)response is greater.This produced irregular boundaries that were incorporated into much larger segments,usually corresponding to the grass.This consequently generated confusion between tree crown and grass,increasing omission errors,or commission errors when portions of grass are classiﬁed as tree crown.Conversely,even the smallest crowns were usually identiﬁed,segmented and classiﬁed correctly.For the region growing approach,a combination of diﬀerent levels and features were used to delineate tree crowns.A single rule would not have been able to properly delineate the crowns without the contribution of several measures like geometry,texture,neighborly relations and spectral characteristics.Isolated tree crowns tended to be formed by only one or two image object (sunlit and shaded portion)and showed greater success inbeing delineated properly.The commission errors were larger and usually were due to the inclusion of part of the shadow cast by the tree as a crown.The fact that shadows creates very compact objects in the segmentation process might contribute to this problem.With the high diversity of shape the sunlit and shaded areas of the tree crown often create a complex pattern not easily simpliﬁed by a model.Pu and Landry4performed this separation by using the NDVI,but in our case,due to the richness,the NDVI values for the illuminated area and shaded area were often the same for diﬀerent crowns.Figure7shows a comparison of the image objects created by the two approaches.With the region growing the shape of objects is usually well deﬁned with a good correspondence to a visual interpretation.However,as already reported by several authors in the literature,the watershed approach tend to produce an over-segmentation of the objects.In this case,we can say that without the validation data,it would be very diﬃcult to correctly determine the proper delineation of the tree crowns.(a)(b)(c)(d)Figure7.Results of the segmentation process with Region Growing(a and b)and Watershed(c and d).Because the coarser spatial resolution of the multispectral bands(two metres instead of50cm)we could not take full advantage of the this information for the segmentation and this was perceived as a strong limiting factor in the classiﬁcation process.This is especially true for the distinction between species or group of species spectrally similar.4.CONCLUSIONSIn this study we compared the performance of diﬀerent methods for the detection and delineation of individual tree crowns in a tropical urban environments using WV-2satellite data.WV-2data proved adequate for the study, but we could not take adequate advantage of the eight multispectral bands for the segmentation/classiﬁcation process,because of its coarser spatial resolution.All three method were able to identify most tree crowns but the two region growing approaches were superior to the template matching approach with producer’s and user’s accuracies over90%.For the crown delineation, the e-Cognition OBIA approach using multilevel segmentation with adjustment of the scale parameter and the ability to use not only spectral,textural and complex features like size and shape for classiﬁcation,but also rule-based relationships between objects brings a new dimension in the possibilities of advanced classiﬁcation.。

木材科学与工程专业英语

专业英语Scientific English Course（木材科学与工程专业用）徐剑莹余德新编中南林业科技大学2017年9月CONTENTS1. China: a country rich in tree species (1)2. Gross Structure of Wood (5)3. Microscopic Structure of Wood (10)4. Wood Cell-Wall Structure (14)5. Wood Chemical Components (18)6. Mechanical Properties of Wood (22)7. Deterioration of wood and wood products (27)8. The drying of wood (37)9. Drying Defects (45)10. Fiber Products (50)11. Plywood Production and Use (58)12. Particleboard and composite products (65)13. Furniture design (76)Lesson OneTextChina: a country rich in tree speciesChina has a total forest area of 208 million ha, covering 21.63% of its territory. The existing timber stock volume is about 15,100 million m3, equal to 11 m3 per capita.The forests are situated mainly in the Daxingan, Xiaoxingan and Changbai mountain ranges in the Northeast and Inner Mongolia; Fujian and Jiangxi Provinces in the East; Guangdong and Hunan Provinces and Guangxi Autonomous Region in Mid-south and Shennongjia in Hubei Province; Sichuan and Yunnan Province in Southwest and Tibetan Autonomous Region.From north to south, China‟s forests can be divided into coniferous belts in the frigid and temperate zones, mixed forest belts of coniferous, deciduous and broadleaf trees in the temperate zone, deciduous and broadleaf forest belts in the warm temperate zone, evergreen forest belts in the sub-tropical zone, and monsoon and rain forests in the tropical zone. Therefore, China is rich in tree species: there are more than 2,800 arbor species, of which about 1,000 are used for industry, 500 of these frequently.Some important industrial tree species are Korean pine, larch, spruce, fir, ash, basswood, birch, Chinese fir, masson pine, schima and castanopsis.Other valuable species are machilus, camphor and Chinese mahogany. Among the fast-growing species are paulownia and poplar, which are adaptable to the north and middle part of China. These trees, with diameters of about 40 cm at 10 years, can be used as timber. Chinese fir, which can be cut for timber at 20 years, is adapted to the broad area to the south of the Yangzi River. China also is rich in bamboo forest resources.New Words1. timber木材,木料2. log原木3. conifer […kounifә]针叶树4. conif erous [kou‟nifәrәs]针叶树的5. deciduous [di‟sidjuәs]落叶的6. broadleaf tree阔叶树7. pine松木8. Masson pine马尾松9. Korean pine红松10. larch [la:tʃ]落叶松11. spruce [spru:s]云杉12. Chinese fir杉木13. ash白蜡树14. bass-wood椴木15. birch桦木16. machilus润楠17. camphor […kӕmfә]樟木18. mahogany [mә‟hɔgeni]红木,桃花木19. schima木荷20. castanopsis栲树21. paulownia [pɔ‟louniә]泡桐22. poplar [pɔplә]杨木23. bamboo毛竹Lesson TwoTextGross Structure of WoodA mature tree, of either the softwood or the hardwood type, generally consists of a single stem which is covered with a layer of bark. This central trunk is the principal source of woody material for the manufacture of lumber and other products. While there is a trend toward the utilization of a greater portion of the tree, the conversion of tree tops and branches into usable material is done only where it is economically feasible. These parts can be converted into chips for pulping or for the manufacture of chipboard, but in many timber producing regions of the world they are considered to be waste and are left in the forest during a logging operation.The gross features of wood are those that are visible to the naked eye or with the aid of a hand lens. Characteristics such as growth increments, sapwood heartwood difference, wood rays and cell distribution patterns can be recognized at this level.1.Cellular CompositionA tree trunk is composed of millions of individual woody cells. These cells differ in size and shape, depending upon their physiological role in the tree, most of them being many times longer than broad. They are arranged on recognizable patterns of distribution within the wood, the organization varying with the species. The long cells which are arranged longitudinally make up the b ulk of the wood and provide “grain” to the material.Cells of the xylem or wood portion of the tree are of two general types, parenchyma and prosenchyma. Parenchymatous cells are food storage elements and must, therefore, remain alive for a longer period than prosenchymatous cells which lose their protoplasm the year in which they are formed. Parenchymatous cells are found in wood rays, as longitudinal or axial parenchyma, and as epithelial cells surrounding resin canals. The term prosenchyma may be applied to all of the other types of cells in mature wood, whether their major physiological role in the living tree may have been conductive or supportive.2.Wood RaysThere are also shorter cells in the tree, cells which areoriented perpendicular to the longitudinal elements andorganized into bands of tissue called wood rays. The cellsfound in wood rays are predominantly parenchyma cells,specialized for food storage, but the rays of some coniferscontain prosenchymatous cells. The presence and structure ofthis type of element (ray tracheid), the height, the width andthe composition of the ray are features frequently useful forthe identification of a wood species.Rays extend radially from the pith, at the center of thestem, to the cambium at the outer periphery of the xylem(wood), and continue into the phloem (bark). Depending onthe manner in which a log is cut, these ribbons of tissuecontribute to the natural figure of lumber and veneer. Woodsplits easiest along the grain and particularly in the plane ofthe wood rays.3.Planes of WoodWhen discussing structural elements and features of wood, it is convenient to specify the aspect or viewpoint with respect to three planes, cross or transverse, radial, and tangential. By cutting across the stem perpendicularly, a surface is exposed which is called a cross or transverse section. A radial section results from cutting longitudinally in the plane of the wood rays, from the pith to the bark. The plane which is perpendicular to the rays and tangent to the bark is called the tangential section. These planes and some of the gross features of wood are illustrated in Fig.1.4End grain and rays are visible on the cross section. This is also the aspect for viewing growth increments as concentric rings. The extent of heartwood development can also be observed in this plane, but both features can be seen on a radial section as well. Ends of rays appear on the tangential section and the pattern formed by them on this surface provides diagnostic evidence in some instances. Rays on the radial section give the appearance of broken ribbons and, depending on their size and contrast, may produce distinctive patterns.The vascular cambium is located at the xylem-phloem interface and is the initiating layer for both of these tissue systems. At the gross level this layer can barely be detected since it is but a few cells wide.4.Sapwood and HeartwoodThe sapwood-heartwood pattern is one of the most obvious features that can be observed on the cross or radial section of a mature tree trunk. Although not as pronounced in all species, most trees have an inner core of dark colored wood, heartwood, and an outer shell of light colored tissue called sapwood. This contrast in color has physiological significance in a general way, but it is not strictly correct to designate the core as heartwood only on the basis of its darker color. A more accurate criterion for heartwood determination is the absence of living cells within the zone, and in particular, cells of ray parenchyma which remain alive far longer than the neighboring prosenchymatous element. For commercial purposes, however, color is the determining factor used for the separation of sapwood from heartwood.Certain characteristic differences can be found between the sapwood and heartwood of the same tree. For example, weight, durability and permeability are often quite different and can be related to the changes which accompany sapwood-heartwood transformation. Reference to permeability differences will be made in the section dealing with pit membranes.5.Growth IncrementsAnother feature which is readily observed on the cross section is the growth increment. The boundaries of these increments are usually related to annual growth in trees grown in temperate climates. In tropical regions, however, growth increments can be the result of wet and dry seasons and the term “annual ring” often used for timbersfrom temperate zones would not be strictly applicable.The nature of the growth layer can be a helpful feature in the identification of wood. In temperate zone hardwoods, for example, patterns can often be observed with the unaided eye, if one examines the tissue within one annual increment. These patterns can be attributed to the size and distribution of pores, the term given to vessel openings as seen in cross section. When the pores in the earlywood are much larger than those formed later in the season, and when the size transition between earlywood and latewood pores is abrupt, the wood is classed as ring porous. If little or no transition in pore size exits between early-and latewood, the term diffuse porous is applied. Semi-ring porous or semi-diffuse porous are used to describe wood in which the pore patterns are not distinctly of the ring porous nor of the diffuse porous type. The three conditions are illustrated in Fig.1.6.New Words and Expression1. gross structure 宏观构造, 粗视构造2. mature tree 成熟林3. softwood 软材hardwood 硬材4. stem 树干5. bark 树皮6. trunk 树干7. chip 木片chipboard 碎料板8. pulp 浆料pulping 制浆9. logging 采伐10. growth layer 年轮, 生长层, 生长轮growth ring 年轮11.sapwood 边材heartwood 心材12. wood ray 木射线13. cell distribution pattern 细胞排列类型14. xylem [zailem] 木质部15. parenchyma [pә‟reŋki:mә]薄壁组织16. prosenchyma [p rou‟seŋki:mә]锐端细胞组织prosenchymatous cell 锐端细胞17. protoplasm [ 'prәutәplæzәm ] 原生质, 细胞质18. resin canal=resin duct 树脂道19. epithelial[ ,epi'θi:ljәl ] cell 分泌细胞20. tracheid [ 'treikiid ] 管胞21 cambium […kӕmbiәm]形成层22. phloem […flouem]韧皮部23. grain 纹理24. pith 髓(心)25. pit 纹孔26. pit membrane […membrein]纹孔膜27. ring-porous wood 环孔材28. diffuse porous wood 散孔材Lesson ThreeTextMicroscopic Structure of WoodMost of the gross structural features of wood considered in the previous sections have their origin in the sorting and arrangement of the various cell types found in wood. When thin sections of wood are examined with a light microscope, cellular composition can readily be observed. The cells are held together by inter-cellular substance, but should this middle lamella be dissolved through chemical treatment, the cellular composite is separated into individual elements. This, in fact, is the commercial process known as pulping which is employed to produce fibers for paper manufacture. Microscopic examination of pulp samples of hardwood and of softwood reveals that there are significant differences in the sizes and shapes of cells from these two sources.Major Cell TypesAs was mentioned earlier, wood contains parenchyma and prosenchyma. Parenchyma cells in softwood do not differ greatly from those found in heartwood. They are generally short, thin-walled cells with simple pits. Their shape can be quite variable, but in the wood rays, where most parenchyma is located, they are predominantly brick-shaped, particularly in coniferous wood. In softwoods, parenchyma forms but a small portion of the total woody tissue, less than five percent of the total volume in some species, probably averaging 7 to 8% for all conifers. In some hardwoods, parenchyma may form as much as one-third of the wood volume. This occurs in woods having aggregate or oak-type rays, but the average for hardwoods is less than 20%, or more than double that of the softwoods.The tissue of softwoods is simpler from the standpoint of variety of cell types. Besides the parenchyma in the wood rays, resin canals and longitudinal tracheids make up as much as 95% of the total wood volume of some coniferous species. These are long, imperforate cells having walls which may be thich or thin, depending on location of the cell in the growth increment. In cross section, tracheids are polygonal in shape, more or less square in earlywood and flattened radially in the latewood. In compressionwood, tracheids are more or less rounded in transverse section.Compared with the prosenchymatous elements of hardwood, coniferous tracheids are very long. In some species they are 7 mm or more in length. This feature makes wood of the conifers more desirable for paper manufacturing because it contributes to greater paper strength.Ray tracheids appear in the wood of some conifers, usually at the upper or lower margins of the wood rays, but in some cases the ray may consist solely of this type of cell. These prosenchymatous elements have bordered pits that are smaller than those found in the longitudinal tracheids and which distinguish them from the ray parenchyma cells which have only simple pits. In the hard pines, ray tracheids contain dentate thickenings on their inner walls. Ray tracheids do not occur in woods of the angiosperms.The vessel is the distinctive tracheary structure of the hardwoods. As viewed in cross section, where it is called a pore, it has a larger lumen than other cell types. Individual vessel elements are tubular, open-ended cells which, when joined end-to-end, form the vessel. They are relatively thin-walled cells specialized for conduction longitudinally in the tree. Extensive pitting is typical of most vessel walls, these openings providing for lateral conduction to neighboring cells. As viewed on the cross section, pores may be arranged in clusters, chains, multiples or as solitary openings. Grouping is sometimes of diagnostic significance.Vessel elements vary in size and shape depending upon the wood species and upon location in the growth increment. Vessels of the springwood in the ring-porous woods are of large diameter while those of the summerwood are quite small. In diffuse-porous woods, vessel diameters are nearly uniform across the growth ring. The variability in size and shape of vessel elements is illustrated in Fig.1.12b, d and e.A cell type of completely different appearance than the vessel element is the libriform fiber. This type of element is thick-walled, narrow-lumened and elongated. It is adapted for strength and support rather than conduction since it has imperforate tapered ends and small, slit-like, simple pits.In addition to these two specialized hardwood prosenchymatous elements, there are others which have features that would indicate a dual role in the living tree, involving both conduction and support. Tracheids or fiber-tracheids, similar in appearance to coniferous tracheids though shorter in length, (ca. 1.5mm), are relatively thick-walledwith bordered pits. Vascular tracheids resemble small vessel elements, but the ends of the cells are imperforate. Vasicentric tracheids are more fiber-like, but are nevertheless short, thin-walled and irregular-shaped. They also have bordered pits.On a weight basis, coniferous tracheids make up 97.8% of the wood of pinus sylvestris (PERILA and HEITTO, 1959) and an equal amount in Picea abies. Therefore, the parenchyma constitute a small percentage of the weight of softwood and only about 7% of the volume.In hardwoods there is wide variation in the proportions of cell types. PERILA found that the fibers of Betula verrucosa make up 86.1% of the weight of the wood, the vessels 9.3%, and the parenchyma cells 4.6%. volumetric data for this species are not available, but in Betula lutea, the fibers make up 63.8%, the vessels 21.4% and the parenchyma 12.8%. In a more porous species, Tilia Americana L., the vessels form as much as 55.6% of the volume of the wood, the fibers 36.1%, and the total parenchyma volume is only 8.3%, a small amount for a hard wood. At the other extreme, the vessels of Hicoria ovata (now Carya ovata) constitute only 6.5% of the total wood volume, while parenchyma totals 28% and fibers 66.5%New Words1. aggregate [ 'ægrigeit ] rays 聚合射线2. Longitudinal tracheid 轴向管胞3. ray tracheid 射线管胞4. margin 边缘5. dentate […denteit] thickenings锯齿状加厚6. angiosperm 被子植物7. bordered-pit 具缘纹孔8. distinguish[ dis'tiŋgwiʃ ] 区别, 识别, 辨别9. distinctive 区别性的, 有特色的, 与众不同的10. lumen […lu:min]细胞腔(单)lumina […lu:minә]细胞腔(复)11. lateral 侧向的12. cluster 一串, 一束, 一群, 一组13. multiple pores 复管孔14. ring-porous wood 环孔材15. diffuse-porous wood 散孔材16. libriform [laibraifɔ:m] fiber 木纤维, 韧性纤维17. imperforate [im‟pә:fәrit]无孔隙的, 不穿孔的Lesson FourTextWood Cell-Wall StructureOne must delve deeply into the structure of wood to understand its basic nature. Examination with a light microscope will reveal the details of pit and wall structure essential to making identifications at the species level. Even greater detail of the wall structure is revealed by the higher resolving power of the electron microscope. These observations are not only useful for identification but also essential to our understanding of the relationships between wood structure and its properties and behavior.Examination at the higher levels of magnification, as shown in Figure 3.14, reveals the cell wall to be composed of a number of layers. The neighboring cells are joined together by a lignin-rich layer known as the middle lamella. This layer is dissolved in a chemical pulping process to separate the wood into pulp fibers. The main structural components of the cell wall are threadlike elements called microfibrils, which are organized and oriented differently in each layer of the cell wall.Primary WallThe thin, outermost layer of the cell wall, which is formed first during the development of the cell, is known as the primary wall (p). The microfibrils in this wall are arranged irregularly in flat helixes. As the cell reaches full size, the wall is thicken by the addition of a three-layered secondary wall laid down from inside the cell. The layers of the secondary wall are numbered consecutively: s1 is closest to the outside primary wall, s2 makes up the bulk of the cell wall, and s3 is nearest the inside lumen of the elongated tracheid cell.S1 LayerThe s1 layer is relatively thin and is composed of several laminae, or layers. The microfibrils in successive laminae exhibit an alternating right-and left-handed, almost flat helical arrangement.S2 LayerThis thick layer contains many laminae and makes up the bulk of the cell wall. The microfibrils are arranged in a steep right-handed helical arrangement so that they are nearly parallel to the cell axis.S3 LayerThe innermost layer of the secondary wall, the s3 layer, is similar to the s1 layer, being thin and having microfibrils oriented in flat helixes with both right-and left-handed orientations. An even thinner layer known as the warty layer may line the lumens of the tracheids and fibers of many species.MicrofibrilsThe importance of the orientation of the microfibrils to many properties of wood becomes clearer when the structure of the microfibril is considered.Each microfibril consists of linear cellulose molecules arranged in strands which pass through phases of parallel and nonparallel order, known as crystalline andamorphous regions. In the crystalline regions, the molecules are called crystallites, afterthe crystallike form they assume, and are oriented essentially parallel to the microfibril axis. In the amorphous regions, the cellulose molecules exhibit a lack of parallel order and there may be a higher proportion of shorter chain molecules. Thus, the crystallites are separated from each other by amorphous regions. The forces bonding the crystallites together along the microfibril axis are much stronger than those that bond them together laterally. As a result, strength and stiffness of wood are influenced by the orientation of the microfibril elements.New Words1. delve [delv] 探究,钻研2. reveal 揭示, 揭露3. resolve [ri:zɔlv] 分辨, 解析, 解决4. magnification 放大5. lignin 木素6. middle lamella [lә‟melә]胞间层7. microfibril[ ,maikrәʊ'faibril] 微纤丝8. primary wall 初生壁9. helix […hi:liks]螺旋线(单)10. secondary wall 次生壁11. consecutively 连续地, 顺序地12. warty layer 瘤层13. cellulose[ 'seljulәus ] 纤维素14. crystalline […kristәlain] region结晶区15. amorphous [ә‟mɔ‟fәs] region非结晶区, 无定形区16. crystal […kristl]结晶(体)17. crystallite […kristәlait]微晶Lesson FiveTextWood Chemical ComponentsThe Components of WoodIn contrast to petroleum and other nonrenewable raw materials, wood is a constantly renewable resource. All wood is formed from carbon dioxide, which is taken from the air, and from water, which is taken from the soil along with small amounts of dissolved minerals. The element composition of dry wood is about 50% carbon, 6% hydrogen, 44% oxygen, and less than 0.1% nitrogen. There is little variation in these figures from one species of wood to another. During photosynthesis, cells containing chlorophyll in the leaves and needles absorb radiant energy from sunlight and use it to convert these simple compounds into more complex substances, which eventually form the different components of wood.Wood is composed of several different types of organic material, the principal components being cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Other components present in lesser amounts are extractives (approximately 5%) and inorganic material (approximately 0.3%), consisting mainly of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, and manganese, and including a wide variety of trace elements. Bark makes up 10-15% of the bole or main stem of the tree; foliage, 6-9% of the bole.Wood is stronger than steel per unit of weight. Its great strength is due to the cellulose and in part to the hemicelluloses. Lignin acts as a glue, binding the cellulose molecules together to form the basic wood structure. Wood can thus be compared with glass-reinforced resin, or fiberglass, in which the strong glass fibers are held together by the synthetic resin. Wood differs from fiberglass, however, in having a cellular structure.A wide variety of substances, commonly called extractives, are nonuniformly distributed within the walls and cavities of the cells. Many of these extractives are of relatively low molecular weight and tend to make one wood species superior or inferior to another for certain uses.LigninLignin is a complex and high molecular weight polymer built upon phenylpropane units. Although composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, lignin is not a carbohydrate nor even related to this class of compound. It is, instead, essentially phenolic in nature. Lignin is quite stable and difficult to isolate and occurs, moreover, in a variety of forms; because of this, the exact composition as it occurs within wood remains an uncertainty.Lignin occurs between individual cells and within the cell walls. Between cells, it serves as a binding agent to hold the cells together. Within cell walls lignin is very intimately associated with cellulose and serves in imparting rigidity to the cell. Lignin is also credited with reducing dimensional change with moisture content fluctuation and is said to add to wood‟s toxicity, thus m aking it resistant to decay and insect attack.Lignin is thermoplastic—meaning that it becomes soft and pliable at higher temperatures and hard again as cooling occurs. The thermoplastic character of lignin is basic to the manufacture of hardboard and other densified wood products.CelluloseThe most important component of both hardwoods and softwoods is cellulose, which generally amounts to 41-45% of the dry wood by weight. It is the main structural element of tree fibers and the major constituent of pulp.Cellulose is a linear polymer composed of several thousand glucose units. The chemical linkages between the glucose units can be broken by mineral acid, reverting the cellulose polymer to the glucose molecules for which it was built.Each glucose unit of cellulose contains three hydroxyl (-OH) groups, except the two end units, which contain four. The hydroxyl groups give cellulose its principal chemical properties and are the reactive sites to which other chemical groups can be attached in the preparation of derivatives, such as cellulose acetate. The hydroxyl groups strongly attract water molecules and thus are the major cause of the swelling and shrinking of wood. They also attract the hydroxyl groups of adjacent cellulose molecules, creating microfibrils, which are threadlike bundles of cellulose molecules that lie approximately parallel to each other (Muhlethaler 1965).Microfibrils contain regions where the cellulose molecules are sufficiently rigid and regular to be distinguished by x-ray diffraction as crystalline. These crystalline regions, or crystallites, which form up to 70% of natural wood celluloses, make much of it relatively inaccessible to chemical reaction. Water, for example, readily penetrates the amorphous regions of cellulose but cannot enter the crystallites.HemicellulosesHemicelluloses are the noncellulosic polysaccharides of the cell wall. Polysaccharides are polymers formed from simple sugars. Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed from glucose sugar only. The hemicelluloses, in contrast, are formed from a number of sugars, the most important of which are glucose, galactose, mannose, xylose,and arabinose.Hemicelluloses usually constitute 23-30% of both hardwoods and softwoods. They are structurally more complex than cellulose, lower in molecular weight (usually between 100 and 200 sugar units per molecule), and generally amorphous before isolation.New Words and Expressionsin contrast to与…相反renewable可再生的, 可更新的photosynthesis [foutou‟sinѲәsis]光合作用chlorophyll [klɔ:rәfil]叶绿素cellulose […seljulous]纤维素hemicelluloses半纤维素trace element 痕量元素foliage [foulidʒ]树叶extractives [iks‟trӕktives]抽提物cavity of the cell细胞腔glucose […glu:kous]葡萄糖hydroxyl [hai‟drɔksil]羟基galactose [gә‟lӕktous]半乳糖mannose […mӕnous]甘露糖xylose […zailous]木糖arabinose [әreibnous]果胶糖, 阿拉伯糖xylan […zailӕn]木聚糖phenylpropane [fenilproupein]苯丙烷carbohydrate […ka:bou‟haidreit]碳水化合物fluctuation [ ,flʌktju'eiʃәn ] 波动, 起伏, 变化thermoplastic […Ѳә:mo u‟plӕstik] 热塑性材料pliable […plaiәbl]可塑的, 可弯的derivatives [di‟rivәtivs]派生物, 衍生物acetate […ӕsitit] 醋酸盐polysaccharide […pɔli‟sӕkәraid]高聚糖, 多糖Lesson SixTextMechanical Properties of WoodThe strength and resistance to deformation of a material are referred to as its mechanical properties. Strength is the ability of a material to carry applied loads or forces. Resistance to deformation determines the amount a material is compressed, distorted, or bent under an applied load. Changes in shape that take place instantaneously as a load is applied and are recoverable when the load is removed are termed elastic deformation. If the deformation, on the other hand, develops slowly after the load is applied, it is termed a rheological or time-dependent property.Mechanical properties are usually the most important characteristics of wood products to be used for structural building materials. Structural application may be defined as any use where mechanical properties are the primary criteria for selection of the material. Figure 10.1 shows two structural applications of wood. Structural uses of wood products include floor joists and rafters in wood-frame homes, power line transmission poles, plywood roof sheathing and subflooring, glue-laminated beams in commercial buildings, particleboard flooring in mobile homes, laminated roof decking in commercial buildings, rails of wood ladders, sailboat masts, and frames of upholstered furniture.The term strength is often used in a general sense to refer to all mechanical properties. This can lead to confusion, since there are many different types of strength and elastic properties. It is important to be very specific about the type of mechanical properties being discussed. A wood that is relatively strong with respect to one strength property may rank lower in a different property as compared to another species. Some of the most important mechanical properties of wood products are listed in table 10.1.To appreciate the meaning of the various strength properties of wood, it is necessary to understand some basic definitions of engineering mechanics.Concepts of stress, strain, and flexureTwo basic terms used throughout the study of mechanics are stress and strain.。

英、拉、汉树木名称电子词典研制说明书

收稿日期: 2003 05 20 基金项目: 中国林业科学研究院科技发展基金资助( 2003) 作者简介: 郑勇奇( 1964 ) , 男, 湖北天门市人, 研究员, 首软件功能
英、拉、汉树木名称电子词典第 1 版( TreeName 1 0) 具有树种的英文、拉丁文和中文名称之间的相互翻译查询功能。词典收集了近万条树种名称词条, 查询界面简单明了, 操作方便易学, 并具有词库扩充、在线帮助等功能。本电子词典除具有正常印刷词典的各种树木名称查询的功能外, 还能提供树种的描述信息。利用本词典, 能够进行快速有效的英、拉、汉树种名称对查, 并获得树种的相关信息, 为工作提供极大的帮助。
3 应用条件和环境
树木名称电子词典采用 Visual C+ + 编程并编译, 在 Windows ( 包括 Windows 98, Windows 2000) 环境下运行。计算机硬件最低配置包括 32 兆内存和 5 兆左右硬盘空间。系统安装需要 3 5∀软驱或 5 4∀光驱。
4 软件说明
软件界面如图 2 所示, 窗体上部为查询输入部分, 窗体下部为查询结果部分。窗体标题栏右边为系统功能按钮。从左往右依次为: 第 1 个为帮助按钮, 点击它可以弹出帮助窗口; 第 2 个为菜单按钮, 点击它可以弹出下拉菜单; 第 3 为最小化按钮, 点击它可以退回到桌面右下角的系统任务栏中, 点击其图标查询窗口可以再次弹出。第 4 个为程序关闭钮, 点击它可以结束程序的运行。窗体上部编辑框为关键词输入栏, 在此栏输入关键词即可完成查询功能, 此栏具有记忆功能, 能够记忆用户以前输入的查询词汇。在输入栏的后面有两个按键分别为查询!和清除!, 点击查询!按键即可完成查询工作, 点击清除!按键即可清除输入栏和输出栏内显示的文字。窗体下部为查询结果和相关设置部分。左边为输入词汇的相关词汇列表, 右边为对应词汇的其他两种语言解释和相关中文说明。相关设置部分可对输入语种和查询方法进行选择。

林学英语专业词汇

同龄林forest consisting of even-aged stand在一种特定相互排列空间下或已届成熟伐采利用和更新面积上由相同和相近年龄林分组成之乔林。

与属于此经营型式之伐区式乔林同义：有皆伐、伞伐、林缘及择伐划伐作业。

掠夺式经营exploitation management；high grading是昔时不考虑永续性的一种经营式。

违反一般的森林经营法则。

间歇经营、间歇经营林；间歇作业intermittent production；forest under intermittent management是一种时有时无木材利用的经营型式，即不是每年都有木材收获的作法，多见于小规模之经营。

林分经营；林分管理stand management；management on a stand basis是一种经营型式，其林分在规划、作业或经营过程中也常被视为是经济和记帐之单元。

立木蓄积、立木度stocking (=d)(德)一定面积上之林木实际材积为立木蓄积(奥)与立木度同义，日常用语中有时也用在立木度对森林林分、森林地点、护管地、森林区描述上之相对尺度。

作业种；育林(造林)系统forest system透过一定方式去建造、抚育、收获和林分更新并将其诱导至特定森林结构(树种、年龄及空间结构)的森林处理技术。

依建造和经营方式不同可区别为矮林、中林和乔林等作业种。

更新作业法；作业法silvicultural system根据森林中更新方式如人工或天然以及伐采等方式所作的次一级经营分类。

稽核；照查control是一种经营经济上的监控措施，透过系统规划和必要的管制，可以达到经济上和企业上的目标。

森林经营中之各类信息是森林企业经营稽核中的重要基础。

永续林；恒续林continuous cover forest属于一种林地上始终有树冠覆盖、实行单株经营而舍弃面积式处理结构完整的森林生态体系。

在同一经营单元内可以见到不同时间和空间上相邻或上下排列的发育阶段，此定义在1920年由莫勒氏（Moller）所定。

果树鉴定流程的规定

果树鉴定流程的规定英文回答：Fruit Tree Identification Process.The identification of fruit trees is a systematic process that involves careful observation and analysis of various physical characteristics. Here is a step-by-step guide to fruit tree identification:1. Observation of General Characteristics: Begin by observing the overall shape and size of the tree, including its height, spread, and branching pattern. Note the presence of any thorns or spines on the branches.2. Examination of Leaves: Study the shape, size, margin, and texture of the leaves. Pay attention to their arrangement on the branches (alternate or opposite), aswell as the presence of any trichomes (hairs).3. Analysis of Flowers: If present, examine the flowers carefully. Note their size, shape, color, and number of petals. Determine whether the flowers are borne in clusters or individually.4. Inspection of Fruits: Observe the fruits, noting their size, shape, color, and texture. Examine the fruit's skin for any distinguishing features, such as russeting or lenticels.5. Consideration of Cultural Practices: Gather information about the cultivation practices associated with the tree, such as the rootstock used and any specific pruning techniques employed.6. Use of Reference Materials: Consult field guides, botanical keys, or online resources to compare the observed characteristics with known species of fruit trees.7. Consulting with Experts: If unable to identify the tree based on the available information, consider seeking assistance from a horticulturist, arborist, or plantidentification specialist.中文回答：果树鉴定流程。

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exotic: n. trees introduced from other cities or foreign countries.
“guess” the meaning of words from context
synonyms or antonyms
“Twigs are useful in identifying trees except for a short period during the spring when the buds are opening and shoots are elongating on these small branches.”
Purpose of the course
• to get familiar with specialized vocabulary • to understand professional articles • to improve communicative competence
professionally and academically
What are the differences between ESP and General English?
• ESP • longer and more complicated sentences • closely related to certain major • Involve academic reading rism
•
accounting
What is ESP?
• for any purpose that could be speciﬁed • used in academic studies • or for vocational or professional purposes
Characteristics of ESP
• use a different methodology from that of General English in speciﬁc teaching situations
What is General English?
• English for General Purposes • for daily communication • not focus on certain discipline or purpose • e.g. CET 4 & 6
pome：a fresh fruit like apple or pear
sentence analysis
1. Tree identiﬁcation in urban locations requires knowing many trees because of the numerous exotics that have been introduced from around the country and the world. (para 1)
• meet speciﬁc needs of the learners
• related to or designed for speciﬁc disciplines
• generally designed for intermediate or advanced students
• assume some basic knowledge of the language systems
indehiscent：of dry fruits that do not split open at maturity
dehiscent：of dry fruits that do split open when ripe
not to “know” the word but to “guess” the meaning keep on reading
unit 1 Tree identiﬁcation and measurement
Lecture 3
Explanation of the text A
“guess” the meaning of words from context
“The two primary forms of dry fruit are indehiscent, meaning not split open at maturity, and dehiscent, meaning split open when ripe.”
twig：small branch
“guess” the meaning of words from context
examples
—more details to infer the meaning
“Fleshy fruits are usually multi-seeded; the seeds are surrounded by a ﬂeshy pulp, or pericarp, which is sometimes edible. These may be classiﬁed as a berry (blueberry and persimmon), drupe (cherry, plum, and holly), or pome (apple or pear).”
What are the differences between ESP and General English?
• ESP • more professional vocabulary • e.g. cambium • familiar words with new specialized meanings • e.g. stand
Lecture 1 Course Introduction
• English for Forestry Science
What is ESP?
• ESPecially for you?
• English for Speciﬁc Purposes
• e.g. science and technology