语言学教案Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind
Chapter 6 语言学Language Processing in Mind-T
Chapter VI Language Processing in MindIntroductionWhy study language? LANGUAGE is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. (Chomsky, Reflections on Language, 1975)Psycholinguistics is the study of “language and mind” , or to be more exact, can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). PSYCHOLINGUISTICS is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. Less modestly, it sometimes also produces findings, which make their own mark on linguistic research, leading to the modification of theoretical ideas.PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAG语言心理学deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought,PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 交际心理学includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTS are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mindEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLINGUISTS are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.In practice the two schools of thought often overlap, but extreme supporters of each way of thinking sometimes perceive the gap as being a large one.Major strands of psycholinguistic research:and acquisition language.Section one: Language ComprehensionQ1: What is language comprehension?Q2: What is mind? brain/thinking processQ3: How do you understand language?Language comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language and how do they understand what they hear or read?(includes both text comprehension and speech comprehension, either of which involves several processes. It is important for the reader or listener to take account of the grammatical structure and the meaning of what is being presented. Meaning is extracted from text or speech by reliant what is presented to information stored in long-term memory. )1. Word recognition is the first step in understanding any message, which includes not only the recognition of meanings of the words, but also the information that determines the syntactic structure of the rest of the sentence.How do we recognize words?Cohort theory集群理论: hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.Factors affect word recognition:Frequency effect频率效应:Recency effect 近期效应：Context 语境: semantic association network: which represents the relationships between various semantically related words.2. Lexical ambiguityTwo theories used to distinguish ambiguous words:a)All the meanings associated with the word are accessedAll meanings of ambiguous words are accessed and time has to be taken to decide among them.b)Only one meaning is accessed initiallyFrequency and context effects are important here.3. Syntactic processingPsycholinguists generally assume that the syntactic structure is built as soon as possible rather than waiting to see what the whole string of word is before deciding what structure it has.Sentence ambiguity may occur due toa)The ambifuity of individual words and the different possible ways that words canbe fit into phrasesb)The ambiguous catefory of some of the words in the sentenceGarden path花园小径：a phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.How do people decide which structure an ambiguous sentence has in sentence processing?Minimal attachment theory最小接触理论: an idea that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Other analysis: such as the one based on pragmatic plausibility.4. Semantic and sentence memoryMemory representations are not syntactic under certain conditions (see the experiment P202, which indicate that the syntactic details of linguistic material are not usually stored for very long and that it is a representation of a sentence’s meaning which a subject has available in his memory under normal circumstances.) Assimilation theory: emphasis on the importance of background knowledge in “normal”situations where we might memorize linguistic material.5. Basic process in readinga)Eye movement: information is obtained from the text only during fixationsand not at all during saccades.(P204)b)The perceptual span感知时距：the range of letters from which usefulinformation is extracted.c)The immediacy assumption即时假定：A reader is supposed to carry out theprocesses required to understand each word and its relationship to previouswords in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.Section Two Discourse话语/text语篇InterpretationQ1. What is schemata and reference drawing?Q2. What is text interpretation?Introduction:Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.a)General context effects: occur all the time when our generalknowledge about the world influences language comprehension.b)Specific context effects: involve information obtained from earlierparts of a discourse.1.Schemata 图式and inference drawing推论Schemata: packets of stored knowledge, whicha)can vary considerably in the information they contain. from the verysimple to the very complexb)are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition toa rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also havemore specific restaurant schemata for different kinds ofrestaurant(e.g. fat-food places, up-market French restaurants, andson on).c)operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitateinterpretation of environmental stimuli.Inference drawing: Language comprehension frequently requires us to go far beyond the literal meanings of the sentences we read or her. Essential information is often only implied. So that it is necessary to draw inferences in order to understand fully what is intended.The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with information about the sentences actually presented (Bransford, Barclay. And Franks,1972)2.Story structure:Our comprehension of and memory for stories are highly “ selective”, inthe sense that we focus on the central theme of the story rather than onthe relatively unimportant details. According to Van Dijik and Kintsch(1983), a story is first of all processed so that the individual propositionsare extracted (theory of story processing). The propositions of a storyenter into a short-term working buffer of limited capacity. When thebuffer contains a number propositions, the reader or listener tries torelate them to each other in a coherent fashion . In general terms,subsequent ability to remember the propositions depends on the length oftime they spend in the working buffer. Those propositions which arehighly relevant to the main theme of a story tend to be stored for arelatively long time in the working buffer. Therefore, thematicinformation should be better remembered than non-thematic information.Section Three Language ProductionQ1. What is Language production?Q2. What are the means of Language production?Language production: is very definitely a goal-driven activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on, which include two forms of production, namely, speech production and writing.1.speech productionAccording to Garrett (1976; 1984), there are altogether 5 different levels ofrepresentation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:1)The message-level representation2)The functional-level representation3)The positional-level representation4)The phonetic-level representation5)The articulatory-level representationErrors which may support that notion that speakers engage in reasonableelaborate planning before beginning to speak:Spoonererism首音互换/slip of the tongue舌头打滑): the initial letter orletters of two words are transposedAnticipation error预期错误: occur when a word is spoken earlier in thesentence than it should be: (the school is at school)Exchange error交换错误：two items within a sentence are swapped. (this isthe happiest life of my day).The following error prove the sequence of 2nd and 3rd proposed byGarrett:(speakers decide on the grammatical structure of a proposedutterance in the functional-level representation, and then select theappropriate words to fit into that structure in the subsequent position-levelrepresentation)Morpheme-exchange errors: in which roots or basic forms of two words areswitched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (He has alreadytrunked two packs)2.Written languageAccording to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing essentially consists of threeinter-related processes:1)The planning process2)The sentence generation process3)The revision processQ: What are the factors that influence or determine the quality of the writingplan? (relevant knowledge about the topic to be written about, strategicknowledge: knowledge of the methods used in construction a writing plan inorder to make it coherent and well-organized)Q: Who use the following writing strategies respectively, knowledge-tellingstrategy and knowledge-transforming strategy?knowledge-telling strategy: simply write down everything children can thinkof tht is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way(Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987)knowledge-transforming strategy: involves focusing on potential problemswithin the planning process ( Are the main points arranged in the mostlogical order”)Here are some more examples of garden path sentences. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is?1.The boat floated downstream sank.2.While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.3.The daughter of the King’s son admires himself.。
语言学6PPT课件
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
语言学教程 chapter6
32
含义：
Metaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.
认知语言学
1
Байду номын сангаас
含义 渊源 基本理论 应用
2
What is Cognition?
Mental processes, information processing
Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
20
End-of-path schema
An image schema in which a location is understood as the termination of a prescribed path Example (English): In the following sentence, it is understood that one must traverse the hill before reaching Sam’s home, which is at the end of the path:
Standing upright Climbing stairs Viewing a flagpole Watching water rise in a tub
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
2. Recognition of words in print
1).Two questions in printed word recognition (1). Two different processes for…… A lexical route A non-lexical route Connectionist theories （连接主义模型理论） claim that…… (2). Quantitative analyses……
(1) Word recognition
Recognition of spoken words and words in print 1.recognition of spoken words 1)Features of speech could cause difficulty for listeners. (1). (2). (3).
Six research subjects within it
1)acquisition 2)comprehension 3)production 4)disorders 5)language and thought 6)neurocognition We will focus on the former three subjects, say, acquisition, comprehension and production.
The conceptual approach
Cognitive linguistics has addressed : 1) 2) 3) 4) Above all, it seeks to ascertain the global integrated system of conceptual structuring in language.
语言学导论第六章
pragmatics语用学 --- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
Preliminaries: 1. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? 2. If you are going shopping with your friend and she says to you “the bag I‟m carrying is heavy”, what does she possibly mean?
Analyze the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionaly acts contained in the following sentences: • A teacher entered the classroom and saw all the windows were closed. Then he said to his students, “It is hot here. ” • A little girl is visiting a doll store with her mum and she says to her mum, “Mummy, the doll is so cute. ”
• commissives承诺类: I will return the book to you next week without fail. I will never do it again. • expressives表达类: I‟m sorry to hear that. Thank you very much! Happy birthday! I‟m glad to see you again. • declarations宣告类: I now declare the ceremony close. You are fired.
胡壮麟 语言学教程修订版 课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter (6)
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind6.1 Introduction1. Language is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense.2. Language is a product of human intelligence, created a new in each individual byoperation that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness.3. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension,production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written).4. Psycholinguistics is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality oflinguistic structures.5. The differences between psycholinguistics and psychology of language.Psycholinguistics can be defined as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). It is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.On the other hand, the psychology of language deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought, and from the psychology of communication, includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.6. Cognitive psycholinguistics: Cognitive psycholinguistics is concerned above all withmaking inferences about the content of the human mind.7. Experimental psycholinguistics: Experimental psycholinguistics is mainly concernedwith empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.6.1.1 Evidence1. Linguists tend to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their mainsource of evidence, whereas psychologists mostly prefer experimental studies.2. The subjects of psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults and childrenon the one hand, and aphasics----people with speech disorders-----on the other.The primary assumption with regard to aphasic patient that a breakdown insome part of language could lead to an understanding of which componentsmight be independent of others.6.1.2 Current issues1. Modular theory: Modular theory assumes that the mind is structured intoseparate modules or components, each governed by its own principles andoperating independently of others.2. Cohort theory: The cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognitionbegins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initialsound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing asmore sounds are perceived. This theory can be expanded to deal with writtenmaterials as well. Several experiments have supported this view of wordrecognition. One obvious prediction of this model is that if the beginningsound or letter is missing, recognition will be much more difficult, perhapseven impossible. For example: Gray tie------ great eye; a name-----an aim;an ice man-----a nice man; I scream-----ice cream; See Mable----seem able;well fare----welfare; lookout------look out ; decade-----Deck Eight;Layman------laymen; persistent turn------persist and turn3. Psychological reality: The reality of grammar, etc. as a purported account ofstructures represented in the mind of a speaker. Often opposed, in discussionof the merits of alternative grammars, to criteria of simplicity, elegance, andinternal consistency.4. The three major strands of psycholinguistic research:(1) Comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language, andhow do they understand what they hear or read?(2) Production: How do they produce messages that others can understand inturn?(3) Acquisition: How language is represented in the mind and how languageis acquired?6.2 Language comprehension6.2.1 Word recognition1. An initial step in understanding any message is the recognition of words.2. One of the most important factors that effects word recognition is howfrequently the word is used in a given context.3. Frequency effect: describes the additional ease with which a word is accesseddue to its more frequent usage in the language.4. Recency effect: describe the additional ease with which a word is accesseddue to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.5. Another factor that is involved in word recognition is Context.6. Semantic association network represents the relationships between varioussemantically related words. Word recognition is thought to be faster whenother members of the association network are provided in the discourse.6.2.2 Lexical ambiguity1. lexical ambiguity: ambiguity explained by reference to lexical meanings: e.g.that of I saw a bat, where a bat might refer to an animal or, among others,stable tennis bat.2. There are two main theories:(1) All the meanings associated with the word are accessed, and(2) only one meaning is accessed initially. e.g.a. After taking the right turn at the intersection….“right” is ambiguous: correct vs. rightwardb. After taking the left turn at the intersection…“left” is unambiguous6.2.3 Syntactic processing1. Once a word has been dentified , it is used to construct a syntactic structure.2. As always, there are cinokucatuibs due to the ambiguity of individual wordsand to the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.Sometimes there is no way to determine which structure and meaning asentence has.e.g. The cop saw the spy with the binoculars. “with the binoculars” isambiguity(1) the cop employed binoculars in order to see the spy.(2) it specifies “the spy has binoculars.”3. Some ambiguities are due to the ambiguous category of some of the words inthe sentence.e.g. the desert trains, trains (培训；列车)the desert trains man to be hardly. 沙漠使人坚韧。
语言学第6章
Language Processingin Mind1. Introduction2. Language comprehension3. Discourse/text interpretation4 Language production5. Task6.1 IntroductionPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Other definitions of Psycholinguistics:▪ a. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship of “language and mind”.▪ b. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, and production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)cf:a. Psychology of language deals with more generaltopics such as the extent to which languageshapes thought.b. Psychology of communication includes non-verbal communication such as gestures andfacial expressions.c. Cognitive psychologists are concerned withmaking inferences about the content of thehuman mind.d. Experimental psychologists is somewhat more concernedwith empirical matters, such as speed response to aparticular word.◆Evidencea. Psycholinguistics attracts supporters from both linguistics and psychology, though both of them have somewhat different approaches , esp. in methodology.Linguists are inclined to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidencePsychologists more prefer experimental studies. b. Subjects of Psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults, children and aphasics patients ------people with speech disorders.Current issuesa. It is generally agreed that human language system is likely to be a “modular”, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. However, the point led to a major controversy concerning the integration of the modules.b. Another problem is the relationship between STRUCTURE and PROCESS, which can not reach agreement.c. Three major aspects of psycholinguistic research:COMPREHENSION Language:how do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or understand?PRODUCTION language:how do they produce messages that others can understand in turn?ACQUISITION language:how language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?6.2. Language comprehension●Word recognition:Word recognition is the initial step inunderstanding any message.●Factors affecting word recognition:a. Cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.b. Frequency effect, one of the most important factorsaffecting word recognition, studies how frequently the word is used in a given discourse or contextC. Recency effect, one of the factors affecting word recognition, describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.D.Context is another factor affecting word recognition. People recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Syntactic processingfactors affecting the process of determining the structure of a sentencea.the ambiguity of individual words and the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.e.g.: The mother beat the his daughter with a play gun. ( prepositional phrase with a play gun used to modify daughter ; prepositional phrase with a play gun being the complement of the verb beat )b.the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentencee.g.: the desert trains ( in different contexts, desert can serve as the subject of the verb trains or the modifier of the verb )C.garden path sentence, another factor affectingthe process of determining a sentence structure, are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. Forexample, reduced relative clauses often causesuch feeling of having been garden-pathed.e.g.: The horse raced past the barn fell ( thehorse that was raced past the barn fell )MINIMAL attachment theory, a way used when interpreting the structure of sentences, is theidea that people initially construct the simplest( or least complex ) syntactic structure.Basic processes in readingPerceptual span is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted, which varies depending on factors such as the size of the print, the complexity of the text, etc. and encompasses about three or four letters to the left of fixation and some fifteen letters to the right of fixation. Immediacy assumption means that the reader is supposed to carry out the processes required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.6.3.Discourse/text interpretationDiscourse serves as a context, affect sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certaindirection.General context effects means that our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension, which occurs all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevantgeneral knowledge that we possess..Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourseSchemata and inference drawingThe origin of schemataThe concept of schema theory was put forward by Barlett in his writings. Barlett believed that our memory for discourse was not based on straight reproduction, but was constructive. The constructive process uses information frome experience related to the discourse at hand, to build a mental representation. He argued that , that past experience can not be an accumation of successive individuated events and experiences, it must be organized and manageable. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown&George Yule )The definitions of Schema:Schemata are …high-level complex ( and even conventional or habitual ) knowledge structures‟ (van Dijk, 1981:141) which functions as …ideational scaffolding‟ (Andersion, 1977 ) in the organization and interpretation of experience. In the strong view, schemata are considered to be deterministic, to predispose the experiencer to interpret his experience in a fixed way. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )b. Schemata can be seen as the organizedbackground knowledge which leads us to expect or predict aspects in our interpretation ofdiscourse. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )The characteristics of schemata:a.Schemata can vary considerably in theinformation they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.b.Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically.e.g.:worsening environment/ecological deterioration↓desertification↓sand storms / Yellow dust↓deforestation /vegetationc.Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptuallydriven way to facilitate interpretation onenvironmental stimuli.how to use schemata:a.the activation of schematab.the reconstruction of schemataspecific use of schemata: research on the use of schemata are found in reading comprehensionand listening comprehension and listeningcomprehension. Now research on the use ofschemata begins in writing.Story structureVan Dijk and Kintsch (1983 ) argued that, in understanding of the gist of MACROSTRUCTURE of a story, readers and listeners make extensive use of their general knowledge to work out the major theme of a story, which leads to the production of MACROPROPOSITIONS which are general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.6.4 Language production●Language production is definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.Speech productionGarrett put forward five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence:a. the message-level representationb. the functional-level representationc. the positional-level representationthe phonetic-level representationthe articulatory-level representationcomment on the theory: the complex theory of speech production has not as yet been tested thoroughly. However, there is support for some of its major assumptions.some concepts related to the theory: Spoonerism ( Slip if the tongue ) refers to the initial letters or letters of two words are transposed. For example, sounds or words from the end of a sentence intrude into the early part of a sentence, then this provides evidence for the notion of forward planning.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.e.g. ＊He has already trunked two packs.(He has already packed two trunks. )Written languageWriting process proposed by Hayers ans Flowers (1986 ):First, the planning process, which involves producing ideas and arranging them into a writing plan appropriate to the writing.Second, the sentence generation process, which translates the writing plan into actual sentences that can be written down.Lastly, the revision process, which involves an evaluation of what has been written for so far.Strategic knowledge, less obvious factors determining the quality of the writing plan, is knowledge used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherent and well-organized.6.5 Task:Work in groups and discuss the following questions: Give a definition of Psycholinguistics in your own words?Please explain how to figure our the correct structure of garden path sentences with four or more sentences ?Could you explain how to use schemata in listening, speaking,reading and reading with examples?Please explain the basic process in reading with a short passage or short paragraph?Distinguish the following definitions with at least one examples: slip of the tongue, anticipation error, exchange error and morpheme-exchange errors?Think about the acquisition of second language acquisition or firstlanguage acquisition from the perspective of psycholinguistics?。
语言学第六章chapter6课件
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
语言学重点章节介绍
语言学重点章节介绍三星级重点章节07年冬天，学校组织了一个讲座，请老师给我们谈考试重点，同时学生有什么问题，可以当面问他。
他说前五章是最重要的，第七和第八次之，第六，第九和第十二章也有考的内容，但不会很多，剩下的十章和十一章可以不看！所以，我就用三颗星表示最重要；俩颗星表示第二重要，一颗星表示第三重要。
王老师说只要把胡壮麟那本书背会了，肯定能考好！因为考试覆盖的知识点都在书上！其实，背会那本书是不实际的，而把那本书过5到6遍是可能的，也是必须的。
而且重点章节要在理解的基础上反复看。
虽然我们文科的知识，背时关键，但是理解更重要，尤其语言学这门课，比较抽象，不理解就背，效果不好，不容易背会。
北语没有提供考纲之类的东西，只告诉语言学参考书是胡壮麟的《语言学教程(修订版)》。
（09年不知是否会换成该书的第三版）所以能知道该书哪些章节是重点，能让我们有的放矢。
我这里所说的三星级重点，即最重要的章节是该书的前五章。
不知道外校的考生，他们学校开过这门课没有！我们北语大三下学期讲前五章，大四上学期讲的6，7，8，9，12这几章。
下面，我们先谈谈前五章该如何复习。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics；Chapter2: Speech Sounds；Chapter3: Lexicon；Chapter4: Syntax (新版中，这章改成From Word to Text，是变化最大的一章，变化的结果是比以前的简单了）；Chapter5: Meaning。
这五章可以说是语言学的基础和考试的重点。
我们一定要反复看，理解其中的定义等知识点。
一定要在理解的基础上记忆。
Chapter1: Invitations to linguistics这章是该书的开篇，目的是让大家对语言学这门课有个初步的了解，为后面几章作个铺垫。
也许你会说这种章节肯定不重要。
错！奇怪的是这一章居然很重要。
因为考点还不少！Design features of language: Arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement. 这四个特征要求理解，牢记，能背出定义。
胡壮麟语言学教程笔记精华 - 副本 (2)
胡壮麟《语言学教程》学习指导目录目录 (3)第一部分各章节提纲笔记 (4)Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics (4)Chapter 2 Speech Sounds (8)Chapter 3 Lexicon (14)Chapter 4 Syntax (21)Chapter 5 Meaning (26)Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind (29)Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society (35)Chapter 8 Language in Use (38)Chapter 9 Language and Literature (44)Chapter 10 Language and Computer (49)Chapter 11 Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching (53)Chapter 12 Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (59)第二部分重点章节测试题 (67)Test One Invitations to Linguistics (67)Test Two Phonetics and Phonology (70)Test Three Morphology (73)Test Four Syntax (76)Test Five Semantics (79)Test Six Pragmatics (82)Test Seven Language, Culture and Society (85)Test Eight Theories and Schools of Modern Linguistics (88)第三部分测试题参考答案 (91)参考书目 (100)第一部分各章节提纲笔记Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.1.3.2 DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization.1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly withoutany definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for thepossibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment ofconversation.1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wildenvironment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:1. Ideational function: to convey new information, to communicate a content that isunknown to the hearer;2. Interpersonal function: embodying all use of language to express social and personalrelationships;3. Textual function: referring to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretchof spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a livingpassage different from a random list of sentences.According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children,the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone orsomething.1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., tomaintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “theword book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in languageand society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actuallyconform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be anddescribing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages werestudied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because thenature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description insteadof prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point ofobservation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through thecourse of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’stime would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since thenwould be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoypriority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a languageare successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have takenplace in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable andsystematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spokenby an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do,according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discoverthe regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject oflinguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the systemof rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.End of Chapter 1Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[] are stops and []are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[],CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel[] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel[] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by onlyone distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in theword like speak//, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated.Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the samephonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; theyare both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless /__________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification ofthe word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raisedvertical line [] is used just before the syllable it relates to.End of Chapter 2Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can bedistinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship betweenexpression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map – maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a completeutterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential forrearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituentsof sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If themorphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in betweenthe three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is oneallowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form”and word “the minimum free form,”thelatter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow – follows – following – followed. Invariable words refer to those wordssuch as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical wordsGrammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs,are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore,pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives andmany adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here aresome of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negativemarker “not,”and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “getby,”“do up,”“look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of theirunique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguiststoday tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements fordifferent elements in a sentence. For example, in the followingconversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第5-6章
Chapter 5 Meaning1. Semantics(语义学)Semantics is the study of meaning of the linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. (语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。
)2. Meanings of “meaning”1). Meaning:Meaning refers to what a language expresses about the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world.（意义是指语言所表达的关于现实世界或者想象中的世界的想法。
）2). Connotation: （内涵）Connotation means the properties of the entity a word denotes.(内涵指的是一个词所指称的实体的特征。
)3). Denotation: （外延）Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entity to which it refers. Thus it is equivalent to referential meaning. (外延涉及语言单位与非语言实体之间的关系。
在这个意义上，它跟指称意义是一样的。
)3. The difference between meaning, concept, connotation, and denotationMeaning refers to the association of language symbols with the real world. There are many types of meaning according to different approaches.Concept is the impression of objects in people’s mind.Connotation is the implied meaning, similar to implication.Denotation, like sense, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption ofthe real world.4. The referential theory1). DefinitionThe theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.(把词语意义跟它所指称或代表的事物联系起来的理论，叫做指称理论)2). The semantic triangle （语义三角）Ogden and Richards presented the classic “Semantic Triangle”as manifested in the following diagram。
英语语言学Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind
Language Processing in Mind
Major Strands of Psycholinguistic Research
1. Language comprehension: how do people use their knowledge of language, how do they understand what they hear or read?
1. Language comprehension
❖ Word recognition ❖ Lexical ambiguity ❖ Syntactic processing ❖ Semantic and sentence memory ❖ Basic processes in reading
Word recognition
2) Recency Effect: there is the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.
3) Context: people recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it. ( related concept: Semantic Association Network)
Lexical ambiguity
❖ Frequency and context effects in lexical ambiguity:
1) If one of the meanings is much more frequent than the other, people tend to assume that the word has more frequent meaning.
语言学教程Chapter6
The second wife will claim the inheritance
belongs to her.
Garden path sentence Sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.
proposition
L comprehension: discourse interpretation
Schemata and drawing inferences Schema: a pre-existing knowledge structure in
the world
Structural factors: identify constituents of a
sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another
Minimal attachment: structural simplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension.
Problems: Syntactic ambiguity
a.
Different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentence.
b.
The formal approach: structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure. The psychological approach: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning. The conceptual approach: how language structures (processes & patterns) conceptual content.
语言学Chapter 6
The main symptoms of Braca’s aphasia:
Non-fluent Phonologically: have difficulty in producing the needed phonemes, lack of normal intonation Syntactically: Ungrammatical, lack of function words, inflections, disordered syntactic structure…… ……
What is Cognition
Cognition is used in several different loosely related ways. It is a group of mental processes that includes attention, memory, producing and comprehending language, learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making.
Approaches to the study of language and cognition
The formal approach The psychological approach The conceptual approach
Psycholinguistics
Language acquisition
How does a child acquire the language skills (first language acquisition) and how are they extended to other languages (second language acquisition) ?
(完整word版)语言学第六章之后
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition1。
语言与认知6。
1.What is Cognition认知？a。
Mental processes，information processing b。
Mental process or faculty of knowing，including awareness,perception，reasoning, and judgment.2。
The formal approach:形式法structural patterns，including the study of morphological，syntactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach心理法: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception，memory，attention，and reasoning.The conceptual approach:认知法:how language structures (processes ＆patterns）conceptual content。
6。
2.Psycholinguistics心理语言学The study of the relationships between linguistic behavior and mental activity.6.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Two word stage双词句阶段 Stage of three—word utterances三词句阶段④ Fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 Language comprehension理解Mental lexicon（心智词库）：information about the properties of words，retrievable when understanding language For example, we may use morphological rules to decompose a complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word。
语言学讲义-考研-6-Psycholinguistics
The formal approach（形式法）: structural patterns, including the study of morphological, syntactic, and lexical structure.
The psychological approach（心理学方法）: language from the view of general systems ranging from perception, memory, attention, and reasoning.
1. What is Cognition?
• Mental processes, information processing
• Mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
考研讲义 6 Psycholinguistics
Chapter 6 Language and Cognition
Teaching objectives: the learners will be better able to know some basic theories in psycholinguistics and cognitive linguistics.
Daddy run
Daddy is running
Joe push
I (Joe) pushed (the cat)
Push cat
I pushed the car
Give candy Give me the candy
Purpose Refusal Refusal Question Informing Informing Informing Informing Request
语言学备课PPT第六章
as a self-contained, intrinsic system; in the study of language, any extra-linguistic factor was to be kept out of consideration. This is the spirit in which traditional phonology studied the sounds of language, traditional syntax studied the structure of sentences, and traditional semantics studied the meaning. The meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent ,i.e., a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all
studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. If we take the meaning of word “dog” as an example, linguists or semanticists were quite happy with its definition as “a domesticated, canine mammal, etc.” And they would also be happy to explain the meaning of the sentence “The dog is barking” as the predication consisting of the argument“DOG” and the predicate “BARK”.What the sentence is used for in real situations of communication was excluded from their investigation; they felt
英语语言学Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind6.8 Chr6
Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind1. Fill in the following blanks1)is very definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak andwrite in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on.2) deals with how language is acquired, stored, understood and produced in any medium (written or spoken).3) Language comprehension, including and , both involve several processes.4) A major point of agreement among various researchers is that the human language system is likely to be , in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components.5) If sounds or words from the end of a sentence intrude into the early part of a sentence, then this provides evidence for the notion of . The classic error of this type is the (or the slip of the tongue), where the initial letter or letters of two words are transposed.6) It is believed that , meaning packets of stored knowledge, play an important role in language processing.7) An occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be (e.g. The school is at school). A similar type of error is the , in which two items within a sentence are swapped (e.g. This is the happiest life of my day.)8) are general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.9) At what point is meaning extracted from the words in a text? The reader is supposed to carry out the processes required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered; this is known as the .10) describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its more frequent usage in the language.2. Justify the following statements with True (T) or False ( F )A. Linguistic communications are usually presented to us in the form of written text or speech. While the process of comprehension appears to be similar in both cases, some of the initial stages of processing differ.B. analysis of eye movements during reading has revealed that all of the information from text is extracted during the perceptual span.C. the fact that the speech signals are often somewhat ambiguous does not mean that speech perception often relies heavily on topdown or conceptually driven processes.D. the comprehension process involves parsing, i.e. working out the grammatical structure of the sentence.E. the interpretation of a sentence is nearly always dominated by context effects, either general knowledge or information from earlier parts of the communication.F. schemata are especially useful in the task of drawing inferences and filling in gaps in the information provided by speech or by text. In this case, comprehension focuses on all the details of what is presented.G. the psychological factors involved in speech production have been investigated by examining the kinds of error that people make while speaking. One of the most obvious features of speech isthe emphasis on forward planning.H. writing involves the three processes of planning, sentence generation, and revision. In this sense, expert writer differ from non-expert ones in a number of ways, especially in their focus on the topic sentence and details of what they are writing.KEYS TO CHAPTER 61. Fill in the following blanks1) Language production2) Psycholinguistics3) reading (text); listening (speech)4) modular5) forward planning6) Schemata7) anticipation error; exchange error8) Macropropositions9) Immediacy Assumption10) Frequency effect2. Justify the following statements with True (T) or False ( F )A. Linguistic communications are usually presented to us in the form of written text or speech. While the process of comprehension appears to be similar in both cases, some of the initial stages of processing differ. ( T )B. analysis of eye movements during reading has revealed that all of the information from text is extracted during the perceptual span. ( T )C. the fact that the speech signals are often somewhat ambiguous does not mean that speech perception often relies heavily on topdown or conceptually driven processes. ( F )D. the comprehension process involves parsing, i.e. working out the grammatical structure of the sentence. ( T )E. the interpretation of a sentence is nearly always dominated by context effects, either general knowledge or information from earlier parts of the communication. ( F )F. schemata are especially useful in the task of drawing inferences and filling in gaps in the information provided by speech or by text. In this case, comprehension focuses on all the details of what is presented. ( F )G. the psychological factors involved in speech production have been investigated by examining the kinds of error that people make while speaking. One of the most obvious features of speech is the emphasis on forward planning. ( T )H. writing involves the three processes of planning, sentence generation, and revision. In this sense, expert writer differ from non-expert ones in a number of ways, especially in their focus on the topic sentence and details of what they are writing. ( F )。
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Chapter 6 Language Processing in Mind6.1 What is Psycholinguistics6.1.1 The Definition of Psycholinguistics6.1.2 Branches in Psycholinguistics6.1.3 Related Terms6.2 The Relationship between Language and Thought6.2.1 Early views on language and thought6.2.2 The Relation between Language and Thought6.3 Language Comprehension6.3.1 The Comprehension of Words6.3.2 The Comprehension of Sentences6.3.3 The Comprehension of Texts6.4 Language Production6.4.1 Speech Production6.4.2 Written Language Production6.1 What is Psycholinguistics6.1.1 The Definition of PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mindPsycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, which studies the ways we acquire, produce and comprehend languages.6.1.2 Branches in PsycholinguisticsThere are mainly two branches in psycholinguistics: cognitive psycholinguistics which studies the continuity of language with the workings of the mind in general and seeking to ground a theory of psycholinguistics in account of cognition and experimental psycholinguistics which is the investigation through experiment of the psychological mechanism for the production and understanding of speech.6.1.3 Related TermsPsychology of language deals with general topic concerning the relationship between language and thought.Psychology of communication is the study of both verbal and non-verbal communications from the psychological point of view.6.2 The Relationship between Language and Thought6.2.1 Early views on language and thought1. Plato suggested that thought was the soul’s discourse with itself. In other words, thought and language were identical. This is the monistic.Aristotle argued that mankind could not have the same language and that language was put signs of psychological experiences. Too much evidence existed to contradict the monistic view.(1)“I don’t know how to express my ideas with words.”(2)Animals’ lack of language does not p revent them from thinking.(3)The deaf-mute is able to think but could not speak the language of his own community.(4)There are other channels for communicating our thoughts besides language like musicand sculpture.2. Whorfian-Sapir HypothesisThe hypothesis was proposed by the American anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir and later his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf. It has two major thoughts: linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity, which may be summarized as follows:1) One’s thinking is complete ly determined by his native language because one cannot but perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language.2) The categories and distinctions encoded in one language system are unique to that system and incommensurable with those of other system.6.2.2 The Relation between Language and ThoughtLanguage and may be viewed as two independent circle overlapping in some parts, where language and thought are consistent with each other and one never occurs without the other.Although language and thought may blend together and “verbal thought” and “inner speech”, there are occasions when one can think without language just as one may speak without thinking.Language does not so much determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things and affect the case with which we perform mental tasks.6.3 Language Comprehension6.3.1 The Comprehension of WordsWord recognition may be explained by the following theoriesCohort theory (p.196)Frequency effect (p.197)Recency effects (p.197)Context (p.197)6.3.2 The Comprehension of SentencesPsycholinguists first began to examine the comprehension of sentences by basing their research on the model of sentence grammar originally proposed by Chomsky on the 1950s.Chomsky’s model claimed that all sentences were “generated” from a phrase structure skeleton which was then fleshed out in everyday utterances by a series of transformational rules.Psycholinguists based their early experiments on sentence pairs like the following:1)The dog is chasing the cat. (deep structure)2)Isn’t the cat being chased by the dog? (negative, passive, interrogative)Psycholinguists who first experimented with this call it the Derivational Theory of Complexity (DTC) because difficulty in comprehension was derived from the number of transformations that were added on to the original phrase structure of the kernel sentence.For example, subjects were given a random assortment of sentences like the following and were then asked to recall both the sentence they had just heard and a string of words spoken immediately after the sentence.1)The dog is chasing the car. (bus/green/etc.)2)The dog isn’t chasing the cat. (car/blue/etc.)3)Is the cat being chased by the dog? (bike/pink/peach/etc.)4)Isn’t the cat being chased by the dog? (train/yellow/stool/etc.)The general tendency for all listeners and readers to make increasingly confident predictions about the meaning of a sentence as it progresses is well-tested in psycholinguistics and is called garden path.Since Jay always jogs a mile seems like a short distance to him.Since Jay always jogs a mile this seems like a short distance to him.6.3.3 The Comprehension of TextsPsycholinguistic research into the comprehension of texts has demonstrated:Our syntactic memory may be vague, but it is not haphazard: we tend to remember sentences in a form that is actually simpler than the structure which we originally read or heard.The presence and absence of background information can dramatically felt the way we remember a piece of discourse.6.4 Language Production6.4.1 Speech ProductionSlips of the tongue provide the data that delight the psycholinguists in that they allow us to peek in on the production progress because we know what the speaker intended to say, but the unintentional mistake freezes the production process momentarily.An anticipation error occurs when a word is spoken earlier in the sentence than it should be.e.g. a leading list ( reading list)An exchange error occurs when two items within a sentence are swapped. e.g. hissed all my mystery lectures (missed all my history lectures)6.4.2 Written Language ProductionHayes and Flower (1986) proposed the theories of the writing process which consists of three inter-related processes.The planning process,which involves producing ideas and arranging them into a writing plan appropriate to the writer’s goals.The sentence generation process, which translates the writing plan into actual sentences that can be written down.The revision process,which involves an evaluation of what has been written so far; his evaluation can encompass individual words at one extreme or the overall structure of the writing at the other extreme.。