1.《语言学教程》第 2 讲 (1.1,1.2,1.3)

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《语言学教程》第 2 章语音学与音位学1(课堂PPT)

语音学研究的是语音，即语音如何发出、传递和感知，以及对语音、词语和连续性口语等的（语音学性质的）描写和分类。
7
Phonetics studies speech sounds,
made,
how speech sounds transmitted are actually
that
and received,
is,
speech sounds,
the description and classification of
words
and connected speech，
etc.
8
语音学研究的是语音，
发出、
传递语音如何
和感知
即
语音
以及对
词连续性语音
的描写和分类。
9
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
的规则。
以及音节的形式音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。
13
音位学的定义
Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.” （Crystal, 1997: 162）
第 1 学期第6 讲第 2 章语音学与音位学（1）

语言学教程第二章

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Chapter 1 Introduction1.1研究问题...................................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

Research questions1.1.1研究背景...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

Research backgroud1.1.2研究对象...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

Research object1.1.3研究问题...........................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

Research questions1.2研究意义及目的 .....................................................................................................错误！未定义书签。

英语语言学教程Chapter 2 精品PPT课件

Its main principles were that
there should be a separate letter for each distinctive sound, and
that the same symbol should be used for that sound in any language in which it appears.
The alphabet was to consist of as many Roman alphabet letters as possible, using new letters and diacritics only when absolutely necessary.
These principles continue to be followed today.
Questions for the students:
Do you know that human beings are capable of making all kinds of sounds, but only some of these sounds have become units in the language system?
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds
Teaching aims: Let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.
Teaching difficulties: Manner of articulation ; (发音方法） Place of articulation ; （发音部位） The criteria of vowel description （元音的描述）; Broad and narrow transcription （宽式 / ; 窄式标音） allophone（音位变体）; minimal pairs（最小对立位）; assimilation（同化）

《语言学教程》Chapter-2-ics

语法
语法
语法是语言中词和句子的结构规律和规则，是语言的组织原则。语法包括词法和句法两部分。词法研究词的内部结构和变化规律；句法研究短语和句子的结构规律和规则。
语法的特点
语法具有抽象性、生成性、层次性和系统性等特点。抽象性是指语法规则是对语言中具体实例的抽象概括；生成性是指语法能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句子；层次性是指语法结构分为若干层次，不同层次之间存在递归关系；系统性是指语法规则相互联系、相互制约，形成一个完整的系统。
新的词汇、表达方式和语法结构等可能会随着时间的推移而出现，丰富和发展语言的表达和沟通功能。
05
语言与社会文化的关系
语言与文化的关系
语言是文化的重要组成部分，是文化传承和发展的载体。语言中蕴含着丰富的文化信息，反映了特定民族的历史、传统、信仰、价值观等。
语言与文化相互影响，语言使用中的词汇、语法、表达方式等都受到文化的影响，同时语言也影响了人们对世界的认知和表达方式。
语音的生理属性
语音的生理属性包括发音机制和听觉机制。发音机制包括呼吸系统、声源系统、调制系统和共鸣系统；听觉机制包括听觉接收器和大脑处理声音信息的过程。
词汇
词汇
词汇是语言中所有词的总和，是语言的建筑材料。词汇由词和固定词组构成，包括实词和虚词两大类。实词表示事物、概念、动作等具体内容；虚词表示语法关系和语气等抽象内容。
语法的作用
语法在语言中起着非常重要的作用。首先，语法保证语言的正确性和规范性，使人们能够准确地表达思想、传递信息。其次，语法使语言具有生成性，能够生成无限多的合乎语法的句子。最后，语法使语言具有开放性，能够吸收外来文化和方言的影响，不断丰富言演变的原因

《简明英语语言学教程》导学手册

《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。

本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。

本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。

２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。

３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。

二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。

《语言学教程》第 2 章语音学与音位学1

语音学研究的是语音，发出、
语音如何即以及对传递和感知
语音
词连续性语音的描写和分类。
Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.
Articulatory phonetics / 发音语音学 is the study of the production of speech sounds.

①SPEECH ORGANS, also knows as VOCAL ORGANS， are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. ②It is striking to see how much of the human body is involved in the production of speech: the lungs, the trachea (or windpipe), the throat, the nose, and the mouth.
3 and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages.
In this chapter, we will introduce and discuss some of the basic ideas of articulatory phonetics and phonological analysis.
的规则。
音位学以音位为起点来研究语言的语音系统。

(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程(修订版)一至三单元课后名词解释中英对照

语言学教程chapter1-31.design feature: are features that define our human languages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural transmission,etc.本质特征：决定了我们语言性质的特征。

如任意性、二重性、创造性、移位性等等。

2.function: the use of language to communicate,to think ,nguage functionsinclucle imformative function,interpersonal function,performative function, emotive function,phatic communion,recreational function and metalingual function.功能：运用语言进行交流、思考等等。

语言的功能包括信息功能、人际功能、施为功能、感情功能。

3.etic: a term in contrast with emi c which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.非位的：相对于“位学的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。

4.emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’sdistinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communith rather than via a ppeal to the investigator’s ingenuith orintuition alone.位学的：相对于“非位的”源于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的区分。

语言学教程第二章ppt课件

and the alveolar ridge.
The categories of consonant, therefore, are
established on the basis of several factors.
.

a. the actual relationship between the
tongue curled up and back in a retroflex gesture
and then striking the roof of the mouth in the
post-alveolar region as it returns to its position
behind the lower front teeth. In some forms of
humans, meaningful in human
communication and with which linguists
are concerned.
.
.
Phonetics and ittics is the science
which studies the characteristics of
vocal organs(发音器官).
The articulatory apparatus of a
human being are contained in
three important areas: (1) the
pharyngeal cavity(咽腔) – the
throat
(2) the oral cavity(口腔) – the
through easily and the sound produced

(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解

《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。

语言学教程胡壮麟

An Introduction to Linguistics语言学导论胡壮麟主编《语言学教程》（修订版）北京：北京大学出版社2001年Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1Why study language?●Languages are the best mirror of the human mind. --Leibniz(莱布尼兹1646-1716)psychology mind/brain pedagogy cognitive science●The three basic questions that concern Chomsky are:(i) What constitutes knowledge of language?(ii) How is knowledge of language acquired?(iii) How is knowledge of language put to use?Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm(1646-1716) German rationalist philosopher, mathematician, and logician. He spent his life in the diplomatic and political service and in 1700 was appointed first president of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Leibniz is chiefly known as an exponent of optimism; he believed that the world is fundamentally harmonious and good, being composed of single units (monads), each of which is self-contained but acts in harmony with every other; these form an ascending hierarchy culminating in God. Their harmony is ordained by God, who never acts except for a reason that requires it, and so this world is the best of all possible worlds (a view satirized in Voltaire's Candide). Leibniz made the important distinction between necessary (logical) truths and contingent (factual) truths, and proposed a universal logical language that would eliminate ambiguity. He also devised a method of calculus independently of Newton.Chomsky, (Avram) Noam(1928-–) US theoretical linguist and political activist. His theory of transformational grammar is set out in Syntactic Structures (1957). A distinction is made between a speaker's linguistic competence, which is idealized, and actual performance; the theory sets out to account only for the former. Chomsky has revised the theory since 1957.1.2What is language?●Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols. – Sapir（萨丕尔1884-1939)●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.-- Wardhaugh（沃道）● A language is a set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length andconstructed out of a finite set of elements. – Chomsky（乔姆斯基1928 -）● A language is a system for meanings. – Halliday（韩礼德1925 -）We shall define lang uage as “meaning potential”: that is, as sets of options, or alternatives, in meaning, that are available to the speaker-hearer. – Halliday Sapir, Edward(1884-1939) German-born US linguistics scholar and anthropologist. One of the founders of American structural linguistics, he carried out important work on American Indianlanguages and linguistic theory. His book Language (1921) presents his thesis that language should be studied within its social and cultural context. According to theSapir-Whorf hypothesis, in which Sapir collaborated with his pupil Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941), a culture's language embodies the way in which it understands the world and dictates how those who use that language think about the world. This may be due to structural factors, such as the way time is expressed in verb tenses, as well as to more superficially obvious features such as vocabulary.1.3Design features of language●Design features Concept introduced by C. F. Hockett in the 1960s of a set of key properties of language not shared or not known to be shared, as a set, with systems of communication in any other species. Their number and names vary from one account to another; but all include, as among the most important, the properties of duality, arbitrariness, and productivity.1.3.1Arbitrariness任意性: The property of language by which there is in general nonatural (i.e. logical) relation between the form of a single lexical unit and itsmeaning. 书book livre rose motivated 理据sheep cow moo moo quackoink bedroomWhat’s in a name? that which we call a roseBy any other name would smell as sweet. – Shakespeare(莎士比亚1564-1616)名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜。

语言学教程文档

语言学教程文档目录1. 语言学概述 (2)1.1 语言学定义与研究对象 (2)1.2 语言学分支及分类 (4)1.3 语言学在社会科学中的地位 (5)2. 语言学的理论基础 (6)2.1 语音学理论 (8)2.2 语法学理论 (9)2.3 语义学理论 (10)2.4 语用学理论 (12)3. 语言的结构与功能 (13)3.1 语言的结构分析 (15)3.1.1 音系与音节结构 (16)3.1.2 语法结构与句型分析 (17)3.1.3 语义场与语义关系 (18)3.2 语言的功能与运用 (20)3.2.1 语言的交际功能 (22)3.2.2 语言的表达功能 (23)3.2.3 语言的指示功能 (24)4. 语言的发展与社会变迁 (26)4.1 语言发展的规律与特点 (27)4.2 语言与社会的相互关系 (28)4.3 语言的地域差异与方言现象 (30)4.4 语言的接触与融合现象 (31)5. 语言学的应用与实践 (33)5.1 语言与文学的关系 (34)5.2 语言与翻译的实践 (35)5.3 语言与人工智能的发展 (37)5.4 语言学在其他领域的应用 (39)6. 语言学的研究方法与路径 (40)6.1 语言学的研究方法概述 (42)6.2 田野调查与实证研究 (43)6.3 文献资料的搜集与分析 (45)6.4 实验方法与语言学研究实践 (46)7. 结论与展望 (47)7.1 对语言学研究的总结与反思 (48)7.2 未来语言学发展的趋势与展望 (49)1. 语言学概述语言学作为一门研究人类语言的科学，具有悠久的历史和丰富的研究领域。

它主要探讨语言的本质、结构、功能以及语言与社会、文化、心理等方面的关系。

语言学可以分为几个子领域，包括语音学、音系学、形态学、句法学、语义学、语用学等。

语音学关注声音的产生、传播和感知，研究语音的物理属性和生理机制。

音系学则研究音素和音系的分布规律，揭示语音在各种语言中的变化和差异。

语言学教程电子书

武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组English LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (2)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (11)Chapter 3 Lexicon (24)Chapter 4 Syntax .........................................................................35 Chapter 5 Meaning ....................................................................50 Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind ..................................60 Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society .................................63 Chapter 8 Language in Use .. (68)武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 1 Invitations to LinguisticsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions inlinguisticsTeaching procedures Language 1.1 Why study language? A tool for communication A tool for access to other fields An integral part of our life and humanity If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity. 1.2 What is language?1.2.1 different senses of languagewhat a person says( concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system1.2.2 definitions Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际目的的一套任意的有声符号系统What is communication?A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to agoal (receiver or listener).A system----elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. They cannot bearranged at will.e.g. He the table cleaned. (×) bkli (×)Arbitrary----there is no intrinsic (logic) connection between a linguistic form and itsmeaning.Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideasby convention.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组V ocal--------the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing systems are. Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms. People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users. Human ----language is human-specific. Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity. “Language Acquisition Device”(LAD) bird songs and bee dances(×) 1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. a. Arbitrariness ----the form of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(Saussure) The link between them is a matter of convention. E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese) Mansion (French) 房子(Chinese) E.g 2. eat (in English) manger (in French) 吃 (in Chinese) conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structurallinguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language isiconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such asonomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash) For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be a clear connectionbetween the conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, thesets of signals used in communication is finite.b. Duality ----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, thelevel of sounds and that of meaning.the higher level ----words which are meaningful武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped andregrouped into words.each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.e.g. /k/ /a: / and /p/ --carp & parkwoof (but not “w-oo-f ” )This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, sincewith a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of soundcombinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.The principle of economy c. Creativity ----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) a. We can create new words; b. We can create endless new sentences with limited number of words Duality and recursiveness lead to creativity. e.g. “A three-eyed white monkey is sleeping soundly on the bed of the King ofFrance.”He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a schoolwhich was known… (Go on endlessly)non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.e.g. an experiment of bee communication:The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source ,will fail to do so if the location is really ‘new’. In one experiment, a hive of beeswas placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the top. Ten bees weretaken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hiveabout their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gangbuzzed off to get the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’tlocate the food. The problem may be that bee communication regarding locationhas a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizontal distance. The beecannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.d. Displacement ----human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Displacement gives human beings the power to handle generalization and abstraction. Bee communication : When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form. However, it must be the most recent food source. e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. The process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. 1.4 Origin of language The Biblical account Language was God’s gift to human beings. The bow-wow theory Language was an imitation of natural sounds, such as the cries of animals, like quack, cuckoo . The pooh-pooh theory Language arose from instinctive emotional cries, expressive of pain or joy. The yo-he-ho theory Language arose from the noises made by a group of people engaged in joint labour or effort – lifting a huge hunted game, moving a rock, etc. The evolution theory Language originated in the process of labour and answered the call of social need. 1.5 Functions of language 1.5.1 Informative function: 信息功能 Language is used to note down and to pass information. It is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud as when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.5.2 Interpersonal function: 人际功能 Language is used for human communication/for communication among people. It is the most important sociological use of language, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. E.g. the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves. Dear Sir, Dear Professor… 1.5.3 Performative function: 行事功能 We can use language/words to do things. a. We can use it to make others do something; b.We do something ourselves at the time when we are saying something. The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. E.g. marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children etc . The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. 岁岁平安（every year be safe and happy ） 1.5.4 Emotive function: 感情功能 Language can be used to express feelings or emotions. Egs. “My God.” “Alas!” “Ouch!” “Damn it!” “Wow.” 1.5.5 Phatic communication: 酬应功能交感性谈话 Language can be used to maintain relationship. This function originated from Malinowski’s study of the functions of language. Egs. “Good morning.” “God bless you.” “I’m sorry to hear it.” “Good day.” “Hello!” “Good-bye.” 1.5.6 Recreational function: 娱乐功能 Language can be used for joy, fun, amusement, or recreation. Egs. Jokes, Chinese cross talk, lyrics, poetry in general 1.5.7 Metalingual function: 元语言功能 Language can be used to talk about itself.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Eg. “book” is a word that we use to refer to something that we read…What teachers do in class is mainly the use of language of this function-to uselanguage to explain language.Linguistics1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.Linguistics studies not just one language of any society, but the language of allhuman society, language in general.A scientific study is one which is based on the systematic investigation of data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.observation------generalization-----hypothesis------tested by furtherobservation------theory1.7 Main branches (scope) of linguisticsphonetics 语音学phonology 音系学（音位学）morphology 词法学syntax 句法学semantics 语义学pragmatics 语用学1.7.1 Phoneticsa branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of sounds and providesmethods for their description, classification and transcription.Any speech sound whether it distinguishes meaning or not will be described.Eg. three “p”s are noted in “speak”(un-aspirated, as [p=]), “peak”(aspirated, asindicated by the diacritic h in [p h ]), “deep”.1.7.2 Phonologya branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. --of theminimal meaningful sounds.--of the minimal sounds that distinguish meaning.Eg. the three “p”s in 1) above don’t distinguish meaning. They are of onemeaningful phoneme.Yet, in “tip” and “sip”, or “tip” “dip” the change of “t” to “s” or “t” to “d” bringsabout another word, therefore, “t” and “s” are two independent phonemes.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.7.3 Morphology a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the internal organization of words. --of the formation of words. Prefix, suffix, root. Eg. friend | ly glob | al | iz | ation dialogue, monologue 1.7.4 Syntax a branch of linguistics which studies the rules that govern the combination of words and phrases into sentences. Words are organized into structures more than just word order. E.g. a. The children watched [the firework from the hill ]. b. The children watched [the firework ][from the hill ]. 1.7.5 Semantics a branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language. --meaning of words and their relations; --meaning of sentences/ sentence meaning. 1.7.6 Pragmatics a branch of linguistics which is the study of meaning in the context of use. Eg .a. A: How do you think of my new dress? B: The one you had last week was really beautiful. b. A: Shall we go to the cinema? B: I have to complete the homework. 1.8 Macrolinguistics External branches: inter-disciplinary divisions 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics --study of language to psychology 1) How human mind works when we use language 2) How infant acquire mother tongue 3) How we process the information we receive in course of communication 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics -- study of social aspects of language 1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics --are interested in the history and structure of formerly unwritten language 1.8.4 Computational linguistics 1) machine translation: translating from one language to another 2) Information retrieval: finding relevant document in large Collection of text 3）corpus linguistics武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive “描写式”和 “规定式” They represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive (how things are); if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive(how things ought to be). 1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic “共时”和 “历时” The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study; the description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a. the features of English used in Shakespeare’s time －Synchronic b. the study of the changes English has undergone since then － Diachronic 1.9.3 langue & parole “语言” 和 “言语” The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist Saussure in the early 20th century. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use. What linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics. 1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力和语言运用 The distinction is discussed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s. Competence----the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic 音素的或非音位的/位学的a) Etic —Being etic means making far too many, as well as behaviouslyinconsequential, differentiations.b) Emic —An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated asmeaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech communityrather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.HomeworkQuestions and Exercises1,4,6,12 Self-study guide Read “A New Concise Course On Linguistics For Students Of English” Chapter 1 Introduction.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组Chapter 2 Speech SoundsTeaching aims: let the students have the general idea about phonetics and phonology.Focal points: description of consonants and vowels; basic knowledge aboutphonologyTeaching difficulties: phoneme; allophone; minimal pair; complementary distributio.Teaching procedureLanguage is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long beforewriting was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are stilllanguages that have no writing systems. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is amajor part of linguistics.As we know, there are two branches in linguistics, which deal with speech sounds.They are phonetics (the study of sounds) and phonology (the study of sound patterns).In this chapter, we will discuss these two branches.Phonetics2.1 Speech production and perceptionThe speech sound can be studied in three different ways, thus in phonetics there are three mainbranches Articulatory phonetics----the study of the production of speech sounds. 发声语音学Acoustic phonetics ----the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech. 声学语音学 Auditory phonetics----the study of the perception of speech sounds, how sounds arereceived and understood 听觉语音学2.2 Speech organs (vocal organs)Refers to the parts of the human body involved in the production of speech.The three cavities of the vocal tract : the pharynx (pharyngeal cavity), the mouth (oral cavity), the nose (nasal cavity).The air- stream coming from the lungs is modified in various ways in these cavities,resulting in the production of various sounds. The pharyngeal cavityLarynx: a t the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam’s apple. This is the武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组first place where sound modification might occur.vocal folds (vocal cords): V ocal cords are two membranes, the positions of whichgives different sounds.●When the vocal cords are apart, the air can pass through easily and the soundproduced is said to be voiceless . e.g. [p, s, t ]●When they are close together, the airstreams causes them to vibrate and producesvoiced sounds. e.g. [b, z, d]●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?] The oral cavity The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of varioussounder [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g] The nasal cavityThe nasal cavity is connected to the oral cavity at the back of the mouth .The soft partof the roof of the mouth; the velum (soft palate) can be draw back to close the passageso that the air can only go through the mouth and produce vowels and most consonants.The passage can also be left open to allow air to exit through the nose and producenasal consonants [m] [n] [g] 2.2 Segments, divergence, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergenceSegments-- the individual soundsDivergence between sound and spelling—there are more sounds in English than itsletters can represent, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptiona method of writing down speech sounds in a systematic and consistent way.武汉理工大学外国语学院《英语语言学》课程组2.3.2.1 IPA (International phonetic Alphabet)IPA : the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by theInternational Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabetproposed at the time. It is a standardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.The Danish grammarian Jespersen first proposed the idea in 1886.The first version of IPA was published in August 1888.The latest version was devised in 1993 and corrected in 1996.The basic principle : using a separate letter selected from major European languagesfor each distinctive sound and the same symbol should be used for that sound inany language in which it appears.2.3.2.2 Two ways to transcribe speech soundsBroad transcription : transcription with letter-symbols only. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. Narrow transcription : transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds.Diacritics: A set of symbols added to the letter-symbols to show that it has a soundvalue different from that of the same letter without the mark.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels Consonants: sounds produced by constricting and obstructing the vocal tract at someplace to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.When the vocal cords vibrate, the sound produced is a voiced sound (浊音)。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章

胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记1-3章胡壮麟语言学重难点Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics常考考点：1. 语言: 语言的定义；语言的基本特征；语言的功能；语言的起源2. 语言学：语言学的定义；现代语言学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别；语言学研究的四个原则及简要说明；语言学中的几组重要区别；每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

1. 语言的定义特征1.1. 任意性1.2. 二重性1.3. 创造性1.4. 移位性1.5. 文化传递性1.6. 互换性2. 语言的功能1.1. 信息功能1.2. 人际功能1.3. 施为功能1.4. 感情功能1.5. 寒暄功能1.6. 娱乐功能1.7. 元语言功能3. 微观语言学3.1. 语音学3.2. 音系学3.3. 形态学3.4. 句法学3.5. 语义学3.6. 语用学4. 宏观语言学4.1. 心理语言学4.2. 社会语言学4.3. 应用语言学4.4. 计算语言学4.5. 神经语言学5. 重要概念及其区分5.1. 描写式&规定式5.2. 共时&历时5.3. 语言&言语5.4. 语言能力&语言应用5.5. 唯素的&唯位的5.6. 传统语法&现代语法5.7. 语言潜势&实际语言行为Chapter 2 Speech Sounds常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义；发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类；基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系与区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布于互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音；音高和语调。

语言学导论语言学教程修订版胡壮麟

(NEW)戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》(第2版)笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解

目　录第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记1.2　课后习题详解1.3　考研真题与典型题详解第2章　音位学2.1　复习笔记2.2　课后习题详解2.3　考研真题与典型题详解第3章　形态学3.1　复习笔记3.2　课后习题详解3.3　考研真题与典型题详解第4章　句法学4.1　复习笔记4.2　课后习题详解4.3　考研真题与典型题详解第5章　语义学5.1　复习笔记5.2　课后习题详解5.3　考研真题与典型题详解第6章　语用学6.1　复习笔记6.2　课后习题详解6.3　考研真题与典型题详解第7章　语言变化7.1　复习笔记7.2　课后习题详解7.3　考研真题与典型题详解第8章　语言与社会8.1　复习笔记8.2　课后习题详解8.3　考研真题与典型题详解第9章　语言与文化9.1　复习笔记9.2　课后习题详解9.3　考研真题与典型题详解第10章　语言习得10.1　复习笔记10.2　课后习题详解10.3　考研真题与典型题详解第11章　第二语言习得11.1　复习笔记11.2　课后习题详解11.3　考研真题与典型题详解第12章　语言与大脑12.1　复习笔记12.2　课后习题详解12.3　考研真题与典型题详解第1章　导　言1.1　复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2. Important distinctions in Linguistics语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义与识别特征4. Functions of language语言的功能本章考点：1. 有关语言学的常考考点语言学的定义；语言学中几组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴；宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。

刘润清版新编语言学教程1-3章复习【精选文档】

1.1.1 填空判断：①linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language。

It is a science studies the rules systems and principles of language。

3 cannons(标准）:exhaustiveness全面性consistency一致性 economy.②linguistics study the origin， growth, organization。

Nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language。

2 purposes: study the nature, establish a theory and describe language by that theory; examines all language and seeks understanding ways to fulfill the needs human need。

1.1.2 填空判断选择：Linguistics differ from traditional grammar:①linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. ②linguists regard spoken as primary not written. Speech came earlier than writing system。

③traditional grammar based on Latin while linguistics describes each language on its own merits。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二章

Pharyngeal[færɪn'dʒɪːl] cavity — the throat; Oral cavity — the mouth; Nasal cavity — the nose.
1. Lips 2. Teeth 3. Teeth ridge (alveolar[æl'vɪələ]) 4. Hard palate ['pælət] 5. Soft palate (velum ['vɪːləm]) 6. Uvula /ˈju ːvjʊlə/ 7. Tip of tongue 8. Blade of tongue 9. Back of tongue 10. Vocal cords 11. Pharyngeal cavity 12. Nasal cavity
English vowels: Monophthongs or pure/single vowels Diphthongs /ˈd ɪfθɔŋ/ or gliding vowels
According to which part of the tongue is held highest in the process of production, the vowels can be distinguished as:
Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It is language-specific.

语言学--2.Speech_sounds

英语专业考研真题精选
1. What is acoustic phonetics? [人大2003研] 【答案】Acoustic phonetics is a technical area of linguistics. It is the study of sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication. 2. Auditory phonetics studies how sounds are perceived by the speaker.[清华2001研] 【答案】F
●When they are totally closed, no air can pass between them, then produce the glottal stop [?]
13
The oral cavity
口腔
The oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification. Tongue: the most flexible Uvula, the teeth and the lips Hard palate, soft palate (velum) Alveolar ridge: the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth Various obstructions created within the oral cavity lead to the production of various sounds [p] [b]; [s] [z]; [k] [g]
2. Phonology

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版).doc

胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k”itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds andthe shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic st udy takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’sdiachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be sync hronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event.What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the sy stem of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance.Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance.Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.9.5 Etic vs. emicBeing etic mean s researchers’ making far too many, as well as behaviorally and inconsequential, differentiations, just as often the case with phonetics vs. phonemics analysis in linguistics proper.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of a speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.Following the suffix formations of (phon)etics vs (phon)emics, these terms were introduced into the social sciences by Kenneth Pike (1967) to denote the distinction between the material and functional study of language: phonetics studies the acoustically measurable and articulatorily definable immediate sound utterances, whereas phonemics analyzes the specific selection each language makes from that universal catalogue from a functional aspect.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics – the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some places to divert, impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes throughcertain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place ofarticulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air stream from the lungs and thensuddenly releasing it. In English, [] are stops and[] are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream from the lungs to escapewith friction. This is caused by bringing the two articulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip,close together but not closes enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without thevocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that a turbulent airstream is produced. In English thisclass of sounds includes [].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partially blocking the airstream fromthe lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting it escape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is theonly lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upper front teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and the upper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and the alveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the back of the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curled back so that theunderside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with the back of the alveolar ridge or the hardpalate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and the hard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the uvula, the shortprojection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end of the velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and the walls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal folds pushed towards eachother.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degreesare recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have beennasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowelsCardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to providea frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47.2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound andwhich also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of thedifferent forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by man s of an arrow: voiced fricative → voiceless / __________ voiceless.This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similarunits. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when in flected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unitthat cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacri fice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech orwriting.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relativepositional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example.If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment:dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximumfree form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can con stitute, byitself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have noinflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles,etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced intolinguistic analysis.(1) Particles: P articles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and thesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties,which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separateword class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements ina sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can bedivided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound。