语言学5._Meaning
意义、语言学
内涵意义的特点：
• 1.不是单独存在的意义，而是附加在概念意义上 的，因人，因年龄而异，因社会，国家，时代。 。。。例如，HOME，“家”，大多说人给home 附 加上了温暖，舒适，温馨这样的内涵意义，例如 ，Christmas, 儿童，成人 • 2.在不同的语言当中，某些词的内涵意义可以相 同。例如。英语中的fox 和汉语中的“狐狸”都 有狡猾的意思。 Mother 和母亲都有亲切，抚爱 ，体贴等内涵意义。词的内涵意义常常和客观事 物的本性和特点有联系。
• 句子所传达的“信息”可分为“旧信息”和“新 信息”。旧信息一般位于句子前半部，新信息位 于后半部。 • 例如 （1）My brother owns the largest restaurant in London. (2)The largest restaurant in London is owned by my brother. (3) The first restaurant in London belongs to my brother. (词汇) • 改变句子的逻辑重音，语调的办法来表达“主题 意义”
所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境意义；使用 环境的不同
• Home---------一般用语 throw----一般用语 Residence-----正式用语 cast-----文学用语 Domicile------官方正式用语chuck-------俚语 Abode --------诗体用语 • They chucked (cast) a stone at the cops (police), and then did a bunk with (absconded with) the loot (money).
6.搭配意义 Collocative meaning
语言学5._Meaning
2015/12/14 2
Teaching Procedures
1. Introduction 2. Meanings of ―meaning‖ 3. Lexical meaning 3.1 Sense and reference 3.2 Major sense relations 3.3 Componential analysis 4. Sense relations between sentences 4.1 An integrated theory 4.2 Logical semantics 5. Task
Teaching difficulties: sense relations between sentences,
different types of antonymy
Teaching Methods & Strategies:
teacher presentation and class discussion
2015/12/14
10
Guess:
What does ‗cornea’ mean?
• The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.
meaning语言学定义七个
meaning语言学定义七个详细解释一下上述七种意义类型：1.概念意义这是指语言中词汇或短语所表达的具体概念或含义。
例如，“狗”这个词汇的概念意义是指一种哺乳动物，通常有毛、有爪、有牙齿，并且能够通过吠叫来表达自己的情感。
2.内涵意义内涵意义是指语言所传达的隐含意义或附加意义。
例如，“狗”这个词的内涵意义可能包括忠诚、可爱、聪明等特质，这些特质并不是词汇本身所指的具体事物所具有的，而是人们在长期使用过程中赋予它的文化或情感内涵。
3.社会意义社会意义是指语言所传达的关于语言使用者的社会环境、身份地位等信息。
例如，在正式场合使用“您”而不是“你”，能够传达出尊重和礼貌的社会意义。
4.情感意义情感意义是指语言所传达的关于说话者或作者情感、态度方面的意义。
例如，“我喜欢狗”这句话的情感意义可能是表达说话者对狗的喜爱和亲近感。
5.反映意义反映意义是指通过同一表达式的其他意思所传达的反射意义。
例如，“狗”这个词除了表示一种动物之外，还可以表示某种品质或行为特征，如“狗嘴吐不出象牙”这句俗语就表示说话尖酸刻薄的意思。
6.搭配意义搭配意义是指通过词语的常用搭配所传达的意义。
例如，“狗”这个词通常可以和“猫”、“骨头”等词汇搭配使用，这些搭配能够传达出不同的意义，如“狗追猫”可能表示嬉戏打闹的意思，“狗啃骨头”可能表示狗在玩耍或寻找食物。
7.主题意义主题意义是指通过语言中的顺序和重音等组织信息的方式所传达的意义。
例如，“狗先跑了”和“跑了，狗先跑的”两句句子虽然传达了同样的信息，但它们的主题意义不同，前者强调的是狗先跑这个事实，而后者强调的是狗先跑这个行为。
以上就是七种语言学中的意义类型，它们共同构成了语言的丰富含义和广泛用途。
语言学教案Chapter 5 Meaning
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”5.2 The referential theory5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 Synonymy5.3.2 Antonymy5.3.3 Hyponymy5.4 Componential analysis5.5. Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theory5.5.2 Logical semanticsSemantics: the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.5.1 Meanings of “meaning”Ogden & Richards: 16 major categories of meaning, with 22 sub-categories Ogden, C. K. & I. A. Richards. 1923. The Meaning of Meaning[M]. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Leech: 7 types of meaningLeech, G. 1981[1974]. Semantics: The study of Meaning [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.●Conceptual meaning (概念意义): similar to reference (指称)●Connotative meaning (内涵意义): some additional, especially emotive meaning.E.g. c.f. politician & statesmanNote: Connotation and denotation in philosophyCONNOTATION (内涵)DENOTATION (外延)E.g. human●Thematic meaning (主题意义)Question: How to explain the meaning of a word in the conceptual meaning?E.g. DESK1) to point to a desk directly2) to describe it as “a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes.3) to paraphrase it as “a desk is a kind of table, which has drawers”4) to give the Chinese equivalent 书桌5.2 The referential theoryProblems:The concrete thing pointed at differs from the abstract concept behind the thing.The object pointed at does not directly correspond to the concept.CONCEPTSemantic triangleconceptword thingC.f. Sense & reference1) Sense: the abstract properties of an entity——concept ——connotation Reference: the concrete entities having these entities ——denotation2) Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.E.g. grammatical words like but, if, and5.3 Sense relations●Sense●ReferenceThree kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation, and inclusiveness relation5.3.1 SynonymySYNONYMY: the sameness relation●Stylistic differenceE.g. Little Tom ___________ a toy bear. c.f. buy & purchase●Connotative difference.E.g. “I’m thrifty. You are economical. And he is stingy.”●Dialectical differenceE.g. c.f. autumn & fall5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy: the oppositeness relation(1) Gradable antonymyE.g. good: bad, long: short, big: smallgradable---comparative and superlative degree; lexicalizationE.g. good & badgraded against different norms---no absolute criterionE.g. c.f. a big car & a small planeone member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term E.g. How old are you?C.f. Unmarked & marked●Unmarked: the term is more often used●Marked: the term is less used, odd, or unusual(2) Complementary antonymyE.g alive:dead, male:femaleNOTE 1: Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.NOTE 2: No comparative or superlative degrees are allowed.E.g. alive, dead, 半死不活*John is more dead than Mary.C.f. John is more mad than stupid.C.f. Gradable and complementary1. The difference between the gradable and the complementary is somewhat similar tothat between the contrary and the contradictory.In logic, a proposition is the contrary of another if it is impossible for both to true, or false.E.g. The coffee is hot.The coffee is cold.A proposition is the contradictory of another if it is impossible for both to be true, orfalse.E.g. This is a male cat.This is a female cat.a b a bgradable complementary2. The norm in complementary is absolute.E.g. male & female3. There is no cover term for the two members of a pair.E.g. Is it a boy or a girl?*How male is it?Exception: true & false (Pp 167)(3) Converse antonymyE.g. buy: sell, lend: borrowX buys something from Y. == Y sells something to X.RELATIONAL OPPOSITES5.3.3 HyponymyHYPONYMYSUPERORDINATEHYPONYMSCO-HYPONYMSflowerrose peony jasmine chrysanthemum tulip violet carnationAUTO-HYPONMYlivingplant animalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant …5.4 Componential analysisSEMANTIC FEATURES/SEMANTIC COMPONENTS: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. (Pp 170)E.g. boy: HUMAN, YOUNG, MALEwoman: HUMAN, ADULT, FEMALEYOUNG: ～ADULTFEMALE: ～MALEE.g. father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x)mother = PARENT (x, y) & ～MALE (x)son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)die = BECOME (x, (～ALIVE(x)))kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))))➢Synonyms: words or expressions with the same semantic componentsE.g. bachelor, unmarried man: HUMAN, ADULT, UNMARRIED➢Antonyms: words with contrasting semantic componentsE.g. cold & hot, give & take➢Hyponyms: words which have all the semantic components of anotherE.g. boy & girl are hyponyms of childSense relations between sentences:E.g.1.a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn’t die.b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill’s death.c. * John murdered Bill without intending to.EntailmentE.g. a. John killed Bill.b. Bill died.Difficulties1) Polysemous words will have different sets of semantic components.2) The difference between the semantic components differs.C.f. MALE and FEMALE (absolute) & ADULT and YOUNG (relative)boy and man (clear-cut)& girl and woman (vague)3) There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain. Question: How to express the semantic features?METALANGUAGE (原语言): a language used for talking about another language 5.5. Sentence meaning1) The sentence meaning is not merely a sum of word meaning, and it is related to word order.E.g. a. The man chased the dog.b. The dog chased the man.2) Sentences have thematic meaning.E.g. a. I’ve already seen that film.b. That film I’ve already seen.3) The sentence meaning is connected with its syntactic structure.E.g. The son of Pharaoh’s daughter is the daughter of Pharaoh’s son.5.5.1 An integrated theoryPrinciple of COMPOSITIONALITYsystematic informationgrammatical classificationdictionary idiosyncratic information Semantic theory semantic informationprojection rules●Dictionary: to provide the grammatical classification and semantic information ofwords➢Grammatical classificationGrammatical markers/syntactic markersSystematic information✧Systemic part —Semantic markers: (Male), (Female), (Human), (Animal)✧Idiosyncratic information —Distinguishers(辨义成分)E.g. bachelora. [who has never married];b. [young knights serving under the standard of another knight];c. [who has the first or lowest academic degree];d. [young fur seal when without a mate during the breeding time].●Projection rules: responsible for combining the meanings of words togetherSNP VPDet N V NPthe man hits Det Nthe Adj Ncolorful ballSelection restrictionsProblems1. The distinction between semantic marker and distinguisher is not very clear.E.g. (Young)2. The collocation of words may not be accounted for by grammatical markers, semantic markers or selection restrictions.E.g. a. He said hello to the nurse and she greeted back.b. My cousin is a male nurse.c. ? My cousin is a female nurse.3. The use of semantic markers like (Human), (Male) and (Adult), is elements of an artificial meta-language.5.5.2 Logical semanticssentence meaningPREPOSITIONAL LOGIC(命题逻辑)/ PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS(命题演算)/ SENTENTIAL CALCULUS(句子演算):proposition≈sentence meaningTruth value: truth or falsePredicate logic (Pp 180)p (simple proposition)one-place connective: negation ～or ﹁two-place connective: conjunction &disjunction ∨implicationequivalence ≡orConnective conjunction: similar to the English “and”Connective disjunction: similar to the English “or”Connective implication/conditional implication: corresponds to the English “if…then”Connective equivalence/bicond itional: corresponds to “iff…then”C.f. Antonyms & “not”●With complementary antonyms, the denial of one is the assertion of the other.●With gradable, that is not necessarily the case.E.g. John isn’t old.John is old.C.f. Conjunction & “and”●ConjunctionE.g. He missed the train and arrived late.●“And”E.g. He arrived late and missed the train.*He missed the train and arrived late.C.f. Implication & “if…then”●ImplicationE.g. If he is an Englishman, he speaks English.If snow is white, grass is green.E.g. If snow is black, grass is green.●“If…then”E.g.? If snow is white, grass is green.*If snow is black, grass is green.In sum, propositional logic, concerned with the semantic relation between propositions, treats a simple proposition as an unanalyzed whole.E.g. All men are rational.Socrates is a man.Therefore, Socrates is rational.PREDICATE LOGIC/PREDICATE CALCCULUS studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Question: How to analyze Socrates is a man?Argument (主目): a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being madePredicate (谓词): a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred toSocrates is the argument, and man is the predicate.Token: M(s)Note: A simple proposition is seen as a function (函数) of its argument. The truth value of a proposition varies with the argument.M(s) =1, M(c) =0E.g. John loves Mary.L (j, m)John gave Mary a book. G (j, m, b)kill: CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (～ALIVE (y)))))C (x, (B (y, (～A (y)))))All men are rational.1. All is the universal quantifier and symbolized by an upturned A—∀in logic.2. The argument men does not refer to any particular entity, which is known as avariable and symbolized as x, y.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x))“For all x, it is the case that, if x is a man, then x is rational.”Some men are clever.Some is the existential quantifier and symbolized by a reversed E—∃Notation: ∃x (M(x) & C(x))C.f. Universal quantifier & existential quantifier1.Quantifiers2.Implication connectiveE.g.All men are rational.There is no man who is not rational.Notation: ∀x (M(x) R(x)) ≡～∃x(M(x) & ～R(x))(1) ∀x(P(x))≡～∃x(～P(x))～∀x (P(x))≡∃x (～P(x))∃x (P(x)) ≡～∀x (～P(x))～∃x (P(x)) ≡∀x (～P(x))(2) ∀x(M(x) R(x))M(s)∴R(s)(3) ∀x(M(x)) R(x))R(s)∴R(s)(4) ∃x (M(x) & C(x))M(s)∴C(s)。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》(修订版)测试题——第五章：意义
胡壮麟《语言学教程》（修订版）测试题——第五章：意义Chapter 5 Meaning1~5 ABDDB 6~10 CACDAI. Choose the best answer. (20%)1. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth2. “We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. contexutalismC. the naming theoryD. behaviorism3. Which of the following is NOT true?A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form.C. Sense is abstract and decontextualized.D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in.4. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes5. ___________ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.A. Predication analysisB. Componential analysisC. Phonemic analysisD. Grammatical analysis6. “Alive” and “dead” are ______________.A. gradable antonymsB. relational antonymsC. complementary antonymsD. None of the above7. _________ deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.A. ReferenceB. ConceptC. SemanticsD. Sense8. ___________ refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy9. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________.A. homonymsB. polysemiesC. hyponymsD. synonyms10. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _______.A. grammatical rulesB. selectional restrictionsC. semantic rulesD. semantic featuresIV. Explain the following terms, using examples. (20%)31. Entailment: It is basically a semantic relation (or logical implication), and it can be clarified with the following sentences:a. Tom divorced Jane.b. Jane was Tom’s wife.In terms of truth value, the following relationships exist between these two sentences: when A is true, B must be also true; when B is false, A must also be false. When B is true, A may be true or false. Therefore we can say A entails B.32. Proposition: It is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning. For example, the two sentences “Caesar invaded Gaul” and “Gaul was invaded by Caesar” hold the same proposition.33. Compositional analysis: It defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components, or semantic features. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Similarly girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE.34. Reference:It is what a linguistic form refers to in the real world; it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.V. Answer the following questions. (20%)35. What are the sense relations between the following groups of words?Dogs, cats, pets, parrots; trunk, branches, tree, roots （青岛海洋大学，1999）Hyponymy, metonymy or part-whole relationship36. What are the three kinds of antonymy? （武汉大学，2004）VI. Analyze the following situation. (20%)37. For each group of words given below, state what semantic property or properties are shared by the (a) words and the (b) words, and what semantic property or properties distinguish between the classes of (a) words and (b) words.(1) a. bachelor, man, son, paperboy, pope, chiefb. bull, rooster, drake, ram(2) a. table, stone, pencil, cup, house, ship, carb. milk, alcohol, rice, soup(3) a. book, temple, mountain, road, tractorb. idea, love, charity, sincerity, bravery, fear （青岛海洋大学，1999）answer: (1) The (a) words and (b) words are male.The (a) words are human, while the (b) words are non-human.(2) The (a) words and (b) words are inanimate.The (a) words are instrumental, while the (b) words are edible.(3) The (a) words and (b) words are worldly or conceptual.The (a) words are material, while the (b) words are spiritual.。
语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第5章
语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第5章Chapter 5 Meaning第一部分Meanings of “meaning”一、The Study of Meaning：1. Meaning:refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.2. Connotation: opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation of human is "biped", "featherless", and "rational", etc.3. Denotation: involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity it refers to. So it is equivalent to referential meaning. For example, the denotation of human is any person such as John and Mary.二、Seven types of meaning (Recognized by Leech) 三大类七种论述1.Conceptual meaning:Logical, cognitive, or denotative content of language. It is the essential part of language and similar to literal meaning.E.g. What's this? It's a … (desk, boy, dog…). When you answer this question, you are expressing the conceptual meaning of language.Associative meaning: same in conceptual meaning but different in implication.2.Connotative meaning:What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.E.g. “mother” implies love, “blue” implies depressed.3.Social meaning:What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use. It mainly involves dialect and status.E.g. Different style of words like horse and pony imply different social circumstances of language use.4.Affective meaning:What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/ writer. It involves the choice of commendatory or derogatory meanings of words.E.g. The difference between statesman and politician is connotative because the former is commendatory and the latter is derogatory .5.Reflected meaning:What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.E.g. Click the mouse twice. (Mouse may remind you of either the part of a computer or a kind of animal who is clicked twice by Tom in the cartoon Tom and Jerry.)6.Collocative meaning:What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.E.g. Different meanings of paper are expressed in its collocation with "exam, white and daily"7.Thematic meaning:What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.E.g. I hit a dog. A dog was hit by me.1第二部分Referential theory1.The referential theory:The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory. We explain the meaning of a word by pointing to thething it refers to.E.g. proper nouns and definite noun phrases.Problem with this theory: the meaning of desk:When we explain the meaning of desk by pointing to the t hing it refers to, we don’t mean a desk must be of the particular size, shape, color and material as the desk we are pointing to at the moment of speaking. We are using this particular desk as an example of something more general.2.Semantic triangle:A th eory which employs the notion “concept”. Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”. They argue that the relation between a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by the concept. In a diagram form, the relation can be showed as follows:conceptword thingAnd something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. This abstract thing is usually called concept.3.Sense and referenceSense and reference are two sides of meaning. Although they are different, they are closely to each other.1. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Sense refers to the main features, the defining properties an entity has.2. Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.E.g. The sense of desk: a piece of furniture with a flap top andfour legs, at which one reads and writes. Sense is equivalent to concept. The concept of desk may also be called the sense of desk. The concrete entities a particular desk in the world is reference.3. The distinction between sense and reference:① It is comparable between connotation and denotation. The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties.① Every word has a sense, or we will not be able to use it or understand it. But not every word has a reference. Grammatical words like but, if, and don’t refer to anything. Words like God, ghost, and dragon refer to imaginary things, which don’t exist in reality. Abs tract words like love don’t have a concrete entities in the world.① Words are in different sense relations with each other. Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. In contrast, reference is concerned with the relation between a word and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unit and a non-linguistic entity it refers to.第三部分sense RelationsThere are three kinds of sense relations, namely, sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation.1. Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation. Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.e.g. buy and purchase. Synonym refers to the words that are closed in meaning.But total synonymy is rare. It can be divided into two sub-types: absolute synonymy (they are identical in meaning.) andrelative synonymy (they are similar in meaning.).The so-called synonymy are all context dependent. E.g.Little Tom ____ a toy bear. (buy/ purchase)1) dialectal synonyms: synonyms used in different regional dialects.There are dialectal differences.E.g. Autumn is British while fall is America.2) stylistic synonyms: they may differ in style.E. g. kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence.3) synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning.E. g. thrifty-economical-stingy4)collocational synonyms:E. g. accuse…of, charge…with.5) semantic synonyms:E. g. amaze, surprise.2. Antonymy 反义关系Antonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three sub-types: gradable, complementary, and converse antonymy.1) Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, big / small, etc. They have three characteristics:First, they are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. E.g. big, medium, small.Second, antonymy of this kind are graded against different norms. E.g. big dog, small dog; big cat, small cat.Third, one member of a pair, usually the term for the higher degree, serves as the cover term. E.g. old covers young, highcovers low.2) Complementary antonymyThe members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other.E.g. alive / dead, boy / girl, etc.There is no intermediate forms between the two. The adjectives of this kind can’t be modified by very, and they don’t have comparative or superlative degrees either. The norm in this type is absolute, and there is no cover term for the two members of a pair.3) Converse antonymyConverse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy, because the members of a pair don’t constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationship between two entities, e.g. buy / sell. The comparative degrees like bigger: smaller, longer: shorter.3. Hyponymy 上下义关系The sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. Inclusiveness意义内包关系: Superordinate: the word which is more general in meaning.Hyponyms: the word which is more specific in meaning.Co-hyponyms: hyponyms of the same superordinate.Hyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is, when x is a kind of y, the lower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate. E.g. under flower, there are peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of rose, peony, etc., peony is the hyponym of flower, and peony, tulip, violet, rose, etc. areco-hyponyms.4. Polysemy 多义现象Polysemy means the same one word may have more than one meaning. A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word. Historically polysemy can be understood as the growth and development or change in the meaning of words.E.g. “table” may mean a piece of furniture, all the people seated at a table, or the food that is put on a table, etc.5. Homonymy 同音异义Homonymy means different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. There are three kinds of homonyms:①Full hom onyms: words identical both in sound and spelling, but different in meaning.E.g. bear (n. a kind of animal), bear(v. to give birth to a baby)②Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.E.g. dear (a loved person), deer (a kind of animal)③Homographs: words identical only in spelling but different in sound and meaning.E.g. tear (n.), tear (v.)6. Sense relations between sentences 句子之间的涵义关系1) X is synonymous with Y X与Y同义X: The boy killed the cat.Y: The cat was killed by the boy.If X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false.2) X is inconsistent with Y X与Y不一致X: He is single.Y: He has a wife.If X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true.3) X entails Y X 蕴含在Y里X: Marry has been to Beijing.Y: Marry has been to China.Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be false.4) X presupposes Y X预设YX: His bike needs repairing.Y: He has a bike.If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.5) X is a contradiction X是矛盾的* My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.6) X is semantically anomalous X是异常的* The man is pregnant.第四部分Componential analysisSemantic components: the meaning of a word is not an unanalysable whole. It is a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be analysed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.优：①By showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations. Two words, or two expressions, which have the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other. For example, bachelor and unmarried man.②And these semantic components will also explain sense relations between sentences.弊：①O ne difficulty is that many words are polysemous. They have more than one meaning, consequently they will have different sets of semantic components.②Some semantic components are seen as binary taxonomies.③There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.第五部分Sentence meaning一、Sentence meaning 句子意义The meaning of a sentence is obviously related to the meanings of the words used in it, but it is also obvious that the sentence meaning is not simply the sum total of the words. Sentences using the same words may mean quite differently if they are arranged in different orders. E.g.The man chased the dog. (人追狗。
新编简明英语语言学Chapter5Semantics语义学
Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学、定义1. semantics 语义学：Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 语义学可以简单地定义为对意义的将研究。
二、知识点5.2 Different views of meaning 意义研究的不同观点521 The naming theory命名论(by 希腊Scholar Plato)The naming theory命名论：Words are just names or labels for thin gs词语只不过是其代表的事物的名字或标记。
Eg. desk—a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs.The limitations of this theory 局限性：1. This theory seems applicable to nouns only这一理论看起来仅适用于名词(Some words are definitelynot lables of object：eg. jump, quickly, pretty, an d, i n,hearted, thi nk, hard, slowly …)2. There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world： ghost,grago n, un icorn麒麟.有些名词是指世界中根本就不存在的事物。
3. Nouns that do not refer to physical object, but abstract notions such asjoy and impulse有些名词并不是指实物性的物体，而是指：joy, impulse 刺激，这样的抽象概念。
胡壮麟-语言学教程修订版-课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter--(5)
Chapter 5 Meaning5.1 Meanings of “meaning”1. Meaning: Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world welive in or any possible or imaginary world.2. Connotation: The additional meaning that a word or phrase has beyond itscentral meaning.3. Denotation: That part of the meanings of a word or phrase that relates itto phenomena in the real world or in a fictional or possible word.4. Different types of meaning (Recognized by Leech, 1974)(1) Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, or denotative content.(2) Associative meaninga. Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of whatlanguage refers to.b. Social meaning: What is communicated of the social circumstancesof language use.c. Affective meaning: What is communicated of the feelings andattitudes of the speaker / writer.d. Reflected meaning: What is communicated through association withanother sense of the same expression.e. Collocative meaning: What is communicated through association withwords which tend to occur in the environment of another word.(3) Thematic meaning: What is communicated by the way in which the messageis organized in terms of order and emphasis.5. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world.There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of the real world.5.2 The referential theory1. The referential theory: The theory of meaning which relates the meaningof a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as thereferential theory.2. The semantic triangle theoryOgden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram, in which the “symbol”refers to the linguist elements (word, sentence, etc.), the “referent” refers to the object in the world of experience, and the “thought”or “reference”refers to concept or notion. Thusthe symbol of a word signifies “things” by virtue of the “concept,”associated with the form of the word in the mind of the speaker of the language. The concept thus considered is the meaning of the word. The connection (represented witha dotted line) between symbol and referent is made possible only through“concept.”Concept / notionThought / reference----------------------Symbol objectWord stands for realitySignifier referentCode signified5.3 Sense relations5.3.1 SynonymySynonymy is the technical name for the sameness relation.5.3.2 AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three subtypes: gradable, complementary and converse antonymy.1. Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy is the commonest type of antonymy. They are mainly adjectives, e.g. good / bad, long / short, big / small, etc.2. Complementary antonymyThe members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each other. That is, they divide up the whole of a semantic filed completely.Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denialof one also means the assertion of the other, e.g. alive / dead, hit / miss,male / female, boy / girl, etc.3. Converse antonymyConverse antonyms are also called relational opposites. This is a special type of antonymy in that the members of a pair do not constitutea positive-negative opposition. They show the reversal of a relationshipbetween two entities, e.g. buy / sell, parent / child, above / below,etc.5.3.3 HyponymyHyponymy involves us in the notion of meaning inclusion. It is a matter of class membership. That is to say, when x is a kind of y, thelower term x is the hyponym, and the upper term y is the superordinate.Two or more hyponyms of the same one superordinate are calledco-hyponyms, e.g. under flower, there are peony, jasmine, tulip, violet,rose, etc., flower is the superordinate of peony, jasmine,etc., peonyis the hyponym of flower,and peony, jasmine, tulip, violet, rose, etc.are co-hyponyms.5.4 Componential analysisComponential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components. That is, the meaning of a word is not an unanalyzable whole. It may be seen as a complex of different semantic features. There are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word. E.g.Boy: [+human][-adult][+male]Girl: [+human][-adult][-male]Son: child (x, y) & male (x)Daughter: child (x, y) & -male (x)Take: cause (x, (have (x, y)))Give: cause (x, (-have (x, y)))5.5 Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theory1. Compositionality: A principle for sentence analysis, in which themeaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituentwords and the way they are combine.2. Selection restrictions: Restrictions on the choice of individuallexical units in construction with other units. E.g. the wordbreathe will typically select an animate subject (boy, man, woman,etc.) not an abstract or an inanimate (table, book, etc.). The boywas still breathing. The desk was breathing.5.5.2 Logical semantics1. Prepositional logic / prepositional calculus / sentential calculus:Prepositional logic is the study of the truth conditions forpropositions: how the truth of a composite proposition isdetermined by the truth value of its constituent propositions andthe connections between them.2. Predicate logic / predicate calculus: Predicate logic studies theinternal structure of simple propositions.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
语言学 第五章 semantics
6 Collocative meaning（）搭配意义
conscience
case
sky
clear
The associations a word gets because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its linguistic context are called collocative meanings.
Thematic meaning is mainly a matter of choice between alternative grammatical • constructions. Tomorrow I plan to have an outing. I plan to have an outing tomorrow.
有意义，无指称
5.3.2 Leech’s seven types of meaning
Geoffrey Leech
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Geoffrey N. Leech (Born 16 January 1936[1]) was Professor of Linguistics and Modern English Language at Lancaster University from 1974 to 2002. He then became Research Professor in English Linguistics. He has been Emeritus Professor in the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University, since 2002.
语言学Chapter 5 Meaning (revised)
Q3: Types of meaning
3.1 Sense & reference 涵义和指称、系统意 义和外指意义 Sense-----the inherent meaning of the linguistic form independent of situational context. It’s the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations. It’s abstract and de-contextualized.
பைடு நூலகம்
The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of a little over a hundred years. 1894 it was introduced in a paper entitled “Reflected meanings:a point in semantics” 1897 Breal first used it as the science of meaning. 1900 its English version came out 1980s semantics began to be introduced into China One of the most famous books on semantics is The Meaning of Meaning published in 1923.
语言学总复习
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Stop （Plosive） 塞音（爆破音）
[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
Nasal 鼻音 [m] [n] [ŋ]
Fricative 擦音 [f] [v] [θ] [s] [z] [∫] [З]
Approximant 中通音 [ j ] [r] [w]
Lateral
Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用 的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于 词类，两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一 句法范畴。
man, earth, wind, car, anger
Bound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words
recollection re/collect/ion
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Root（词根） : is the basic form of
a word which cannot be further
What is displacement?
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7. The origin of language. 8. What functions does language have? 9. What is Linguistics? 10. What are the main branches of linguistics? 11. Important distinctions in Liguistics.
analyzed without total loss of
identity.
Stem（词干）: may consist of a
single root morpheme or plus one
英语语言学Chapter 5 Meaning6.5 Chapter 5
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Define the following terms1) conceptual meaning2) connotation3) sense4) synonymy5) antonymy6) semantic components2. What are the major semantics schools?3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?4. How do you understand semantic change?5. Explain antonyms in details.KEYS TO CHAPTER 51. Define the following terms1) Conceptual meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.2) Connotation is the properties of the entity a word denotes.3) Sense is the abstract properties of an entity.4) The sameness relation is called the sameness relation.5) Antonymy refers to the oppositeness relation.6) Semantic components are semantic units smaller than the meaning of a word.2. What are the major semantics schools?1) The naming theory: One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.2) The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3) Contextualism: It is based on the presumption(假定) that one can derive推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context .For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal could not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in whichthe sentence occurs:4) BehaviorismThe contextualist view was further strengthened by Bloomfield. He drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of linguistic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer". This behaviorist theory is somewhat close to contextualism. It is linked with psychological interest.3. What are the possible categories of synonyms?Synonymy can be divided into the following groups:Dialectal synonyms (地域性同义词): Dialectal synonyms are words which have more or less the same meaning and are used in different regional dialects such as petroleum in British English and gasoline in American English. Dialectal synonyms can also be found within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect.Stylistic synonyms文体同义词): Stylistic synonyms are words which have the same meaning but differ in style, or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms tend to be more formal, others tend to be casual , and still others are neutral in style, for example, old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent.Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning :感性或评价方面不同的同义词They are words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indicate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about, such as thrifty and miser.Collocational synonyms搭配上的区别的同义词): Some synonyms differ in their collocation. That is, they go together with different words, for example: accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. .-for.Semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别): They refer to the synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean. For example, "amaze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very subtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion and bewilderment, "astound" implies difficulty in believing.4. How do you understand semantic change?Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. The major types of semantic change are as follows: (1) Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation. For example, the word “holiday” was originally used to mean a day of religious significance because it was a “holy day”. Today everyone enjoys a holiday, whether he or she is religious or not. (2) Semantic narrowing is the reverse process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the word “liquor” in contemporary English is an alcoholic drink, but it was once synonymous with “liquid”, be it alcoholi c or not. (3) Semantic shift refers to the process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new, sometimes related meaning, e.g. the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly, a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English, and a naive person in Middle English, but a foolish person in Modern English.5. Explain antonyms in details.Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.1) Gradable antonyms渐进性关系反义: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair such as old/young, hot/cold.2) Complementary antonyms完全反义: a pair of complementary antonyms is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other.3) Relational opposites相关对立反义: pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》章节题库( 意 义)【圣才出品】
第5章意义Ⅰ. Fill in the blanks.1. According to G Leech, _____ meaning is the communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. 【答案】connotative【解析】利奇认为内涵意义是指通过语言所指传达的意义，是位于纯粹的概念意义之上的。
2. According to G Leech, _____ meaning refers to logic, cognitive, or denotative content.【答案】conceptual【解析】利奇认为概念意义是指逻辑的、认知的、外延的内容。
3. According to G. Leech, _____ meaning refers to what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker／writer.【答案】affective【解析】利奇认为感情意义是指所传达的关于说话人/作者感情、态度方面的意义。
4. The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the _____ theory.【答案】referential【解析】把词语意义跟它所指称或所代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论。
5. _____ is the technical name for the sameness relation.【答案】Synonymy【解析】同义关系是相同关系的专业术语，完全的同义关系是很少的。
meaning语言学定义七个
meaning语言学定义七个（最新版）目录1.引言：介绍语言学的定义及意义2.定义一：语言学是研究语言的科学3.定义二：语言学是研究语言结构和语言运用的学科4.定义三：语言学是研究语言的起源和发展的学科5.定义四：语言学是研究语言与思维关系的学科6.定义五：语言学是研究语言与文化的学科7.定义六：语言学是研究语言的习得和教育的学科8.定义七：语言学是研究语言的翻译和解释的学科9.结论：总结语言学的多个定义及其重要性正文语言学是一门研究语言的学科，它涉及到语言的各个方面，包括语言的结构、运用、起源、发展、与思维的关系、与文化的关系，以及语言的习得和教育，甚至包括语言的翻译和解释。
首先，语言学是研究语言的科学。
语言是人类交流的基本工具，是我们表达思想和情感的主要方式。
语言学家通过对语言的研究，可以深入理解人类的思维方式和文化特征。
其次，语言学是研究语言结构和语言运用的学科。
语言结构包括语音、语法、词汇等方面，而语言运用则涉及到语言在不同情境下的使用。
再次，语言学是研究语言的起源和发展的学科。
语言的起源是一个复杂的问题，涉及到人类的进化史和文化史。
语言的发展则表现为语言在不同时期的变化和演变。
此外，语言学还研究语言与思维的关系。
语言不仅是思维的表达，也在一定程度上影响了我们的思维方式。
语言学家通过研究语言与思维的关系，可以更好地理解人类的认知过程。
语言学还研究语言与文化的关系。
语言是文化的一部分，不同的语言反映了不同的文化特征。
语言学家通过研究语言与文化的关系，可以深入理解文化的多样性和复杂性。
语言学还研究语言的习得和教育。
语言的习得是指人在成长过程中如何学习和掌握语言，而语言的教育则是指如何通过教学使学生更好地掌握语言。
最后，语言学还研究语言的翻译和解释。
随着全球化的发展，语言的翻译和解释变得越来越重要。
语言学家通过研究语言的翻译和解释，可以帮助我们更好地理解和使用语言。
语言学提纲笔记
Chapter 1 Invitation to LinguisticsLanguage The Definition(语言的定义)The Design Features Arbitrariness（本质特征）DualityCreativityDisplacement语言先天反射理论The Origin Of Language The bow-bow theory(语言的起源) The pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-yo”theoryJacobos（与The Prague School一致）Referential Functions Of Language Ideational PoeticEmotiveHalliday Interpersonal ConativePhaticTextual MetalingualThe Basic Functions InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive functionPhatic communion(B.Malinowski 提出)Recreation functionMetalingual function Linguistics The DefinitionThe Main Branches of Linguistics Phonetics(微观语言学) PhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPragmaticsMacrolinguistics Psycholinguistics(宏观语言学）SociolinguisticsAnthropological LinguisticsComputaioanl LinguisticsDescriptive &PrescriptiveSynchronic&DiachronicImportant Distinctions Langue&ParoleCompetence&PerformanceChapter 2 Speech SoundsPhonetics Acoustic Phonetics (声学语音学)语音学Auditory Phonetics(听觉语言学)Articulatory Phonetics(发声语音学)Speech Organs/Vocal organs(lungs ,trachea,throat,nose.mouth)IPA/Diacritics(变音符)Consonants The definitionThe manner of articulationArticulatory Phonetics The place of articulation(发声语音学)Vowels The definitionThe sound of English:RP/GACardinal vowelsThe requirements of descriptionCoarticulation Anticipatory CoarticulationPerseverative CoarticulationPhonetics transcription Narrow transcriptionBroad transcriptionPhonology 音位理论Minimal Pairs（c ut&p ut）Phone&Phonemes&Allophone(音素&音位&音位变体)音系学C omplementary DistributionFree variants(自由变体)/variation(自由变体现象)Phonological contrasts or opposition(音位对立)Distinctive Features(First developed by Jacobson as a meansof working out a set of phonological contrasts or opposition toCapture particular aspect of language sounds)progressive assimilationPhonological Process音系过程Assimilation Progressive assimilation音素是语音学研究的单位。
meaning语言学定义七个
meaning语言学定义七个摘要：1.引言：介绍meaning 语言学的定义及其重要性2.定义一：meaning 作为名词的定义3.定义二：meaning 作为动词的定义4.定义三：meaning 在语义学中的定义5.定义四：meaning 在语用学中的定义6.定义五：meaning 在认知语言学中的定义7.定义六：meaning 在社会语言学中的定义8.定义七：meaning 在跨文化交际中的定义9.结论：总结meaning 语言学的七个定义及其应用正文：meaning 语言学定义七个在语言学研究中，meaning（意义）是一个核心概念，它涉及到语言的各个方面，如语义、语用、认知和社会等。
根据不同的研究领域和视角，meaning 可以有不同的定义。
本文将介绍meaning 语言学的七个定义。
首先，从最基本的角度来看，meaning 可以作为名词，表示事物或者现象所代表或者象征的意义。
在这个意义上，meaning 是对现实世界的抽象概括。
其次，meaning 也可以作为动词，表示表达或者传达某种意义。
在这个过程中，语言起到了承载和传递意义的作用。
进一步地，在语义学领域，meaning 主要研究词汇和句子的意义。
语义学家试图揭示词汇和句子的内在结构，以及它们如何表达现实世界中的概念和关系。
在语用学领域，meaning 关注的是语言在实际交际中的使用。
语用学家认为，意义不仅包括词汇和句子的内在结构，还包括说话者通过语言所传达的意图、态度和语境等信息。
在认知语言学领域，meaning 与认知紧密相关。
认知语言学家认为，意义是基于人类认知结构的，语言结构和认知结构相互影响，共同构建了人类对世界的认识。
在社会语言学领域，meaning 受到社会文化背景的影响。
社会语言学家认为，意义是社会成员在共同的文化和历史背景下对现实世界的共识。
最后，在跨文化交际中，meaning 的研究具有重要意义。
跨文化交际学家关注不同文化背景下，意义如何产生、传递和理解，以避免因文化差异而导致的交际障碍。
语言学课后练习(附参考答案)
Chapter 1I. Define the following terms.1. design features2. diachronic3. arbitrariness4. competence5. parole6. prescriptive7. duality 8. performance 9. synchronic10. descriptive 11. displacement 12. langueII. Does the traffic light system have duality? Can you explain by drawing a simple graph?Answer:Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is only one-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ calls.III. Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language? Answer:On the whole, body language and facial expression lack most of the distinctive properties of human language such as duality, displacement, creativity and so on. Body language exhibits arbitrariness a little bit. For instance, nod means “OK/YES” for us but in Arabian world it is equal to saying “NO”. Some facial expressions have non-arbitrariness because they are instinctive such as the cry and laugh of a newborn infant.IV. Why is the distinction between competence and performance important in linguistics? Do you think the line can be neatly drawn between them? How do you like the concept communicative competence?Answer:This is proposed by Chomsky in his formalist linguistic theories. It is sometimes hard to draw a strict line. Some researchers in applied linguistics think communicative competence may be a more revealing concept in language teaching than the purely theoretical pair---competence and performance.Chapter 2I. Define the following terms.1. phonetics2. consonant3. allophone4. vowel5. assimilation6. syllable7. intonation8. phonology 9. phoneme 10. toneII. Give the description of the following sound segments in English.1. [ð]2. [ʃ]3. [ŋ]4. [d]5. [p]6. [k]7. [l]8. [i]9. [u:] 10. [ɔ]Answers:1. [ð]: voiced dental fricative2. [ʃ]: voiceless postalveolar fricative3. [ŋ]: velar nasal4. [d]: voiced alveolar stop5. [p]: voiceless bilabial stop6. [k]: voiceless velar stop7. [l]: (alveolar) lateral 8. [i]: high front unrounded lax vowel9. [u:]: high back rounded tense vowel10. [ɔ]: low back rounded lax vowelIII. Give the IPA symbols for the sounds that correspond to the descriptions below.1. voiceless labiodental fricative2. voiced postalveolar fricative3. palatal approximant4. voiceless glottal fricative5. voiceless alveolar stop6. high-mid front unrounded vowel7. high central rounded vowel 8. low front rounded vowel9. low-mid back rounded vowel10. high back rounded tense vowelAnswers:1. [f]2. [Ʒ]3. [j]4. [h]5. [t]6. [e]7. [ʉ]8. [ɶ]9. [ɔ] 10. [u:]IV. To what extent is phonology related to phonetics and how do they differ?Answer:Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. Phonology is the study of sound systems that occur in a language and the patterns where they fall in. Minimal pairs, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it focuses on chaos. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add theappropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language. It focuses on order.V. The pronunciation of tell is [teɫ], but that of teller is [telə]. Discuss why the phoneme /l/ is realized as [ɫ] and [l] respectively in this situation.Answer:The word teller is formed by adding a suffix –er to the base word tell to form a new word. We are all familiar with the rule that governs the allophones of the phoneme /l/: when preceding a vowel, it is [l] and when following a vowel it is [ɫ]. However, in teller it has a vowel both before and after it, so how do we decide that it should be pronounced as [l], not [ɫ]?We notice that tell is a monosyllabic word while teller is disyllabic. In a polysyllabic word, we follow the Maximal Onset Principle (MOP) for the division of syllable. By MOP, the [l] must be placed in the onset position of the second syllable instead of the coda position of the first syllable. Thus, the phoneme [l] is realized as it should be before the vowel in the second syllable. The same is true with telling, falling, and many others. We can see from this that the phonological structure of a complex word is often different from its morphological structure, i.e. how the word is formed. In word-formation it is tell+-er while in syllablestructure it is [te+lə].Chapter 3I. Define the following terms.1. morpheme2. affix3. allomorph4. free morpheme5. derivation6. stem7. blending8. back-formation9. inflection 10. root 11. bound morpheme 12. acronym II. Complete the words with suitable negative prefixes.a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreetAnswers:a.irremovable m. dissyllabicrmal n. abnormalc.impracticable o. unworkabled.insensible p. unwrittene.intangible q. unusualf.illogical r. unthinkableg.irregular s. inhumanh.disproportionate t. irrelevanti.ineffective u. uneditablej.inelastic v. immobilek.inductive w. illegall.irrational x. indiscreetIII. Morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content. Then is morpheme a grammaticalconcept or a semantic one? What is its relation to phoneme? Can amorpheme and a phoneme form an organic whole?Answer:Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, that is, it is involved both in grammatical and semantic aspects.A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical. For example, the phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’, ‘tapes’, ‘Frank’s’, ‘race’ is the same one, yet they represent different morphemes or even is not a morpheme individually. The phoneme /s/ in ‘looks’: the third-person singular present tense morpheme; the phoneme/s/ in ‘tapes’: the plural morpheme; the pho neme /s/ in ‘Frank’s’: the possessive case morpheme; the phoneme /s/ in ‘race’: is not a morpheme, for it has neither lexical meaning or grammatical meaning.Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structure other than a single phoneme. In other words, a morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. an independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.Chapter 4I. Define the following terms.1. syntax2. constituent3. subordination4. endocentric5. category6. construction7. exocentric8. coordinateII. Put brackets around the immediate constituents in each sentence.1.I rode back when it was dark.2.The boy was crying.3.Shut the door.4.Open the door quickly.5. The happy teacher in that class was becoming away.6. He bought an old car with his first pay cheque.Answers:1.((I) ((rode) (back))) ((when) ((it) ((was) (dark)))).2.((The) (boy)) ((was) (crying)).3.(Shut) ((the) (door)).4.((Open) ((the) (door))) (quickly).5. ((The) (((happy) (teacher)) ((in) ((that) (class))))) ((was) ((becoming) (away))).6. (He) ((( bought) ((an) ((old) (car)))) ((with) ((his) ((first) ((pay)(cheque)))))).III. For each of the underlined constructions or word groups, do the following.—State whether it is headed or non-headed.—If headed, state its headword.—Name the type of constructions.e.g.: His son will be keenly competing.Answer: headed; headword—competing; verbal group(a) Ducks quack.(b) The ladder in the shed is long enough.(c) I saw a bridge damaged beyond repair.(d) Singing hymns is forbidden in some countries.(e) His handsome face appeared in the magazine.(f) A lady of great beauty came out.(g) He enjoys climbing high mountains.(h) The man nodded patiently.(i) A man roused by the insult drew his sword.Answers:(a) non-headed; independent clause(b) non-headed; prepositional phrase(c) headed; headword---damaged; adjectival group(d) headed; headword---singing; gerundial phrase(e) headed; headword---face; nominal group(f) non-headed; prepositional phrase(g) headed; headword---climbing; gerundial phrase(h) non-headed; independent clause(i) headed; headword---roused; adjectival phraseChapter 5 MeaningI. Define the following terms.1. conceptual meaning2. denotation3. connotation4. reference5. sense6. synonymy7. gradable antonymy 8. complementary antonymy9. converse antonymy 10. relational opposites11. hyponymy 12. superordinateII. Do the following according the requirements.(a) Write out the synonyms of the following words:youth; automobile; remember; purchase; vacation; big (b) Give the antonyms of the following words:dark; boy; hot; go; lend; male(c) Provide two or more related meanings for the following:bright; to glare; a deposit; planeAnswers:(a) youth: adolescent automobile: carremember: recall purchase: buyvacation: holidays big: large(b) dark: light boy: girlhot: cold go: comelend: borrow male: female(c) bright: a. shining; b. intelligentto glare: a. to shine intensely; b. to stare angrilya deposit: a. minerals in the earth; b. money in the bankplane: a. a flying vehicle; b. a flat surface。
语言学定义2
• 10. converse antonymy：converse antonymy is a special type of antonymy in that the members of the pair of antonyms do not constitute a positive-negative opposition. They show a the reversal of a relationship between two entities. X buys something from Y means the same Y sells something to X. it is the same relationship seen from two different angles.
• 第五章 meaning • 1. conceptual this is the first type of meaning recognized by Leech, which he defined as the logical, cognitive, or denotative content. In other words, it overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference. But Leech also uses “sense” as a briefer term for this conceptual meaning. As a result, conceptual meaning has two sides: sense and reference.
• 12. superordinate: the upper term in hyponymy, I.e. the class name, is called superordinate, and the lower term, the members, hyponyms. A superordinate usually has several hyponyms. Under flower, for example, there are peony, tulip, carnation and many others apart from rose. • 13. proposition: a proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.
meaning语言学定义七个
meaning语言学定义七个（实用版）目录1.引言2.意义和语言学的关系3.意义在语言学中的重要性4.语言学对意义的定义5.对意义的理解6.意义的分类7.结论正文【引言】语言是人类交流的基本工具，我们通过语言来表达思想、传递信息和交流情感。
在语言学中，意义是一个核心概念，它是语言表达的核心，也是语言学研究的重要内容。
本篇文章将探讨语言学中对意义的定义，并试图理解意义的本质和作用。
【意义和语言学的关系】语言学是研究语言的科学，它关注的是语言的结构、规则和演变。
而在语言的研究中，意义是一个无法忽视的概念。
语言表达的意义是语言学研究的重要内容，同时也是语言学研究的难点和重点。
【意义在语言学中的重要性】在语言学中，意义是语言表达的核心。
语言不仅是声音、文字和符号的组合，更重要的是，它是一种意义的表达。
语言表达的意义是语言学研究的重要内容，对意义的理解和解读，可以帮助我们更好地理解语言，理解人类的思维和文化。
【语言学对意义的定义】语言学对意义的定义并没有统一的标准，不同的语言学家和学派对意义的理解各有侧重。
但总的来说，意义可以被理解为语言表达者通过语言表达出来的思想、观点或情感。
【对意义的理解】对意义的理解，语言学家们有不同的观点。
有的语言学家认为，意义是语言表达者对世界的理解和认知，有的语言学家则认为，意义是语言接收者对语言表达的理解和解读。
【意义的分类】在语言学中，意义可以根据不同的标准进行分类。
比如，根据意义的来源，意义可以被分为自然意义和社会意义；根据意义的性质，意义可以被分为概念意义和情感意义等。
【结论】总的来说，意义是语言学研究的重要概念，它是语言表达的核心，也是语言学研究的难点和重点。
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Meaning has been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists. E.g. Plato & Aristotle.
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2. Meanings of “meaning”
★ C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of
Meaning.
• John means to write. • A green light means to go.
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There is no place like home.
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Step mother
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(3) Social meaning 社会意义
• What a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a social class. Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, etc. Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc. Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc.
Associative Meaning
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《 语 义 学 》
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(1) Conceptual meaning 概念意义
• Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning. Refers to logical, cognitive or denotative content. Concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.
The linguistic approach is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of utterances and languages as possible.
3.1 Sense and reference 3.2 Major sense relations 3.3 Componential analysis 4. Sense relations between sentences 4.1 An integrated theory 4.2 Logical semantics 5. Task
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★ Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study
of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:
Conceptual meaning Connotative meaning Social meaning Affective meaning Reflected and meaning Collocative meaning Thematic meaning
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• Health means everything.
• His look was full of meaning.
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What is the meaning of life?
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What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you?
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e.g. famous, determined; notorious, pigheaded
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Guess:
What does ‘cornea’ mean?
• The transparent, convex, anterior portion of the outer fibrous coat of the eyeball that covers the iris and the pupil and is continuous with the sclera.
e.g. domicile (very formal, official) residence (formal)
abode (poetic)
home (general)
e.g. They chucked a stone at the cops, and did a bunk with the loot.
Formal <------------------------------> Informal
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(4) Affective meaning 情感意义
• Reflecting the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about. You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobate, and I hate you for it! I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little.
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1. Introduction
1) The Study of Meaning 意义的研究
• Semantics:
The meaning of words: Lexical semantics The meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning （命题）
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Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or ‘propositions’) within a single language.
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Question
• What is the difference between • meaning, concept, connotation, sense ,implication
,denotation, notation, reference and implicature?
Linguistics 语言学教程（第三版）
Chapter 5 Meaning
— Semantics
Chapter 5 Meaning
Teaching objectives: enable the students to have a better
understanding of semantics and wording meaning.
父”,“姑父”,“姨父”,“舅父”. • English word“river” →“江”and“河” • The Chinese character“山” → “mountain”and“hill”
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(2) Connotative meaning 内涵意义
• The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is the intensional meaning which a word suggests or implies. e.g. home *“同志”
I hope for the sake of peace and stability that Clinton will prove himself more statesman than politician.
home: family, friends, warmth, cozy, comfortable, safety, love, free, convenience eg. East, West, home is best.
different types of antonymy
Teaching Methods & Strategies:
teacher presentation and class discussion
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Teaching Procedures
1. Introduction 2. Meanings of “meaning” 3. Lexical meaning