chapter 4 phonology
(完整word版)Chapter-2-Phonology-音系学(现代语言学)
Chapter 2 Phonology 音系学1.The phonic medium of language 语言的声音媒介Linguists are not interested in all sounds ；they are concerned with only those sounds that are produced by the human speech organs in so far as they have a role to play in linguistic communication .These sounds are limited in number .This limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language ;and the individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.语言学家也并不是对所有的声音感兴趣，他们只关注那些在语言交际中占有一席之地、由人类的发音器官所发出来的那些声音.这些声音在数量上是有限的。
这些范围有限,但对人类交际活动意义重大、对语言学研究价值不菲的声音就是语言的声音媒介，凡是在这个范围的每个单个的声音都叫做语音。
2.Phonetics 语音学2.1What is phonetics？什么是语音学？it is concerned with all the sound that occur in the world’s languages.它的主要研究对象是世界上所有的语言中出现过的一切声音。
These three branches of phonetics are labeled articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics， and acoustic phonetics respectively。
语言学Phonology
[l] in [pleis]
pronounced.
Allophones are any of the different variants of a phoneme, which share more phonetic features in common and which are phonetically conditioned each.
sounds are put together (sound patterns) and used to convey meaning Phoneme
2.1 Some important definitions:
2.1.1 Phone（音子）; 2.1.2 Phoneme（音位）& Allophones（音位变体）;
2.2 Ways to identify phonemes:
2.2.1 Minimal pair（最小对立对）; 2.2.2 Complementary distribution（互补分布）; 2.2.3 Phonetic similarity（语音相似性）; 2.2.4 Free variation（自由变体）.
最小音差对是指除在相同位置上的发音 2.2.1 Minimal Pair 不同以外，其余部分发音都相同的两个词。
Examples:
Definition:
[pit] vs. [bit] [bet] vs. [bæ t] [mo] vs. [mõ]
A minimal pair refers to two different words which are identical in every way in pronunciation except one sound that takes place at the same position.
语言学phonology音韵学PPT课件
For example, the phoneme /p/ is represented differently in [phit] and [sp=it]. The notion of the phoneme allowed linguists to group together sets of phonetically similar phones as variants or members of the same underlying unit.
11ppt课件termsinphonologicalanalysis?phones?phonemes?allophones?phonemiccontrast?minimalpairsandminimalsets?complementarydistribution?distinctivefeaturesbinaryfeatures12ppt课件phonephonemeandallophone音素音位音位变体p371phone音素phoneisatermusedtorefertothesmallestperceptiblediscrete不连续的segmentofsoundinastreamofspeech
/z v s d g /
/s/ voiceless
Lecture 4 Phonology
4.What is minimal pairs
Minimal pairs: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds combinations are said to form a minimal pair. pit/bit; rapid/rabid; Cap/cab/
Pool, leaf Peak, speak
Allophones: The phones that can represent a phoneme are called allophones. (一个音位所代表 的两个或几个不同的音素,也就是同一个音位的各个音 称为该音位的音位变体.)e.g. “pill” and “spill”, in the word “pill” [p]需要吐气,因为这个音位在元
How many phones are there in the following words? feel ; like; pit; spit
A phoneme is a phonological unit . It is a unit of distinctive value. Look at the two words: ―pat‖ and ―bat‖, What is the difference between the two words? So in English the sounds (phones) that possess the distinctive value are called phonemes.Phonemes are said to be the distinctive sounds.
phonology英语定义
phonology英语定义
Phonology 是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言的发音和音系结构。
更具
体地说，它研究的是音素（即语音的最小单位）如何在特定语言中组合、分布和替换，以及这些组合如何形成有意义的词和短语。
例如，在英语中，“cat” 和“hat” 虽然发音相同，但在音系结构上却有不同的音素组合。
在“cat” 中，音素是/k/, /æ/, 和 /t/；而在“hat” 中，音素是/h/, /æ/, 和 /t/。
虽然两个词的音素在某些位置上是相同的（例如
/æ/ 和 /t/），但它们在关键位置上的音素不同（即 /k/ 和 /h/），这使得
两个词在音系结构上有所不同。
Phonology 的研究还包括音位的对立关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是不
同的）、音位的互补关系（即哪些音素在特定语言中是互相补充的，不会出现在同一个位置或组合中）以及音位的分布和替换规则等。
语言学第四章chapter4
英语语言学：第4章
Adverbs are words that describe or add to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a sentence, and which answers the questions introduced by how, where, when, etc. carefully, slowly, then, now Prepositions are words used with nouns in phrases providing information about time, place and other connections involving actions and things.
河南大学外语学院 马应聪
英语语言学：第4章
Syntactic rules
(1) a. The hunter fears the cries of the blackbirds. b. The blackbirds fear the cries of the hunter. (2) a. Jack looked up the word. b. Jack looked the word up. (3) *Cries fear the the of hunter blackbirds the. Conclusion: The structure of sentence such as word order can change the meaning. Every sentence is a sequence of words but not every sequence of words is a sentence. Sentence formation has rules, so that we have well/ill formed or (un)grammatical sentences.
语言学教程各章节练习及答案
Exercisesto Linguistics外语系黄永亮Chapter 1 Invitation to Linguistics1.Define the following terms:Langue: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech munity.Parole:parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use.Prescriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard〞behaviour in using language, i.e. to tellpeople what they should day and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Descriptive: Prescriptive and descriptive represent two different types of linguistic study. If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive;petence:Chomsky defines petence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.Performance: Chomsky defines performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic munication.Synchronic: The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study;Diachronic: The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Linguistics：Linguistics may be defined as the systematic (or scientific) study of language.language：Language is a form of human munication by means of a system of symbols principally transmitted by vocal sounds.〞2.Does the traffic light system have duality, why?No. No discrete units on the first level that can be bined freely in the second level to form meaning. There is only simple one to one relationshipbetween signs and meaning, namely, re-stop, green-go and yellow-get ready to go or stop.3.munication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression. Do bodylanguage and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language?Less arbitrary, lack duality, less creative, limited repertoire, emotional-oriented.4.Why is petence and performance an importantdistinction in linguistics?According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic petence. And performance refers to the actual enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinitenumbers of sentences and to recognizegrammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’spetence is stable but his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. Thus, Chomsky proposed that linguists should focus on the study of petence, notperformance. The distinction of the two terms “ petence and performance〞represents the orientation of linguistic study. So we can say petence and performance is an importantdistinction in linguistics.5.In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar in the following basic ways:Firstly, priority is given, as mentioned earlier, to spoken language. Secondly, focus is on synchronic study of language, rather than on diachronic study of language. Thirdly, modern linguistics is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature. Linguists endeavor to state objectively the regularities of a language. They aim at finding out how a language is spoken: they do not attempt to tell people how it should be spoken. Fourthly, modern linguistics is theoretically rather than pedagogically oriented. Modern linguists strive to construct theories of language that can account for language in general. These features distinguished modern linguistics from traditionalgrammar. The two are plementary. Not contradictory. Knowledge of both is necessary for a language teacher: knowledge of the latter is necessary for a language learner.Chapter 2 Phonetics1. Give the description of the following sound segments in English1)[] voiced dental fricative2)[] voiceless alveolar fricative3)[] velar nasal4)[] voiced alveolar stop5)[] voiceless bilabial stop6)[] voiceless velar stop7)[] (alveolar) lateral8)[] high front lax unrounded vowel9)[:] high back tense rounded vowel10)[] low back lax rounded vowel2. How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?Consonants are described according to manner and place of articulation while vowels are described with four criteria: part of the tongue that is raised; extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate;kind of opening made at the lips; position of soft palate.3. Which sound may be described asa voiced bilabial plosive []a voiced labio-dental fricative []a voiceless velar plosive []4. Why might a photographer ask the person she is photographing to say cheese?The vowel of the word cheese [:] is produced with the lips spread, this resembling a smile.5.Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs of words:coast ghost; ghost boastboast most; ghost mist;The words coast and ghost are distinguished by the fact that the initial segment is voiceless in the case of the former and voiced in the case of the latter.The word ghost and boast are distinguished by the place of articulation of the initial segment, [] being velar while [] is bilabial.Boast and most are distinguished by the manner of articulation of the initial segment, [] being nasal.Most and mist are distinguished by the fact that the former has a rounded back vowel shile the latter has a spread front vowel.Chapter 3 Phonology1.Define the following termsPhonology:Phonology is concerned with the sound system of languages. It is concerned with which sounds a language uses and how the contribution of sounds to the task of munication.Phone:A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic munication are all phonesPhoneme:Phoneme is the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particularlanguage.Allophone: Allophone refers any of the different forms of a phoneme is an allophone of it in English. pare the words peak and speak, for instance.The // in peak is aspirated; phonetically transcribed as [] while the // in speak is unaspirated, phonetically[＝]. [ ,] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme //. Such variants of a phoneme are called Allophone of the same phoneme.Suprasegmental features:.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are calledSuprasegmental features.Suprasegmental features include: stress, tone and intonation.2.Transcribe the realization of the past tense morpheme for each of the following words:Waited waved wiped waded. account for the differences.[id] in “waited〞and “waded〞follows anotheralveolarplosive. [d] in “waved〞follows voiced consonants.[t] in “wiped〞follows voicelessconsonants, there being voicingassimilation.3. which of the following would be phonologicallyacceptable as English words?Thlite grawl dlesher shlink tritch sruck stwondle“grawl〞and “tritch〞4.Why can we not use the sequence [kl] in twinkle as an example of a consonant cluster?The sequence [kl] bridges two syllables.5.For each of the following pairs pare the position of the stress. ment.Economy/economic wonder/wonderfulBeauty/beautiful acid/acidicIn adjectives ending in –ic the stress moves to the following syllable, in adjectives ending in –ful it does not.6.Explain why somebody might choose to stress the followingutterances as indicated by the bold type:a) John want ed to do this today. b) John wanted to do this today. c) John wanted to do thisto day.The first utterance implies that John was unable to do what he wanted.The second implies that he was only able to do something else.The third implies that he was only able to do it some other day.Chapter 4 Morphology1.Define the following terms:Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.pound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard,snowwhite, etc.Allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme -‘s but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats,as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.Bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the word it is added to, e.g.the plural morpheme in “dogs〞.Free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.2.p lete the words with suitable negative prefixesa. ir removable g. in humanb. in formal h. ir relevantc. im practicable i. un evitabled. in sensible j. im mobilee. in tangible k. il legalf. il logical l. in discreet3. “Morpheme〞is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expressionand content. Then is morpheme a grammatical concept or a semantic one? What isits relation to phoneme?Since morpheme is defined as the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, it at the same time covers the grammatical and semantic aspect of linguistic unit. A morpheme may overlap with a phoneme, such as I, but usually not, as in pig, in which the morpheme is the whole word, i.e. and independent, free morpheme, but the phonemes are /p/, /i/ and /g/.4. Identify in the following sentence four bound morphemes. State the function ofeach and say whether each is derivational or inflectional.The teacher’s brother considered the project impossible.The –er and the –‘s of teacher’s are bound morphemes, the former being derivational, as it produces a lexeme that denotes the person who does an action, the latter being an inflectional morpheme, as it indicates possession.The –ed of considered is inflectional, indicating that the action took place in the past. The im- of impossible is derivational, producing a new lexeme that denotes the opposite of possible.Chapter 5 Syntax1.Definethe following terms:Category: parts of speech and functions, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.Concord:also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntacticrelationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories Syntagmatic relation:. Syntagmatic relation is a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.Paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present and the others absent.Deep structure: is defined as the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituentsSurface structure: is the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive. Theme:The Theme is the first constituent of the clause.Rheme:All the rest of the clause is simply labeled the Rheme.2.Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntaxgmatic andparadigmaticrelations?As the relationbetween a signifier and signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign can not be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.3.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal of structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reason of some ambiguities may be revealed.4.What are the problems in IC analysis?There are some technical problems caused by the binary division and discontinuous constituents. Butthe main problem is that there are structures whose ambiguities cannot be revealed by IC analysis, e.g.the love of God. In terms of both the tree diagram and the label, there is only one structure, but the word God is in two different relations with love, i.e. either as subject or object.5.Clarify the ambiguity in the following sentence by tree diagrams:Old teachers and priests fear blackbirds.SNP VPAdj. NP V NOld fear blackbirds.N Conj. Nteachers and priestsSNP VPNP Conj. N V NAdj. N and priests fear blackbirds.Old teachersChapter 6 Semantics1. defining the following terms:semantics: The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistics units, words and sentences in particular. Denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. Connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes. Sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.Reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i.e. to talk about things in context.Synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.Antonymy: is the name for oppositeness relation:hyponymy:a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word (the hyponym)semantic ponent: a distinguishable element of meaning in a word with two values, e.g. [+human].2. Some people maintain that there are no true synonyms. If two words mean really the same, one ofthem will definitely die out. An example often quoted is the disuse of the word “wireless〞, which has been replaced by “radio〞. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?It is true that there are no absolute synonyms. When we say two words are synonymous with each other, we usually mean they have the same conceptual meaning.3. For each of the following pairs of words, state the principal reason why they may not be considered to besynonyms:man boy toilet loo determined stubbornpavement sidewalk walk runThe words man and boy are principally distinguished be age, the words walk and run by speed. The principal distinction between the words toilet and loo is one of social register. Determined and stubborn are largely distinguished by attitude—a person reluctant to give up is described as determined by those who sympathize and as stubborn by those who do not. The difference between the words pavement and sidewalk is a matter of geography, the former being used in Britain and the latter in America.Chapter 7 Pragmantics1. defining the following terms:Performative:an utterance by which a speaker does something does something,as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false.Constative:an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false. Locutuonary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense andreference.Illocutuonary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.Perlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.Cooperative principle: in making conversation, there is, as Grice holds,a general principle which all participants are expectedto observe. He calls this guiding principle the Cooperative Principle, CPfor short.. It runs as follows: "make your conversational contribution such as isrequired, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of thetalk exchange in which you are engaged.〞Conversational implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to thelistener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and howhe violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle(CP)2. Consider the following dialogue between a man and his daughter. Try to explain the illocutionary force in each of the utterances.[The daughter walks into the kitchen and takes so e popcorn.]Father: I thought you were practicing your violin.Daughter: I need to get the violin stand.Father: Is it under the popcorn?The illocutionary force of “I thought you were practicing your violin〞is a criticism of the daughter for her not practicing the violin. That of the daughter’s answer is a defense for herself—I’m going to do that. And that of the father’s retort is a denial of the daughter’s excuse.3.If you ask somebody“Can you open the door?〞he answered “Yes〞but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? Try to see it in the light of speech act theory.I would be angry with him. “Can you open the door〞is normally a request of the hearer to do it rather than a question about his ability. The fact that he answers “Yes〞but does not actually do it shows that he declines my request.4. A is reading the newspaper. When B asks “What’s on television tonight?〞he answers “Nothing.〞What does A mean in normal situations? Think of two situations in which this interpretation of “Nothing〞will be cancelled.Normally “Nothing〞here means “Nothing interesting〞. If A adds after “Nothing〞“The workers are on strike today〞or “There’s going to be a blackout tonight〞, then the interpretation of “Nothing interesting’ will be cancelled.。
《英语语言学概论》配套习题(五)(问答题)
《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。
语言学概念第四版笔记
语言学教程第四版重点笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1Arbitrariness 任意性Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2.arbitrariness at the syntactic level3.arbitrariness and convention 任意性与规约性1.3.2Duality 二元性Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personal relationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and writtendiscourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative 信息功能The informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal function 人际功能The interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 Performative 施为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function 感情功能（被打fuck 吃惊god）The emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.1.5.5Phatic communion 寒暄交谈（无实质，“早上好”）The phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational function 娱乐功能The recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s ba bbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual function 元语言功能The metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 Phonetics 发音学Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 Phonology 音系学Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 Morphology 形态学Morphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 Syntax 句法学Syntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 Semantics 语义学Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.8 Macrolinguistics 宏观语言学Macrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学Psycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 社会语言学Sociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics 人类语言学Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguistics 计算机语言学Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics 重要区别1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描写式vs 规定式To say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, ornorms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时（历史上一点）vs 历时（历史长河）A synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at prese nt) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronicdescription is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & parole 语言（抽象）vs 言语（日常）Saussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints;langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performance 语言能力VS 语言运用According to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rule s is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics语音学studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived. . It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics发音语言学–the study ofthe production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics声学语言学–the study ofthe physical properties ofthe sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics 听觉语言学–the study of perception of speech soundsPhonology音系学is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to “discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.”发音变化规律2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts ofthe human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator ofthe air stream, the producer of voice andthe resonating cavities.2.3 The IPAInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowels辅音、元音定义Consonants are produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.V owels are produced withoutobstruction so the air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose.2.4.2 ConsonantsManners of articulation发音方式the place of articulation发音部位发音方式refers to the actual relationship betweenthe articulators and thus the way in whichthe air passes through certain parts ofthe vocal tract (the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; they may narrow the space considerably; they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.);发音部位refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal folds.2.4.5 The consonants ofEnglish1. Received Pronunciation (RP):The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety andwhich shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC E nglish” or “Oxford English”because it is widely used in the private sector ofthe education system and spoken by most newsreaders ofthe BBC network.2. the consonants ofEnglish can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 VowelsThe criteria of vowel description 描述元音1.the height of tongue raising(high, mid, low)2.the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back)3.the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense vs. lax or long vs. short)4.lip-rounding(rounded vs. unrounded)We can now describe the English vowels in this way:【i:】high front tense unrounded vowel【u】high back lax rounded vowel【ə】mid central lax unrounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription 协同发音2.6.1 Coarticulation协同发音Coarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.发音变化倾向于后面（following sound）叫anticipatory Coarticulation; 倾向前面perseverative ~2.6.2Broad and narrow transcriptions 宽式、严式转写The use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.8 Phonemes and allophones音位和音位变体2.8.1 Minimal pairs 最小对比对Minimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound andwhich also differ in meaning. E.g. theEnglish words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theoryPhoneme （音位）：A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. (refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast)Phonemic transcription 音位转写放在abstract, not physical ，放在/ /.Allophones (音位变体)Any ofthe different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. Phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme.e.g.: pot, spot, cup: [ph] vs. [p] vs. [ p¬ ] (unreleased)i) complementary distribution互补分布ii) free variationiii)phonemic contrast.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in Englishwhen they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts.2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features超音段特征: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable音节: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.2.12 Stress 重音Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.Intonation and Tone 声调语调Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase3.1 What is morpheme?3.1.1 Morpheme 语素A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit thatcannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical orgrammatical.E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysisshapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.Morphology（形态学）：The study of internal structures and rules of morphemes by which words are formed.3.1.2 Types of MorphemesFree morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素（能独立出现）黏着语素（disclose中dis-）Free morpheme refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morpheme refers to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme Root, affix and stem 词根词缀词干Root is the base form of a word that can’t be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. For example, internationalism, after removing the “inter-“”-al””-ism”, the part retained is the root nation.affix词缀----is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.it can classified into three subtypes, prefix, suffix and infix.stem词干----is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(friends中friend-,friendships中friendship-)词干可以包括词根和一个及以上词缀Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affix----A morpheme that serves to adjust words by grammatical modification to indicate such grammatical relations as number, tense, degree and case. e.g. tables, talks, opened, strongest, John’sDerivational affix---A morpheme that serves to derive a word of one class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. e.g. cite-citation-cital#3.2 What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing. Three senses of word:1.a physical unit2. a lexical item3. a grammatical unit3.2.1 Identification of words 词的特点1.Stability 稳定性（词内部结构不能重新排序chaieman≠manchair）Words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility ofthe constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性（此中不可插入其他成分）By uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even whenthere are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts ofthe word disappointment: dis +appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses betweenthe parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3.A minimum free form 最小的自由形式（任意一个词都能成为句子）This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, acomplete utterance.3.2.2 Classification of words 词的分类1. Variable and invariable words 可变化词（follow）和非变化词（since, but）In variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part ofthe word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariablewords refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词和词汇词Grammatical words, also calledfunction words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited.New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are allclosed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some ofthe categories newly introduced into linguisticanalysis.(1)Particles助词: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,”the negative marker “not,”andthesubordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2)Auxiliaries助动词: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Becauseof their unique properties, whichone could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3)Pro-forms代词: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in asentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces thatI can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4)Determiners限定词: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of anoun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into threesubclasses: predetermines, central determiners andpost determiners.3.3Word formation: Inflection and word formation 词的构成：从语素到词1.Inflection 屈折变化（不改变词性）Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formation 词的形成Word formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1)Compound 复合Compound refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds: the endocentric compound and exocentric compound.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is de-verbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb. E.g. Nouns: self-control, pain-killer, etc. Adjectives: virus-sensitive, machine washable, etc. The exocentric compounds are formed by V + N, V + A, and V + P, whereas the exocentric come from V + N and V + A. E.g. Nouns: playboy, cutthroat, etc. Adjectives: breakneck, walk-in, etc. 复合这个术语指那些由两个或两个以上的词素构成的词，或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法(2)Derivation 派生Derivation shows the relation between roots and suffixes. In contrast with inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.3.3 Lexical change 词汇变化1. Invention 发明法（coke）Since economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names.2. Blending混成法(smok+fog=smog)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.3. Abbreviation / clipping缩写词（bicyle-bick）A new word is created by cutting the final part, cutting the initial part or cutting both the initial parts of the original words.4. Acronym 缩略词（WB-world bank ，WTO）Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword.5.Back-formation 逆构词法（editor-edit）Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imaged affix from a longer form already in the language.已存在较长单词删去词缀，变成较短另外含义单词6.Analogical creation 类推构词（过去式之类）The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation of some English verbs.7. class shift 词性变换（已有单词开发另一词性意义）By shifting the word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion.8. Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages. Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Arabic and other languages have all played an active role in this process.Chapter 4 From Word to Text1. Syntactic relations（句法关系）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.1.1Relations of Position 位置关系（主谓宾）Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement ofwords in a language.If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations（横组合关系）observed by F. de Saussure. They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.1.2. Relation of Substitutability 替换关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations（纵聚合关系）by Hjemslev（叶尔姆斯列夫）To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence （同现关系/纵横关系）It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.2. Grammatical construction and its constituents 语法结构和成分2.1 Grammatical Construction 语法结构定义：GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION（语法结构体）or CONSTRUCT can be used to refer to any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in a language its external and its internal properties.The external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.结构外部句法特征The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction’s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.结构内部句法特征2.2 Immediate Constituents(直接成分) IC analysis？Constituent（成分）is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT ANAL YSIS or IC analysis (直接成分分析法)，the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (phrases), which are in turn。
Lecture 4 Phonology
[-velar]→[+velar]/_ [+velar]
Assimilation同化
Assimilation: a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.
For example: the distinctive feature which distinguishes /p/ from /b/ is VOICE. /p/ is a voiceless bilabial stop, /b/ is a voiced bilabial stop.
Syllable
补分布
互
When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution.
IV. Some important terms
Minimal pairs Free variants Distinctive features Syllable stress
Free variants （自由变体）
If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form,
Typical phonological processes
英语语言学复习资料
英语语言学复习资料注: 1.试题类型为选择题,填空题,语料分析题和问答题.2.未标习题的章节为一般了解.Chapter 1Language and Linguistics: An Overview1.1 What is language?1.2 Features of human languages(i) Creativity (or productivity)Productivity is the first and foremost striking feature of human language._________ is the first and foremost striking feature of human language.A. DualityB. ArbitrarinessC. CreativityD. Displacement(ii) Duality( ) Language contains two subsystems, one of speaking and the other of writing. (iii) Arbitrariness( ) The Swiss linguist de Saussure regarded the linguistic sign as composed of sound image and referent.(iv) Displacement( ) Modern linguistics is prescriptive rather than descriptive.( ) Language can be used to refer to things real or imagined, past, present or future.(v) Cultural transmission(vi) Interchangeability(vii) Reflexivity1.3 Functions of language(i) The ideational function(ii) The interpersonal function(iii) The textual functionWhich of the following does not belong to the language metafunctions illustrated byM.A.K. Halliday?A.Ideational functionB. Interpersonal functionC．Textual function. D. Logical function1.4 Types of language( ) Chinese is an agglutinating language.1.5 The myth of language: language origin1.6 Linguistics: the scientific study of language1.6.1 Linguistics as a science1.6.2 Branches of linguistics(i) Intra-disciplinary divisions(ii) Inter-disciplinary divisions1.6.3 Features of modern linguisticsChapter 2 Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds2.1 The study of speech soundsThe study of speech sounds is called ________.A. PhoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. PhonologyD. Acoustic Phonetics2.2 The sound-producing mechanism2.3 Phonetic transcription of speech sounds2.3.1 Unit of representation2.3.2 Phonetic symbols2.4 Description of English consonants2.5 Description of English vowels( ) Not all vowels are voiced.2.6 Phonetic features and natural classesI. Write the phonetic symbol that corresponds to the articulatory description. (10%) Example: vowel front high [i:]1．bilabial nasal2．voiced labiovelar glide3．literal liquid4．voiced bilabial stop5．front high laxII. Transcribe the sound represented by the underlined letter(s) in the words and then describe it. (10%)Example: heat [i:] vowel front high1．write2．actor3．city4．worry1．yesChapter 3 Phonology: The Study of Sound Systems and Patterns3.1 The study of sound systems and patterns( ) The study of speech sounds is called Phonology.3.2 Phonemes and allophones3.3 Discovering phonemes3.3.1 Contrastive distributionSip and zip, tip and dip, map and nap, etc, are all ______.A. minimal pairsB. minimal setsC. allophonesD. phomes3.3.2 Complimentary distribution( ) The voiceless bilabial stop in pin and the one in spin are in complementary distribution.Pronounce the words key and core, ski and score, paying attention to the phoneme /k/. What difference do you notice between the first pair and the second pair in terms of the phonetic features of the voiceless velar stop? (10%)3.3.3 Free Variation( ) If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.3.3.4 The discovery procedure3.4 Distinctive features and non-distinctive features3.5 Phonological rules3.6 Syllable structureEvery syllable has a(n) _______, which is usually a vowel.A. onsetB. nucleusC. codaD. rhyme3.7 Sequence of phonemes3.8 Features above segments3.8.1 Stress3.8.2 Intonation3.8.3 Tone( ) Tone is the variation of pitch to distinguish utterance meaning.Which of the following does not belong to suprasegmental features?B.Stress B. IntonationC. ToneD. Syllable3.8.4 The functioning of stress and intonation in EnglishI.How would you read the phrases in the two columns? What does each of them mean? (10%)Column I Column IIa. a bluebird a blue birdb. a lighthouse keeper a light housekeeperII.Explain the ambiguity of the following sentences. (10%)1. Those who went there quickly made a fortune.2. A woman murdererChapter 4 Morphology: The Study of Word Structure4.1 Words and word structure1.________ is defined as the study of the internal structure and the formation of words.A. MorphologyB. SyntaxC. LexiconD. Morpheme4.2 Morpheme: the minimal meaningful unit of language4.3 Classification of morphemes4.3.1 Free and bound morphemes( ) In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain only one morpheme.In the phrases a herd of cattle, a flock of sheep, both cattle and sheep contain _____ morphemes.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four4.3.2. Inflectional and derivational morphemes4.4 Formation of English words4.4.1 Derivation4.4.2 Compounding( ) The meaning of compounds is always the sum of meaning of the compounds. ( ) A greenbottle is a type of bottle.( ) Compounding, the combination of free morphemes, is a common way to form words.4.4.3 Other types of English word formationTell the process of word formation illustrated by the example and find as many words as you can that are formed in the same way. (10%)a) flub) OPECc) Nobeld)televisee) better (v.)_____ is a process that puts an existing word of one class into another class.A. ClippingB. BlendingC. EponymD. ConversionChapter 5 Syntax: the Analysis of Sentence Structure5.1 Grammaticality5.2 Knowledge of sentence structure5.3 Different approaches to syntax5.4 Transformational-generative grammar5.4.1 The goal of a TG grammar5.4.2 Syntactic categories5.4.3 Phrase structure rules5.4.4 Tree diagramsDraw two tree diagrams of the following ambiguous sentence. (10%)Pat found a book on Wall Street.5.4.5 Recursion and the infinitude of language5.4.6 Subcategorization of the lexicon5.4.7 Transformational rules5.5 Systemic-functional grammar5.5.1 Two perspectives of syntactic analysis: chain and choice5.5.2 The three metafunctions5.5.3 Transitivity: syntactic structure as representation of experienceMaterial processesRelational processesMental processesVerbal processesBehavioral processesExistential processesIdentify the type of transitivity process in each of the following sentences. (10%)1. John washed the car.2. John likes the car.5.5.4 Mood and modality: syntactic structure as representation of interaction5.5.5 Theme and rheme: syntactic structure as organization of message Chapter 6 Semantics: the Analysis of Meaning6.1 The study of meaning6.2 Reference and sense6.2.1 Reference6.2.2 Sense6.3 Classification of lexical meaningsBoth pretty and handsome mean good-looking but they differ in ________ meaning.A. collocativeB. socialC. affectiveD. reflected6.3.1 Referential meaning and associative meaning6.3.2 Types of associative meaning6.4 Lexical sense relations6.4.1 Synonymy6.4.2 Antonymy6.4.3 Homonymy6.4.4 Polysemy6.4.5 HyponymyExplain the relation between bank1(the side of a river) and bank2(the financial institute). (5%)6.5. Describing lexical meaning: componential analysis6.6 Words and concepts6.6.1 Categorization6.6.2 Prototypes6.6.3 Hierarchies6.7 Semantic relations of sentencesTell the semantic relation within the given sentence and that between the two sentences.(15%)a)My uncle is male.b)The spinster is married.c)Jim is an orphan. Jim lives with his parents.d)Sam is the husband of Sally. Sally is the wife of Sam.e)He has gone to London. He has gone to England.6.8 Metaphors6.8.1 From rhetorical device to cognitive device6.8.2 The components of metaphors6.8.3 Features of metaphorsChapter 7 Pragmatics: Analysis of Meaning in Context7.1 The pragmatic analysis of meaning7.2 Deixis and reference7.3 Speech ActsWhat are the three dimensions that a speech act consists of?7.4 Cooperation and implicatureWhat are the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle?7.5 The politeness principle7.6 The principle of relevance7.7 Conversational structure______ refers to having the right to speak by turns.A．Adjacency pairs B. Turn-talkingC．Preferred second parts D. Insertion sequencesChapter 8 Language in Social Contexts8.1 Sociolinguistic study of languageHow do sociolinguists classify the varieties of English?8.2 Varieties of a language1. ______ is a term widely used in sociolinguistics to refer to “varieties according to use.”A. RegisterB. FieldC. ModeD. Tenor2. British English and American English are ______ varieties of the English language.A. functionalB. socialC. regionalD. standard8.3 Grades of formality8.4 Languages in contactHow do you distinguish pidgin from Creole?8.5 Taboos and euphemisms8.6 Language and culture8.7. Communicative competenceChapter 9 Second Language Acquisition9.1 What is second language acquisition?In _____ stage, children use single words to represent various meanings.A. telegraphicB. two-wordC. holophrasticD. babbling9.2 Factors affecting SLA9.3 Analyzing learners' language_____ is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language.A. MetalanguageB. InterlanguageC. SignD. Esperanto9.4 Explaining second language acquisitionChapter 10 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching10.1 Foreign language teaching as a system10.2 Contribution of linguistics: applications and implications10.3 Linguistic underpinning of syllabus design10.4 Method as integration of theory and practice10.5 Linguistics in the professional development of language teachers。
chapter 4 phonology
4.3.2 Complementary distribution
Sounds in complementary distribution occur in nonoverlapping environments, that is, never occur in the same environments. Speech sounds in complementary distribution are allophones of the same phoneme.
3. Account for the difference in articulation in each of the following pairs:
coast/ghost boast/most ghost/boast most/mist
4. For each group of sounds listed below, state the phonetic feature or features they all share:
Allophone:
one of a set of non-distinctive realizations of the same phoneme the variant forms of the same phoneme corresponds to something physical produced by a speaker E.g., [th] is an allophone of /t/. an allophone of a phoneme is a predictable phonetic realization of that phoneme
dentalized alveolars: when /l, n, t, d/ are followed by dentals, they become dental
英语语言学—中文版
单元练习...．..７6页英语语言学概论—自学指导主编: 支永碧王永祥英语语言学概论—自学指导主编: 支永碧王永祥副主编：李葆春丁后银王秀凤前言本书主要为参加英语专业(本科段)自学考试和全国研究生入学考试的考生而编写,是《英语语言学概论》(王永祥、支永碧,2０0７）的配套辅导用书。
自2０0７年起,《英语语言学概论》（王永祥、支永碧，２007)被确定为英语专业(本科段)自学考试的指定教材。
在此期间，许多参加自学考试的考生希望能再出一本配套的辅导教材。
他们中的不少人不仅希望自学考试轻松过关,还希望和全国其他学生一样将来能参加全国统一的研究生入学考试继续升造求学。
而现有的教材内容和相关练习似乎还不能充分满足他们的需求。
其一,配套练习尚不够全面,缺少问答题的参考答案；其二，和研究生入学考试真题相比,配套练习的类型也不够全面；其三,参加自学考试的学生往往很难得到老师的亲自授课和指导，而英语语言学理论和概念往往抽象难懂，再加上其它各种原因,不少考生不能轻易地掌握各章的所有重点、难点，因此,他们迫切需要有一本简单实用的自学考试指南和辅导练习帮助他们解决问题；此外，在英语专业研究生入学考试中，英语语言学是一门必考科目。
入学以后,英语语言学也是英语专业研究生的一门必修课。
鉴于此,他们希望了解更全面的英语语言学基本理论，多做一些更实用的英语语言学练习和真题，以备将来需要。
为了满足广大自考学生和准备参加英语专业研究生入学考试的考生的需要,我们在广泛征求了各方面的意见之后,精心编写了本书。
本书的编写除了主要参照王永祥、支永碧主编的《英语语言学概论》以外，我们还参考了胡壮麟主编的《语言学教程》(修订版）和戴炜栋、何兆熊主编的《新编简明英语语言学教程》和其它一些高校使用的语言学教程。
本书第一部分为英语语言学核心理论和概念，主要包括:本章主要考点，课文理解与重点内容分析;第二部分为英语语言学概论的十三章单元配套练习,和原教材中的练习稍有不同的是，在本部分，我们选编了部分自学考试真题和各个高校历年考研真题，以便考生更好地了解本章重点。
英语语言学概论 Chapter4 Phonology(音位学)
Phonology(音位学)Phonetics is a study of the production,transmission and perception of speech sounds, and their physical properties.Phonemes音位are the minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. Allophones 音位变体are the different realizations of a particular phoneme in a language. Phones are the smallest identifiable phonetic unit or segment in a stream of speech.Minimal pair最小对立体：a pair of words which differ from each other by one sound.3 conditions: 1 the two forms are different in meaning; 2 the two forms are different in one segment; 3 the different sounds occur in the same position of the two words: teach---cheat, read—dearIf two or more sounds never appear in the same enviornment, that is, each sound only appears in the enviornment where the other never occurs, they are in complementary distribution.互补分布pen—pet, pat—spat—tap, lead—realIf two or more sounds can occur in the same environment and the substitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are in contrastive distribution.Will—till 对比分布When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, they are in free variation. 自由变体A distinctive feature区别性特征is one which distinguishes one phoneme from another,like /nasal/,/voiced/. put forward by Jakobson.The assimilation rule同化原则the effect of phonetic context or situation on a particular phone.Deletion rule删除: delete a sound although it is orthographically represented Sequential rules顺序:state the possible combination of phonemes and the constraints over such a combination for a language.suprasegmental features(超切分特征) features that have effect on more than one segment, which also known as prosody(韵律语音特征): stress, tone, intonation and juncture.stress(重音,重读) some nouns are stressed on the first syllables while the verbs are stressed on the second syllables:Tone(声调): the level of pitch that is used in a linguistically contrastive ways.Tone language: ma ma ma ma(妈,麻马骂)Intonation(语调) 5 intonations: the falling tones: certainty; the rising tones: uncertainty, the level tones: undecided yet whether known or unknown,juncture(连音): the boundary features that may demarcate grammatical units:A name an aimnarrow transcription(严式音标):symbolizes all the possible speech sounds, broad transcription(宽式音标): transcribes or indicates only the only those speech sounds that distinguish one word from another in a language . It is phonemic.。
Chapter 4 Morphology
units of words. E.g.
divided into 2 parts:
Morpheme: morph形态, -eme素
Allomorph语素变体
Phoneme音素
Morphology形态学
Morpheme语素
Ss break up words into morphemes
❖ Deconctextualization ❖ Introduction ❖ Teacher ❖ Unhappy ❖ Studying
❖ ordinary nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
❖ They carry content of messages. We can add new lexical morphemes to the language rather easily, so they are treated as an ‘open’ class of words (开放 性词类）.
inflectional languages（屈折语）
❖ Arabian language is an inflectional language, the grammatical forms are realized by the change of vowels in the middle of a word.
❖ Bound morphemes (=affixes) :
❖ re-, ❖ -er, ❖ -ed, ❖ -ing, ❖ -s, -’s ❖ -est
❖ Derivational
❖ Inflectional Morphemes
Morphemes（派生语素） : （屈折语素）:
❖ Which are used to derive new words. E.g.
Chapter Four Morphology
Chapter Four Morphology0. Introductioni. In Chapter 1, we have mentioned that all human languages have the feature of duality of structure. That is to say, each language has two levels: the sound-meaningless level and the grammatically-meaningful level.ii. In Chapters 2 and 3, we studied two sub-branches of linguistics: phonetics and phonology. Phonetics deals with the speech sounds available in a language. But phonology is concerned with the sound system of a language. Although they study different things, they work at the same level --- the sound-meaningless level.iii. From now on, we shall move to the second level --- the grammatically-meaningful level. The following chapters all work at this level.iv. What does morphology study? It studies the smallest meaningful units in the grammatical system. Then what is the smallest unit in the grammatical system?1. Morphemesi. Introduction: traditionally, words were regarded as minimal meaningful units at the grammatical level, mainly because words in written form are clearly separated from one another by spaces. But is that right?ii. Definition: Technically, a morpheme is defined as a minimal meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language.2. Classifications of morphemes2.0 IntroductionMorphemes can be classified both semantically and structurally.A. Semantically, morphemes are grouped into general categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes: simply speaking, roots and affixes.B. Structurally speaking, they fall into two classes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.2.1 Roots, affixes, free morphemes and bound morphemesi. Definition of the termsA. root --- the root is the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.B. affix --- affixes are lexically dependent on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.C. free morphemes --- free morphemes are those that can stand by themselves as individual words.D. bound morphemes --- bound morphemes are never found alone as words, but are always joined with other morphemes.举例：disagree, meaningless, receiveii. Classification of free morphemes:Free morphemes can be further divided into two sub-groups:A. lexical morphemes --- The lexical morphemes include nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs which carry the content of the messages we convey.B. functional morphemes --- The functional morphemes include conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns.iii. Interrelations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemesA. All free morphemes are roots.B. Not all roots are free morphemes.C. All affixes are bound morphemes.D. Not all bound morphemes are affixes.2.2 Prefixes, suffixes and infixesAffixes can be further classified in terms of their position or in terms of their function. Along the dimension of position, we may divide affixes into three groups:i. prefixes --- The affixes that are placed before roots are called prefixes.ii. suffixes --- The affixes that are placed after roots are called suffixes.iii. infixes --- The affixes within roots are called infixes.2.3 Inflectional and derivational affixesAccording to function, affixes are classified into inflectional and derivational affixes.Differences:i. function:A. inflectional affixes（屈折变化形式词缀）1) mark grammatical relations such as number, gender, tense, aspect, case and degree2) never create new words3) never cause a change in grammatical classB. derivational affixes（派生词缀）1) create new words2) very often cause a change in grammatical class (but not always)ii. position:A. Inflectional affixes are always suffixes; they are always after derivational affixes if both are present in the same word.B. Derivational affixes are prefixes or suffixes; they always before inflectional suffixes if both are present in the same word.Question: Are -ing and -ed inflectional or derivational affixes?Answer: Both are possible.3. Morphs and allomorphsi. Three phonological terms:A. Phonemes are minimal distinctive units in the sound system of a language. / /B. Phones are the realizations of phonemes in general. [ ]C. Allophones are the realizations of a particular phoneme. [ ]ii. Three morphological terms:A. Morphemes are minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.{ }B. Morphs（语子、形素）are the realizations of morphemes in general. / /C. Allomorphs（词位变体）are the realizations of a particular morpheme. / /iii. Examples:The morpheme｛z｝may be realized by three allomorphs: /s/, /z/ and /iz/.The morpheme｛d｝may be realized by three allomorphs: /t/, /d/ and /id/.The morpheme｛haus｝may be realized by two allomorphs: /haus/ and /hauz/.4. Identifying morphemes（鉴别词位）4.0 Introductioni. Identifying morphemes generally involves two major stages:A. cutting sound sequences into morphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）B. grouping morphs into morphemes（把语子归类为词位）ii. Before we move to the question as to what should be done at each stage, two points have to be clarified:A. Morphs are obtained on the basis of phonemic data rather than on spelling forms of words.B. A morpheme is not equated with a syllable.4.1 Cutting sound sequences into morphs（把语音的序列划分为语子）i. What is the basic technique of cutting sound sequences into morphs?The basic technique of cutting sound sequences into morphs is comparison.For example:ii. Four principles of judging whether two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemes are the same morph or different morphs:If two or more minimal meaningful sequences of phonemesA. are identical in both form and meaning, then they are regarded as one morph;B. are the same in form but different in meaning, then there are as many morphs as there are meanings;C. are the same in meaning but different in form, then there are as many morphs as there are forms;D. are different both in form and meaning, there are as many morphs as there are different forms and meanings.4.2 Grouping morphs into morphemes（把语子归类为词位）i. PrincipleIf two or more morphs are semantically identical and also in complementary distribution, they are then said to be allomorphs of the same morpheme.ii. Classification of allomorphsA. phonologically conditioned allomorphs音位环境变体B. morphologically conditioned allomorphs词位环境变体4.3 Empty morph and zero morphi. empty morph --- It is defined as a morph that has form but no meaning.ii. zero morph --- It is defined as a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Morphemic analysis1) What is the relation between the morphemes of a word?Generally speaking, there are two kinds of relations.i. Superficially, they are linked to each other like beads in a string, that is, the linear order 线性顺序of morphemes.ii. Internally, they are arranged in hierarchical structure, that is, the hierarchical order等级顺序of morphemes. It has to be revealed by IC analysis.2) What is IC analysis?i. Definition:IC analysis means that we divide the morphemes of a word into two groups and then divide each group into subgroups, and so on, until we reach single morphemes.ii. Examples:iii. Three terms:A. ultimate constituents（最终成分）--- The forms at the bottom of the tree-branch diagram are called ultimate constituents.B. immediate constituents（直接成分）--- The forms under each point where the tree branches are called immediate constituents of the form on one level above.C. constituents --- All the forms in the tree-branch diagram except the word itself are called the constituents of the word.iv. Is IC analysis arbitrary segmentation?v. Two basic principles of IC analysisA. Divisions depend on meaningful relations between morphemes, that is, divisions depend on meaningful relations between morphemes.例如：untouchable disgracefulB. Divisions should be compatible with morphological rules.vi. What are morphological rules?A. Definition: Morphological rules are the rules that determine how morphemes are combined to form new words.B. Rules:1) un + adj, participle → adj2) n, adj + ify → vt3) v + able → adj4) adj + ly → adv, n + ly à adj5) in, il, ir, im + adj → adj6) adj + ness → n7) v + ment → n8) v + ence, ance → n9) re + v → v10) en + adj, n → v11) adj, n + en → v12) dis + v → v13) adj + ize → v14) de + v → v15) n + ful → adjC. Examples:untruly, unmanly, unmentionable, disagreement6. The role of morphology in English6.1 Grammatical functions of inflectional morphologyi. Inflectional endings: -s, -'s, -ed, -ing, -er, -estii. The primary function of inflectional morphemes is not to transmit information, but to convey grammatical meanings.iii. Example:Several students discussed how to improve their English yesterday afternoon.6.2 Derivational morphology派生词法and word-formation processes构词法i. three ways to obtain new wordsA. borrowing words from other languagesB. creating entirely new wordsC. forming new words from existing morphemes and wordsii. word-formation processes1) Main processesA. Affixation（词缀法）a. Definition: When a new word is formed by putting an affix to the base, the process involved is called affixation.b. Attention: Do such affixes include inflectional affixes? Does the term 'base' necessarily refer to 'root' of a word?c. Examples: 参见105页第三段下面。
语言学Chapter 4_phonology
3. Then we compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rules that underlie the use of sounds in them, and ultimately we aim to discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of all languages. languages.
Phone, phoneme, and e
a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; Phoneme(音位 Phoneme(音位): a phonological unit, 音位) abstract and of distinctive value; Allophone(音位变体 Allophone(音位变体): the different 音位变体) phones that represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment.
1. It aims to ‘discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur’. occur’
2. In phonology we normally begin by analyzing an individual language, say English, in order to determine its phonological structure, structure, i.e. which sound units are used and how they are put together.
语言学导论课后习题答案
Chapter 4 MorphologyWhat is morphology?The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is defined as the study of the internal structur e and the formation of words.Morphemes and allomorphsThe smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.“zero” form of a morpheme and suppletivesSome countable n ouns do not change form to express plurality. Similarly, some regular verbs do not change form to indicate past tense. In these two cases, the noun or verb contains two morphemes, among which there is one “zero form” of a morpheme.Some verbs have irreg ular changes when they are in past tense. In this case, the verbs also have two morphemes. Words which are not related in form to indicate grammatical contrast with their roots are called suppletives.Free and bound morphemesSome morphemes constitut e words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes. The distinct i on between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Inflexional and derivational morpheme sInflexional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words. English affixes a re divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Conclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixes: -s, -’s, -er, -est, -ing, -ed, -sSuffixesFormation of new wordsDerivationDerivation forms a wo rd by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly, unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness, etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a free morpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation does not apply freely to any word of a given category. Generally speaking, affixes cannot be added to morphemes of a different language origin.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.CompoundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes. The majority of E nglish compounds are the combination of words from the three classes –nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.ConversionConversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.ClippingClipping is a process that shortens a pol y syllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator) and fax (facsimile) are rarely used in their complete form.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing both breakfast and lunch), motel (motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook for junior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formed by putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion in English indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television asthat suffix and drop it to form the verb televise.Acronyms and abbreviationsAcronyms and abbrevia tions are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of org anizations and scientific terminology.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.For more detailed explanation to the ways of word formation, see my notes of Practical English Grammar.转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86983.html Chapter 3 PhonologyWhat is phonology?Phonology is the study of sound systems and patterns.Phonology and phonetics are two studies different in perspectives, which are concerned with the study of speech sounds.Phonology focuses o n three fundamental questions.What sounds make up the list of sounds that can distinguish meaning in a particular language? What sounds vary in what ways in what context?What sounds can appear together in a sequence in a particular language?Pho nemes and allophonesA phoneme is a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature.The variants of a phoneme are termed allophones.We use allophones to realize phonemes.Discovering phonemesContrastive distribution – phonemesIf sounds appear in the same environment, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.Typical contrastive distribution of sounds is found in minimal pairs and minimal sets.A minimal pair consists of two words that differ by only one sound in the same position.Minimal sets are more than two words that are distinguished by one segment in the same position.The overwhelming majority of the consonants and vowels represented by the English phonetic alphabet are in contrastive distribution.Some sounds can hardly be found in contrastive distribution in English. However, these sounds are distinctive in terms of phonetic features. Therefore, they are separate phonemes.Complementary distribution – allophonesSounds that are not found in the sam e position are said to be in complementary distribution.If segments are in complementary distribution and share a number of features, they are allophones of the same phoneme.Free variationIf segments appear in the same position but the mutual subs titution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.Distinctive and non-distinctive featuresFeatures that distinguish meaning are called distinctive features, and features do not, non-distinctive features.Distinc tive features in one language may be non-distinctive in another.Phonological rulesPhonemes are abstract sound units stored in the mind, while allophones are the actual pronunciations in speech.What phoneme is realized by what allophones in what specific context is another major question in phonology.The regularities that what sounds vary in what ways in what context are generalized and stated in phonology as rules.There are many phonological rules in English. Take the following ones as exam ples.[+voiced +consonant] – [-voiced]/[-voiced +consonant]_[-voiced +bilabial +stop] – unaspirated/[-voiced +alveolar +fricative]_Syllable structureA syllable is a phonological unit that is composed of one or more phonemes.Every syllable h as a nucleus, which is usually a vowel.The nucleus may be preceded by one or more consonants called the onset and followed by one or more consonants called the coda.Sequence of phonemesNative speakers of any language intuitively know what sounds can be put together.Some sequences are not possible in English. The impossible sequences are called systematic gaps.Sequences that are possible but do not occur yet are called accidental gaps.When new words are coined, they may fill some accident a l gaps but they will never fillsystematic gaps.Suprasegmental featuresFeatures that are found over a segment or a sequence of two or more segments are called suprasegmental features.These features are distinctive features.StressStress is the perceived prominence of one or more syllabic elements over others in a word.Stress is a relative notion. Only words that are composed of two or more syllables have stress. If a word has three or more syllables, there is a primary stress and a sec ondary stress.In some languages word stress is fixed, i.e. on a certain syllable. In English, word stress is unpredictable.IntonationWhen we speak, we change the pitch of our voice to express ideas.Intonation is the variation of pitch to distin guish utterance meaning.The same sentence uttered with different intonation may express different attitude of the speaker.In English, there are three basic intonation patterns: fall, rise, fall-rise.ToneTone is the variation of pitch to disting uish words.The same sequence of segments can be different words if uttered with different tones.Chinese is a typical tone language.-转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/86123.html Chapter 2 PhoneticsWhat is phonetics?Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.Sub-branches of phoneticsArticulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsAcoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsAuditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsThe speech organsWhere does the air stream come from?From the lungWhat is the function of vocal cords?Controlling the air streamWhat are the cavities?O ral cavityPharyngeal cavityNasal cavityTranscription of speech soundsUnits of representationSegments (the individual sounds)Phonetic symbolsThe widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.In more detailed transcripti o n (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.Description of speech soundsDescription of English consonantsGeneral feature: obstructionCriteria of conson ant descriptionPlaces of articulationManners of articulationV oicing of articulationPlaces of articulationThis refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]Labiodental: [f] [v]Interdental: [ ] [ ]Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]Palatal: [ ] [ ] [t ] [d ] [j]Velar: [k] [g] [ ]Glottal: [h]Manners of articulationThis refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed.Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]Fricatives: [s] [z] [ ] [ ] [f] [v] [ ] [ ] [h]Affricates: [t ] [d ]Liquids: [l] [r]Glides: [w] [j]Nasals: [m] [n] [ ]V oicing of articulationThis refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.V oiced soundsV oiceless soundsDescription of English vowelsGeneral feature: without obstructionCriteria of vowel descriptionPart of the tongue that is raisedFrontCentralBackExtent to which the tongue rises i n the direction of the palateHighMidLowKind of opening made at the lipsPosition of the soft palateSingle vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsPhonetic features and natural classesClasses of sounds that share a feature or features a re called natural classes.Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.第三章“词汇”问题和练习1. 解释下列术语语素复合词屈折变化词缀派生词词根语素变体词干粘着语素自由语素词位词汇语法词词汇词封闭类开放类混成法借词混合借词转移借词缩略语脱落逆构词法同化异化俗词源2. 给下列词加上适当的否定前缀a. removable m. syllabicb. formal n. normalc. practicable o. workabled. sensible p. writtene. tangible q. usualf. logical r. thinkableg. regular s. humanh. proportionate t. relevanti. effective u. editablej. elastic v. mobilek. ductive w. legall. rational x. discreet3. 语素被定义为表达和内容关系的最小单位。
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Rule 3: deletion rule(省略规则) A sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. eg.(1) signature, designation, paradigmatic • (2) sign, design, paradigm deleted • In the second group, /g/ is _______.
• 音位有时还可能有free variants
互补分布
当同一个音位的两个或两个以上的音位变体 不区别意义，并且永远不会出现在相同的位 置上，那么它们被称为处于互补分布。 [p]/[pʰ]是两个不同的音子，即音位/p/的变化 形式。[p]只出现在[s]之后，而[pʰ]只出现在其 他位置。 /p/→[p]/[s]͟ [pʰ]剩余位置 注：——是/p/出现的位置
phonetics and phonology
Phonetics General (concerned with speech sounds as such without reference to their function in a particular language). Descriptive Classificatory Particular (having a particular language or languages in view) Functional (concerned with the working or functioning of speech sounds in a language or languages) Functional phonetics p137
自由变体
如果两个音素出现在一个相同的语言环境中， 并不区别意义，即用一个音素替换另一个音 素不产生一个新词，仅仅产生同一个词的不 同读音，那么这两个音素处于自由变异。 cup：cup的末尾辅音可能不发生除阻，成为 一个听不见的音。这种情况下，同一个词发 成两个不同的音：[kʰʌpʰ]和[kʰʌp˺] either:美音[i:ðə]英音[aiðə]
最小对立对(Minimal pair)指的是两个语音群 （通常是单词）中的语音除了一个音不同， 且不同的音处在相同的位置上，其余的成 分完全相同，因此这两个语音群形成最小 对立对。如tip和dip形成最小对立对，其中 /-ip/完全相同，只有第一个音不同。构成最 小对立对的还有/pig/和/dig/;/pen/和 /ben/;/robe/和/rote/等，但是/tip/和/pit/， /mop//opt/不构成最小对立对。
语音相似原则： 语音相似指的是，两个或几个音发音特点上有相似之处。例如， 上面所举的英语中的［p］和［ph］两个音素，都是不带声双唇 塞音，不同的只有一点，前者是“不送气”音，后者“送气”音。 所以这两个音相似。
值得注意的是，互补的音素如果语音差别明显，一般不能合并 为一个音位。例如，汉语普通话的［t］和［ŋ］的位置是互补的， ［t］只出现在声母的位置上（即音节的开头），［ŋ］只出现在 韵尾（即音节的末尾），但是，由于它们发音特点相差太大，不 能合并为一个音位。
– Phonetic similarity – They are in complementary distribution, namely they never occur in the same context. For example, [p] occurs after [s], while [ph] occurs in other places.
一些区别特征
一般来说，区分特征指的都是二分特征，可 以分出两种情况：有该特征的和没有该特征 的。 爆破音、塞擦音、流音、鼻音、滑音、双唇 音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、腭音、软腭音、 喉音等。
区别特征的描写
• 一般从发音的角度，采用二分法来对某个语言区别特征。例如汉语普 通话的/p/描写为“＋有阻，＋唇，＋塞，－送气”。 • 雅克布逊的观点，人类语言中各种音位对立区别特征有12对 (1) 元音性/非元音性 Vocalic/ non-vocalic (2) 辅音性/非辅音性 Consonantal/non-consonantal (3) 鼻音性/口音性（鼻化/非鼻化）Nasal/oral (nasalized/nonnasalized) • (4) 集聚性/分散性 Compact/diffuse (5) 突发性/延续性 Discontinuous/continuant (6) 粗糙性/柔润性 Strident/mellow (7) 急刹的/非急刹的 Checked/unchecked (8) 浊音性/清音性 Voiced/voiceless (9) 紧音性/松音性 Tense/lax (10) 沉钝性/尖锐性 Grave / acute (11) 降音性/平音性 Flat / plain (12) 升音性/平音性 Sharp / plain
Some rules of phonology
Rule 1 sequential rules (序列规则): the rules governing the combination of sounds in a particular language
like, love, look, right, rough, root a vowel. • /l/ and /r/ must be followed by _________. • spring, street, screw, splendid, squeal, student • If three consonants should cluster together, the combination should obey the following three rules: /s/ • The first phoneme must be ______. /p, t/ or /k/ • The second phoneme must be __________. /l, r, w/or /j/ • The third phoneme must be _____________.
Phonology
phonology
phoneme theory音位理论 phonological rules 音系规则 suprasegmental features超音段特征 phonology theory音系学理论
phoneme theory
• 1.mimimal pairs • 2.phones, phoneme & allophones • 3.distinctiveห้องสมุดไป่ตู้features
音位对立和区别特征
如果最小对立对中的两个音位出现在同一位 置并且能够区别意义，那么这两个音位就构 成了音位对立。 区别特征是和音系有关的，即能够区别音位 的发音特征。如在英语中，辅音的［±浊］ 能够区别不同的音位，而［±送气］只能区 别同一个音位的不同变体。所以，在英语中， ［±浊］是区别特征，而［±送气］则不是 区别特征。
Rule 2: assimilation rule (同化规则) The pronunciation of a phone may be assimilated to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. Regressive assimilation: the following sound influencing the proceeding sound Progressive assimilation: the proceeding sound influencing the following sound, eg.cap and can; sin and sink, at and map
音素是语音学研究的单位。人类在说语言时 所发出的一切音都是音素（phone）,有些音素 具有语义区别性价值，有些音素没有。 音位具有区别性价值，音位是抽象的，是一 组语音特征的集合,它不是一个具体的音。 一 个音位会在不同的语音环境中实现为具体的音。 如音位/p/在语境中可实现为具体的送气和不送 气音等 按照惯例，音素用[ ]表示，音位用/ /表示。
Suprasegmental Features (超音段特征)
• Distinctive features can also be found over phonemic segments, this is what we will consider SUPRASEGMENTAL FATURES. They are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments • The principal suprasegmantal features are syllable, stress, tone, and intonation
Allophones (音位变体)
• [p=, ph] are two different phones and are variants of the phoneme /p/. Such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. • 音素是音位的音位变体 • 成为同一个phoneme 的allophones 的条件
Shape/structure of syllable
e.g. bed, dead, fed, head, led, red, said, wed, thread, wed A syllable is divided into onset, rhyme and/or coda. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel. Syllables are represented by symbols like CVC. A syllable has no coda is known as open syllable while a syllable with coda is known as closed syllable.