戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 5
The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1) It‘s applicable to nouns only; 2) Even within the category of nouns, there are still some nouns can not be named by physical objects.
Semantic triangle or triangle of significance (语义三角或意义三角)
THOUGHT/ REFERENCE (ept)
SYMBOL/ FORM…….. REFERENT (所指)
Linguistic element (words, phrases)
grammatical meaning (语法意义): grammaticality (语法性), which is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. semantic meaning (语义意义): is governed by rules called selectional restrictions (选择 限制), i. e. , constraints on what lexical items can go with what others (即对词汇项搭
X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) X 蕴含 Y (Y是 X的一个含义) e.g. X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe. ―He has been to France‖ entails ―He has been to Europe‖ 或者 “He has been to Europe‖ is entailed by ―He has been to France‖. If X is true, Y is necessarily true. If X is false, Y may be true or false. 如果X为真,那么Y必定为假，如果X为假, 那么Y可 能为真也可能为假.
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋 Semantics
Relational （关系）opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husbandwife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …
evaluative meaning, e.g.collaborator（合作者） accomplice（帮凶）,…
4) Collocational（搭配的） synonyms, e.g.
accuse…of（控告）, charge…with, rebuke（ 谴 责）…for; …
5) Semantically different synonyms, e.g. amaze （suggesting confusing and bewilderment）, astound (suggesting difficulty in believing),…
Chapter 5 Semantics
▪ Semantics----the study of language meaning.
▪ What is meaning?---- Scholars under different scientific backgrounds have different understandings of language meaning.
戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记-自己整理版(DOC)
Chapter 1 IntroductionWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究)Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.[B] The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.(How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性② Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性（现代英语多研究共时性）The description of a language at some point in time;The description of a language as it changes through time.③ Speech and writing 言语与文字Spoken language is primary, not the written④ Langue and parole 语言和言语Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter 5
Major sense relations (主要的意义关系)
Synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning. (同义现象) Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning. (多义现象) Homonymy: different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (同音异义) Hyponymy: the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. (下义关系) Antonymy: oppositeness of meaning (反义现象)
The naming theory
Proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, words are just names or labels for things. Limitations: 1) It‘s applicable to nouns only; 2) Even within the category of nouns, there are still some nouns can not be named by physical objects.
Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.
Some views concerning the study of meaning
chapter syntax 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
2.4 Phrasal categories and their structures
• NP名词短语: a tall man, the student • VP动词短语: read a book, walk in the park • PP介词短语: in the park, after dark • AP形容词短语: quite rude, very anxious
2.Categories（范畴）
Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. 指词类和功能(n, v, pre, adj, adv…) 专门指语言单位的特性(number, gender, person, case, mood, concord/agreement, government)
Either my brothers or my father is coming. Not only you but also he is wrong. Neither Tom nor I am a student.
2.2.2 Government (支配关系)
• The idea of government is the way in which certain prepositions and verbs determine the case of nouns.
IC Analysis refers to divide the sentence up into immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents.
《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件
Chomsky’s definition (1957)
“From now on I will consider language to be a
set of (finite or infinite) sentenБайду номын сангаасes, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”
• • • • •
Arbitrariness Productivity/Creativity Duality Displacement Cultural transmission
Arbitrariness
----No logical (motivated or intrinsic) connection between sounds and meanings. Onomatopoeic words (which imitate natural sounds) are somewhat motivated ( English: rumble, crackle, bang, …. Chinese: putong, shasha, dingdang… ) Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary, e.g. type-writer, shoe-maker, air-conditioner, photocopy…
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第5章课件 _Syntax
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
Noam Chomsky [ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski] (1928--)
---- He is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician,political commentator and activist, the most influential linguist of the 20th century,and was voted the "world's top public intellectual"(世界顶级公共知识分子) in a 2005 poll. Chomsky has spent most of his career at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where he is currently Professor Emeritus.
英语语言学Syntax PPT
VP
V NP
Types of VP VP V PP V
VP
S
hit the ball speak about the book said VP VP
that he had told lies
V
run
Adv
VБайду номын сангаас
fast Look!
PP Prepositional Phrase -A phrase containing a preposition and a noun phrase. --on the table. --in the park --with the telescope It is possible to have a PP within a PP: --in the park with the telescope
PP P NP
AP Deg Adj
about
the book
very little
e.g.
S
NP
VP V-Bar
specifier head Complement
Susan rarely does
so
6.Transformational Generative Grammar TG • A description of the possible rules of human language that allow for infinite production of grammatical sentences. • tries to define a universal grammar (UG)
• Three levels of transformational rules: • The basic rule is Chomsky’s universal grammar ,the underlying principle • The second type is the obligatory rules that govern the transformations of auxiliaries and principles • The third type is the optional transformational rules that govern the transformatons of negotion ,passive voice ,interrogation
chapter syntax 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
1) Grammatical concord(语法一致原则)
This principle refers to the rule that the verb must match its subject in number.
Fifteen miles seems like a long walk to me. Fifty-six dollars was stolen from the cash register.
3) Principle of Proximity(就近原则)
This principle denotes agreement of the verb with a closely preceding noun phrase. (there be, or, either…or, neither…nor, not only… but also, whether … or … ) e.g There is a pen, a few envelops and some paper for you.
Chapter 4 Syntax
1.What is syntax?
• A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Either my brothers or my father is coming. Not only you but also he is wrong. Neither Tom nor I am a student.
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋
06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程,戴炜栋06422英语语言学—新编简明英语语言学教程, 戴炜栋ContentsChapter 1 Introduction (1)Chapter 2 Phonology (5)Chapter 3 Morphology (8)Chapter 4 Syntax (9)Chapter 5 Semantics (12)Chapter 6 Pragmatics (16)Chapter 7 Historical linguistics (19)Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics (24)Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics (29)Chapter 10 Language Acquisition (32)Chapter 1 Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
戴炜栋语言学名词解释
The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds within this range areThe study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds insounds from the speaker’s point of view, . how a speaker’s point of view, . how the soundsIt studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which theIt studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means byletter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequencesletter symbol, together with the diacritics to show soundsa system of symbols consists of lettersa speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.The vowel which consists of two individual vowels and are produced by moving’s representedwhich can represent the same phoneme in different phoneticThe description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds form’t distinguishparticular language.The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallyTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than thethe initial consonantof words and rulesA group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new wordsA group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept newwithout alteringchanges the meaningof a word, and which usually changes the part The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changescombined wit others. .Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word.categories,how morphemes combineA combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modificationare added to an existingA branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences andsame or similar functionsWords can be grouped together into a relatively small number ofone type of word level categories, which often assumed to be theone type of word level categories, which helps or modifies majorsyntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized asofelements of the same typeknown as coordination.)s complement is included in the headThe sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complementthe elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause isembedded is called matrixof heads is calleda way, proposed by British linguist G. Leech, to analyze sentencethe logical relationAn argument is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical withWhether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, . constraints on what lexical items can go withThe smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described ashas the semantic features [+human]The specific turn that has the function of prefiguring the coming action.The study of how speakers uses sentences to effect successful communication.speakersand de-contextualizedThe meaning that a speaker conveys by using a particular utterance inSearle, which believest state a fact or describe a state,The act of uttering words,phrases,clauses and conveying literal meaningperformed in sayingThe act resulting from saying something and the consequence or theA group of people who form a community and share the same language or(GENERAL LINGUISTICS)interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varietiesIt refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker orA variety of language used by people living in the same geographicalthe linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class and causedwhich is selected as appropriate to the type of situation.s dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements, regardingThe totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individualA theory proposed by Halliday, who believed that three social variables’s going on: to the area of operartion of the languageIt refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand toIt refers to the means of communication and it is concerned with how,socially prestigious dialect of a language;it’s usuallyto Martinintimate, casual, consultative,a special language varity that mixes or blends languages and is used by peoplewhen a pidgin has become the primary language and acquired as a native languages creole.two different languages side by side with each having a differentof language that serves as a medium of communication among groupsused by bilingual speakers.(04)The total way of life of a person, including the patterns of belief, customs,It refers to the common ways that members of some social group useand behaviorscategorizedifferent language offer people difference ways of expressing thelanguage, to some extent, determines the way in which we view is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the languageThe association of a word, apart from its primary meaning,showingSomething 11. euphemism: a word or phrase that replace a taboo word or is used to avoid reference toThrough communication, some elements of culture A enter culture Border to protect the purity of their language, some countries18. language planning: planning, usually by a government, concerning choice of national orthe additionWords known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons ofTraditional behaviourists view language as behaviourbeings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics ofs acquisition of his mother tongue, . howhuman childof everyA special speech to children used by adults, which is characterized with slow又叫at the rightThe hypothesis that the time span between early childhood and puberty is the critical period for language acquisition, during which children can acquire language without formalExtension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of applications early multiword speech that contains content words andmeaningWords with little meaning on their own but show grammatical relationshipsWords known to speakers but avoided in some contexts of speech for reasons ofSome acquisition of language may be delayed but follow the sameconventional words for something else when a proper word is available,then they contrast it children may begin a word with a prototype and extend its featuresacquirescommunication(as a mediumIt compares comparable features of the native language and targethypothesis in second language acquisition. It predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structure with ease, where there are differences, the learner willthe transfer occurs when both the native language and target languages native language into a It firstly describes interlanguage independently or objectively then aerrors, which mainly result from cross-linguistic interference atErrors, which mainly result from faulty or partial learning of thewhichpronunciation.unintentionally deviant from the target languge and not self-corrigible by themistakes, defined as either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms andin language,based on the study of a learner’sthe differnces between native and target languages would either lead to ppositive transfers use of prior linguistic information or some physically carryover oflanguage which a learner hears or receives and from which he or she can learn.by Krashen , which states that in second language’s present linguistic competence. Eventually the ability to produce language is said to emerge naturally without being taught, informal learning or natural learning.):to the way children acquire their first language,withoutlearning is a conscious learning of second language knowledge by learning theInput language which contains linguistic items that are slightly’s believed to be relatedaffective state or learning drive,has a strong impactthat people learn a foreign language for externalthe drive that people learn a foreign language because of thethe drive that learners learn a second language for externalthe drive that learners learn the second language for enjoyment’ conscious goal-oriented andin analyzing, synthesis, and internalizing what’language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in whichuse the study of language processing. It is concerned with the processesA technique in which stimuli either linguistic or non-linguistic are presented through headphones to the left and right ear to determine the lateralization ofthe perceptionThe experiments that investigate the effects of surgically severing It refers to a number of acquired language disorders due to the cerebral lesions Damage to parts of the brain in front of the central sulcus is called Damage to parts of the left cortex behind the central sulcus results inoften causes the impairment of reading and writing ability, which is referred to as acquired dyslexia.it is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems toit is a type of acquired dyslexia in which the patient seems unablerules.the process that before the participants make a decision whether the string ofused words than an experiment that let participants judge whether a string of letterof letters:24.Minimal attachment:we prefer attaching new items into the phrase marker being constructed using the fewest syntactic nodes consistent with the rules of the language. (e g. Mike kissed Lucy and her sister…)closure:wherever possible, we prefer to attach new items to the current constituent to reduce the burden on working memory during parsing..: Tom said that Bill had taken the cleaning out yesterday. )model: in word comprehension,words are analysed by hearers from beginning to end.restrictions--- a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning form part of the word-processing system28. Hierarchical Structure----Our representation od complex words is organized in terms of hierarchical morphological structure.’s model of speech production:Four stages of production: conceptualizing----- > formulating---- >articulating---- > self-monitoring.(1) Conceptualizing: we must conceptualize what we wish to communicate.(2)Formulating: we formulate this thought into linguistic plan in the Formulator. It contains grammatical and phonological process and draws upon the lexicon.(3) articulating:the information is passed to the Articulator from Formulator which actually produces the utterance.(4) self-monitoring.:We monitor our speech, to assess whether it is what we intended to say and how we intended to say it.．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．1. Acculturation(同化过程） is a process in which members of one cultural groupadopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）; a sequence of two utterances by different speake rs in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/ans wer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of o ne word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is gramma tically linked to it. . in the sentence The boy goes to school every day. There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tra ct to produce different speech sounds.(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal struct ure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the prog ressive.(完成体和进行体)(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop co nsonant. . /p/ in the word pit.（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Conson ants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of ar ticulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）: meanings that are explicable in the l ight of converational maxims.competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social si tuations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large uni t within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, pr epositional phrase and clause.(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has onl y one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronoun s have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not rea dily accept new members.（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can a ppear in a language.（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meani ngless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the sec ond) is inferred from the truth of the other.（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid ref erence to certain acts or subjects,. powder room for toilet.path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a pa rticular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the senten ce.variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded (失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the e xploded(爆破)counterpart.（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to app ear in a particular form. . a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun f ollowing it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.universal (语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human l anugages.franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of p eople wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.; The study of the effect of language on society.: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.relation: (纵组合关系) The substitutional relation between a set of linguisti c items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted f or each other in the same position in a word or sentence. , b,p,s,f are in para digmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Hon esty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. . in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntag matic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature puri fies the mind.（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance me aningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppos tion of “Take some more tea”.(典型)sh speakers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. . system from un- + system + atic + ally.（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more c omplex form that may be another stem or a word.（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, considered inappropriate f or “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable chi ldren to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in th e early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.（这是今年复试面试时教授的问题。
戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
新编简明英语语言学教程 第二版 戴炜栋4 Syntax
Criteria on good grammar
Observational adequacy Descriptive adequacy Explanatory adequacy The ultimate goal for any theory is to explain. TG differs from traditional grammar in that it not only aims at language description, but also its explanation.
Chapter 4 Syntax
What is syntax?
----a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) Norm. Chomsky, the most influential linguist in 20th century, some important works: (1957) Syntactic Structure; (1965) Aspects of the Theory of Syntax; (1981) Lectures on Government and Binding; (1986) Barriers (1993) A Minimalist Program for Linguistic Theory; (1995) The Minimalist Program; (1998) The Minimalist Inquiry……
戴伟栋语言学 简明语言学教程
戴版语言学Chapter One----IntroductionPart one----What is linguistics?1. Definition----linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists‘ task: basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built.I nterest of linguists is ―what is said‖2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics----the study of language as a whole-----the core of linguistics理论语言学Phonetics----the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.语音学Phonology----the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.音韵学Morphology----the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.形态学Syntax-----the study of the rules for sentence formation句法学Semantics-----the study of meaning.语义学Pragmatics----the study of meaning in the context of language use.语用学Above are made up of the core of linguisticsSociolinguistics-----the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.社会语言学Psycholinguistics-----the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.心里语言学Applied linguistics-----the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching , especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学3. Some important distinctions in linguistics.(1) prescriptive vs. descriptiveprescriptive----the linguistic stud y aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say. 规定性Descriptive----the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use. 描写性Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive.(2) Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic----the description of a language at some point of time in history.共时性Diachronic----the description of a language as it changes through time----the historical development of language over a period of time----another name: historical linguistics.历时性A synchronic approach enjoys priority over a diachronic one.(3) Speech vs. writing言语和文字Two major media of linguistic communicationSpeech is prior to writing:(1)writing syste m is always ―invented‖ by its users to record speech.(2)speech plays a greater role than writing in information conveyance.(3)speech is acquired as mother tongue while writing is learned and taught.(4)speech reveals true features of human speech while w riting language is only the ―revised‖ record of speech.(4) Langue vs. paroleProposed by Swiss linguist----F. de Saussure----sociological view.Purpose: discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Langue----the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of s speech community.----abstract & stable.语言Parole-----the realization of language in actual use----concrete & varied话语(5) Competence vs. performanceProposed by American linguist Noam Chomsky----psychological viewPurpose: discover and specify the internalized sets of rules.Competence----the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.语言能力Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言应用(6) Traditional grammar and modern linguistics传统语法和现代语言学The beginning of modern linguistics-- the publication of Saussure‘s ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in early 20thModern linguistics differs traditional grammar:(1) descriptive vs. prescriptive.(2) spoken language vs. written language.(3)ML doesn‘t force languages into a Latin-based framework.Part Two----What is language?1. Definition----language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System----elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what symbol stands for.V ocal----the primary medium for all language is sound.Human----language is human-specific.2. Design features识别性特征----proposed by American linguist Charles Hockett.(5/12) Design features: the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication-----human-specific.(1) Arbitrariness----there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.任意性Exceptions: Onomatopoeic words and some compound words are not entire arbitrary.(2) Productivity----language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users----users can produce and understand sentences that they have never heard before.能产性(3) Duality----(another name: double articulation.) Language is a system which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower lever is the structure of meaningless sounds and the higher level is the structure of meaning.----sound & meaning双层性(4) Displacement----language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past, present, or future, in a faraway places------ It doe sn‘t matter how far away the topic is of conversation is in time or space-----free from the barriers caused by separation in time and place.移位性(5) Cultural transmission----the capacity for language is genetically based while the details of and language system should be taught and learned.-----language is passed down from one generation to the next through t eaching and learning, rather than by instinct.文化传承3. The functions of language.(1) Informative: The main function of language that when people use language to communicate with each other, their experience in the real world, record or describe the ―content‖ of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.----the most important function.(2) Interpersonal: people establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function.(3) Performative: this is a function whereby the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.(4) Emotive: this function is performed by those linguistic elements used to express strong feelings, such as exclamatory expressions.(5) Phatic: this is function realized by those ―Phatic language‖, aiming to establishing a harmonious and intimate relationship among people. Examples in Chinese:吃了没？in English: Good norning. & A nice day, isn‘t it?(6) Recreational: This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for language‘s sake, i.e. no using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and children‘s babbles and chanter‘s chanting.(7) Metalingual: people may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. For example, we may use ―book‖ to ref er to the existing object in the real world, and yet may also use ―the word book‖ to stand by the concept ―book‖ as embodied in language.Chapter 2: PhonologyPart One: The phonic Medium of LanguageLinguists concern only with the sounds that are produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.phonic medium : The meaningful speech sound in human communication.Speech sounds: the individual sounds within phonic medium are the speech sounds.Part Two: Phonetics1. What is phonetics?phonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.Classification:articulatory phonetics : It studies sounds from the speaker‘s point of view, i.e. how a speaker use s his speech organs to articulate the sounds. -------speakerauditory phonetics: The studies sounds from the hearer‘s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.-----heareracoustic phonetics: It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.-----physical properties2. Organs of Speech1 the pharyngeal cavity----throat.2 the oral cavity-------------mouth.------tongue: most flexible.3 the nasal cavity-----------nose. In English, there are three nasal sounds, namely, [m], [n], [η]. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.3. Orthographic representation of speech sounds----broad and narrow transcriptions.IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.diacritics: The symbols used in the narrow transcription to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.4. Classification of English Speech SoundsClassification:consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.1 Classification of English consonants:1 Manner of articulation: The manner in which obstruction is created.Stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].Fricatives: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [], [∫] [3], [h].Affricates: [t∫],[d3]Liquids: [l], [r].Nasals: [m], [n], [η]Glides: [w], [j].------semi-vowels2 place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.Bilabial: [p], [b], [m], [w].Labiodental: [f], [v]Dental: [θ], [ ]Alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]Palatal: [∫] [3], [t∫],[d3], [j].Velar: [k], [g], [η]Glottal: [h].Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.2 Classification of English V owels.1 the position of the tongue:front: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a]central: [з:], [з], [/\]back: [u:], [u], [o], [o:], [a:]2 the openness of the mouth.Close vowels: [i:], [i], [u:], [u],Semi-close: [e], [з:]Semi-open: [з], [o:]Open vowels: [æ], [a], [/\],[o], [a:]3 shape of the lips:unrounded: [i:], [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з:], [з], [/\],[a:]rounded: [u:], [u], [o], [o:].4 length of the sound:long vowels: [i:], [з:], [u:], [o:], [a:]short vowels: [i], [e], [ε], [æ], [a], [з], [/\],[u], [o].5 monophthong : the individual vowel.-----above vowels are all monophthongs.diphthong : The vowel which consists of two individual vowels, and functions as a single one. [ei], [ai], [oi], [iз], [au], [зu], [eз], [uз]----eight diphthongs.Part Three: Phonology1. Phonology and Phoneticsphonetics : The study of phonic medium of language and it is concerned with all sounds in the world‘s languages.phonology : The description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.Similarity: all concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds.Differences: approach and focus.1 Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages-----how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified.2 Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language from patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.E.g. allophones clear [l] and dark [l]:Phonetically speaking, they are interested in the differences how they are pronounced. Phonologically speaking, they are the same in functioning conveyance of the meanings.2. Phone, Phoneme, and Allophonephone : The speech sound we use when speaking a language, which does not necessarily distinguish meaning in the English language.phoneme : The smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two sounds. allophone : any different forms of the same phoneme in different phonetic environments, e.g. clear [l] and dark [l] of the same [l], aspirated [p] and unaspirated [p] of the same [p] in different phonetic environments.3. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairphonemic contrast : two similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning.E.g. [b] in [bit] and [p] in [pit] form phonemic contrast.complementary distribution : allophones of the same phoneme and they don‘t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution. E.g. clear [l] and dark [l] respectively in thepronunciation of light and feel.minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g. bat and bet are a minimal pair.4. Some Rules in Phonology1 sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.2 assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.3 deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. 5. Suprasegmental Features----stress, tone, intonationsuprasegmental features: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments----syllable, word, sentence are called suprasegmental features, which include stress, tone and intonation.1 Stress:Classification: word stress & sentence stress.Word Stress:1 The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.A shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged. E.g. ‗impott (n)----im‘port (v), ‗record (n)-----re‘cord (v)‗blackbird (compound)-----‗black‗bird (noncompound)2 The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of –ing forms and nouns. E.g. ‘dining room(compound)----sleeping ‘baby (noncompound) Sentence Stress:Sentence stress: It refers to the relative force given to the components of a sentence.he parts of speech that are normally stressed in an English sentence are: N, V, Adj., Adv., Numerals, demonstrative pronouns. E.g. He is driving my car.------He drive, my, car.2 Tone:tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Tone (pitch variation) can distinguish meaning in such languages as Chinese, but English is not a tone language.3 Intonation:intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.Intonation plays a very important role in the conveyance of meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English. ------four basic types of intonation, namely, the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, the rise-fall tone.The falling tone------what is said is a straight forward, matter-of-fact statement.The rising tone-------make a question of what is said.The fall-rise tone----indicate that there is an implied message in what is said.Chapter 3: MorphologyPart One: Morphology1. Open class and closed classopen class: A group of words, which contains an unlimited number of items, and new words can be added to it.----content words. E.g. beatnik: a member of the Beat generation, or a person who rejects or avoids conventional behaviour.closed class: A relatively few words, including conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns, and new words are not usually added to them.------function words.2. Internal structure if words and rules for word formationmorphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules for word formation.Part Two: Morphemes----the minimal units of meaningmorpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others. E.g. –ment.free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.Part three: Derivational and inflectional morphemesderivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a new word. inflectional morpheme: A kind of morpheme, which are used to make grammatical categories, such as number, tense and case. E.g. –ed and –ing endings are inflectional morphemes. inflection: the morphological process which adjusts words by grammatical modification, e.g. in The rains came, rain is inflected for plurality and came for past tense.Part Four: Morphological rules of word formationmorphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.Part Five Compoundscompound words: A combination of two or more words, which functions as a single wordsthe noteworthy:1 When two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category:E.g. post box, landlady (n+n=n), blue-black, icy-cold (adj.+adj.=adj.)2 In many cases, the two words fall into different categories, then the class of second or final word will be the grammatical category if the compound.E.g. under ‗take (v), in‘action (n), up‘lift (v)3 It is often the case that compounds have different stress patterns from the noncompounded word sequence.E.g. ‗redcoat, ‗greenhouse are compounds, but red coat and green house are not.4 The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.E.g. bigwig, highbrow, jack-in-a-box, turncoatConclusion: Morphological rules reveal the relations between words and provide the means forforming new words. It is these rules that enable us to coin new words. Compounding is a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.Chapter 4: SyntaxPart One: What is Syntax?syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Part Two: Categories1. Word-level categoriescategory: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.Major lexical categories: (as heads) N, V, A, VWord-level categoriesMinor lexical categories: det. Deg. Qua. Aux. con.major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.Three criteria to determine a word‘s category?1 Meaning:1 Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning:■Nouns typically denote entities such as human beings and objects.■Verbs, characteristically designate action, sensation and states.2 The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways:■The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.■The properties and attributes of the actions, sensations and states designated by verbs can typically be denoted by adverbs.3 It is misleading to assume that a word‘s category can be told straightforward from its meaning.■ Nouns such as dilemma and friendship do not concretely reveal their entities.■ Some words such as love and hate which indicate actions tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.■ Words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories, such as be aware of and know about.2 Inflection:1 Words of different categories take different inflections. Words of different categories take different inflection.■ Nouns such as boy and desk take the plural affix –s.■ Verbs such as work and help take –ed and –ing.■ Adjectives such as quiet and clever take –er and –est.2 Although inflection is very helpful in determining a word‘s c ategory, it does not always suffice.■ Nouns like moisture, fog, do not take plural form –s.■ Adjectives like frequent and intelligent do not take –er or –est.3 Distribution:Distribution is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word.■ Nouns can typically appear with a determiner like the girl and a card.■ Verbs with an auxiliary such as should stay and will go.■ Adjectives with a degree word such as very cool and too bright.Conclusion: Thus, a word‘s distributional facts together with inf ormation about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify is syntactic category.2. Phrase categories and their structuresphrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, NP, VP, PP, AP.Whether formed of one or more than one word, phrases consist of two levels, phrase level and word level.NP VP AP PP <---------- phrase levelN V A P < ---------- word levelPhrase that are formed of more than one word usually contain head, specifier and complement. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.specifier: The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Part Three Phrase Structure Rulephrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.NP----- > (Det) N (P P)…. AP---- > (Deg) A (PP)….VP ---- > (Qual) v (NP)…. PP---- > (Deg) P (NP)….1. XP RuleIn NP, AP, VP, PP phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of head while complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized with the help of the template , in which X stands for the head N, V,A,P.: The XP rule: XP-----> (specifier) X (complement)XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.2. X▔ TheoryX▔theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level is represented by the symbol X▔. Thus the new three-level structures can be written as follows:a. XP----- > (specifier) X▔b. X▔----> X (complement)3. Coordination Rulecoordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure.Four important properties:1 There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.2 A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated.3 Coordinated categories must be of the same type4 The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con XPart Four: Phrase elements1. Specifiersspecifier: The words on the left side of the heads and which are attached to the top level, are specifiers.Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles:■ Semantically, they help make m ore precise the meaning of the head.■ Syntactically, they ty pically make a phrase boundary.The syntactic category of the specifier differs depending on the category of the head.2. Complementscomplement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.subcategorization: the information about a word‘s complement is included in the head and termed suncategorization.XP ----- > (Specifier) X (Complements*)― * ‖ means the fact that complements, however many there are, occur to the right of the head in English.Miss Hebert believes that she will win.―that‖ ------ complementizer: Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizer.―she will win‖ ---- complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer.―that she will win‖ ---- complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause.―Miss Hebert believes‖ ---- matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded.3. modifiersmodifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.XP------ > (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)This rule allows a modifier to occur either before the head or after it. Where there is a complement, amodifier that accurs after the head will normally occur to the right of the complement as well. Part Five : Sentences (The S Rule)1 The S rule : S ----> NP VP (This analysis is based on the assumptionn that unlike other phrases, which contains a head, a complement and a pecifier, S does not have an internal structure.)2 Another view : Many linguists beliebve that sentences, like other phrases, also have their own heads. They take abstract category inflection as their heads, which indicates the sentence‘s tense and agreement, Like other phrases, Infl takes an NP as its specifier and a VP as its complement.1 Infl realized by a tense label-----The boy found the book.2 Infl position realized by an auxiliary----A boy will find the book.Part Six : Transformations1. Auxiliary movementtransformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.The yes-no question structures are built in two steps :1 The usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the auxiliary occupies its normal position in Infl, between subject and the VP.2 In forming a yes-no question requires a transformation known as inversion to move the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, C position.inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement.2. Do InsertionHow to form a yes-no question that does not conta in an overt Infl such as ― Birds fly.‖Linguists circumvents this problem by adding the special auxiliary verb do. So we can formulate an insertion rule:Do insertion: Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl, interrogative do is inserted into an empty Infl positon to make transformation work.3. Deep structure and surface structuredeep structure : A level of abstract syntactic representation formed by the XP rule.surface structure : A level of syntactic representation after applying the necessary syntactic movement, i.e., transformation, to the deep structure.The XP rule---> Deep structure ---> Transformation ---> Surface structure. (Subcategorization restricts choice of complements.)4. Wh MovementWh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement. 【Practice】Draw a tree diagram of the sentence:She has finally found the man who she loves.5. Moveａand constraints on transformationsmove α: a general rule for all the movement rules, where ‗alpha‗ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.Constraints: 1 Inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position, but not to a more didtant C position.E.g.: Deep structure: Mike should know that the train might be late.。
戴炜栋英语语言学概论Chapter-4PPT课件
Deep structure (深层结构): formed by the
XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties (由XP规则按 照中心语的次范畴特征而构成的)
Surface structure (表层结构): the final
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Phrase elements (短语成分) P47-49
Specifiers 标志语 1) Semantic role: help make more precise the meaning
of the head; 2) Syntactic role: mark a phrase boundary (left) Complements 补语
Two levels: phrase level, word level.
Phrase structure rule (短语结构规则) p45
The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, and PP:
NP: (Det) N (PP)…
VP: (Qual) V (NP)… AP: (Deg) A (PP)…
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Assignments
Review this chapter (P42-61). Do the revision exercises on p60-61. Preview the next chapter.
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Written Work
Chapter 4 1. Draw a tree structure for each of the
Head
The XP rule: XP → (specifier) X (complement)
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter-4-Syntax
Det A Aux Aux V
Det N
➢ He never appears quite mature.
N Qual V
Deg A
4.2 Categories 2. Phrase categories and their structures Discussion: Which sentence is not considered grammatical? a. The student liked the linguistics lecture. b. The linguistics lecture liked the student. c. Liked the student the linguistics lecture.
4.2 Categories 2. Phrase categories and their structures
Phrases: one word / more than one word
➢ head: the word around which a phrase is formed
➢ specifiers: the words on the left side of the heads
NP
PP
Det NP P
NP
Det A
N
a story about a sentimental girl
3) often read detective stories VP
Qual V NP
A
N
often read detective stories
More Exercises: 4) the argument against the proposals 5) move towards the window
(完整word版)戴炜栋_新编简明语言学教程文档版
Linguistics is a scientific study of language .语言学是对语言进行的科学研究。
General linguistics is the study of language as a whole.普通语言学是对语言从整体上进行的研究the major branches of linguistics:语言学内部主要分支Phonetics：the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication..(语音学)对语言交流中语音的研究Phonology the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication. (音位学)如何组合在一起并在交流中形传达意义.Morphology:the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (词法学、形态学)如何排列以及组合起来构成词语Syntax:the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (句法学)如何在组成语法上可接受的句子Semantics(语义学) the study of meaning in abstraction语言是用来传达意义的。
Pragmatics(语用学) the study of meaning in context of use用来研究上下文的意义跨学科分支Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.社会语言学是语言和社会之间关系的研究Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.心理语言学是语言与心灵的关系的研究Applied linguistics is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.应用语言学是外国和第二语言教学的研究Some important distinctions in linguistic s语言学中一些基本区分1. Descriptive or PrescriptiveA linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.描述性是在描述和分析人们对语言的实际运用，规定性是在为语言“正确和规范的”使用确立规则。
戴炜栋《简明英语语言学教程》Chapter_5_Semantics_2012512
3) Decide on the meaning of the following word clever. When the father found that his son had got 99 out of a total mark of 100 in the examination, the father said to his son: “You are clever!” When the father found that his son had got 20 out of a total mark of 100 in the examination, the father said to his son: “You are clever!” and then stalked out of the room.
5.2.2 The conceptualist view
1. Connotation: There is no direct link between aห้องสมุดไป่ตู้linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
2. Types of context: The linguistic context: (co-text), a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, forming part of the meaning of the word and the part of the text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.
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4.3 Phrase structure rule短语结构规则 Introduction:
NP VP AP PP (Det) (Qual) (Deg) (Deg) N V A P (PP) (NP) (PP) (NP) … … … …
(Note: “ ” means “consist of”; ( ) means “can be omitted”; “…” means other complement options are available)
Types:
Noun phrase (NP): the pretty girl Verb phrase (VP): often dream Adjective phrase (AP): very pessimistic Prepositional phrase (PP): mainly about the school Phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain the following elements: Head中心词, specifier标志语 and complement补足语 (See p.45)
Dealing with Transformational syntax here,
we just follow Chomsky and try to prove our linguistic competence which enables us to combine words into sentences in endlessly novel way.
To determin a word's category, three criteria are usually
employed, namely, meaning, inflection and distribution. 1) Meaning意义: John, pen, book, pretty lady, left quietly 2) Inflection曲折变化: plural affixes, tenses, degrees 3) Distribution(co-occur)分布: the girl, should stay, buy a book Note: The most reliable criterion of determining a word’s category is its distribution.
英语语言学
English Linguistics
Chapter Four
Syntax
Introductin to the focus
1. Syntax, Chomsky and his TG grammar
2. Categories (word level and phrase level)
the similarities between languages rather than their differences.
As the result of his research, Chomsky
proposes that the grammar of all languages share a common framework, which he calls a transformational grammar. That is the transformational syntax we call here.
的排列进行规范、调节的语法机制）
e.g NP rule: An NP can consist of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement NP ----- (Det) N (PP) … a talk of education
4.3.1 XP rule (a single general phrasal structural rule fomulated ) 短语规则
4.2.2 Phrase categories and their structure短语范畴及结构
Definition: Phrases refer to the syntactic units which are built around a certain word category. 围绕某一词范畴构成的句法单位
* Four important properties of coordination (See p.46) 1）no limit on the number of coordinated categories before the conjunction; 2）a category at any level can be coordinated; 3）the categories must be of the same type; 4）the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.
The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, called parts of speech) .
Here, word-level categories are divided into two kinds: major lexical categories and minor lexical categories.
4.1 What is syntax?
---- a system of rules that govern the formation of grammatical sentences. (how words are combined to form sentences) Syntax (Greek) syntax = syn + tax ↓ ↓ together to arrange
Major lexical categories & minor lexical categories
Major lexical categories Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P) Minor lexical categories Determiner (Det) 限定词 Degree word (Deg) 程度词 Qualifier (Qual) 修饰词 Auxiliary (Aux) 助词 Conjunction (Con) 连词 Examples book, boy, love, sheep run, read, play happy, tall, clear about, over, on Examples the, a, this, those quite, very, more, so often, always, seldom, almost must, should, can, might and, but, or
Transformational syntax(TS转换语法)
In linguistics， transformational syntax is a theory of syntax that developed from the extended standard theory of generative grammar originally proposed by Noam Chomsky in his books Syntactic Structures and Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.
4.2 Categories范畴
4.2.1 Word-level categories Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language e.g. a sentence a noun phrase a verb
TG grammar
The term transformational-generative
grammar (often shortened as TG)was introduced into linguistics in the mid-1950s by Noam Chomsky.
Chomsky is most interested in the study of
4.4 Phrase elements 短语成分
4.4.1 Specifiers: 标志语 *Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles. Semantically, they specify the meaning of head; Syntactically, they mark a phrase boundary. *The syntactic category of the specifier may differs depending on the category of the head.(e.g determiner+Ns; deg+As or Ps) See p.47
The XP rule: XP --->(specifier) X (complement)
4.3.2 Coordination rule并列结构规则 X ---> X * Con X
Coordination of NPs: