语言学第6章习题

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修订版《语言学纲要》第六章文字和书面语答案

第六章文字和书面语一、知识题1、世界上独立产生的、成熟的古文字系统（自源文字）有( 甲骨）文、文、（苏美尔)文、（玛雅）文、（古埃及)文等。

2、我国传统文字学中的“六书"是指（象形）、（指事）、（会意）、（形声）、(转注）、(假借）。

3、指出下列汉字属于六书中的哪一种：手（象形）、泪（会意）、拖（形声）、刃( 指事）、其（“其中”的“其") （假借） .4、简述字母文字的产生历程。

二、思考题1、文字和图画的根本区别是什么?成为文字必须具备哪些基本条件？图画在古时候也是用来记事的一种重要方法。

图画记事只是帮助记忆，传达信息的手段,有很大的随意性。

只有当事人才比较清楚所表述的内容，因此不是记录语言的书写符号，不具有文字意义。

但是,图画记事较之实物记事前进了一步，是实物的替代物，有一定的象征性，概括性，能记录较复杂的内容.图画记事为文字的出现奠定了初步的基础，记事的图画是文字的前身，而实物记事与文字的产生没有什么关系。

判定文字系统已经产生，有三个基本的条件。

第一，具有数量足够多的与某种语言里的语素或词相对应的小图形，这些小图形可以按这种语言的音读出来;第二，这些小图形可以重复使用而所表达的音义不变；第三,这些小图形的排列规则足以反映这种语言说话时语素或词的排列次序,小图形排列的顺序不同，所反映的语言单位的排列次序也就不同，表达的意思也因此不同。

也就是说，文字形体所表达的信息一定是与某种语言的音义结合体及其排列相对应的信息,而不是直接描画现实。

2、既然所有文字都是既表音又表意的,为什么还有表音文字、意音文字的区别?语言有大大小小的单位:语素、词、词组/短语、句子，它们都是大小不同的音义结合体。

语言的语音层面也有大大小小的单位:音位、音节、音步等等,它们是大小不同的语音片段.文字是形体符号的系统，它也有大小不同的单位―大小不同的形体单元。

任何文字系统都有一级单位对应于语言中的音义结合体.比如汉文中的“方块字”和英文中的“(文字）词"。

新版语言学练习

语言学纲要指导书习题导言一．填空1．语言学的三大发源地是（）、（）、和（）.2．语言学是（）世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是（）3.现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士语言学家（）的（）4.语言交际过程可分为( )-( )-（）-( )-( )五个阶段。

5.印度最早的经典所使用的语言是（）.6.（）、( )、( )是中国“小学”的主要研究内容。

二．判断正误1.语文学主要是研究古代的口语和书面语。

2.语言有自身结构的独立性，与系统之外的社会环境没有关系。

3.理论语言学是研究语言一般规律的，不受具体语言研究影响。

4.语言形式和内容的关系是语言研究的根本问题。

三．思考题1.语言与人类社会生活有哪些密切关联？2.语文学研究有哪些特征?3.语言学学科内部都有哪些研究分类？如何看待它们之间的关系？4.为什么说语言学是一门基础学科？5.为什么说语言学是自然科学和人文科学的桥梁？6.如何看待语言学研究的意义和价值？第一章语言的功能一、填空1.语言的功能包括____功能和____功能。

2.语言的社会功能包括____功能和____功能。

3.在各种信息传递形式中，____是第一性的、最基本的手段。

4.人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由____半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由____半球制约。

5.儿童语言习得一般经过____阶段和____阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。

二．判断正误1.文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。

2.当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。

3.书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。

4.抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。

5.布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。

6.聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。

7.不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。

8.汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。

三．思考题1.为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？2.语言的人际互动功能表现在哪些方面？3.为什么说思维离不开语言？4.语言思维功能的生理基础是什么，有哪些表现？5.儿童语言习得的临界期指什么？临界期的存在说明语言的哪些特性？6.不同语言思维方式的特殊性体现在哪些方面？7.张三说，“我们先发明了电视，然后才给电视命名，所以思维不需要语言。

语言学纲要修订版练习题及答案

第一章一、填空语言的功能1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。

2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。

3、在各种信息传递形式中，语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。

（4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。

5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。

二、判断正误（对）1、文字是建立在语言基础之上的再编码形式。

（错）2、当说话者陈述一个客观事实时，话语中不具有主观性。

（错）3、书刊上的话语不具有人际互动功能。

（对）4、抽象思维要以语言为形式依托。

（错）5、布洛卡区在大脑的右半球前部。

（错）6、聋哑人不会说话，所以不具有抽象思维的能力。

（对）7、不同语言结构的差异体现出思维方式的不同。

（错）8、汉语名词没有数的变化，所以汉语没有区别单数和多数的概念。

三．思考题1、为什么说语言是人类最重要的信息传递的手段？除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的信息传递工具：（1）文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号、化学公式等辅助性的交际工具（2）体态语等伴随性的副语言交际工具，（3）盲文、手语等类语言交际工具。

但这些交际工具或者使用范围的有限，或者运用效率低下，或者使用频率不高，很难与语言这种交际工具相提并论。

文字记录语言，打破了语言交际中时间和空间的限制，在社会生活中起着重大的作用，中小学语文教学主要就是教学生识字、阅读、写作。

但是，文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。

一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展。

文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。

在文字产生以前，语言早已存在，估计有几十万年。

今天世界上没有文字的语言比有文字的语言多得多。

文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。

总之，在上述的种种信息传递工具当中，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言，文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；语言是人类最重要的信息传递工具。

自考_语言学概论_分章节练习题[1]

自考_语言学概论_分章节练习题[1]第一章语言和语言学一、单项选择题1.语言的客观存在形式首先表现为口语。

语言学是指研究语言的科学。

2.在个别情况下，当口语已经发生巨大变化而书面语长期保持古代语言的面貌不变时，就可能产生言文脱节的现象。

3.在我国，白话文代替文言文的时间是五四运动以后。

4.世界各国都把书面语的产生作为文明史的开端。

5.共同的历史文化传统和民族认同感是确定一个“民族”的最根本的标准。

6.语言是最直观最容易识别的民族标志。

7.口语是语言的有声客观存在形式。

8.书面语虽然在口语的基础上产生，但也影响口语的发展。

9.口语和书面语都有两个方面：一方面是表示一定意义的声音或图形，这是一种物理现象；另一方面则是由声音或图形表示的意义，那是一种心理现象。

10.人与人的口头交际过程是非常复杂的，从通信理论的角度可以将之理解为编码和解码的过程。

11.主张把语言和言语分开的代表人和集大成的学者是现代语言之父索绪尔，他的代表作是《普通语言学教程》。

12.语言符号的特点有：任意性、强制性、可变性、离散性、线性。

13.索绪尔创立的语言学，使语言学成为现代意义的科学。

14.言语活动可以分为语言和言语两个分支，即索绪尔提出人类言语活动可分为语言和言语两个部分。

15.语言和言语：“语言”是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的有规律可循而又成为系统的那一部分。

言语是个人“说话”的具体行为和结果，在每个人的发音、用词和使用的句子结构等方面体现出个人特色。

16.书面语和口语的关系是：前者是第二性的，后者是第-性的。

17.口语和书面语的所谓一致，是指基本的语言成分。

18.语言符号的物质实体（语音）和所表示的意义（语义）之间没有必然的理据关系，这说明，语言符号具有任意性。

19.语言符号是离散的，在时间这根轴上成线性排列。

语言符号的线性特征使离散的语言符号有可能组合成大小不等的语言单位，组合成连续的语流。

20.在语言系统的各个子系统中，语音系统的系统性最强。

语言学第6章

Language Processingin Mind1. Introduction2. Language comprehension3. Discourse/text interpretation4 Language production5. Task6.1 IntroductionPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Other definitions of Psycholinguistics:▪ a. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship of “language and mind”.▪ b. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, and production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)cf:a. Psychology of language deals with more generaltopics such as the extent to which languageshapes thought.b. Psychology of communication includes non-verbal communication such as gestures andfacial expressions.c. Cognitive psychologists are concerned withmaking inferences about the content of thehuman mind.d. Experimental psychologists is somewhat more concernedwith empirical matters, such as speed response to aparticular word.◆Evidencea. Psycholinguistics attracts supporters from both linguistics and psychology, though both of them have somewhat different approaches , esp. in methodology.Linguists are inclined to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidencePsychologists more prefer experimental studies. b. Subjects of Psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults, children and aphasics patients ------people with speech disorders.Current issuesa. It is generally agreed that human language system is likely to be a “modular”, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. However, the point led to a major controversy concerning the integration of the modules.b. Another problem is the relationship between STRUCTURE and PROCESS, which can not reach agreement.c. Three major aspects of psycholinguistic research:COMPREHENSION Language:how do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or understand?PRODUCTION language:how do they produce messages that others can understand in turn?ACQUISITION language:how language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?6.2. Language comprehension●Word recognition:Word recognition is the initial step inunderstanding any message.●Factors affecting word recognition:a. Cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.b. Frequency effect, one of the most important factorsaffecting word recognition, studies how frequently the word is used in a given discourse or contextC. Recency effect, one of the factors affecting word recognition, describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.D.Context is another factor affecting word recognition. People recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Syntactic processingfactors affecting the process of determining the structure of a sentencea.the ambiguity of individual words and the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.e.g.: The mother beat the his daughter with a play gun. ( prepositional phrase with a play gun used to modify daughter ; prepositional phrase with a play gun being the complement of the verb beat )b.the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentencee.g.: the desert trains ( in different contexts, desert can serve as the subject of the verb trains or the modifier of the verb )C.garden path sentence, another factor affectingthe process of determining a sentence structure, are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. Forexample, reduced relative clauses often causesuch feeling of having been garden-pathed.e.g.: The horse raced past the barn fell ( thehorse that was raced past the barn fell )MINIMAL attachment theory, a way used when interpreting the structure of sentences, is theidea that people initially construct the simplest( or least complex ) syntactic structure.Basic processes in readingPerceptual span is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted, which varies depending on factors such as the size of the print, the complexity of the text, etc. and encompasses about three or four letters to the left of fixation and some fifteen letters to the right of fixation. Immediacy assumption means that the reader is supposed to carry out the processes required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.6.3.Discourse/text interpretationDiscourse serves as a context, affect sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certaindirection.General context effects means that our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension, which occurs all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevantgeneral knowledge that we possess..Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourseSchemata and inference drawingThe origin of schemataThe concept of schema theory was put forward by Barlett in his writings. Barlett believed that our memory for discourse was not based on straight reproduction, but was constructive. The constructive process uses information frome experience related to the discourse at hand, to build a mental representation. He argued that , that past experience can not be an accumation of successive individuated events and experiences, it must be organized and manageable. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown&George Yule )The definitions of Schema:Schemata are …high-level complex ( and even conventional or habitual ) knowledge structures‟ (van Dijk, 1981:141) which functions as …ideational scaffolding‟ (Andersion, 1977 ) in the organization and interpretation of experience. In the strong view, schemata are considered to be deterministic, to predispose the experiencer to interpret his experience in a fixed way. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )b. Schemata can be seen as the organizedbackground knowledge which leads us to expect or predict aspects in our interpretation ofdiscourse. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )The characteristics of schemata:a.Schemata can vary considerably in theinformation they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.b.Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically.e.g.:worsening environment/ecological deterioration↓desertification↓sand storms / Yellow dust↓deforestation /vegetationc.Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptuallydriven way to facilitate interpretation onenvironmental stimuli.how to use schemata:a.the activation of schematab.the reconstruction of schemataspecific use of schemata: research on the use of schemata are found in reading comprehensionand listening comprehension and listeningcomprehension. Now research on the use ofschemata begins in writing.Story structureVan Dijk and Kintsch (1983 ) argued that, in understanding of the gist of MACROSTRUCTURE of a story, readers and listeners make extensive use of their general knowledge to work out the major theme of a story, which leads to the production of MACROPROPOSITIONS which are general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.6.4 Language production●Language production is definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.Speech productionGarrett put forward five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence:a. the message-level representationb. the functional-level representationc. the positional-level representationthe phonetic-level representationthe articulatory-level representationcomment on the theory: the complex theory of speech production has not as yet been tested thoroughly. However, there is support for some of its major assumptions.some concepts related to the theory: Spoonerism ( Slip if the tongue ) refers to the initial letters or letters of two words are transposed. For example, sounds or words from the end of a sentence intrude into the early part of a sentence, then this provides evidence for the notion of forward planning.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.e.g. ＊He has already trunked two packs.(He has already packed two trunks. )Written languageWriting process proposed by Hayers ans Flowers (1986 ):First, the planning process, which involves producing ideas and arranging them into a writing plan appropriate to the writing.Second, the sentence generation process, which translates the writing plan into actual sentences that can be written down.Lastly, the revision process, which involves an evaluation of what has been written for so far.Strategic knowledge, less obvious factors determining the quality of the writing plan, is knowledge used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherent and well-organized.6.5 Task:Work in groups and discuss the following questions: Give a definition of Psycholinguistics in your own words?Please explain how to figure our the correct structure of garden path sentences with four or more sentences ?Could you explain how to use schemata in listening, speaking,reading and reading with examples?Please explain the basic process in reading with a short passage or short paragraph?Distinguish the following definitions with at least one examples: slip of the tongue, anticipation error, exchange error and morpheme-exchange errors?Think about the acquisition of second language acquisition or firstlanguage acquisition from the perspective of psycholinguistics?。

简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章答案

Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as a sentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of anutterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making acomplaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。

语言学概论指导书练习题部分答案

语言学概论指导书练习题部分答案导言：一：填空1：语言学的三大发源地是＿中国＿印度和希腊---罗马2：语言学是19世纪成为独立的学科的，其标志是历史比较语言学的形成3：现代语言学的标志性著作是瑞士学家索绪尔的《普通语言学教程》4：语言交际过程可以分为编码——发送——传递——接收——解码五个阶段5：印度最早的经典所用的语言是古代的梵语6：文字，音韵，训诂之学是中国”小学”的主要研究内第一章：语言的功能一：填空1：语言的功能包括语言的社会功能和语言的思维功能2：语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能3：在各种信息传递形式中，语言是第一性的，最基本的手段4：人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数，推理能力等由左半球掌管，音乐感知，立体图形识别等能力由右半球制约。

5：儿童语言习得一般经过独词句的出现和从独词句到双词句阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。

第二章：语言是符号系统一：填空1：说出的话语的句子是无限的，但无限多的句子是由有限的造句规则和词汇材料组合而成的。

2：符号包含形式和意义两个方面，二者不可分离。

3：语言符号的意义是对它所指代的一类心里现实的概括。

4：我们通过语言文字认识到“孔子是中国古代的思想家”这个知识信息的。

5：语言的表达是对心理现实的编码。

6：心理现实是存在于客观现实和语言符号之间的人脑中的信息存在状态。

7：语言符号的任意性和线条性是语言符号的基本性质。

8：语言系统的二层性的一大特点是形式层的最小单位一定大大少于符号层的最小单位。

9：组合关系和聚合关系是语言系统中的两大基本关系。

10：动物无法掌握人类的语言，从生理基础来看主要是不具有语言能力和思维能力。

第四章语法二、填空1、和动词有关的句法范畴有时、体、态和人称。

2、由两个或两个以上的语素构成的词称为合成词。

3、在worker中，worker这一部分可以称为词干。

4、按照词法结构类型，语言可以分为孤立语、屈折语、黏着语和复综语。

5、句子的最大特点是一般前后都有停顿并有一个完整的语调。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版)

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Synta x is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, i ncluding the combination of morphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules. 3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto a nother following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internali zed linguistic knowledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic com petence. 5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but ther e is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. 6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of gram maticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories ar e open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly rec ognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, a nd auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in th e mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather th an grammatical knowledge.12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the i nsertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which b egins with the letter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single cla use which contains a sub-ject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independent unit that usually comprise s a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. 1 7.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually pre cedes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatical ly called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clause s, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, th e incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words are constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a ca se assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P___ ____ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in o ne way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between a nd among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condition explains the f act that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the em bedded clause. A. coordinator B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 2 7. Phrase structure rules have ____ properties. A. recursive B. grammatica l C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better und erstand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammati cality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sent encesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditi onally called ________. A. transformational rulesB. generative rules C. phrase s tructure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case condition accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object po sitions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The synt actic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that group words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rul es may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structure IV. Define the following ter ms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. syntactic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rule s 42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major ty pes of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a s entence linearly structured? Why? 46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 47. What is NP movement. Il lustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There are four given choices fo r each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statemen t: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structure of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allo w words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually compri ses a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which co ntains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate s entence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating co njunction, such as "and", "but", "or". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sen tences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a le xical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a partic ular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logica l functional relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The gra mmatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the s entence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in t he grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic c ompetence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules tha t transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure i s the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes plac e. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentence s at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43. What are t he basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at leas t a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 4 4. What are the major types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. T raditionally, there are three major types of sentences. They are simple senten ce, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex sentence. A simple sentenc e consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and s tands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of whic h is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence do n ot have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before J ohn gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the e lements in a sentence linearly structured? Why? No. Language is both line arly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto an other following a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchi cally structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can b e seen from the following tree diagram: S NP VP Det N Vt NP De t N The boy likes the music. 46. What are the advant ages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups words into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each structural constituent, thus it is believed to most t ruthfully illustrate the constituent relationship among linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movement in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sen tence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A) The man beat t he child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the mov ement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original posi tions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right an d "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, ho wever, are related to changing a sentence from the active voice to the passiv e voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meaning, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they hav e the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Diale ctal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as Britis h English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. 2. Sense is concer ned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of t he linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have diff erent references in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of e xperience. 5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can deriv e meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in whic h the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its componen ts. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ran ked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a n o-place predication because it contains no argument. 10. In grammatical anal ysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meani ng of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word whic h begins with the letter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d______ link betw een a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13. R______ means what a linguis tic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. Words that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__ ________. 16.R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversa l of a relationship between the two items. 17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning componen ts. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules c alled s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predicatio n, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According t o the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be la bels of the objects they stand for. III. There are four choices following each s tatement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The nami ng theory is advanced by ________. A. Plato B. Bloomfield C. Geoffrey Leech D. Firth 22. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conceptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Which of t he following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning o f the linguistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the ling uistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspe ct of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.” A. is synonymous with B. is inconsistent with C. entails D. presupposes 25. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componenti al analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “aliv e”and “dead”are ______________. A. gradable antonyms B. relati onal opposites C. complementary antonyms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. Concept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. Polyse my B. Synonymy C. Homonymy D. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homony ms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic features IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homop hones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Argument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say tha t a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. 5 0. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth valu es? 52. According to the way synonyms differ, how many groups can we cl assify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blan ks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homophones 16.Relational 17. Componential 1 8. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are four choices following ea ch statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in lan guage. 32. Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is ab stract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Reference means what a linguisti c form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship bet ween the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Sy nonymy :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have mo re than one meaning. 36. Homonymy :Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different w ords are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homophones :When tw o words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they a re called complete homonyms. 40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense r elation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning comp onents, which are called semantic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its gra mmatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by t he grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical participant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is sai d about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication : A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do w e say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of themeanings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence w ere the sum total of the meanings of all its components, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are different in meanin gs. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical me an-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). The meaning of a sentence is the product of both le xical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the consti tuent words and of the grammatical constructions that relate one word syntag matically to another. 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exa mples. Componential analysis, pro-posed by structural semanticists, is a wa y to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the me aning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called s emantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certai n semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. For example, the wo rd “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do you distinguish between entailme nt and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inc lusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is n ecessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not hav e been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y is an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: John has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may n ot need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If Jo hn does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. Therefore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X.51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as syn onymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelo r all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, i f X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsist ent with Y e.g. X: John is married. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According t o the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms int o? Illustrate them with examples. According to the ways synonyms differ, s ynonyms can be divided into the following groups. i. Dialectal synonyms Th ey are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the Englis h language. For examples: British English American Englishautumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal s ynonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For exa mple, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is call ed "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They are synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For example: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pa l, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative m eaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express differentemotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “collaborator” a nd “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who h elps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in their collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done somethin g wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accu se. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonym s Semantically different synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly i n what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in me aning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meanin g. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the stud y of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest was the naming theor y, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the words used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic for m and what it refers to. The form and the meaning are linked through the m ediation of concepts in the mind. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguisti c context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context i n which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper b ecame worried. (seal meaning an aquatic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the king's stamp) Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of ling uistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language for m as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls f orth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is Tr ue or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore meth ods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between la nguages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore of ten indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The history of the E nglish language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English an d Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative case s. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was t he revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabula ry of a language. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, a nd in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjec tive agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12. The word order of Modern Englis h is more variable than that of Old English. 13. Derivation refers to the proc ess by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, s tems, or words. 14. “Smog”is a word formed by the word-forming process。

《语言学纲要》指导书习题答案(4-6章)

第四章语法一、举例解释下列名词（20分，每词4分）1、内部屈折：指的是依靠词根中元音或辅音的变化来表达不同的语法意义的手段。

如，英语foot（脚，单数）-feet（脚，复数），goose（鹅，单数）-geese（鹅，复数），build（建设，现在时）-built（建设，过去时）等。

2、后缀：词缀的一种，粘附在词根语素的后面构成新词。

如，汉语的“者”放在动词形容词（或语素）后面表示跟这个动作形状有关的人——长者、作者、编者、工作者、劳动者，等等；又如英语的-er/-or接在表动作的词（或语素）后面表示跟该动作有关的人——worker（工作者），teacher（教师），publisher （出版者），translasor（译者）等等。

3、词尾：是变词语素，它附着在词干后面，表示某种语法意义，例如英语动词doing，其中的ing就是词尾，表示动作行为的方式。

4、复合词：是由两个以上的词根语素构成的词，例如汉语“白菜”“电脑”“支持”，英语“themselves”，“waterfall”，都是复合词。

5、语法范畴：是指通过词形变化表现出来的语法意义的归类，例如“he”的语法意义是主格，“him”的语法意义是宾格，它们都属于格的语法范畴。

二、填空题（20分，每空1分）1、语法是大家说话的时候必须遵守的习惯，不是语言学家规定的。

2、语法的组合规则和聚合规则构成一种语言的语法规则。

3、从形式上看，句子的最大特点是具有完整的语调。

4、句子里根据表达的需要临时作出组合的词组叫自由词组。

5、从意义和作用看，词可以分为实词和虚词两大类。

6、语法研究通常以词为界，词以上的规则叫句法，词以下的规则叫词法。

7、我们可以根据语素在词中的不同作用把它分成三类，例如 happinesses中，es是词尾，ness是词缀，happy是词根。

8、根据语素在词中的不同作用，一般把词根和词缀叫作构词语素，把词尾叫作变词语素。

9、词的组合有五种基本类型，例如“研究问题”是述宾结构，“跑得很快”是述补结构，“火速准备”是偏正结构，“我们努力”是主谓结构。

语言学概论章节练习及答案

第一章一、单项选择题1．首先提出“能指”和“所指”这对概念的语言学家是A.洪堡特B.索绪尔C.乔姆斯基D.萨丕尔答案：B解析：瑞士语言学家索绪尔把语言符号中能够指称某种意义的声音称为“能指”；把语言符号中由特定声音表示的意义称为“所指”。

2．下列关于语言符号的表述，不正确的一项是A.语言符号包括能指和所指B.语言符号的音和义不可分割C.语言符号音义关系具有任意性D.语言符号不能分解和重新组合答案：D解析：语言符号是离散的，可以分解的，且在时间顺序上是成线性排列的。

语言符号的线性特征使得语言符号有可能组合成大小不等的单位；语言符号的离散性又使得语言符号有可能形成各种各样的排列组合。

由此可见，语言符号是可以分解和重新组合的。

3.“名无固宜，约之以命，约定俗成谓之宜，异于约则谓之不宜”这句话出自A.《论语，述而》B．《庄子·养生主》C.《韩非子·五蠹》D．《荀子·正名》答案：D解析：该句话出自荀子的《正名篇》。

二、多项选择题1．下列关于书面语的表述，正确的有A.是经过提炼的口语的书面形式B.与口语相比缺少了一些内容C.不存在与口语严重脱节现象D.会具有相对独立的发展历史E.不会影响和促进口语的发展答案：ABD解析：书面语不是口语绝对忠实的记录，更不是口语机械的复制品，书面语的写作比口语有更充足的时间来推敲，比口语更加精炼和准确，所以与口语相比，少了一些内容。

书面语一旦形成，就具有相对的独立性；书面语克服了空间和时间上的限制，形成完备的语音、词汇、语法系统，反过来影响口语发展。

存在书面语与口语严重脱节现象，中国的文言文和西方的拉丁文就是“言文脱节”的典型例子。

三、术语解释题1．所指答案：索绪尔给语言符号所指的意义创制了一个专门术语，称为“所指”，即特定声音表示的意义。

四、简答题1.举例说明语言符号的线性特征和离散性特征。

答案：（1）语言符号的线性特征是指：人们说话时，语言符号只能依时间的先后成线性排列，正是在这种线性的排列中，语言符号之间才得以形成各种组合关系，产生各种不同的语法结构。

邢福义《语言学概论》配套题库-课后习题-第6章语用学【圣才出品】

第6章语用学一、对“你怎么还不走！”这句话可能出现的场合进行设想，分析其可能产生的不同意义和理解。

答：“你怎么还不走！”该句有以下几种理解：（1）．说话人与听话人闹矛盾，说话人为了表达自己的愤怒，要求听话人离开，听话人听到之后没有采取行动。

说话人对听话人说“你怎么还不走！”（2）．说话人催促听话人去做某件事情，已经提醒过听话人赶快出发，可是过了一会儿，看到听话人还没走，对听话人说“你怎么还不走！”（3）．说话人以为听话人会跟自己一起来的人一块走，可是听话人的同伴已经走了，听话人还没走，为了表达自己的疑惑，说话人对听话人说“你怎么还不走！”二、如何准确理解语言运用的变异性和规律性？答：（1）语用的变异性人们的语言交际总是在一定的语言环境（由言语交际的各种相关因素组合而成的动态的环境进行的，因此处于经常的变动之中，也就是所谓“到什么山上唱什么歌”、“见什么人说什么话”。

例如一个当教师的人，作为老师在课堂上课、跟学生交谈，与他在家庭里作为一个丈夫、作为一个父亲对妻子、对子女的语言是会有较大差异的。

又如同样是“你要干什么？”这句话，由不同的人在不同的场合用不同的语气说出来，会产生不同的意义或者说有不同的理解。

我们可以设想如下的情景：①说话人看到某个听话人神情专注在东翻西找，出于关心，想为对方提供某种帮助，于是以询问的语气说：“你要干什么？”②说话人看到某个听话人神情茫然地在东翻西找，弄得说话人心烦意乱，于是以责怪的语气说：“你要干什么？”③说话人跟某个听话人谈论某个问题，听话人言辞激烈，甚至带有危险倾向，说话人想阻止听话人可能做出的过激行为，于是以劝阻的语气说：“你要干什么？”以上①场合和②场合的“你要干什么？”这句话说话人的意思是明确的，但是听话人不一定能够理解。

在①场合听话人可能会感受到说话人给予的关心，但也可能会以为说话人对于自己东翻西找的行为很厌烦；但在②场合就不大会理解为对自己关心的意思。

③场合的“你要干什么？”得到的效果可能是使听话人冷静下来，当然也可能被误以为“激将法”反而火上加油。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后习题(语言与认知)【圣才出品】

第6章语言与认知1. Define the following terms.·psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholinguistics investigates the six following subjects: language acquisition, language comprehension, language production, language disorders, language and thought, and cognitive architecture of language, The most important research subjects are acquisition, comprehension and production.·language acquisition: Language acquisition is one of the central topics in psycholinguistics. Acquiring a first language is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons.Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage.·holophrastic stage: Holophrastic stage is the first phase of language acquisition.The main linguistic accomplishments during this stage are control of the speech musculature and sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in the parents’language. Shortly before their first birthday, babies begin tounderstand words, and around that birthday, they start to produce them. At this stage, words are usually produced in isolation; this one-word stage can last from two months to a year. About half the words are for objects: food, body parts, clothing, vehicles, toys, household items, animals. There are words for actions, motions, and routines.·two-word stage: Two-word stage is the second phase of language acquisition. Around 18 months, the child begins to learn words at a rate of one every two waking hours, and keeps learning that rate or faster through adolescence. The primitive syntax begins with two- word strings. Children announce when objects appear, disappear, and move about, point out their properties and owners, comment on people doing things and seeing things, reject and request objects and activities, and ask about who, what, and where. These sequences already reflect the language being acquired: in 95% of them, the words are properly ordered.·three-word utterances: Three-word utterances stage is the third phase of language acquisition. Three-word utterances look like samples drawn from longer potential sentences expressing a complete and more complicated idea. For example, although the children never produced a sentence as complicated as Mother gave John lunch in the kitchen, they did produce strings containing all of its components in the correct order.·connectionism: With respect to language comprehension, connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links betweenspelling units and sound units to generate the pronunciations of written words and to access the pronunciations of familiar words, or words that are exceptions to these patterns. In this view, similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehending language, with the novel items being processed based on their similarity to the known ones.·cohort model: The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990. It is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input~ the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner. ·interactive model: The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top down”influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge can affect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublcxical units. In certain cases, listeners’knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear”phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal and replaced by noise.·race model: The race model suggests in spoken word recognition there are two routes that race each other--a pre-lexical route, which computes phonologicalinformation from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed. When word-level information appears to affect a lower-level process, it is assumed that the lexical route won the race. ·serial model: Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant.·parallel model: Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general Parallel model describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence. ·resonance model: The resonance model is a model about text comprehension, in this model, information in long term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Semantic details, including factors such as negation that drastically change the truth of propositions, do not seem to affect the resonance process. It emphasized a more active and intelligent search for meaning as the basis by which a reader discovers the conceptual structure of a discourse. In reading a narrative text, reader attempts to build a representation of the causal structure of the text, analyzing events in terms of goals, actions, and reactions. A resonance process serves as a first stage in processing a text, and, reading objectives and details of text structure determine whether a reader goes further and searches for a coherent structure for the text.·construal: Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etc.·construal operations: Construal operations are conceptualizing processes used in language process by human beings. That is, construal operations are the underlying psychological processes and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.·figure-ground alignment: Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.·trajector: Trajector means a moving or dynamic figure.·landmark: Landmark means the ground provided for a moving figure.·basic level category: Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the most relevant information. The information on our interactions with objects in the real world are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the general gestalt of the category.·subordinate level Subordinate level is the level at which we perceive the differences between the members of the basic level categories.·image schema: Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual’interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to oar experience.·metaphor: Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other. It’s often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that We use in order to describe the experience.·metonymy: Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of another.·ontological metaphors: Ontological metaphors mean that human experiences with physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances.·structural metaphors: Structural metaphors play the most important role。

胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)-章节题库-第6章语言与认知【圣才出品】

第6章语言与认知Ⅰ. Multiple Choice1. How does the top-down approach differ from the bottom-up approach in language processing?A. Bottom-up processing is more effective than top-down processing in speech synthesis.B. Bottom-up processing utilizes all information one has in speech perception.C. Top-down processing uses one’s existing knowledge and the incoming speech signal.D. Top-down processing is more efficient than bottom-up processing in speech comprehension.【答案】B【解析】在语言处理加工过程中，有两种方法，即从一般到具体的自上而下的方法和从具体到一般的自下而上的方法。

其中自下而上的方法会用到言语感知中的所有信息。

2. _____ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition【答案】C【解析】在学校里我们会学到第二语言，对第二语言知识的这种有意识的积累，叫做“学习”。

3. During language acquisition, children go through several stages, during which stage they begin to have sensitivity to the phonetic distinctions used in their parents’ language.A. Holophrastic stageB. Two word stageC. Three word stageD. Fluent grammatical conversation stage【答案】A【解析】孩子们的语言习得要经历三个阶段，单词句阶段，双词句阶段，以及三词句阶段。

语言学概论课后答案

《语言学概论》习题答案(自考,新版教材) 选择题第一章总论1 言语是×. 言论与语言×. 音义结合的符号系统√. 说话和所说的话2 语言是一种×. 形式和内容相统一的视觉符号√. 音义结合的听觉符号系统×. 用来交际的触觉符号系统3 抽象思维的一般特性是×. 概括性、民族性×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造√. 概括性、社会性4 语言是思维的工具指的是×. 一切思维必须由语言完成√. 主要指抽象思维和直观动作思维、形象思维的高级阶段离不开语言×. 指直观动作思维和表象思维离不开语言5 思维的三种类型是√. 直观动作思维、表象思维、抽象思维×. 概念、判断、推理×. 固定、再现、改造6 语言符号的任意性是×. 语言符号的创造和使用总是任意的×. 我们可以任意理解语言的符号√. 语言符号音义之间没有本质的联系7 语言符号的线条性×. 语言符号的排列没有阶级性，象一根线条排列在一起×. 语言符号一个跟一个依次出现，随时间推移不分层次逐渐延伸√. 语言符号在时间的线条上逐个出现，同时不排除层次性8 "他肯定不会来了！" 这句话强调了说者的×. 说话行为√. 施事行为×. 取效行为×. 言语行为9汉语声调从中古到现代的"平分阴阳，入派三声"的规律是√. 个别语言的发展规律×. 一般语言的发展规律×. 汉民族各种方言的发展规律□一个民族内部共同使用的语言称为√. 民族共同语×. 民族交际语×. 国际交际语10 克里奥尔语是语言的√. 混合×. 融合×. 分化×. 整化11 语言融合的"底层"现象是×. 语言装置的最下面一层，即语音部分√. 被融合的语言的某些遗留下来的因素×. 被压迫的阶层第二章语音□声调决定于√. 音高×. 音强×. 音长×. 音质□[p、t?、b、k]在发音方法上的共同特点是×. 清音×. 不送气√. 塞音×. 擦音□舌尖后浊擦音是×. [x] ×. [b] √. [?] ×. [z]□[tA]（大）是√. 开音节×. 闭音节×. 元音首音节√. 辅音首音节□[]（血）中的[?]是×. 起音√. 领音×. 收音□[kai51]（盖）中的[i]是×. 起音×. 领音√. 收音×. 辅音□普通话[?in55k?u214]（辛苦）快读是[?i? 55k?u214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化×. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[f?n214pi214]快读是[f?m35pi214]这种现象是×. 顺同化√. 逆同化×. 顺异化√. 逆异化×. 弱化×. 脱落□普通话[tou51fu214]（豆腐）快读是[tou51f]这种现象是×. 同化×. 异化×. 弱化√. 脱落×. 增音第三章语义□________是指语言单位的意义在一定的语境的作用下，内部变得具体、丰富或增加一些附加意义。

《语言学概论》网络课程习题及参考答案

《语言学概论》网络课程习题与参考答案第一章导论此章内容属于新课切入和引导部分，不安排习题。

第二章语言的社会功能一、填空1.人和动物的区别是人会制造生产工具进行劳动，而且人类有，这是人和动物相区别的重要标志之一。

2.一种语言中的句子数量是无限的，人类之所以能掌握语言，是因为语言中构成句子的语言材料和的数量是十分有限的。

3.语言是人类社会最重要的，而且也是思维的。

4.人的大脑分左右两个半球，大脑的半球控制语言活动，半球掌管不需要语言的感性直观思维。

5.儿童最早的智力活动就是学习。

6.语言是特殊的社会现象的含义是语言具有，没有。

7.语言和言语的关系可以这样理解：语言是，言语是个别的；语言是抽象的，言语是。

8.人和人之间互相传递信息，互相交流思想感情，最主要的方式是进行交际。

9.人和人之间相互交流思想表达感情的过程是非常复杂的，从信息论的角度可以将其理解为和的过程。

10.文字是建立在基础之上的工具，旗语是建立在基础之上的工具。

二、辨析正误（正确的打钩，错误的打叉）1.文字和语言一样，都是人类最重要的交际工具。

（）2.地主阶级和农民阶级之间没有共同语言，这说明语言是有阶级性的。

（）3.语言是思维的工具，没有语言，人类就无法进行有效的思维。

（）4.从语言和言语的关系来说，我们在现实生活中不可能找到一匹马，只能找到一匹具体的具有某种色彩、某种体态等等特征的马。

（）5.绘画和音乐都能表达人的思想感情，都可以算是代表语言的符号。

（）6.现代社会，随着沟通方式的日益增多，语言的重要性也在日渐削弱。

（）7.语言具有自然属性，是一种客观的纯自然现象。

（）8.没有语言，人类照样可以思维，就像聋哑人那样。

（）三、分析题：下列句子中加下划线的词哪些是语言学中所说的“语言”，哪些是语言学中所说的“言语”，哪些是其他说法的代替？1.杨朔散文的语言真美！2.你这个人真不会说话。

3.他会说好几国的话。

4.两个人熟了，自然也就有了共同语言。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习练习题及答案

EX for English Linguistics (chapter1—6)Chapter I IntroductionI. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d .2.Chomsky defines “c ”as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.3. L refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.4 D is one of the design features of human language which refers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s .8. Human capacity for language has a g basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. P refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a linguistics.11. Language is p________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard before.12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.14. According to M. A. K. Halliday, the i function is to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of real or imaginary world.15. The t function is to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.II. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning is called _____.A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3.If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it issaid to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as ____________.A. primaryB. correctC. secondaryD. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing, because___________.A.in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writingB.speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of informationconveyed.C.speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mothertongueD.All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians for adopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. pragmaticC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logical connection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD. ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situationsof the speaker. This feature is called_________,A. displacementB. dualityC. flexibilityD. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ early last century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth13. The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is goodproof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalChapter 2：PhonologyII. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1．An affricate______ refers to a strong puff of air stream in the production of speech sounds.2．A_________ phonetics describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ.3．The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/ have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b ________ sounds.4．Of all the speech organs, the t _________ is the most flexible, and is responsible for varieties of articulation than any other.5．English consonants can be classified in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of p ________ of articulation.6．When the obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction audibly released and the air passing outagain is called a s ______.7．S ________ features are the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments. They include stress, tone, intonation, etc.8．The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called s_______ rules.9．The transcription of speech sounds with letter-symbols only is called broad transcription while the transcription with letter-symbols together with thediacritics is called n transcription.10．When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as i________.11．P _________ is a discipline which studies the system of sounds of a particular language and how sounds are combined into meaningful units to effect linguistic communication.12. If you say door, new, two, senior, zoo, you will notice that the first sounds in all these words are a sounds. The t and s are voiceless, and d, n and z are voiced. Only n is nasal.13．The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important cavities: the p cavity, the oral cavity and the nasal cavity.14．T_______ are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords and which can distinguish meaning just likephonemes.15．Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and s stress.II. There are four choices following each of the statements below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The study of the physical properties of speech sounds is called ________ phonetics.A. acousticB. articulatoryC. AuditoryD. allomorphic2. The sound /f/ is _________________.A. voiced palatal affricateB. voiced alveolar stopC. voiceless velar fricativeD. voiceless labiodental fricative3．Of all the speech organs, the _______ is/ are the most flexible.A. mouthB. lipsC. tongueD. vocal cords4．The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ____ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. vowelD. consonantal5．__________ is a voiced alveolar stop.A. /z/B. /d/C. /k/D./b/6．The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying”a feature ofa sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones ____________.A. identicalB. sameC. exactly alikeD. similar7. Since /p/ and /b/ are phonetically similar, occur in the same environments andthey can distinguish meaning, they are said to be ___________.A. in phonemic contrastB. in complementary distributionC. the allophonesD. minimal pair8. 2.In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][d][s][z][n] share the feature of ( ).A. palatalB. alveolarC. bilabialD. dental9.A ____ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintainingthe highest position.A. backB. centralC. frontD. middle10. Palatal semi-vowel refers to the sound .A. [n]B. [h]C. [w]D. [j]11. A phoneme is a group of phonetically similar sounds called .A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones12.Distinctive features can be found running over a sequence of two or morephonemic segments. The phonemic features that occur above the level of thesegments are called ____________.A. phonetic componentsB. immediate constituentsC.suprasegmental featuresD. semantic features13.A(n) ___________ is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit, acollection of distinctive phonetic features.A. phoneB. soundC. allophoneD. phoneme14．The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the ____ of that phoneme.A. phonesB. soundsC. phonemesD. allophones15. The sounds that begin and end the words church and judge are voiceless and voiced _______, respectively.A. stopsB. fricativesC. affricatesD. plosivesChapter 3：MorphologyI. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1. A root______ is the part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.2. A m______ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3. B______ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.4. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d________ affixes.5. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may change its part of speech.6. A c________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.7. The word snowfall is a word formed by joining two separate words, i.e. “snow” and“fall.” This newly formed word is generally regarded as a c_______.II. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1.The morpheme “vision”in the common word “television”is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme2.The compound word “bookstore”is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A.is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB.can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC.is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D.None of the above.3. “-s” in the word “books” is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root4. Which of the following is NOT a compound word?A. RainbowB. MilkshakeC. Icy-coldD. Unpleasant5.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.6. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words7._________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB. GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme8.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. stylisticC. grammaticalD. semantic9.Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB.can not be combined with other morphemesC.can either be free or boundD.have to be combined with other morphemes.10.____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes11._________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences12.“-s”in the word “books”is _______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a root13. Which of the following does NOT belong to “open class words”?A. NounsB. AdjectivesC. ConjunctionsD. Adverbs14. In the word unreliable, the prefix “un-” is a(n) _______ morpheme.A. freeB. boundC. rootD. inflectional15. Morphemes that represent “tense”, “number”, “gender”, “case”, “aspect”,“degree” and so forth are called morphemes.A. inflectionalB. boundC. freeD. derivational16. The English word “modernizers” is composed of morphemes.A. fourB. threeC. twoD. fiveChapter 5 SemanticsI. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the lettergiven:1. S______can be defined as the study of meaning.2. The conceptualist view holds that there is no d_____ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to.3. R _____ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Words that are close in meaning are called s_____.5. When two words are identical in sound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h _____.6. Pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called r_______ opposites.7. R_________ opposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.8.C_______ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.9. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules calleds________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.10. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for.II. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents_______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviourism3.“Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes4.___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected intomeaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis5.“alive”and “dead”are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational oppositesC. complementary antonymsD. none of the above6._________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense7.___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings havethe same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy8. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemyC. hyponymsD. synonyms9. The kind of antonymy between "married "and "single" is one of __________A converseB relationalC complementaryD gradable10. According to the componential analysis, the word “girl”and “woman”differ in the feature of _______.A. HUMNANB. ANIMATEC. MALED. ADULT11.The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A.grammatical rulesB.selectional restrictionsC.semantic rulesD.semantic features12. The words stationary and stationery are identical in sound, but different inspelling and meaning. They are _______.A. complete homonymsB. homographsC. hyponymsD. homophones13. In the following pairs of words, are a pair of complementary antonyms.A. old and youngB. male and femaleC. hot and coldD. buy and sell14. The relationship between “violet” and “tulip” is ________.A. co-hyponymsB. superordinateC. hyponymsD. antonyms15. A word with several meanings is called ________word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multipleChapter 6：PragmaticsI.Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:1.P_______ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.3. All the speech acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose or the same i_______ point, but they differ in their strength or force.4.If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u_________.5.The meaning of a sentence is a ______, and decontextualized.6.C________ are statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.7.P________ are sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.8. A l________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.9.An i_______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.10.An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.II.There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:1. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept2. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. IntrinsicD. logical3. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context4. A sentence is a________concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual5. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive6. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act7. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to state, or describe, saying what the speaker believes to be trueB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.8. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle9. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicature10. The illocutionary point of _______ is to express the psychological state specifiedin the utterance.A. directivesB. expressivesC. commissivesD. representatives11. found that natural language had its own logic and thus concluded thefamous Cooperative Principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones12. As far as the sentence “My bag is heavy” is concerned, linguists of pragmatics aremore interested in its ______ meaning.A. literalB. logicalC. utterenceD. sentence13. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether, in the study of meaning, _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context14. Of the three speech acts, linguists are most interested in the _________ because this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.A. locutionary actB. illocutionary actC. perlocutionary actD. constative act15. “How fast did he drive when he ran the red light?” _________ “He ran the redlight”.A. entailsB. contradictsC. presupposesD. includesChapter 1I. 1. descriptive petence 3. Langue 4. Duality 5. arbitrary6.socialinguistics7. syntax8. genetic9. Performance 10.applied11. productive 12.scientific 13. social 14 .ideational 15. TextualII.1.A 2.D 3. C 4. D 5.C 6.D 7.C 8.B 9.C 10.B 11.A 12. B 13.AChapter 2I. 1.affricate 2. Articulatory 3.bilabial 4.tognue 5.places6.stop7.Suprasegmental8.sequential9.narrow 10.intonation11.Phonology 12. Alveolar 13. pharyngeal 14.Tones 15.sentenceII. 1.A 2.D 3.C 4.A 5.B 6.D 7. A8. B 9.C 10.D 11. D 12. C 13. D 14. D 15. CChapter 3I. 1. Root 2. Morpheme 3.Bound 4.derivational 5.suffixpound7. CompoundII.1.D 2.D 3.C 4.D 5.C 6. B 7. C 8. C 9. D 10.A11. B 12.C 13. C 14.B 15.A 16.A 17.Chapter 5I.1. Semantics 2.direct 3. Reference 4.synonyms 5.homophones6.relational7.Relational8. Componential9.semantic 10.namingII. 1.A 2.B 3.C 4.B 5.C 6.A 7.C 8.D 9.C 10.D11.A 12.D 13.B 14.A 15.AChapter 6I.1.Pragmatics 2.context 3.illocutionary 4.utterance 5.abstract6.Constatives7.Performatives8.locutionary9.illocutionary 10.expressive II.1. A 2. C 3.D 4. B 5. C 6.C 7. A 8.A 9.D 10.B11. C 12.C 13.D 14. B 15. A。

《语言学教程》第 6 章语言与认知

1 中国人重伦理英美人重认知 2 中国人重整体，偏重综合性思维英美人重个体，偏重分析性思维
3 中国人重直觉英美人重实证
①中国传统思想注重实践经验，注重整体思考，借助直觉体悟，通过知觉从整体上模糊而直接地把握对象的内在本质和规律。②直觉思维强调感性认识、灵感和顿悟；这种思维方式在词语中也有反映。 ①英美人的思维传统是：重视理性知识，重视分析，重视实证，通过对实证的分析得出科学、客观的结论。

伽利略近代实验科学的先驱者当时的人评论：“哥伦布发现了新大陆，而伽利略发现了新宇宙”。史蒂芬· 霍金说，“自然科学的诞生要归功于伽利略，他这方面的功劳无人能及。”

牛顿他对万有引力和三大运动定律的描述奠定了此后三个世纪里物理学的基础，并成为现代工程学的基础。
心理语言学的发展史

心理语言学的发展史总体上分为先乔姆斯基时期和后乔姆斯基时期。在前一个时期，心理语言学受心理学中的行为主义和语言学中的结构主义的影响，着重研究语言的形式，尚未对语言使用的心理过程作深入研究。在乔姆斯基以后，心理语言学的研究重点发生了变化。为验证乔姆斯基提出的一系列假设的心理真实性，心理语言学家们设计出各种各样的理论模型，进行各种实验，以揭开人类心理机制这个“黑匣子”。

托马斯.爱迪生
世界历史上第一个利用大量生产原则和工业实验室来生产发明专利的人。拥有2000 项发明，包括对世界影响极大的留声机、电影摄影机、钨丝灯泡等。

爱迪生被誉为“光明之父”、“现实世界的普罗米修斯”。

托马斯.汤姆逊
他发现了电子，获诺贝尔物理学奖。

他创立了代表现代科学的相对论，为核能开发奠定了理论基础，开创了现代科学的新纪元，被公认为是自伽利略、牛顿以来最伟大的科学家、物理学家。

简明英语语言学教程第二版第6章答案

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Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication2. Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.3. It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.4. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.5. The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is.6. The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent.7. The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.8. Utterances always take the form of complete sentences9. Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.10. Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.11. Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative.12. Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. P_________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.14. What essentially distinguishes s_______ and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.15. The notion of c_________ is essential to the pragmatic study of language.16. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an u___________.17. The meaning of a sentence is a_______, and decontexualized.18. C________ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.19. P________ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.20. A l_________ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.21. An i__________ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.22. A c_________ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.23. An e________ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.24. There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of q_______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. _________ does not study meaning in isolation, but in context.A. PragmaticsB. SemanticsC. Sense relationD. Concept26. The meaning of language was considered as something _______ in traditional semantics.A. contextualB. behaviouristicC. intrinsicD. logical27. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context28. A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual29. If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a(n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive30. Which of the following is true?A. Utterances usually do not take the form of sentences.B. Some utterances cannot be restored to complete sentences.C. No utterances can take the form of sentences.D. All utterances can be restored to complete sentences.31. Speech act theory did not come into being until __________.A. in the late 50’s of the 20the centuryB. in the early 1950’sC. in the late 1960’sD. in the early 21st century.32. __________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act33. According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs.34. All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary acts.B. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about35. __________ is advanced by Paul GriceA. Cooperative PrincipleB. Politeness PrincipleC. The General Principle of Universal GrammarD. Adjacency Principle36. When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicaturesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:l. F 2. F 3.T 4.T 5.F 6.F 7.F 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.T 12.FII. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:13. Pragmatics 14. semantics 15. context 16. utterance 17. abstract18.Constatives 19. Performatives 20. locutionary 21. illocutionary22. commissive 23. expressive 24. quantityIII. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:25. A 26.C 27.D 28.B 29.C 30.B31.A 32.C 33.B 34.C 35. A 36.DIV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics 38. context 39. utterance meaning40. sentence meaning 41. constative 42. performative43. locutionary act 44. illocutionary act 45. perlocutionary act 46.. Cooperative PrincipleV. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary:47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?Suggested answers to supplementary exercises:IV. Define the terms below:37. pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.38. Context: Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.39. utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.40. sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.41. Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable ;42. Performative: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, andwere not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.43. locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.44. illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something.45. perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.46. Cooperative Principle: It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principle that guides our conversational behaviours. The content is : Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.V. Answer the following questions as comprehensively as possible. Give examples for illustration if necessary: 47. How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other?Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.48. How does a sentence differ from an utterance?A sentence is a grammatical concept. It usually consists of a subject and predicate. An utterance is the unit of communication. It is the smallest linguistic unit that has a communicative value. If we regard a sentence as what people a ctually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance. Whether “Mary is beautiful.” is a sentence or an utterance depends on how we look at it. If we regard it as a grammatical unit or a self-contained unit in isolation, then it is a sentence. If we look at it as something uttered in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then it is an utterance. Most utterances take the form of complete sentences, but some utterances are not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.49. How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning?A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The sp eaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, the understanding of the utter ance meaning of “There is a dog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose forwhich the speaker utters it.50. Discuss in detail the locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker's intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. For example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is that he has uttered all the words " you,' " have," " door," " left," " open," etc. and expressed what the word literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance, he has expressed his intention of asking the hearer to close the door.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer understands that the speaker intends him to close the door and closes the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutiohary act is successfully performed .51. Searle classified illocutionary act into five categories. Discuss each of them in detail with examples.1) representatives: representatives are used to state, to describe, to report, etc.. The illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said. For example:(I swear) I have never seen the man before.(I state) the earth is a globe.2) directives: Directives are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, warning, threatening, ordering are all specific instances of this class.For example:Open the window!3) commissives: Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action. When the speaker is speaking, he puts himself under obligation. For example:I promise to come.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4) expressives: The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating. For example:I'm sorry for the mess I have made.5) declarations: Declarations have the characteristic that the successful performance of such an act brings about thecorrespondence between what is said and reality. For example:I now declare the meeting open.52. What are the four maxims under the cooperative principle?The maxim of quantity1. Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) .2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of quality1. Do not say what you believe to be false.2. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of relationBe relevant.The maxim of manner1. Avoid obscurity of expression.2. Avoid ambiguity.3. Be brief ( avoid unnecessary prolixity) .4. Be orderly.53. How does the flouting of the maxims give rise to conversational implicatures?A: Do you know where Mr. Smith lives?B: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city.This is said when both A and B know that B does know Mr. Smith' s address. Thus B does not give enough information that is required, and he has flouted the maxim of quantity. Therefore, such conversational implicature as "I do not wish to tell you where Mr. Smith lives" is produced.A: Would you like to come to our party tonight?B: I'm afraid I' m not feeling so well today.This is said when both A and B know that B is not having any health problem that will prevent him from going to a party. Thus B is saying something that he himself knows to be false and he is violating the maxim of quality. The conversational implicature " I do not want to go to your party tonight" is then produced.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don't you think?B: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren't they?This is said when both A and B know that it is entirely possible for B to make a comment on the hostess. ThusB is saying something irrelevant to what A has just said, and he has flouted the maxim of relation. The conver-sational implicature "I don't wish to talk about the hostess in such a rude manner" is produced.A: Shall we get something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I - C - E - C - R - E - A - M.This is said when both A and B know that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word "ice-cream." Thus B has flouted the maxim of manner. The conversational i mplicature "I don’t want the kids to know we are talking about ice-cream" is then produced.。

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