土木工程中外文翻译

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土木工程英文文献及翻译

Civil engineeringCivil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like bridges, roads, canals, dams, and buildings.[1][2][3] Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,[4] and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering.[5] It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering,[4] surveying, and construction engineering.[6] Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to national governments, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international companies.History of the civil engineering professionSee also: History of structural engineeringEngineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practices of Civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia (Ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing.Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same person, often used interchangeably.[7]The construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700-2500 BC) might be considered the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447-438 BC), theAppian Way by Roman engineers (c. 312 BC), the Great Wall of China by General Meng T'ien under orders from Ch'in Emperor Shih Huang Ti (c. 220 BC)[6] and the stupas constructed in ancient Sri Lanka like the Jetavanaramaya and the extensive irrigation works in Anuradhapura. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbours, bridges, dams and roads.In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering.[5]The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse.[4][6]In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society.In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognising civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as:the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbours, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.[8] The first private college to teach Civil Engineering in the United States was Norwich University founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge.[9] The first degree in Civil Engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835.[10] The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatchin 1905.History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout history. Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other fields.Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by advances. Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were incremental.[12]One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' screw. Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) computations.[13]Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three to five years and the completed degree is usually designated as a Bachelor of Engineering, though some universities designate the degree as a Bachelor of Science. The degree generally includes units covering physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of thesub-disciplines of civil engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.[14]While anUndergraduate (BEng/BSc) Degree will normally provide successful students with industry accredited qualification, some universities offer postgraduate engineering awards (MEng/MSc) which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest within engineering.[15]In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), Chartered Engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), Chartered Professional Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European Union). There are international engineering agreements between relevant professional bodies which are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada "only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients.".[16]This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's Engineers Act.[17]In other countries, no such legislation exists. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.[18] In this way, these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law. In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in extreme cases, thecharge of criminal negligence.[citation needed] An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.CareersThere is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most people who graduate with civil engineering degrees start with jobs that require a low level of responsibility, and as the new engineers prove their competence, they are trusted with tasks that have larger consequences and require a higher level of responsibility. However, within each branch of civil engineering career path options vary. In some fields and firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily monitoring construction in the field, serving as the "eyes and ears" of senior design engineers; while in other areas, entry-level engineers perform the more routine tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. Experienced engineers generally do more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects, or management of other engineers, or into specialized consulting, including forensic engineering.In general, civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply, and land divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community consensus, and preparing construction plans. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Civil engineers typically apply the principles of geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, environmental engineering, transportation engineering and construction engineering toresidential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction翻译：土木工程土木工程是一个专业的工程学科，包括设计，施工和维护与环境的改造，涉及了像桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物工程交易土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程的学科它传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市或城市工程，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，勘测和施工工程等土木工程的范围涉及所有层次：从市政府到国家，从私人部门到国际公司。

土木工程专业英语带译文

12
Chapter 6
If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.
6. —We shall finish the civil work by the end of the year. 在年底前我们将完成土建工作。 —Cement steel and timber are the most important construction materials used in civil engineering. 水泥、钢材和木材是土建工程中最重要的建筑材料。 7. These are the anchor bolts (rivets, unfinished bolts, high-strength structural bolts) for the structure. 这是用于结构的锚定螺栓（铆钉、粗制螺栓、高强度结构用螺栓）。
Chapter 6
Chapter 6 Reinforced Concrete

土木工程专业外文翻译--土木工程

外文原文：Civil EngineeringCivil engineering is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket launching facilities.Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airport, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to self-contained communities.The word civil derives from the Latin for citizen. In 1782, Englishman John Seaton used the term to differentiate his nonmilitary engineering work from that of the military engineers who predominated at the time. Since then, the term civil engineer has often been used to refer to engineers who build public facilities, although the field is much broader.Scope Because it is so broad, civil engineering is subdivided into a number of technical specialties. Depending on the type of project, the skills pf many kinds of civil engineer specialties may be needed. When a project begins, the site is surveyed and mapped by civil engineers who experiment to determine if the earth can bear the weight of project. Environmental specialists study the project’s impact on the local area, the potential for air and groundwater pollution, the project’s impact on local animal and plant life, and how the project can be designed to meet government requirements aimed at protecting the environment. Transportation specialists determine what kind of facilities are needed to ease the burden on local roads and other transportation networks that will result from the completed project. Meanwhile, structural specialists raise preliminary data to make detailed designs, plans, and specifications for the project. Supervising and coordinating the work of these civil engineer specialists, from beginning to end of the project, are the construction management specialists. Based on information supplied by the other specialists, construction management civil engineers estimate quantitiesand costs of materials and subcontractors, and perform other supervisory work to ensure the project is completed on time and as specified.Many civil engineers, among them the top people in the field, work in design. As we have seen, civil engineers work on many different kinds of structures, so it is normal practice for an engineer to specialize in just one kind. In designing buildings, engineers often work as consultants to architectural or construction firms. Dams, bridges, water supply systems, and other large projects ordinarily employ several engineers whose work is coordinated by a system engineer who is in charge of the entire project. In many cases, engineers from other disciplines are involved. In a dam project, for example, electrical and mechanical engineers work on the design of the powerhouse and its equipment. In other cases, civil engineers are assigned to work on a project in another field; in the space program, for instance, civil engineers were necessary in the design and construction of such structures as launching pads and rocket storage facilities.Throughout any given project, civil engineers make extensive use of computers. Computes are used to design the project’s various elements (computer-aided design, or CAD) and to manger it. Computers are a necessity for the modern civil engineer because they permit the engineer to efficiently handle the large quantities of data needed in determining the best way to construct a project.Structural engineering In this specialty, civil engineers plan and design structures of all types, including bridges dams, power plants, supports for equipment, special structures for offshore projects, the United States space program, transmission towers, giant astronomical and radio telescopes, and many other kinds of projects.Using computers, structural engineers determine the forces a structure must resist, its own weight, wind and hurricane forces temperature changes that expand or contract construction materials, and earthquakes. They also determine the combination of appropriate materials: steel, concrete, plastic, stone, asphalt, brick, aluminum, or other construction materials.Water resources engineering Civil engineers in this specialty deal with all aspects of the physical control of water. Their projects help prevent floods, supply water for cities and for irrigation, manage and control rivers and water runoff, and maintain beaches and other waterfront facilities. In addition, they design and maintain harbors, canals, and locks, build huge hydroelectric dams and smaller dams and water impoundments of all kinds, help design offshorestructures, and determine the location of structures affecting navigation.Geotechnical engineering Civil engineers who specialize in this filed analyze the properties of soils and rocks that support structures and affect structural behavior. They evaluate and work to minimize the potential settlement of buildings and other structures that stems from the pressure of their weight on the earth. These engineers also evaluate and determine how to strengthen the stability of slopes and how to protect structures against earthquakes and the effects of groundwater.Environmental engineering In this branch of engineering, civil engineers design, build, and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water and to prevent and control pollution of water supplies, both on the surface and underground. They also design, build, and supervise projects to control or eliminate pollution of the land and air. These engineers build water and wastewaters treatment plants, and design air scrubbers and other devices to minimize or eliminate air pollution caused by industrial processes, incineration, or other smoke-producing activities. They also work to control toxic and hazardous wastes through the construction of special dump sites or the neutralizing of toxic and hazardous substances. In addition the engineers design and manage sanitary landfills to prevent pollution of surrounding land.Transportation engineering Civil engineers working in this specialty build facilities to ensure safe and efficient movement of both people and goods. They specialize in designing and maintaining all types of transportation facilities, highways and streets, mass transit systems, railroads and airfields ports and harbors. Transportation engineers apply technological knowledge as well as consideration of the economic, political, and social factors in designing each project. They work closely with urban planners since the quality of the community is directly related to the quality of the transportation system.Pipeline engineering In this branch of civil engineering, engineers build pipelines and related facilities, which transport liquids, gases, or solids ranging from coal slurries (mixed coal and water) and semi liquids wastes, to water, oil and various types pf highly combustible and noncombustible gases. The engineers determine pipeline design, the economic and environmental impact of a project on regions it must traverse, the type pf materials to be used-steel, concrete, plastic, or combinations of various materials, installation techniques, methods for testing pipeline strength, and controls for maintaining proper pressure and rate of flow of materials being transported. When hazardous materials are being carried, safety is a major consideration as well.Construction engineering Civil engineers in this field oversee the construction of a project from beginning to end. Sometimes called project engineers, they apply both technical and managerial skills, including knowledge of construction methods, planning, organizing, financing, and operating construction projects. They coordinate the activities of virtually everyone engaged in the work: the surveyors, workers who lay out and construct the temporary roads and ramps, excavate for the foundation, build the forms and pour the concrete; and workers who build the steel frame-work. These engineers also make regular progress reports to the owners of the structure.Construction is a complicated process on almost all engineering projects. It involves scheduling the work and utilizing the equipment and the materials so that coats are kept as low as possible. Safety factor must also be taken into account, since construction can be very dangerous. Many civil engineers therefore specialize in the construction phase.Community and urban planning Those engaged in this area of civil engineering may plan and develop communities within a city, or entire cities. Such planning involves far more than engineering considerations; environmental, social, and economic factors in the use and development of land and natural resources are also key elements. They evaluate the kinds of facilities needed, including streets and highways, public transportation systems, airports, and recreational and other facilities to ensure social and economic as well as environmental well-being.Photogrammetry, surveying, and mapping The civil engineers in this specialty precisely measure the Earth’s surface to obtain reliable information for locating and designing engineering projects. This practice often involves high-technology methods such as satellite and aerial surveying, and computer processing of photographic imagery. Radio signals from satellites, scanned by laser and sonic beams, are converted to maps to provide very accurate measurements for boring tunnels, building highways and dams, plotting flood control and irrigation projects, locating subsurface geologic formations that may affect a construction project and a host of other building uses.Other specialties Three additional civil engineering specialties that are not entirely within the scope of civil engineering teaching.Engineering research Research is one of the most important aspects of scientific and engineering practice. A researcher usually works as a member of a team with other scientists and engineers. He or she is often employed in alaboratory that financed by government or industry. Areas of research connected with civil engineering include soil mechanics and soil stabilization techniques, and also the development and testing of new structural materials.Engineering management Many civil engineers choose careers that eventually lead to management. Others are also to start their careers in management positions. The civil engineer manager combines technical knowledge with an ability to organize and coordinate worker power, materials, machinery, and money. These engineers may work in government municipal, county, state, or federal; in the U.S.Army Corps of Engineers as military or civilian management engineers; or in semiautonomous regional or city authorities or similar organization. They may also manage private engineering firms ranging in size from a few employees to hundreds.Engineering teaching The civil engineer who chooses a teaching career usually teaches both graduate and undergraduate students in technical specialties. Many teaching civil engineers engage in basic research that eventually leads to technical innovations in construction materials and methods. Many also serve as consultants on engineering projects, or on technical boards and commissions associated with major projects.中文译文：土木工程土木工程是指对建成环境的规划、设计、建造、管理等一系列活动。

土木工程专业常用英语词汇

土木工程专业常用英语词汇第一节普通术语3. 房屋建造工程building engineering4. 土木工程civil engineering除房屋建造外，为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建造物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所举行的勘察、计划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

5. 马路工程highway engineering10. 建造物（构筑物）construction works房屋建造或土木工程中的单项工程实体。

11. 结构structure12. 基础foundation13. 地基foundation soil; subgrade; subbase; ground14. 木结构timber structure16. 钢结构steel structure17. 混凝土（砼）结构concrete structure18. 特种工程结构special engineering structure22. 马路highway24. 高速马路freeway27. 铁路（铁道）railway; railroad28. 标准轨距铁路standard gauge railway29. 宽轨距铁路broad gauge railway第四节桥、涵洞和隧道术语1. 桥bridge2. 简支梁桥simple supported girder bridge3. 延续梁桥continuous girder bridge5. 斜拉（斜张）桥cable stayed bridge6. 悬索（吊）桥suspension bridge7. 桁架桥trussed bridge9．刚构（刚架）桥rigid frame bridge10．拱桥arch bridge13．正交桥right bridge14．斜交桥skew bridge16．高架桥viaduct17．正（主）桥main span18．引桥approach span19．弯桥curved bridge21．马路铁路两用桥combined bridge; highway and railway transit bridge 25．桥跨结构（上部结构）bridge superstructure26．桥面系bridge floor system27．桥支座bridge bearing; bridge support28．桥下部结构bridge substructure29．索塔（桥塔）bridge tower30．桥台abutment31．桥墩pier32．涵洞culvert第六节结构构件和部件术语1．构件member2．部件component; assembly parts3．截面section4．梁beam; girder5．拱arch6．板slab; plate8．柱column10．桁架truss11．框架frame12．排架bent frame13．刚架（刚构）rigid frame14．简支梁simply supported beam15．悬臂梁cantilever beam16．两端固定梁beam fixed at both ends17．延续梁continuous beam19．桩pile20．板桩sheet pile34. 钢轨rail第七节地基和基础术语1. 扩展(扩大)基础spread foundation2. 刚性基础rigid foundation3. 自立基础single footing4. 联合基础combined footing5. 条形基础strip foundation6. 壳体基础shell foundation7. 箱形基础box foundation8. 筏形基础raft foundation9. 桩基础pile foundation10. 沉井基础open caisson foundation11. 管柱基础cylinder pile foundation ; cylinder caisson foundation12. 沉箱基础caisson foundation1. 可靠性reliability2. 安全性safety3. 适用性serviceability4. 耐久性durability5. 基本变量basic variable6. 设计基准期design reference period7. 可靠概率probability of survival8. 失效概率probability of failure9. 可靠指标reliability index12. 概率设计法probabilistic method13. 容许应力设计法permissible (allowable) stresses method14. 破坏强度设计法ultimate strength method15. 极限状态设计法limit states method16. 极限状态limit states17. 极限状态方程limit state equation18. 承载能力极限状态ultimate limit states19. 正常使用极限状态serviceability limit states20. 分项系数partial safety factor21. 设计情况design situation22. 持久情况persistent situation23. 短暂情况transient situation24. 偶尔情况accidental situation1. 作用action2. 荷载load3. 线分布力force per unit length4. 面分布力force per unit area5. 体分布力force per unit volume6. 力矩moment of force7. 永远作用permanent action8. 可变作用variable action9. 偶尔作用accidental action10．固定作用fixed adtion11．自由(可动)作用. Free action12. 静态作用static action13. 动态作用dynamic action14. 多次重复作用repeated action; cyclic action16. 自重self weight17. 施工荷载site load18. 土压力earth pressure19. 温度作用temperature action20. 地震作用earthquake action22．风荷载wind load23．风振wind vibration24. 雪荷载snow load27．桥（桥梁）荷载load on bridge28．桥（桥梁）恒荷载dead load on bridge29．桥（桥梁）活荷载live load on bridge30．马路车辆荷载标准Standard highway vehicle load31．中国铁路标准活载Standard Railway Live Load Specified by the People’sRepublic of China44．作用代表值representative value of an action45．作用标准值characteristic value of an action46．作用准永远值quasi-permanent value of an action47．作用组合值combination value of actions48．作用分项系数partial safety factor for action49．作用设计值design value of an action50．作用组合值系数coeffcient for combination value of actions 51．作用效应effects of actions52．作用效应系数coefficient of effects of actions53．轴向力normal force\axial force54．剪力shear force55．弯矩bending moment57．扭矩torque58．应力stress59．正应力normal stress60．剪应力shear stress; tangential stress61．主应力principal stress62．预应力prestress63．位移displacement64．挠度deflection65．变形deformation66．弹性变形elastic deformation67．塑性变形plastic deformation70．应变strain71．线应变linear strain72．剪应变shear strain; tangential strain73．主应变principal strain74．作用效应组合combination for action effects75．作用效应基本组合fundamental combination for action effects 77．短期效应组合combination for short-term action effects 78．持久效应组合combination for long-term action effects 79．设计限值limiting design value1．抗力resistance2．强度strength3．抗压强度compressive strength4．抗拉强度tensile strength5．抗剪强度shear strength6．抗弯强度flexural strength7．屈服强度yield strength8．疲劳强度fatigue strength9．极限应变ultimate strain10．弹性模量modulus of elasticity11.剪变模量shear modulus12．变形模量modulus of deformation13．泊松比Poisson ratio14．承载能力bearing capacity15．受压承载能力compressive capacity16．受拉承载能力tensile capacity17．受剪承载能力shear capacity18．受弯承载能力flexural capacity19．受扭承载能力torsional capacity20．疲劳承载能力fatigue capacity21．刚度stiffness; rigidity22．抗裂度crack resistance23．极限变形ultimate deformation24．稳定性stability26．脆性破坏brittle failure27．延性破坏ductile failure30．材料性能分项系数partial safety factor for property of material。

土木工程--外文文献翻译

土木工程--外文文献翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1学院：专业：土木工程姓名：学号：外文出处： Structural Systems to resist (用外文写)Lateral loads附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。

确实，较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点。

这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地。

实际上，正是因为有了这种宏观的构思，新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展，可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了。

如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈，高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1.抗弯矩框架。

2.支撑框架，包括偏心支撑框架。

3.剪力墙，包括钢板剪力墙。

4.筒中框架。

5.筒中筒结构。

6.核心交互结构。

7. 框格体系或束筒体系。

特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式，同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力，大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系。

而且，就较高的建筑物而言，大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列。

将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质。

其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展，以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构。

这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑。

正相反，有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了，然而，如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导，那么，得以发展的就只能是好的结构，并非是伟大的建筑。

无论如何，要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计，两者都需要最好的。

虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论，但是在这里还值得进一步讨论。

设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论。

土木工程英译汉对照表

英汉互译英文中文A Type Wooden Ladder A字木梯A-frame A型骨架A-truss A型构架Abandon 废弃Abandoned well 废井Absolute deviation绝对偏差 Absolute gravity 绝对重力absolute permeability 绝对渗透率absolute porosity 绝对孔隙率absolute temperature 绝对温度absorbability 吸收性；吸附性absorption 吸收abutment 桥墩access 通路；通道access door 检修门；通道门access lane 进出路径access panel 检修门access point 入口处；出入通道处access ramp 入口坡道；斜通道access road 通路；通道access shaft 竖井通道access spiral loop 螺旋式回旋通道access staircase 通道楼梯access step 出入口踏步access tunnel 隧道通道accessible roof 可到达的屋顶accessory 附件；配件accident 事故；意外accidental collapse 意外坍塌accommodate 装设；容纳acoustic lining 隔音板acoustic screen 隔声屏additive 添加剂Address 地址adhesive 黏结剂；胶黏剂adhesive force 附着力Adhesive Glue 万能胶dit 入口；通路；坑道口adjacent construction 相邻建造物djacent site 相邻基地adjacent street 相邻街道adjoining area 毗邻地区adjoining building 毗邻建筑物adjoining land 毗邻土地adjoining structure 毗邻构筑物adjustable 可调校advance earthworks前期土方工程advance works前期工程aerial天线ir circuit空气回路air cylinder气缸；气筒ir inlet louver进气百叶air inlet port进气口air intake进风口；进气air outlet出风口aluminium tape铝卷尺aluminum bridge铝桥Aluminum Sheet花铝板Ampere安培（电流单位）apex 顶appliance用具；装置；设备approach road引道；进路 architectural建筑学architectural decoration建筑装饰architectural projection建筑上的伸出物Architecture结构aluminium tape铝卷尺aluminum bridge铝桥Aluminum Sheet花铝板Ampere安培（电流单位）apex顶appliance用具；装置；设备approach road引道；进路 architectural建筑学architectural decoration建筑装饰architectural projection建筑上的伸出物Architecture结构asphalt roofing沥青屋面asphaltic coating沥青涂层asphaltic concrete沥青混凝土asphaltos地沥青asbestos abatement works石棉拆除工程atmospheric pressure大气压力；常压Ball Peen Hammer w/handle圆头锤Ball Point Hex Key Set (extra-long)加长ceiling天花板ceiling slab天花板cell电池cement水泥cement content水泥含量cement mortar水泥沙浆cement plaster水泥灰泥cement rendering水泥荡面(水泥刷面)cement sand mix水泥沙浆cementitious content水泥成分Center of curvature曲率中心Center of gravity重心Centesimal graduation百分度centi (c)厘(百分之一) Centigrade百分度；摄氏温度Centimeter-gram-second system 公分-公克-秒单位制certification 核证certificate of registration注册证明书；登记证明书 cesspool污水池chamber 小室；间隔。

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类反分析法back analysis method1. 综合类基础工程foundation engineering1. 综合类临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics1. 综合类数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics1. 综合类土soil, earth1. 综合类土动力学soil dynamics1. 综合类土力学soil mechanics1. 综合类岩土工程geotechnical engineering1. 综合类应力路径stress path1. 综合类应力路径法stress path method2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock2. 工程地质及勘察标准冻深standard frost penetration2. 工程地质及勘察冰川沉积glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察冰积层（台）glacial deposit2. 工程地质及勘察残积土eluvial soil, residual soil2. 工程地质及勘察层理beding2. 工程地质及勘察长石feldspar2. 工程地质及勘察沉积岩sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察承压水confined water2. 工程地质及勘察次生矿物secondary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察地质年代geological age2. 工程地质及勘察地质图geological map2. 工程地质及勘察地下水groundwater2. 工程地质及勘察断层fault2. 工程地质及勘察断裂构造fracture structure2. 工程地质及勘察工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration 2. 工程地质及勘察海积层（台）marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察海相沉积marine deposit2. 工程地质及勘察花岗岩granite2. 工程地质及勘察滑坡landslide2. 工程地质及勘察化石fossil2. 工程地质及勘察化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock2. 工程地质及勘察阶地terrace2. 工程地质及勘察节理joint2. 工程地质及勘察解理cleavage2. 工程地质及勘察喀斯特karst2. 工程地质及勘察矿物硬度hardness of minerals2. 工程地质及勘察砾岩conglomerate2. 工程地质及勘察流滑flow slide2. 工程地质及勘察陆相沉积continental sedimentation2. 工程地质及勘察泥石流mud flow, debris flow2. 工程地质及勘察年粘土矿物clay minerals2. 工程地质及勘察凝灰岩tuff2. 工程地质及勘察牛轭湖ox-bow lake2. 工程地质及勘察浅成岩hypabyssal rock2. 工程地质及勘察潜水ground water2. 工程地质及勘察侵入岩intrusive rock2. 工程地质及勘察取土器geotome2. 工程地质及勘察砂岩sandstone2. 工程地质及勘察砂嘴spit, sand spit2. 工程地质及勘察山岩压力rock pressure2. 工程地质及勘察深成岩plutionic rock2. 工程地质及勘察石灰岩limestone2. 工程地质及勘察石英quartz2. 工程地质及勘察松散堆积物rickle2. 工程地质及勘察围限地下水（台）confined ground water 2. 工程地质及勘察泻湖lagoon2. 工程地质及勘察岩爆rock burst2. 工程地质及勘察岩层产状attitude of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩脉dike, dgke2. 工程地质及勘察岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 2. 工程地质及勘察岩石构造structure of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩石结构texture of rock2. 工程地质及勘察岩体rock mass2. 工程地质及勘察页岩shale2. 工程地质及勘察原生矿物primary mineral2. 工程地质及勘察云母mica2. 工程地质及勘察造岩矿物rock-forming mineral2. 工程地质及勘察褶皱fold, folding2. 工程地质及勘察钻孔柱状图bore hole columnar section3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil3. 土的分类超固结土overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类冲填土dredger fill3. 土的分类充重塑土3. 土的分类冻土frozen soil, tjaele3. 土的分类非饱和土unsaturated soil3. 土的分类分散性土dispersive soil3. 土的分类粉土silt, mo3. 土的分类粉质粘土silty clay3. 土的分类高岭石kaolinite3. 土的分类过压密土（台）overconsolidated soil3. 土的分类红粘土red clay, adamic earth3. 土的分类黄土loess, huangtu(China)3. 土的分类蒙脱石montmorillonite3. 土的分类泥炭peat, bog muck3. 土的分类年粘土clay3. 土的分类年粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil3. 土的分类膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil3. 土的分类欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil3. 土的分类区域性土zonal soil3. 土的分类人工填土fill, artificial soil3. 土的分类软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle3. 土的分类砂土sand3. 土的分类湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess3. 土的分类素填土plain fill3. 土的分类塑性图plasticity chart3. 土的分类碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed stone, deritus 3. 土的分类未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay3. 土的分类无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil, non-cohesive soil3. 土的分类岩石rock3. 土的分类伊利土illite3. 土的分类有机质土organic soil3. 土的分类淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush3. 土的分类淤泥质土mucky soil3. 土的分类原状土undisturbed soil3. 土的分类杂填土miscellaneous fill3. 土的分类正常固结土normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil3. 土的分类自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质阿太堡界限Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质饱和度degree of saturation4. 土的物理性质饱和密度saturated density4. 土的物理性质饱和重度saturated unit weight4. 土的物理性质比重specific gravity4. 土的物理性质稠度consistency4. 土的物理性质不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity, uniformity coefficient4. 土的物理性质触变thixotropy4. 土的物理性质单粒结构single-grained structure4. 土的物理性质蜂窝结构honeycomb structure4. 土的物理性质干重度dry unit weight4. 土的物理性质干密度dry density4. 土的物理性质塑性指数plasticity index4. 土的物理性质含水量water content, moisture content4. 土的物理性质活性指数4. 土的物理性质级配gradation, grading4. 土的物理性质结合水bound water, combined water, held water4. 土的物理性质界限含水量Atterberg limits4. 土的物理性质颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composition of soil 4. 土的物理性质可塑性plasticity4. 土的物理性质孔隙比void ratio4. 土的物理性质孔隙率porosity4. 土的物理性质粒度granularity, grainness, grainage4. 土的物理性质粒组fraction, size fraction4. 土的物理性质毛细管水capillary water4. 土的物理性质密度density4. 土的物理性质密实度compactionness4. 土的物理性质年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil4. 土的物理性质平均粒径mean diameter, average grain diameter4. 土的物理性质曲率系数coefficient of curvature4. 土的物理性质三相图block diagram, skeletal diagram, three phase diagram4. 土的物理性质三相土tri-phase soil4. 土的物理性质湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure4. 土的物理性质湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility4. 土的物理性质缩限shrinkage limit4. 土的物理性质土的构造soil texture4. 土的物理性质土的结构soil structure4. 土的物理性质土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles4. 土的物理性质土中气air in soil4. 土的物理性质土中水water in soil4. 土的物理性质团粒aggregate, cumularpharolith4. 土的物理性质限定粒径constrained diameter4. 土的物理性质相对密度relative density, density index4. 土的物理性质相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compaction, coefficient of compaction4. 土的物理性质絮状结构flocculent structure4. 土的物理性质压密系数coefficient of consolidation4. 土的物理性质压缩性compressibility4. 土的物理性质液限liquid limit4. 土的物理性质液性指数liquidity index4. 土的物理性质游离水（台）free water4. 土的物理性质有效粒径effective diameter, effective grain size, effective size4. 土的物理性质有效密度effective density4. 土的物理性质有效重度effective unit weight4. 土的物理性质重力密度unit weight4. 土的物理性质自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water4. 土的物理性质组构fabric4. 土的物理性质最大干密度maximum dry density4. 土的物理性质最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流达西定律Darcy s law5. 渗透性和渗流管涌piping5. 渗透性和渗流浸润线phreatic line5. 渗透性和渗流临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient5. 渗透性和渗流流函数flow function5. 渗透性和渗流流土flowing soil5. 渗透性和渗流流网flow net5. 渗透性和渗流砂沸sand boiling5. 渗透性和渗流渗流seepage5. 渗透性和渗流渗流量seepage discharge5. 渗透性和渗流渗流速度seepage velocity5. 渗透性和渗流渗透力seepage force5. 渗透性和渗流渗透破坏seepage failure5. 渗透性和渗流渗透系数coefficient of permeability5. 渗透性和渗流渗透性permeability5. 渗透性和渗流势函数potential function5. 渗透性和渗流水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation6. 地基应力和变形变形模量modulus of deformation6. 地基应力和变形泊松比Poisson s ratio6. 地基应力和变形布西涅斯克解Boussinnesq s solution6. 地基应力和变形残余变形residual deformation6. 地基应力和变形残余孔隙水压力residual pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形沉降settlement6. 地基应力和变形沉降比settlement ratio6. 地基应力和变形次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation6. 地基应力和变形地基沉降的弹性力学公式elastic formula for settlement calculation 6. 地基应力和变形分层总和法layerwise summation method6. 地基应力和变形负孔隙水压力negative pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形附加应力superimposed stress6. 地基应力和变形割线模量secant modulus6. 地基应力和变形固结沉降consolidation settlement6. 地基应力和变形规范沉降计算法settlement calculation by specification6. 地基应力和变形回弹变形rebound deformation6. 地基应力和变形回弹模量modulus of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹系数coefficient of resilience6. 地基应力和变形回弹指数swelling index6. 地基应力和变形建筑物的地基变形允许值allowable settlement of building6. 地基应力和变形剪胀dilatation6. 地基应力和变形角点法corner-points method6. 地基应力和变形孔隙气压力pore air pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙水压力pore water pressure6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Apore pressure parameter A6. 地基应力和变形孔隙压力系数Bpore pressure parameter B6. 地基应力和变形明德林解Mindlin s solution6. 地基应力和变形纽马克感应图Newmark chart6. 地基应力和变形切线模量tangent modulus6. 地基应力和变形蠕变creep6. 地基应力和变形三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settlement 6. 地基应力和变形瞬时沉降immediate settlement6. 地基应力和变形塑性变形plastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性变形elastic deformation6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性模量elastic modulus6. 地基应力和变形谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium6. 地基应力和变形体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus6. 地基应力和变形先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure6. 地基应力和变形压缩层6. 地基应力和变形压缩模量modulus of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩系数coefficient of compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩性compressibility6. 地基应力和变形压缩指数compression index6. 地基应力和变形有效应力effective stress6. 地基应力和变形自重应力self-weight stress6. 地基应力和变形总应力total stress approach of shear strength6. 地基应力和变形最终沉降final settlement7. 固结巴隆固结理论Barron s consolidation theory7. 固结比奥固结理论Biot s consolidation theory7. 固结超固结比over-consolidation ratio7. 固结超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure7. 固结次固结secondary consolidation7. 固结次压缩（台）secondary consolidatin7. 固结单向度压密（台）one-dimensional consolidation7. 固结多维固结multi-dimensional consolidation7. 固结固结consolidation7. 固结固结度degree of consolidation7. 固结固结理论theory of consolidation7. 固结固结曲线consolidation curve7. 固结固结速率rate of consolidation7. 固结固结系数coefficient of consolidation7. 固结固结压力consolidation pressure7. 固结回弹曲线rebound curve7. 固结井径比drain spacing ratio7. 固结井阻well resistance7. 固结曼代尔－克雷尔效应Mandel-Cryer effect7. 固结潜变（台）creep7. 固结砂井sand drain7. 固结砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground7. 固结时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method7. 固结时间因子time factor7. 固结太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory7. 固结太沙基－伦杜列克扩散方程Terzaghi-Rendulic diffusion equation7. 固结先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure7. 固结压密（台）consolidation7. 固结压密度（台）degree of consolidation7. 固结压缩曲线cpmpression curve7. 固结一维固结one dimensional consolidation7. 固结有效应力原理principle of effective stress7. 固结预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure7. 固结原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve7. 固结再压缩曲线recompression curve7. 固结主固结primary consolidation7. 固结主压密（台）primary consolidation7. 固结准固结压力pseudo-consolidation pressure7. 固结K0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度安息角（台）angle of repose8. 抗剪强度不排水抗剪强度undrained shear strength8. 抗剪强度残余内摩擦角residual angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度残余强度residual strength8. 抗剪强度长期强度long-term strength8. 抗剪强度单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test8. 抗剪强度动强度dynamic strength of soils8. 抗剪强度峰值强度peak strength8. 抗剪强度伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter8. 抗剪强度剪切应变速率shear strain rate8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度shear strength8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength 8. 抗剪强度抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength8. 抗剪强度库仑方程Coulomb s equation8. 抗剪强度摩尔包线Mohr s envelope8. 抗剪强度摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory8. 抗剪强度内摩擦角angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度年粘聚力cohesion8. 抗剪强度破裂角angle of rupture8. 抗剪强度破坏准则failure criterion8. 抗剪强度十字板抗剪强度vane strength8. 抗剪强度无侧限抗压强度unconfined compression strength8. 抗剪强度有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction8. 抗剪强度有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept8. 抗剪强度有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter8. 抗剪强度有效应力原理principle of effective stress8. 抗剪强度真内摩擦角true angle internal friction8. 抗剪强度真粘聚力true cohesion8. 抗剪强度总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope8. 抗剪强度总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model9. 本构模型边界面模型boundary surface model9. 本构模型层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model9. 本构模型超弹性模型hyperelastic model9. 本构模型德鲁克－普拉格准则Drucker-Prager criterion9. 本构模型邓肯－张模型Duncan-Chang model9. 本构模型动剪切强度9. 本构模型非线性弹性模量nonlinear elastic model9. 本构模型盖帽模型cap model9. 本构模型刚塑性模型rigid plastic model9. 本构模型割线模量secant modulus9. 本构模型广义冯·米赛斯屈服准则extended von Mises yield criterion 9. 本构模型广义特雷斯卡屈服准则extended tresca yield criterion9. 本构模型加工软化work softening9. 本构模型加工硬化work hardening9. 本构模型加工硬化定律strain harding law9. 本构模型剑桥模型Cambridge model9. 本构模型柯西弹性模型Cauchy elastic model9. 本构模型拉特－邓肯模型Lade-Duncan model9. 本构模型拉特屈服准则Lade yield criterion9. 本构模型理想弹塑性模型ideal elastoplastic model9. 本构模型临界状态弹塑性模型critical state elastoplastic model9. 本构模型流变学模型rheological model9. 本构模型流动规则flow rule9. 本构模型摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性模型endochronic plastic model9. 本构模型内蕴时间塑性理论endochronic theory9. 本构模型年粘弹性模型viscoelastic model9. 本构模型切线模量tangent modulus9. 本构模型清华弹塑性模型Tsinghua elastoplastic model9. 本构模型屈服面yield surface9. 本构模型沈珠江三重屈服面模型Shen Zhujiang three yield surface method 9. 本构模型双参数地基模型9. 本构模型双剪应力屈服模型twin shear stress yield criterion9. 本构模型双曲线模型hyperbolic model9. 本构模型松岗元－中井屈服准则Matsuoka-Nakai yield criterion9. 本构模型塑性形变理论9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix9. 本构模型谈弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹塑性增量理论incremental elastoplastic theory9. 本构模型谈弹性半空间地基模型elastic half-space foundation model9. 本构模型谈弹性变形elastic deformation9. 本构模型谈弹性模量elastic modulus9. 本构模型谈弹性模型elastic model9. 本构模型魏汝龙－Khosla－Wu模型Wei Rulong-Khosla-Wu model9. 本构模型文克尔地基模型Winkler foundation model9. 本构模型修正剑桥模型modified cambridge model9. 本构模型准弹性模型hypoelastic model10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure10. 地基承载力次层（台）substratum10. 地基承载力地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil10. 地基承载力地基稳定性stability of foundation soil10. 地基承载力汉森地基承载力公式Hansen s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium10. 地基承载力加州承载比（美国）California Bearing Ratio10. 地基承载力局部剪切破坏local shear failure10. 地基承载力临塑荷载critical edge pressure10. 地基承载力梅耶霍夫极限承载力公式Meyerhof s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力普朗特承载力理论Prandel bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力斯肯普顿极限承载力公式Skempton s ultimate bearing capacity formula 10. 地基承载力太沙基承载力理论Terzaghi bearing capacity theory10. 地基承载力魏锡克极限承载力公式V esic s ultimate bearing capacity formula10. 地基承载力整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure11. 土压力被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure11. 土压力极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium11. 土压力静止土压力earth pressue at rest11. 土压力静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest11. 土压力库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory11. 土压力库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction11. 土压力朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory11. 土压力朗肯状态Rankine state11. 土压力谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium11. 土压力土压力earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力active earth pressure11. 土压力主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析安息角（台）angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析毕肖普法Bishop method12. 土坡稳定分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope12. 土坡稳定分析不平衡推理传递法unbalanced thrust transmission method12. 土坡稳定分析费伦纽斯条分法Fellenius method of slices12. 土坡稳定分析库尔曼法Culmann method12. 土坡稳定分析摩擦圆法friction circle method12. 土坡稳定分析摩根斯坦－普拉斯法Morgenstern-Price method12. 土坡稳定分析铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope12. 土坡稳定分析瑞典圆弧滑动法Swedish circle method12. 土坡稳定分析斯宾赛法Spencer method12. 土坡稳定分析泰勒法Taylor method12. 土坡稳定分析条分法slice method12. 土坡稳定分析土坡slope12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability 12. 土坡稳定分析休止角angle of repose12. 土坡稳定分析扬布普遍条分法Janbu general slice method12. 土坡稳定分析圆弧分析法circular arc analysis13. 土的动力性质比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity13. 土的动力性质波的弥散特性dispersion of waves13. 土的动力性质波速法wave velocity method13. 土的动力性质材料阻尼material damping13. 土的动力性质初始液化initial liquefaction13. 土的动力性质地基固有周期natural period of soil site13. 土的动力性质动剪切模量dynamic shear modulus of soils13. 土的动力性质动力布西涅斯克解dynamic solution of Boussinesq13. 土的动力性质动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor13. 土的动力性质动力性质dynamic properties of soils13. 土的动力性质动强度dynamic strength of soils13. 土的动力性质骨架波akeleton waves in soils13. 土的动力性质几何阻尼geometric damping13. 土的动力性质抗液化强度liquefaction stress13. 土的动力性质孔隙流体波fluid wave in soil13. 土的动力性质损耗角loss angle13. 土的动力性质往返活动性reciprocating activity13. 土的动力性质无量纲频率dimensionless frequency13. 土的动力性质液化liquefaction13. 土的动力性质液化势评价evaluation of liquefaction potential13. 土的动力性质液化应力比stress ratio of liquefaction13. 土的动力性质应力波stress waves in soils13. 土的动力性质振陷dynamic settlement13. 土的动力性质阻尼damping of soil13. 土的动力性质阻尼比damping ratio14. 挡土墙挡土墙retaining wall14. 挡土墙挡土墙排水设施14. 挡土墙挡土墙稳定性stability of retaining wall14. 挡土墙垛式挡土墙14. 挡土墙扶垛式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙后垛墙（台）counterfort retaining wall14. 挡土墙基础墙foundation wall14. 挡土墙加筋土挡墙reinforced earth bulkhead14. 挡土墙锚定板挡土墙anchored plate retaining wall14. 挡土墙锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙锚杆式挡土墙anchor rod retaining wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙悬壁式挡土墙cantilever sheet pile wall14. 挡土墙重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall15. 板桩结构物板桩sheet pile15. 板桩结构物板桩结构sheet pile structure15. 板桩结构物钢板桩steel sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢筋混凝土板桩reinforced concrete sheet pile15. 板桩结构物钢桩steel pile15. 板桩结构物灌注桩cast-in-place pile15. 板桩结构物拉杆tie rod15. 板桩结构物锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall15. 板桩结构物锚固技术anchoring15. 板桩结构物锚座Anchorage15. 板桩结构物木板桩wooden sheet pile15. 板桩结构物木桩timber piles15. 板桩结构物悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts16. 基坑开挖与降水电渗法electro-osmotic drainage16. 基坑开挖与降水管涌piping16. 基坑开挖与降水基底隆起heave of base16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑降水dewatering16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水基坑围护bracing of foundation pit16. 基坑开挖与降水减压井relief well16. 基坑开挖与降水降低地下水位法dewatering method16. 基坑开挖与降水井点系统well point system16. 基坑开挖与降水喷射井点eductor well point16. 基坑开挖与降水铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope 16. 基坑开挖与降水砂沸sand boiling16. 基坑开挖与降水深井点deep well point16. 基坑开挖与降水真空井点vacuum well point16. 基坑开挖与降水支撑围护braced cuts17. 浅基础杯形基础17. 浅基础补偿性基础compensated foundation17. 浅基础持力层bearing stratum17. 浅基础次层（台）substratum17. 浅基础单独基础individual footing17. 浅基础倒梁法inverted beam method17. 浅基础刚性角pressure distribution angle of masonary foundation 17. 浅基础刚性基础rigid foundation17. 浅基础高杯口基础17. 浅基础基础埋置深度embeded depth of foundation17. 浅基础基床系数coefficient of subgrade reaction17. 浅基础基底附加应力net foundation pressure17. 浅基础交叉条形基础cross strip footing17. 浅基础接触压力contact pressure17. 浅基础静定分析法（浅基础）static analysis (shallow foundation)17. 浅基础壳体基础shell foundation17. 浅基础扩展基础spread footing17. 浅基础片筏基础mat foundation17. 浅基础浅基础shallow foundation17. 浅基础墙下条形基础17. 浅基础热摩奇金法Zemochkin s method17. 浅基础柔性基础flexible foundation17. 浅基础上部结构－基础－土共同作用分析structure- foundation-soil interactionanalysis 17. 浅基础谈弹性地基梁（板）分析analysis of beams and slabs on elastic foundation 17. 浅基础条形基础strip footing17. 浅基础下卧层substratum17. 浅基础箱形基础box foundation17. 浅基础柱下条形基础18. 深基础贝诺托灌注桩Benoto cast-in-place pile18. 深基础波动方程分析Wave equation analysis18. 深基础场铸桩（台)cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉管灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile18. 深基础沉井基础open-end caisson foundation18. 深基础沉箱基础box caisson foundation18. 深基础成孔灌注同步桩synchronous pile18. 深基础承台pile caps18. 深基础充盈系数fullness coefficient18. 深基础单桩承载力bearing capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩横向极限承载力ultimate lateral resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗拔极限承载力vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压容许承载力vertical ultimate carrying capacity of single pile18. 深基础单桩竖向抗压极限承载力vertical allowable load capacity of single pile18. 深基础低桩承台low pile cap18. 深基础地下连续墙diaphgram wall18. 深基础点承桩（台）end-bearing pile18. 深基础动力打桩公式dynamic pile driving formula18. 深基础端承桩end-bearing pile18. 深基础法兰基灌注桩Franki pile18. 深基础负摩擦力negative skin friction of pile18. 深基础钢筋混凝土预制桩precast reinforced concrete piles18. 深基础钢桩steel pile18. 深基础高桩承台high-rise pile cap18. 深基础灌注桩cast-in-place pile18. 深基础横向载荷桩laterally loaded vertical piles18. 深基础护壁泥浆slurry coat method18. 深基础回转钻孔灌注桩rotatory boring cast-in-place pile18. 深基础机挖异形灌注桩18. 深基础静力压桩silent piling18. 深基础抗拔桩uplift pile18. 深基础抗滑桩anti-slide pile18. 深基础摩擦桩friction pile18. 深基础木桩timber piles18. 深基础嵌岩灌注桩piles set into rock18. 深基础群桩pile groups18. 深基础群桩效率系数efficiency factor of pile groups18. 深基础群桩效应efficiency of pile groups18. 深基础群桩竖向极限承载力vertical ultimate load capacity of pile groups 18. 深基础深基础deep foundation18. 深基础竖直群桩横向极限承载力18. 深基础无桩靴夯扩灌注桩rammed bulb ile18. 深基础旋转挤压灌注桩18. 深基础桩piles18. 深基础桩基动测技术dynamic pile test18. 深基础钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation18. 深基础钻孔扩底灌注桩under-reamed bored pile18. 深基础钻孔压注桩starsol enbesol pile18. 深基础最后贯入度final set19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction19. 地基处理超载预压surcharge preloading19. 地基处理袋装砂井sand wick19. 地基处理地工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment19. 地基处理电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting19. 地基处理电渗法electro-osmotic drainage19. 地基处理顶升纠偏法19. 地基处理定喷directional jet grouting19. 地基处理冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement19. 地基处理短桩处理treatment with short pile19. 地基处理堆载预压法preloading19. 地基处理粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method19. 地基处理复合地基composite foundation19. 地基处理干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile19. 地基处理高压喷射注浆法jet grounting19. 地基处理灌浆材料injection material19. 地基处理灌浆法grouting19. 地基处理硅化法silicification19. 地基处理夯实桩compacting pile19. 地基处理化学灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理换填法cushion19. 地基处理灰土桩lime soil pile19. 地基处理基础加压纠偏法19. 地基处理挤密灌浆compaction grouting19. 地基处理挤密桩compaction pile, compacted column19. 地基处理挤淤法displacement method19. 地基处理加筋法reinforcement method19. 地基处理加筋土reinforced earth19. 地基处理碱液法soda solution grouting19. 地基处理浆液深层搅拌法grout deep mixing method19. 地基处理降低地下水位法dewatering method19. 地基处理纠偏技术19. 地基处理坑式托换pit underpinning19. 地基处理冷热处理法freezing and heating19. 地基处理锚固技术anchoring19. 地基处理锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning19. 地基处理排水固结法consolidation19. 地基处理膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment19. 地基处理劈裂灌浆fracture grouting19. 地基处理浅层处理shallow treatment19. 地基处理强夯法dynamic compaction19. 地基处理人工地基artificial foundation19. 地基处理容许灌浆压力allowable grouting pressure19. 地基处理褥垫pillow19. 地基处理软土地基soft clay ground19. 地基处理砂井sand drain19. 地基处理砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 19. 地基处理砂桩sand column19. 地基处理山区地基处理foundation treatment in mountain area19. 地基处理深层搅拌法deep mixing method19. 地基处理渗入性灌浆seep-in grouting19. 地基处理湿陷性黄土地基处理collapsible loess treatment19. 地基处理石灰系深层搅拌法lime deep mixing method19. 地基处理石灰桩lime column, limepile19. 地基处理树根桩root pile19. 地基处理水泥土水泥掺合比cement mixing ratio19. 地基处理水泥系深层搅拌法cement deep mixing method19. 地基处理水平旋喷horizontal jet grouting19. 地基处理塑料排水带plastic drain19. 地基处理碎石桩gravel pile, stone pillar19. 地基处理掏土纠偏法19. 地基处理天然地基natural foundation19. 地基处理土工聚合物Geopolymer19. 地基处理土工织物geofabric, geotextile19. 地基处理土桩earth pile19. 地基处理托换技术underpinning technique19. 地基处理外掺剂additive19. 地基处理旋喷jet grouting19. 地基处理药液灌浆chemical grouting19. 地基处理预浸水法presoaking19. 地基处理预压法preloading19. 地基处理真空预压vacuum preloading19. 地基处理振冲法vibroflotation method19. 地基处理振冲密实法vibro-compaction19. 地基处理振冲碎石桩vibro replacement stone column19. 地基处理振冲置换法vibro-replacement19. 地基处理振密、挤密法vibro-densification, compacting19. 地基处理置换率（复合地基）replacement ratio19. 地基处理重锤夯实法tamping19. 地基处理桩式托换pile underpinning19. 地基处理桩土应力比stress ratio20. 动力机器基础比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity20. 动力机器基础等效集总参数法constant strain rate consolidation test20. 动力机器基础地基固有周期natural period of soil site20. 动力机器基础动基床反力法dynamic subgrade reaction method20. 动力机器基础动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor20. 动力机器基础隔振isolation20. 动力机器基础基础振动foundation vibration20. 动力机器基础基础振动半空间理论elastic half-space theory of foundation vibr ation20. 动力机器基础基础振动容许振幅allowable amplitude of foundation vibration 20. 动力机器基础基础自振频率natural frequency of foundation20. 动力机器基础集总参数法lumped parameter method20. 动力机器基础吸收系数absorption coefficient20. 动力机器基础质量－弹簧－阻尼器系统mass-spring-dushpot system21. 地基基础抗震地基固有周期natural period of soil site21. 地基基础抗震地震earthquake, seism, temblor21. 地基基础抗震地震持续时间duration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震地震等效均匀剪应力equivalent even shear stress of earthquake 21. 地基基础抗震地震反应谱earthquake response spectrum21. 地基基础抗震地震烈度earthquake intensity21. 地基基础抗震地震震级earthquake magnitude21. 地基基础抗震地震卓越周期seismic predominant period21. 地基基础抗震地震最大加速度maximum acceleration of earthquake21. 地基基础抗震动力放大因数dynamic magnification factor21. 地基基础抗震对数递减率logrithmic decrement21. 地基基础抗震刚性系数coefficient of rigidity21. 地基基础抗震吸收系数absorption coefficient22. 室内土工试验比重试验specific gravity test22. 室内土工试验变水头渗透试验falling head permeability test22. 室内土工试验不固结不排水试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验常规固结试验routine consolidation test22. 室内土工试验常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test22. 室内土工试验单剪仪simple shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test22. 室内土工试验等速加荷固结试验constant loading rate consolidatin test22. 室内土工试验等梯度固结试验constant gradient consolidation test22. 室内土工试验等应变速率固结试验equivalent lumped parameter method22. 室内土工试验反复直剪强度试验repeated direct shear test22. 室内土工试验反压饱和法back pressure saturation method22. 室内土工试验高压固结试验high pressure consolidation test22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结不排水试验consoidated anisotropically undrained test 22. 室内土工试验各向不等压固结排水试验consolidated anisotropically drained test 22. 室内土工试验共振柱试验resonant column test22. 室内土工试验固结不排水试验consolidated undrained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结快剪试验consolidated quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test22. 室内土工试验固结试验consolidation test22. 室内土工试验含水量试验water content test22. 室内土工试验环剪试验ring shear test22. 室内土工试验黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test22. 室内土工试验击实试验22. 室内土工试验界限含水量试验Atterberg limits test22. 室内土工试验卡萨格兰德法Casagrande s method22. 室内土工试验颗粒分析试验grain size analysis test22. 室内土工试验孔隙水压力消散试验pore pressure dissipation test22. 室内土工试验快剪试验quick direct shear test22. 室内土工试验快速固结试验fast consolidation test22. 室内土工试验离心模型试验centrifugal model test22. 室内土工试验连续加荷固结试验continual loading test22. 室内土工试验慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test22. 室内土工试验毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test22. 室内土工试验密度试验density test22. 室内土工试验扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus22. 室内土工试验膨胀率试验swelling rate test22. 室内土工试验平面应变仪plane strain apparatus22. 室内土工试验三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test22. 室内土工试验三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test22. 室内土工试验砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test22. 室内土工试验筛分析sieve analysis。

土木工程英语文献原文及中文翻译

Civil engineering introduction papers[英语原文]Abstract: the civil engineering is a huge discipline, but the main one is building, building whether in China or abroad, has a long history, long-term development process. The world is changing every day, but the building also along with the progress of science and development. Mechanics findings, material of update, ever more scientific technology into the building. But before a room with a tile to cover the top of the house, now for comfort, different ideas, different scientific, promoted the development of civil engineering, making it more perfect.[key words] : civil engineering; Architecture; Mechanics, Materials.Civil engineering is build various projects collectively. It was meant to be and "military project" corresponding. In English the history of Civil Engineering, mechanical Engineering, electrical Engineering, chemical Engineering belong to to Engineering, because they all have MinYongXing. Later, as the project development of science and technology, mechanical, electrical, chemical has gradually formed independent scientific, to Engineering became Civil Engineering of specialized nouns. So far, in English, to Engineering include water conservancy project, port Engineering, While in our country, water conservancy projects and port projects also become very close and civil engineering relatively independent branch. Civil engineering construction of object, both refers to that built on the ground, underground water engineering facilities, also refers to applied materials equipment and conduct of the investigation, design and construction, maintenance, repair and other professional technology.Civil engineering is a kind of with people's food, clothing, shelter and transportation has close relation of the project. Among them with "live" relationship is directly. Because, to solve the "live" problem must build various types of buildings. To solve the "line, food and clothes" problem both direct side, but also a indirect side. "Line", must build railways, roads, Bridges, "Feed", must be well drilling water, water conservancy, farm irrigation, drainage water supply for the city, that is direct relation. Indirectly relationship is no matter what you do, manufacturing cars, ships, or spinning and weaving, clothing, or even production steel, launch satellites, conducting scientific research activities are inseparable from build various buildings, structures and build all kinds of project facilities.Civil engineering with the progress of human society and development, yet has evolved into large-scale comprehensive discipline, it has out many branch, such as: architectural engineering, the railway engineering, road engineering, bridge engineering, special engineering structure, waterand wastewater engineering, port engineering, hydraulic engineering, environment engineering disciplines. [1]Civil engineering as an important basic disciplines, and has its important attributes of: integrated, sociality, practicality, unity. Civil engineering for the development of national economy and the improvement of people's life provides an important material and technical basis, for many industrial invigoration played a role in promoting, engineering construction is the formation of a fixed asset basic production process, therefore, construction and real estate become in many countries and regions, economic powerhouses.Construction project is housing planning, survey, design, construction of the floorboard. Purpose is for human life and production provide places.Houses will be like a man, it's like a man's life planning environment is responsible by the planners, Its layout and artistic processing, corresponding to the body shape looks and temperament, is responsible by the architect, Its structure is like a person's bones and life expectancy, the structural engineer is responsible, Its water, heating ventilation and electrical facilities such as the human organ and the nerve, is by the equipment engineer is responsible for. Also like nature intact shaped like people, in the city I district planning based on build houses, and is the construction unit, reconnaissance unit, design unit of various design engineers and construction units comprehensive coordination and cooperation process.After all, but is structural stress body reaction force and the internal stress and how external force balance. Building to tackle, also must solve the problem is mechanical problems. We have to solve the problem of discipline called architectural mechanics. Architectural mechanics have can be divided into: statics, material mechanics and structural mechanics three mechanical system. Architectural mechanics is discussion and research building structure and component in load and other factors affecting the working condition of, also is the building of intensity, stiffness and stability. In load, bear load and load of structure and component can cause the surrounding objects in their function, and the object itself by the load effect and deformation, and there is the possibility of damage, but the structure itself has certain resistance to deformation and destruction of competence, and the bearing capacity of the structure size is and component of materials, cross section, and the structural properties of geometry size, working conditions and structure circumstance relevant. While these relationships can be improved by mechanics formula solved through calculation.Building materials in building and has a pivotal role. Building material is with human society productivity and science and technologyimproves gradually developed. In ancient times, the human lives, the line USES is the rocks andTrees. The 4th century BC, 12 ~ has created a tile and brick, humans are only useful synthetic materials made of housing. The 17th century had cast iron and ShouTie later, until the eighteenth century had Portland cement, just make later reinforced concrete engineering get vigorous development. Now all sorts of high-strength structural materials, new decoration materials and waterproof material development, criterion and 20th century since mid organic polymer materials in civil engineering are closely related to the widely application. In all materials, the most main and most popular is steel, concrete, lumber, masonry. In recent years, by using two kinds of material advantage, will make them together, the combination of structure was developed. Now, architecture, engineering quality fit and unfit quality usually adopted materials quality, performance and using reasonable or not have direct connection, in meet the same technical indicators and quality requirements, under the precondition of choice of different material is different, use method of engineering cost has direct impact.In construction process, building construction is and architectural mechanics, building materials also important links. Construction is to the mind of the designer, intention and idea into realistic process, from the ancient hole JuChao place to now skyscrapers, from rural to urban country road elevated road all need through "construction" means. A construction project, including many jobs such as dredging engineering, deep foundation pit bracing engineering, foundation engineering, reinforced concrete structure engineering, structural lifting project, waterproofing, decorate projects, each type of project has its own rules, all need according to different construction object and construction environment conditions using relevant construction technology, in work-site.whenever while, need and the relevant hydropower and other equipment composition of a whole, each project between reasonable organizing and coordination, better play investment benefit. Civil engineering construction in the benefit, while also issued by the state in strict accordance with the relevant construction technology standard, thus further enhance China's construction level to ensure construction quality, reduce the cost for the project.Any building built on the surface of the earth all strata, building weight eventually to stratum, have to bear. Formation Support building the rocks were referred to as foundation, and the buildings on the ground and under the upper structure of self-respect and liable to load transfer to the foundation of components or component called foundation. Foundation, and the foundation and the superstructure is a building of three inseparable part. According to the function is different, but in load, under the action of them are related to each other, is theinteraction of the whole. Foundation can be divided into natural foundation and artificial foundation, basic according to the buried depth is divided into deep foundation and shallow foundation. , foundation and foundation is the guarantee of the quality of the buildings and normal use close button, where buildings foundation in building under loads of both must maintain overall stability and if the settlement of foundation produce in building scope permitted inside, and foundation itself should have sufficient strength, stiffness and durability, also consider repair methods and the necessary foundation soil retaining retaining water and relevant measures. [3]As people living standard rise ceaselessly, the people to their place of building space has become not only from the number, and put forward higher requirement from quality are put car higher demands that the environment is beautiful, have certain comfort. This needs to decorate a building to be necessary. If architecture major engineering constitutes the skeleton of the building, then after adornment building has become the flesh-and-blood organism, final with rich, perfect appearance in people's in front, the best architecture should fully embody all sorts of adornment material related properties, with existing construction technology, the most effective gimmick, to achieve conception must express effect. Building outfit fix to consider the architectural space use requirement, protect the subject institutions from damage, give a person with beautifulenjoying, satisfy the requirements of fire evacuation, decorative materials and scheme of rationality, construction technology and economic feasibility, etc. Housing construction development and at the same time, like housing construction as affecting people life of roads, Bridges, tunnels has made great progress.In general civil engineering is one of the oldest subjects, it has made great achievements, the future of the civil engineering will occupy in people's life more important position. The environment worsening population increase, people to fight for survival, to strive for a more comfortable living environment, and will pay more attention to civil engineering. In the near future, some major projects extimated to build, insert roller skyscrapers, across the oceanBridges, more convenient traffic would not dream. The development of science and technology, and the earth is deteriorating environment will be prompted civil engineering to aerospace and Marine development, provide mankind broader space of living. In recent years, engineering materials mainly is reinforced concrete, lumber and brick materials, in the future, the traditional materials will be improved, more suitable for some new building materials market, especially the chemistry materials will promote the construction of towards a higher point. Meanwhile, design method of precision, design work of automation, information and intelligent technology of introducing, will be people have a morecomfortable living environment. The word, and the development of the theory and new materials, the emergence of the application of computer, high-tech introduction to wait to will make civil engineering have a new leap.This is a door needs calm and a great deal of patience and attentive professional. Because hundreds of thousands, even hundreds of thousands of lines to building each place structure clearly reflected. Without a gentle state of mind, do what thing just floating on the surface, to any a building structure, to be engaged in business and could not have had a clear, accurate and profound understanding of, the nature is no good. In this business, probably not burn the midnight oil of courage, not to reach the goal of spirit not to give up, will only be companies eliminated.This is a responsible and caring industry. Should have a single responsible heart - I one's life in my hand, thousands of life in my hand. Since the civil, should choose dependably shoulder the responsibility.Finally, this is a constant pursuit of perfect industry. Pyramid, spectacular now: The Great Wall, the majestic... But if no generations of the pursuit of today, we may also use the sort of the oldest way to build this same architecture. Design a building structure is numerous, but this is all experienced centuries of clarification, through continuous accumulation, keep improving, innovation obtained. And such pursuit, not confined in the past. Just think, if the design of a building can be like calculation one plus one equals two as simple and easy to grasp, that was not for what? Therefore, a civil engineer is in constant of in formation. One of the most simple structure, the least cost, the biggest function. Choose civil, choosing a steadfast diligence, innovation, pursuit of perfect path.Reference:[1] LuoFuWu editor. Civil engineering (professional). Introduction to wuhan. Wuhan university of technology press. 2007[2] WangFuChuan, palace rice expensive editor. Construction engineering materials. Beijing. Science and technology literature press. 2002[3] jiang see whales, zhiming editor. Civil engineering introduction of higher education press. Beijing.. 1992土木工程概论 [译文]摘要：土木工程是个庞大的学科，但最主要的是建筑，建筑无论是在中国还是在国外，都有着悠久的历史，长期的发展历程。

土木工程英文翻译

【例1.1】Civil engineering offers a particular challenge , because almost every structure orsystem that is designed and built by civil engineers is unique.One structure rarely duplicatesanother exactly.译文:土木工程提出了特殊的挑战,因为由土木工程师设计建造的每个结构或系统几乎都是唯一的。

一个结构几乎不能完全复制另一个【例1.5】If the structure is saved or returned to its original state , additional foundationsupport must be provided.译文:假如建筑物要加以补救或恢复原貌,对基础做支护加固则是非常必要的。

为了使句子简洁精炼,专业英语中大量使用不定式.动名词、分词。

【例1.6】The total weight being less , it is possible to build much taller buildings.译文:由于总重量减轻,就有可能建造更高的楼房。

【例1.7】All the material forming the crust of the earth likely to be affected by the pressureof structures is divided by engineers into two major groups : rocks and soils.译文:受建筑物压力作用的地壳材料被工程人员分成两组,即岩石和土。

【例1.8】Compared with structural materials , such as steel and timber , soil is difficult to investigate scientifically.译文:与钢材、木材等建筑材料相比较,土研究起来颇为困难。

[中英]土木工程专业英语词汇

土木工程专业英语词汇第一节一般术语1. 工程结构building and civil engineering structures房屋建筑和土木工程的建筑物、构筑物及其相关组成部分的总称。

2. 工程结构设计design of building and civil engineering structures在工程结构的可靠与经济、适用与美观之间，选择一种最佳的合理的平衡，使所建造的结构能满足各种预定功能要求。

3. 房屋建筑工程building engineering一般称建筑工程，为新建、改建或扩建房屋建筑物和附属构筑物所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

4. 土木工程civil engineering除房屋建筑外，为新建、改建或扩建各类工程的建筑物、构筑物和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

5. 公路工程highway engineering为新建或改建各级公路和相关配套设施等而进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

6. 铁路工程railway engineering为新建或改建铁路和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

7. 港口与航道工程port ( harbour ) and waterway engineering为新建或改建港口与航道和相关配套设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

8. 水利工程hydraulic engineering为修建治理水患、开发利用水资源的各项建筑物、构筑物和相关配设施等所进行的勘察、规划、设计、施工、安装和维护等各项技术工作和完成的工程实体。

9. 水利发电工程（水电工程）hydraulic and hydroelectric engineering以利用水能发电为主要任务的水利工程。

Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译

Earthquake Resistant Structural Systems -土木工程外文翻译3Building Engineering Ⅱ: Building Structures and SeismicResistance3.1Text3.1.1PassageEarthquake ResistantStructural Systems1Rigid Frame StructuresRigid frame structures typically comprise floor diaphragms supported on beams which link to continuous columns (Figure 3-1). The joints between beam and columns are usually considered to be “rigid”. The frames are expected to carry the gravity loads through the flexural action of the beams and the prop ping action of the columns. Negative moments are induced in the beam adjacent to the columns causing the mid-span positive moment to be significantly less than in a simply supported span. In structures in which gravity loads dictate the design, economies in member size that arise from this effect tend to be offset by the higher cost of the rigid joints.Figure 3-1 Rigidframe structureLateral loads, imposed within the plane of the frame, are resisted through the development of bending moments in the beams and columns. Framed buildings often employ moment resistant frames in two orthogonal directions, in which case the column elements are common to both frames.Rigid frame structures are well suited to accommodate high levels of inelastic deformation. When a capacity design approach is employed, it is usual to assign the end zones of the flexural beams to accept the post-elastic deformation expected, and to design the column members such that their dependable strength is in excess of the over-strength capacity of the beam hinges, thereby ensuring they remain within their elastic response range regardless of the intensity of ground shaking. Rigid frame structures are, however, often quite flexible. When they aredesigned to be fully ductile, special provisions are often needed to prevent the premature onset of damage to non-structural components.Rigid frame construction is ideally suited for reinforced concrete building because of the inherent rigidity of reinforced concrete joints. The rigid frame form is also used for steel framebuildings. But moment resistant connections in steel tend to be costly. The sizes of the columns and girders at any level of a rigid-frame are directly influenced by the magnitude of the external shear at that level, and they therefore increase toward the base. Consequently, the design of the floor framing can not be repetitive as it is in some braced frames. A further result is that sometimes it is not possible in the lowest storeys to accommodate the required depth of girder within the normal ceiling space.While rigid frames of a typical scale that serve alone to resist lateral loading have an economic height limit of about 25 storeys, smaller scale rigid frames in the form of a perimeter tube, or typically scaled rigid frames in combination with shear walls or braced bents, can be economic up to much greater heights.2Infilled Frame StructuresInfilled frames (Figure 3-2) are the most usual form of construction for tall buildings of up to 30 storeys in height. Column and girder framing of reinforced concrete, or sometimes steel, is infilled by panels of brickwork, or cast-in-place concrete.Figure 3-2 InfilledframeWhen an infilled frame is subjected to lateral loading, the infill behaves effectively as a strut along its compression diagonal to brace the frame. Because the infills serve also as external walls or internal partitions, the system is an economical way of stiffening and strengthening the structure.The complex interactive behavior of the infill in the frame, and the rather random quality of masonry, had made it difficult to predicate with accuracy the stiffness and strength of an infilled frame. For these reasons, the use of the infills for bracing buildings has mainly been supplementary to the rigid frame action of concrete frames.3Shear WallsA shear wall is a vertical structural element that resists lateral forces in the plane of the wall through shear and bending. The high in planstiffness and strength of concrete and masonry walls make them ideally suitable for bracing building as shear walls.A shear wall acts as a beam cantilevered out of the ground or foundation9 and, just as with a beam, part of its strength derives from its depth. Figure 3-3 shows two examples of a shear wall, one in a simple one-storey building and another in a multistorey building. In Figure 3-3a, the shear walls are oriented in one direction, so only lateral forces in this direction can be resisted. The roof serves as the horizontal diaphragm and must also be designed to resist the lateral loads and transfer them to the shear walls.a) End shear walls and interior shear wall b)Interior shear walls forbracing in two directionFigure 3-3 Shear wallFigure 3-3a also shows an important aspect of shear walls in particular and vertical elements in general. This is the aspect of symmetry that has a bearing on whether torsional effects will be produced. The shear walls in Figure 3-3a show the shear walls symmetrical in the plane of loading.Figure 3-3b illustrates a common use of shear walls at the interior of a multi-storey building. Because walls enclosing stairways, elevator shafts, and mechanical chases are mostly solid and run the entire height of the building, they are often used for shear walls. Although not as efficient from a strictly structural point of view, interior shear walls do leave the exterior of the building open for windows.Notice that in Figure 3-3b there are shear walls in both directions, which is a more realistic situation because both wind and earthquake forces need to be resisted in both directions. In this diagram, the two shear walls are symmetrical in one direction, but the single shear wall produces a nonsymmetric condition in the other since it is off center. Shear walls do not need to be symmetrical in a building, but symmetry is preferred to avoid torsional effects. If, in low-to medium-rise building, shear walls are combined with frames, it is reasonable to assume that the shear wall attract all the lateral loading so that the frame may be designed for only gravity loading. It is essentially important in shear wall structures to try to plan the wall layout so that the lateral load tensile stresses are suppressed by the gravity load stresses. This allows them to be designed to have only the minimum reinforcement.Since shear walls are generally both stiff and can be inherently robust, it is practical to design them to remain nominally elastic under design intensity loadings, particularly in regions of low or moderate seismicity. Under increased loadingintensities, post-elastic deformations will develop within the lower portion of the wall (generally considered to extend over a height of twice the wall length above the foundation support system).Good post-elastic response can be readilyachieved within this region of reinforced concrete or masonry shear walls through the provision of adequate confinement of the principal reinforcing steel and the prohibition oflap splices of reinforcing bars. Shear wall structures are generally quite stiff and, as such interstorey drift problems are rare and generally easily contained. The shear wall tends to act as a rigid body rotating about a plastic hinge which forms at the base of the wall. Overall structural deformation is thus a function of the wall rotation. Inter-storey drift problems which do occur are limited to the lower few floors.A major shortcoming with shear walls within buildings is that their size provides internal (or external) access barriers which may contravene the architectural requirements. This problem canbe alleviated by coupling adjacent more slender shear walls so a coupled shear wall structure is formed. The coupling beams then become shear links between the two walls and with careful detailing can provide a very effective, ductile control mechanism (Figure 3-4).Figure 3-4 Coupled shear wallstructure4Braced FramesA braced frame is a truss system of the concentric or eccentric type in which the lateral forces are resisted through axial stresses in the members. Just as with a truss, the braced frame depends on diagonal members to provide a load path for lateral forces from each building element to the foundation. Figure 3-5 shows a simple one-storey braced frame. At one end of the building two bays are braced and at the other end only one bay is braced. This building is only braced in one direction and the diagonal member may be either in tension or compression,depending on which way the force is applied.a)Single story braced buildingb) Multistory bracedbuilding Figure 3-5Braced frameFigure 3-5b shows two methods of bracing a multistorey building. A single diagonal compression member in one bay can be used to brace against lateral loads coming from either direction. Alternately, tension diagonals can be used to accomplish the same result, but they must be run both ways to account for the load coming from either direction.Braced framing can be placed on the exterior or interior of a building, and may be placed in one structural bay or several. Obviously, a braced frame can present design problems for windows and doorways, but it is a very efficientand rigid lateral force resisting system.Two major shortcomings of braced systems are that their inclined diagonal orientation oftenconflicts with conventional occupancy use patterns; and secondly they often require careful detailing to avoid large local torsional eccentricities being introduced at the connections with the diagonal brace being offset from the frame node.5Wall-frame StructuresWhen shear walls are combined with rigid frames (Figure 3-6), the walls, which tend to deflect in a flexural configuration, and the frames, which tend to deflect in a shear mode, are constrained to adopt a common shape by the horizontal rigidity of the girders and slabs. As a consequence, the walls and frames interact horizontally, especially at the top, to produce a stiffer and stronger structure. The interacting wall-frame combination is appropriate for buildings in the 40-to-60-storey range, well beyond of rigid frame or shear wall alone.Figure 3-6Wall-frame structureIn addition, less well-known feature of the wall- frame structure is that, in a carefully “tuned” structure, the shear in the frame can be made approximately uniform over the height, allowing the floor framing to be repetitive. Although the wall-frame structure is usually perceived as a concrete structural form, with shear walls and concrete frames, a steel counterpart using braced frames and steel rigid frames offers similar benefit of horizontal interaction. The braced frames behave with an overall flexural tendency to interact with the shear mode of the rigid frames.6Framed-Tube StructuresThe lateral resistance of framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff moment resisting frames that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the building. The frames consist of closely spaced column, 2~4m between centers, joined by deep spandrel girders (Figure 3-7). Although the tube carries all the lateral loading, the gravity load is shared between the tube and interior columns or walls. When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frames aligned in thedirection of loading act as the “web” of the massive tube cantilever, and those normal to the direction of the loading act as the “flanges”.Figure 3-7Frame-tube structureThe close spacing of the columns throughout the height of the structures is usually unacceptable at the entrance level. The columns are therefore merged, or terminated on a transfer beam, a few storeys above the base so that only a few, larger, more widely spaced columns continue to the base. The tube form was developed originally for buildings of rectangular plan; however, for other plan shapes, and has occasionally been used in circular and triangular configurations.The tube is suitable for both steel and reinforced construction and has been used for buildings ranging from 40 to more storeys. The highly repetitive pattern of the frames lends itself to prefabrication in steel, and to the use of rapidly gang forms in concrete, which make for rapid construction.The framed tube has been one of the most significant modern developments in high-rise structural form. It offers a relatively efficiently, easily constructed structure, appropriate for use up to the greatest of heights. Aesthetically, the tube’s externally evident form is regarded with mixed enthusiasm: some praise the logical clearly expressed structure while others criticize the girder-like façade as small-windowed and uninteresting repetitious.The tube structure’s structural efficiency, although high, still leaves scope for improvement because the “flange” frames tend to suffer from “shear lag”; this result in mid-face “flange” columns being less stresses than the corner columns and, therefore, not contributing as fully as they could to the flange action.7Tube-in-Tube or Hull-Core StructuresThis variation of the framed tube consists of an outer framed tube, the “hull” together with an internal elevator and service core (Figure 3-8). The hull and the inner core act jointly in resisting both gravity and lateral loading. In a steel structure the core may consist of braced frames, whereas in a concrete structure it wouldconsist of an assembly of shear walls.Figure 3-8Tube-in-tubeTo some extent, the outer framed tube and the inner core interact horizontally as the shear and flexural components of a wall-frame structure, with the benefit of increase lateral stiffness. However, the structural tube usually adopts a highly dominant role because of its much greater structural depth.8Braced-Tube StructuresAnother way of improving the efficiency of the framed tube, thereby increasing its potential for greater heights as well as allowing greater spacing between the columns, is to add diagonal bracing to the faces of the tube. This arrangement was first used in a steel structure in 1969, in Chicago’s John Hancock Building (Figure 3-9). Because the diagonal of a braced tube are connected to the columns at each intersection, they virtually eliminate the effects of shear lag in both the flange and web frames.As a result, the structure behaves under lateral loading more like a braced frame, with greatly diminished bending in the members of the frames. Consequently, the spacing of the columns can be larger and the depth of the spandrels less, thereby allowing larger size windows than in the conventional tube structure.Figure 3-9Braced-TubeStructuresIn the braced-tube structure the bracing contributes also to the improved performance of the tube in carrying gravity loading: differences between gravity load stresses in the columns are evened out by the braces transferring loading from the more highly to the less highly stressed columns.9Bundled-Tube StructuresThis structural form has been used for the Sears Tower in Chicago. The Sears Tower consists of four parallel rigid steel frames in each orthogonal direction, interconnected to form nine “bundled” tubes. As in the single-tube structure, the frames in the direction of lateral loading serves as “webs” of the vertical cantilever, with the normal frame acting as “flanges”.The introduction of internal webs greatly reduces the shear lag in the flanges; consequently their columns are more evenly stressed than in the single-tube structure, and their contribution to the lateral stiffness is great. This allows columns of the frames to be spaced further apart and to be less obtrusive. In the Sears Tower, advantage was taken of the bundled form to discontinue some of the tubes, and so reduce the plan of the building at stages up to the height.3.1.2New Words and Expressionsbraced frame支撑框架braced-tube桁架筒bundled-tube束筒couplingbeam 连梁coupledshear wall 联肢墙framedtube 框筒inter-storeydrift 层间位移propping[ 'prɔpiŋ ] n. 支撑rigid frame框架shear lag 剪力滞后spandrel [ 'spændrəl ] n.上下层窗间墙stairway [ 'stεəwei ] n.楼梯transfer beam 转换粱tube-in-tube / hull-core 筒中筒wall-frame structure 框架-剪力墙结构3.1.3Exercises1Please name the types of earthquake resistant structural systems.2How does a rigid frame structureresist the gravity load and lateralload? 3 Why are shear walls in both directions preferred?4 How are the loads shared between frame and tube in a framed-tube structure?3.2Reading Materials3.2.1Passage OneReinforced ConcreteStructuresConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from thewide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.1Mechanics of Reinforced Concrete Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage or temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In the plain concrete beam, the moments due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a form or mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in place during the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed.2Factors Affecting Choice of Concrete for aStructureThe choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions.(1)EconomyFrequently, the foremost consideration is the overall cost of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building isready for occupancy. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. Any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important considerations.(2)Suitability of Material for Architectural andStructural FunctionA reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shape and texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements as flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete wails can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size or shape is governed by the designer and not bythe availability of standard manufactured members.(3)Fire ResistanceThe structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished.A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must befireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.(4)RigidityThe occupants of a building may be disturbed if their building oscillates in the wind or the floors vibrate as people walk by. Due to the greater stiffness and mass of a concrete structure, vibrations are seldom a problem.(5)Low MaintenanceConcrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure.(6)Availability of MaterialsSand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include: (1)Low Tensile StrengthAs stated earlier, the tensile strength of concrete is much lower than its compressive strength (about 1/10), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water.(2)Forms and ShoringThe construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are the construction of the forms, the removal of these forms, and propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and/or materials which are not necessary with other forms of construction.(3)Relatively Low Strength per Unit of Weightor VolumeThe compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5% to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does acomparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.(4)Time-dependent Volume ChangesBoth concrete and steel undergo approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of Steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better conductor than concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes drying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.3Building CodesThe first set of building regulations for reinforced concrete were drafted under the leadership of Professor Morsch of the University of Stuttgart and were issued in Prussia in 1904. Design regulations were issued in Britain, France, Austria, and Switzerland between 1907 and 1909.The American Railway Engineering Association appointed a Committee on Masonry in 1890. In 1903 this committee presented specifications for Portland cement concrete. Between 1908 and 1910 a series of committee reports led to the Standard Building Regulations for the Use of Reinforced Concrete published in 1910 by the National Association of Cement Users which subsequently became the American Concrete Institute.A Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete was established in 1904 by the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Society for Testing and Materials, the American Railway Engineering Association, and the Association of American Portland Cement Manufactures. This group was later joined by the American Concrete Institute. Between 1904 and 1910 the Joint Committee carried out research. A preliminary report issued in 1913 lists the more important papers and books on reinforced concrete published between 1898 and 1911. The final report of this committee was published in 1916. The history of reinforced concrete building codes in the United States wasreviewed in 1954 by Kerekes and Reid.The design and construction of buildings is regulated by municipal bylaws called building codes. These exist to protect the public health and safety. Each city and town is free to write or adopt its own building code, and in that city or town, only that particular code has legal status. Because of the complexity of building code writing, cities in the United States generally base their building codes on one of three model codes: the Uniform Building Code, the Standard Building Code, or the Basic Building Code. These codes cover such things as use and occupancy requirements, fire requirements, heating and ventilating requirements, and structural design.The definitive design specification for reinforced concrete buildings in North America is the Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-318-95), which is explained in a Commentary.This code, generally referred to as the ACI Code, has been incorporated in most building codes in the United States and serves as the basis for comparable codes in Canada, New Zealand,Australia, and parts of Latin America. The ACI Code has legal status only if adopted in a local building code.Each nation or group of nations in Europe has its own building code for reinforced concrete. The CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures is intended to serve as the basis for future attempts to unify European codes. This code and the ACI Code are similar in many ways.3.2.2Passage TwoEarthquake Induced Vibration ofStructures1Seismicity and Ground MotionsThe most common cause of earthquakes is thought to be the violent slipping of rock masses along major geological fault lines in the Earth’s crust, or lithosphere. These fault lines divide the global crust into about 12 major tectonic plates, which are rigid, relatively cool slabs about 100km thick. Tectonic plates float on the molten mantle of the Earth and move relative to one another at the rate of 10 to 100mm/year.The basic mechanism causing earthquakes inthe plate boundary regions appears to be that the continuing deformation of the crustal structure eventually leads to stresses which exceed the material strength. A rupture will then initiate at some critical point along the fault line and willpropagate rapidly through the highly stressed material at the plate boundary. In some cases, the plate margins are moving away from one another. In those cases, molten rock appears from deep in the Earth to fill the gap, often manifesting itself as volcanoes. If the plates are pushing together, one plate tends to dive under the other and, depending on the density of the material, it may resurface in the form of mountains and valleys. In both these scenarios, there may be volcanoes and earthquakes at the plate boundaries, both being caused by the same mechanism of movement in the Earth's crust. Another possibility is that the plate boundaries will slide sideways past each other, essentially retaining the local surface area of the plate. It is believed that about three quarters of the world's earthquakes are accounted for by this rubbing-striking-slipping mechanism, with ruptures occurring on faults on boundaries between tectonic plates. Earthquake occurrence maps tend to outline the plate boundaries. Such earthquakes are referred to as interplate earthquakes.Earthquakes also occur at locations away。

土木施工外文翻译

土木施工外文翻译Lesson 1 Civil Engineering——土木工程土木工程是最古老的工程专业之一，它包括对建筑外界的规划、设计、施工以及管理。

建筑外界包括从灌溉排水系统到火箭发射设施在内的所有按科学原理建造的结构物。

土木工程师修建道路、桥梁、隧道、大坝、港口、发电厂、给排水系统、医院、学校、公共交通等公共设施，这些是现代社会和人口密集地所必需的。

他们也修建私有设施，如飞机场、铁路、管道、摩天大楼等工业、商业或居住用的大型结构物。

另外，土木工程师规划、设计和建造完整的城镇，最近还设计了设备齐全的空间站。

单词“ civil”来自于拉丁文中的“citizen”。

1872年，英国人John Smeaton 采用这一术语把他的民用工程与那时占主导地位的的军事工程区别开来。

从此，“土木工程”经常用于指修建公共设施的工程师的工作领域，虽然“土木工程”所包含的领域要宽广得多。

——范围土木工程工作范围很广，因此可以把土木工程细分为许多技术专业。

不同类型的项目可能需要许多技术专业土木工程师的技术合作。

开始一个项目时，负责功能（给水、排水、电力管线）布置的工程师对工地进行测量并绘制成图；土工专家进行土壤试验以确定泥土是否可以承受得住结构物重量；环境专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物的影响以及如何设计以达到政府旨在保护环境的要求；交通工程专家选择交通设施类型以缓解项目竣工时对当地道路和其它交通网络所增加的负担；同时，结构专家利用初步数据进行细部设计、整体设计和工程说明制定。

从工程开始到完工，由工程管理专家统一管理、协调这些土木工程师的工作。

在其他专家提供的信息的基础上，工程管理人员预算人工、材料的数量和费用，安排所有的工作进度，订购材料和设备，雇佣承包人和分包人，以及其它的工程管理以确保工程保质保量按时完成。

任何项目中土木工程师都广泛应用到计算机。

计算机（指计算机辅助设计或CAD）被用于设计工程的各种单元和管理工程。

土木工程外文文献翻译(含中英文)

Experimental research on seismic behavior of abnormal jointin reinforced concrete frameAbstract :Based on nine plane abnormal joint s , one space abnormal joint experiment and a p seudo dynamic test of a powerplant model , the work mechanism and the hysteretic characteristic of abnormal joint are put to analysis in this paper. A conception of minor core determined by the small beam and small column , and a conclusion that the shear capacity of ab2normal joint depends on minor core are put forward in this paper. This paper also analyzes the effect s of axial compres2 sion , horizontal stirrup s and section variation of beam and column on the shear behavior of abnormal joint . Finally , the formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.Key words : abnormal j oint ; minor core ; seismic behavior ; shear ca paci t yCLC number :TU375. 4 ; TU317. 1 Document code :A Article ID :100627930 (2006) 022*******1 Int roductionFor reinforced concrete f rame st ructure , t he joint is a key component . It is subjected to axialcomp ression , bending moment and shear force. The key is whet her the joint has enough shear capaci2ty. The Chinese Code f or S eismic Desi gn of B ui l di ngs ( GB5001122001) adopt s the following formulato calculate t he shear capacity of the reinforced concrete f rame joint .V j = 1. 1ηj f t b j h j + 0. 05ηj Nb jb c+ f yv A svjh b0 - a′ss(1)Where V j = design value of t he seismic shear capacity of the joint core section ;ηj = influential coefficient of t he orthogonal beam to the column ;f t = design value of concrete tensile st rength ;b j = effective widt h of the joint core section ;h j = dept h of the joint core section , Which can be adopted as t he depth of the column section int he verification direction ;N = design value of axial compression at t he bot tom of upper column wit h considering the combi2 nation of the eart hquake action , When N > 015 f c b c h c , let N = 0. 5 f c b c h c ;b c = widt h of t he column section ;f yv = design value of t he stirrup tensile st rengt h ;A svj = total stirrup area in a set making up one layer ;h b0 = effective dept h of t he beam.If t he dept h of two beams at the side of t he joint is unequal , h b0 = t he average depth of two beams.a′s = distance f rom the cent roid of the compression beam steel bar to the ext reme concrete fiber . s = distance of t he stirrup .Eq. 1 is based on t he formula in t he previous seismiccode[1 ] and some modifications made eavlicr and it is suit2able to the normal joint of reinforced concrete f rame , butnot to t he abnormal one which has large different in t hesection of t he upper column and lower one (3 600 mm and1 200 mm) , lef t beam and right beam (1 800 mm and 1200 mm) . The shear capacity of abnormal joint s calculat2ed by Eq. 1 may cause some unsafe result s. A type of ab2normal joint which of ten exist s in t he power plant st ruc2t ure is discussed ( see Fig. 1) , and it s behavior was st ud2ied based on t he experiment in t his paper2 Experimental workAccording to the above problem , and t he experiment of plane abnormal joint s and space abnormal joint , a p seudo dynamic test of space model of power plant st ruct ure was carried out . The aim of t hisst udy is to set up a shear force formula and to discuss seismic behavior s of t he joint s.According to the characteristic of t he power plant st ruct ure , nine abnormal joint s and one space abnormal joint were designed in t he experiment . The scale of the model s is one2fif t h. Tab. 1 and Tab.2 show t he dimensions and reinforcement detail s of t he specimens.Fig. 2 shows the typical const ruction drawing of t he specimen. Fig. 3 shows the loading set up . These specimens are subjected to low2cyclic loading , the loading process of which is cont rolled by force and displacement , t he preceding yield loading by force and subsequent yield by t he displacement .The shear deformation of the joint core , t he st rain of the longit udinal steel and t he stirrup are main measuring items.3 Analysis of test result s3. 1 Main resultsTab. 3 shows t he main result s of t he experiment .3. 2 Failure process of specimenBased on t he experiment , t he process of t he specimens’failure includes four stages , namely , t he initial cracking , t he t horough cracking , the ultimate stage and t he failure stage.(1) Initial cracking stageWhen t he first diagonal crack appears along t he diagonal direction in t he core af ter loading , it s widt h is about 0. 1mm , which is named initial cracking stage of joint core. Before t he initial cracking stage , t he joint remains elastic performance , and the variety of stiff ness is not very obvious on t hep2Δcurve. At t his stage concrete bear s most of the core shear force while stirrup bears few. At t he timewhen t he initial crack occur s , t he st ress of t he stirrup at t he crack increase sharply and t he st rain is a2bout 200 ×10 - 6 —300 ×10 - 6 . The shear deformation of t he core at t his stage is very small (less than 1×10 - 3 radian ,generally between 0. 4 ×10 - 3 and 0. 8 ×10 - 3 radian) .(2) Thorough cracking stageWit h the load increasing following t he initial cracking stage , the second and t hird crossing diago2 nal cracks will appear at t he core. The core is cut into some small rhombus pieces which will become at least one main inclined crack across t he core diagonal . The widt h of cracks enlarges obviously , andt he wider ones are generally about 0. 5mm , which is named core t horough cracking stage. The st ress of stirrup increases obviously , and the stirrup in t he middle of t he core is near to yielding or has yiel2 ded. The joint core shows nonlinear property on t he p2Δcurve , and it enter s elastic2plastic stage. Theload at t horough cracking stage is about 80 % —90 % load.(3) Ultimate stageAt t his stage , t he widt h of t he cracks is about 1mm or more and some new cracks continue to oc2 cur . The shear deformation at t he core is much larger and concrete begins to collap se. Af ter several cyclic loading , the force reaches the maximum value , which is called ultimate stage. The load increase is due to t he enhancing of the concrete aggregate mechanical f riction between cracks. At t he same timet he st ress of stirrup increases gradually. On t he one hand stirrup resist s t he horizontal shear , and on t he ot her hand the confinement effect to t he expanding compression concrete st rengthens continuous2ly , which can also improve t he shear capacity of diagonal compression bar mechanism.(4) Failure stageAs the load circulated , concrete in t he core began to collap se , and t he deformation increased sharply , while the capacity began to drop . It was found t hat t he slip of reinforcement in t he beam wasvery serious in t he experiment . Wit h t he load and it s circulation time increasing , t he zoon wit houtbond gradually permeated towards t he internal core , enhancing t he burden of t he diagonal compressionbar mechanism and accelerates the compression failure of concrete. Fig. 4 shows t he p hotos of typical damaged joint s.A p seudo dynamic test of space model ofpower plant st ruct ure was carried out to researcht he working behavior of t he abnormal joint s in re2al st ructure and the seismic behavior of st ructure.Fig. 5 shows the p hoto of model .The test includes two step s. The fir st is thep seudo dynamic test . At t his step , El2Cent rowave is inp ut and the peak acceleration variesf rom 50 gal to 1 200 gal . The seismic response is measured. The second is t he p seudo static test . Theloading can’t stop until t he model fail s.Fig. 7 Minor coreThe experiment shows t hat t he dist ribution and development of t hecrack is influenced by t he rest rictive effect of the ort hogonal beam , andt he crack of joint core mainly dist ributes under t he orthogonal beam( see Fig. 6) , which is different f rom t he result of t he plane joint test ,but similar to J 4210.3. 3 Analysis of test results3. 3. 1 Mechanical analysisIn t he experiment , t he location of the initial crack of t he exteriorjoint and the crushed position of concrete both appear in the middle oft he joint core , and t he position is near t he centerline of t he upper col2umn. The initial crack and crushed position of t he concrete of the interior joint both appear in t he mi2 nor core ( see Fig. 4 ,Fig. 7) . For interior abnormal joint t he crack doesn’t appear or develop in t he ma2j or core out side of the mi nor core until t horough cracking takes place , while t he crack seldom appearsin t he shadow region ( see Fig. 7) as the joint fail s. Therefore , for abnormal joint , t he shear capacity oft he joint core depends on t he properties of t he mi nor core , namely , on t he st rengt h grades of concrete ,t he size and the reinforcement of t he mi nor core , get t he effect of t he maj or core dimension can’t be neglected.Mechanical effect s are t he same will that of t he normal joint , when t he forces t ransfer to t he mi2 nor core t hrough column and beam and reinforcement bar . Therefore , t he working mechanisms of nor2mal joint , including t russ mechanism , diagonal compression bar mechanism and rest rictive mechanismof stirrup , are also suitable for mi nor core of t he abnormal joint , but their working characteristic is not symmet rical when the load rever ses. Fig. 8 illust rates t he working mechanism of t he abnormal joint .When t he load t ransfer to mi nor core , t he diagonal compression bar area of mi nor core is biggert han normal joint core2composed by small column and small beam of abnormal joint , which is due to t he compressive st ress diff usion of concrete compressive region of the beam and column , while at t hesame time t he compression carried by the diagonal compression bar becomes large. Because t he main part of bond force of column and beam is added to t he diagonal comp ression bar but cont rasting wit h t he increased area of diagonal compression bar , t he increased action is small . The region in the maj orcore but out of the mi nor core has less st ress dist ribution and fewer cracks. The region can confine t heexpansion of t he concrete of t he mi nor core diagonal compression bar concrete , which enhances t he concrete compressive st rengt h of mi nor core diagonal compression bar .Making t he mi nor core as st udy element , the area increment of concrete diagonal compression barin mi nor core is related to t he st ress diff usion of t he beam and column compressive region. The magni2t ude of diff usion area is related to height difference of t he beam sections and column sections. Name2ly , it is related to t he size of mi nor core section and maj or core section. Thus , the increased shearst rengt h magnit ude caused by mi nor core rest rictive effect on maj or core can be measured quantitative2ly by t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area. And it al so can be expressed that t he rest rictive effect is quantitatively related to t he ratio. Obviously , t he bigger t he ratio is and t he st ronger t he con2finement is , t he st ronger t he bearing capacity is.The region in the maj or core but under the mi nor core still need stirrup bar because of t he hori2 zontal force t ransferred by bigger beam bar . But force is small .3. 3. 2 load2displacement curves analysisFig. 9 shows t he typical load2displacement curves at t he beam end of t he exterior and interiorjoint . The figure showing t hat t he rigidity of t he specimens almo st doesn’t degenerate when t he initialcrack appear s in t he core , and a turning point can be found at t he curve but it isn’t very obvious. Wit ht he crack developing , an obvious t urning point can be found at t he curve , and at t his time , t he speci2men yields. Then t he load can increase f urt her , but it can’t increase too much f rom yielding load to ultimate load. When t he concrete at t he core collap ses and the plastic hinge occured at t he beamend ,t he load begins to decrease rat her t han increase.The ductility coefficient of two kinds of joint s is basically more than 3 (except for J 3 - 9) . But it should be noted t hat the design of specimens is based on the principle of joint core failure. The ratio of reinforcement of beam and column tends to be lower t han practical project s. If t he ratio is larger , t he failure of joint is probably prior to t hat of beam and column , so t he hysteretic curve reflect s t he ductil ity property of joint core.Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test (or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns) . So t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint be2havior work as a subst ruct ure. Providing t hat the joint core fails af ter t he yield of beam and column (especially for beam) , t he load2displacement curves at t he beam end is plump , so the principle of “st rong col umn and weak beam , st ron ger j oi nt" should be ensured which conforms to t he seismic re2sistant principle.The experiment shows t hat t he stiff ness of joint core is large. Before the joint reaches ultimatestage , t he stiff ness of joint core decreases a little and the irrecoverable residual deformation is very small under alternate loading. When joint core enter s failure stage , t he shear deformation increases sharply , and t he stiff ness of joint core decreases obviously , and t he hysteretic curve appears shrink2 age , which is because of t he cohesive slip of beam reinforcement .3. 4 Influential Factors of Abnormal Joint Shear CapacityThe fir st factor is axial compression. Axial compression can enlarge t he compression area of col2 umn , and increase t he concrete compression area of joint core[124 ] . At t he same time , more shearst ransferred f rom beam steel to t he edge of joint core concrete will add to t he diagonal compression bar ,which decreases t he edge shear t hat leads to the crack of joint core concrete. So t he existence of axial comp ression cont ributes to imp roving t he capacity of initial cracks at joint core.The effect of axial compression on t horough cracking load and ultimate load isn’t very obvious[1 ] . The reason is t hat cont rasting wit h no axial compression , the accumulated damage effect of joint coreunder rever sed loading wit h axial compression is larger . Alt hough axial compression can improve t heshear st rengt h of concrete , it increases accumulated damage effect which leads to a decrease of the ad2vantage of axial compression. Therefore t he effect of axial compression on t horough cracking loadandultimate load is not very obvious.Hence , considering the lack of test data of abnormal joint , t he shear capacity formula of abnormal joint adopt 0. 05 nf c b j h j to calculate the effect of axial compression , which is based on the result s of t his experiment and referenced to t he experimental st udy and statistical analysis of Meinheit and J irsa ,et [5 ] .The second factor is horizontal stirrup . Horizontal stirrup has no effect on t he initial crackingshear of abnormal joint , while greatly improves t he t horough cracking shear . Af ter crack appeared , t he stirrup begins to resist t he shear and confines t he expansion of concrete[ 6 ] . This experiment showst hat t he st ress of stirrup s in each layer is not equal . When the joint fail s , t he stirrup s don’t yield simultaneous. Fig. 10 shows t he change of st ress dist ribution of stirrup s along core height wit h t he loadincreasing. Through analyzing test result s , it can be known t hat 80 percent of the height at the joint core can yield.The last factor is the change of sec2tion size of t he beam and column. Thesection change decreases t he initial crack2ing load about 30 p resent of abnormaljoint and makes t he initial crack appear att he position of joint mi nor core. The rea2son for t his p henomenon is t hat small up2per column section makes t he confinementof mi nor core concrete decrease and t heedge shear increase. But t he section change has lit tle effect on thorough cracking load. Af ter t horoughcracking , the joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , which is dif2 ferent f rom t he behavior of abnormal joint t hat can carry much shear af ter thorough cracking.3. 5 Shear force formula of abnormal jointAs a part of f rame , t he design of joint shall meet t he requirement s of the f rame st ruct ure design , namely , t he joint design should not damage t he basic performance of t he st ruct ure.According to the principle of st ronger j oi nt , it is necessary for joint to have some safety reserva2 tion. The raised cost for conservational estimation of t he joint bearing capacity is small . But t he con2 servational estimation is very important to t he safety of the f rame st ruct ure. At t horough cracking stage , t he widt h of most cracks is more t han 0. 2 mm , which is bigger than t he suggested limit value in t he concrete design code. Big cracks will influence t he durability of st ruct ure. Hence , the bearing capacity at t horough cracking stage is applied to calculating t he bearing capacity of joint . According to t he analysis of t he working mechanisms of abnormal joint , it could be concludedt hat t he bearing capacity of joint core mainly depends on mi nor core when t he force t ransferred f rommaj or core to mi nor core. All kinds of working mechanisms are suitable to mi nor core element . Thus , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of abnormal joint can be obtained based on Eq. 1. According to the above analysis of influential factor s of shear capacity of abnormal joint , and ref2 erence to Eq. 1 , a formula for calculating t he shear capacity of reinforced concrete f rame abnormal jointis suggested as followsV j = 0. 1ηjξ1 f c b j h j + 0. 1ηj nξ2 f c b j h j +ξ3 f yv A svj h0 - a′s s(2)Where h0 = effective dept h of small beam section in abnormal joint ;ξ1 = influential coefficient consider2ing mi nor core on working as cont rol element for calculating ;ξ2 = influential coefficient considering effect of axial compression ratio , it s value is 0. 5 , andξ3 = influential coefficient considering t hestir2rup doesn’t yield simultaneous , it s value is 0. 8 , n = N/ f c b c h j .From Fig. 8 , the shear capacity of abnormal joint depends on mi nor core , while maj or core has re2st rictive effect on mi nor core. The effect is related to t he ratio of maj or core area to mi nor core area , so assumingξ1 =αA d A x (3)Where A d = area of abnormal joint maj or core , choosing it as t he value of t he dept h of big beam multiplying t he height of lower column ; A x = area of abnormal joint mi nor core , choosing it as t he value oft he depth of small beam multiplying the height of upper column ; andα= parameter to be defined , it s value is 0. 8 derived f rom t he result s of t he experiment ( see Tab. 4)Then Eq. 2 can be replaced byV j = 0. 1ηjαA d A x f c b j h j + 0. 05ηj n f c b j h j + 0. 8 f yv h0 - a′s s(4)4 ConclusionsThe following conclusions can be drawn f rom t his study.(1) The seismic behavior of abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame st ruct ure is poor . Af tert horough cracking , t he joint enter s ultimate state while the external load can’t increase too much , andt he safety reservation of joint isn’t sufficient .(2) The characteristic of bearing load of minor core is similar to that of normal joint , but t he area bearing load is different . The shear capacity depend on t he size , t he st rengt h of concrete and the rein2forcement of mi nor core in abnormal joint . The maj or core has rest rictive effect on mi nor core. (3) Joint experiment should be a subst ruct ure test or a test of composite body of beams and col2 umns. Therefore t he load2displacement curves of t he beam end should be a general reflection of t he joint behavior working as a subst ruct ure. Studies of t he hysteretic curve of subst ruct ure should be based on t he whole st ructure. It is critical to guarantee t he stiff ness and st rengt h of joint core in prac2tice.(4) The formula of shear capacity for abnormal joint in reinforced concrete f rame is provided.References[1 ] TAN GJ iu2ru . The seismic behavior of steel reinforced concrete f rame [M] . Nanjing :Dongnan University Press ,1989 :1572163.[2 ] The research group of reinforcement concrete f rame joint . Shear capacity research of reinforced concrete f rame jointon reversed2cyclic loading[J ] . Journal of Building St ructures , 1983 , (6) :9215.[3 ] PAULA Y T ,PARK R. Joint s reinforced concrete f rames designed for earthquake resistance[ R] . New Zealand :De2partment of civil Engineering , University of Canterbury , Christchurch , 1984.[4 ] FU Jian2ping. Seismic behavior research of reinforced concrete f rame joint with the consideration of axialforce[J ] .Journal of Chongqing Univ , 2000 , (5) :23227.[5 ] MEINHEIT D F ,J IRSA J O. Shear st rength of R/ C beam2column connections [J ] . ACI St ructural Journal , 1993 ,(3) :61271.[6 ] KITA YAMA K, OTANI S ,AO YAMA H. Development of design criteria for RC interior beam2column joints ,de2sign of beam2column joint s for seismic resistance[ R] . SP123 ,ACI ,Det roit , 1991 :61272.[7 ] GB5001122001 ,Code for seismic design of buildings [ S] . Beijing : China Architectural and BuildingPress ,2001.钢筋混凝土框架异型节点抗震性能试验研究摘要：基于8个钢筋混凝土框架异型节点的试验研究，分析了异型框架节点的受力与常规框架节点的异同。

土木工程类英文专业词汇

土木工程类英文专业词汇土木工程是一个涉及土地开发、设计、建造和维护的复杂领域。

在这个领域中，有许多具有专业性、特定含义和用途的英文术语。

掌握这些专业词汇对于在这个领域工作或学习的人来说非常必要。

本文将介绍土木工程常用的英语专业词汇。

1.Civil engineering –土木工程学Civil engineering is a discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the built environment, including buildings, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure.2.Architecture –建筑学Architecture is the art and science of designing and building structures, such as buildings and bridges.3.Planning –规划Planning is the process of making a detailed plan or layout for a project, including determining what resources will be needed to complete the project.4.Surveying –测量Surveying is the process of measuring and mapping the surface of the Earth, including land, water bodies, and buildings.5.Structural engineering –结构工程Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that deals with the design and analysis of structures, such as buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure.6.Geotechnical engineering –岩土工程Geotechnical engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that deals with the study of soil and rock mechanics, and the design and construction of structures that are built on or in the ground.7.Transportation engineering –交通运输工程Transportation engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that dealswith the design and construction of transportation infrastructure, such as roads, highways, and airports.8.Hydrology –水文学Hydrology is the study of water and its movement on the surface of the Earth, including precipitation, streams, rivers, and groundwater.9.Water resources engineering –水资源工程Water resources engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that deals with the study of water resources and the design and construction of structures that manage and distribute water, including dams, reservoirs, and water treatment plants.10.Environmental engineering –环境工程Environmental engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering that deals with the study of environmental engineering principles and the design and construction of structures that protect the environment, such as water treatment plants and wastewater treatment plants.11.Construction –建造Construction refers to the process of building structures from design plans and specifications.12.Industrial engineering –工业工程Industrial engineering is a discipline that deals with the optimization of complex processes, systems, and organizations, with the goal of improving efficiency, productivity, and safety.13.Quantity surveying –工程测量Quantity surveying is the process of determining the quantity, cost, and value of materials needed to complete a construction project.14.Building –建筑物Building refers to a structure that is built for a specific purpose, such as a house, office building, or factory.15.Foundation –基础Foundation refers to the part of a structure that is in direct contact with the ground and supports the weight of the structure.16.Reinforcement –钢筋加固Reinforcement refers to the process of adding materials, such as steel bars, to strengthen a structure.17.Retaining wall –挡土墙A retaining wall is a structure that is built to support soil and prevent it from sliding down a slope.18.Roadway –道路A roadway is a paved surface that is designed for vehicles and pedestrians to travel on.19.Bridge –桥梁A bridge is a structure that is built to span a physical obstacle, such as a river or gorge, and provide a safe means of transportation.20.Culvert –排水管A culvert is a structure that is built to allow water to pass under a roadway or other structure.21.Dam –水坝A dam is a structure that is built to control the flow of water and to provide water for human consumption, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.22.Pile –桩A pile is a foundation support structure that is driven into the ground to supporta structure.23.Slab –地板A slab is a flat, horizontal surface that is used as a flooring material or to supporta structure.24.Tunnel –隧道A tunnel is an underground structure that is built for transportation, utilities, or other purposes.25.Asphalt –沥青Asphalt is a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid that is used as a binder for paving materials.以上就是土木工程类英文专业词汇的介绍，这些专业词汇对于在土木工程领域中工作或学习的人来说都是非常重要的。

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译

土木工程专业外语词汇大全中英翻译1. 综合类大地工程geotechnical engineering反分析法back analysis method基础工程foundation engineering临界状态土力学critical state soil mechanics数值岩土力学numerical geomechanics土soil, earth土动力学soil dynamics土力学soil mechanics岩土工程geotechnical engineering应力路径stress path应力路径法stress path method2. 工程地质及勘察变质岩metamorphic rock标准冻深standard frost penetration冰川沉积glacial deposit冰积层（台）glacial deposit残积土eluvial soil, residual soil层理beding长石feldspar沉积岩sedimentary rock承压水confined water次生矿物secondary mineral地质年代geological age地质图geological map地下水groundwater断层fault断裂构造fracture structure工程地质勘察engineering geological exploration海积层（台）marine deposit海相沉积marine deposit花岗岩granite滑坡landslide化石fossil化学沉积岩chemical sedimentary rock阶地terrace节理joint解理cleavage喀斯特karst矿物硬度hardness of minerals砾岩conglomerate流滑flow slide陆相沉积continental sedimentation泥石流mud flow, debris flow年粘土矿物clay minerals凝灰岩tuff牛轭湖ox-bow lake浅成岩hypabyssal rock潜水ground water侵入岩intrusive rock取土器geotome砂岩sandstone砂嘴spit, sand spit山岩压力rock pressure深成岩plutionic rock石灰岩limestone石英quartz松散堆积物rickle围限地下水（台）confined ground water 泻湖lagoon岩爆rock burst岩层产状attitude of rock岩浆岩magmatic rock, igneous rock岩脉dike, dgke岩石风化程度degree of rock weathering 岩石构造structure of rock岩石结构texture of rock岩体rock mass页岩shale原生矿物primary mineral云母mica造岩矿物rock-forming mineral褶皱fold, folding钻孔柱状图bore hole columnar section3. 土的分类饱和土saturated soil超固结土overconsolidated soil冲填土dredger fill充重塑土冻土frozen soil, tjaele非饱和土unsaturated soil分散性土dispersive soil粉土silt, mo粉质粘土silty clay高岭石kaolinite过压密土（台）overconsolidated soil红粘土red clay, adamic earth黄土loess, huangtu(China)蒙脱石montmorillonite泥炭peat, bog muck年粘土clay年粘性土cohesive soil, clayey soil膨胀土expansive soil, swelling soil欠固结粘土underconsolidated soil区域性土zonal soil人工填土fill, artificial soil软粘土soft clay, mildclay, mickle砂土sand湿陷性黄土collapsible loess, slumping loess素填土plain fill塑性图plasticity chart碎石土stone, break stone, broken stone, channery, chat, crushed sto ne, deritus未压密土（台）underconsolidated clay无粘性土cohesionless soil, frictional soil, non-cohesive soil岩石rock伊利土illite有机质土organic soil淤泥muck, gyttja, mire, slush淤泥质土mucky soil原状土undisturbed soil杂填土miscellaneous fill正常固结土normally consolidated soil正常压密土（台）normally consolidated soil自重湿陷性黄土self weight collapse loess4. 土的物理性质阿太堡界限Atterberg limits饱和度degree of saturation饱和密度saturated density饱和重度saturated unit weight比重specific gravity稠度consistency不均匀系数coefficient of uniformity, uniformity coefficient触变thixotropy单粒结构single-grained structure蜂窝结构honeycomb structure干重度dry unit weight干密度dry density塑性指数plasticity index含水量water content, moisture content活性指数级配gradation, grading结合水bound water, combined water, held water界限含水量Atterberg limits颗粒级配particle size distribution of soils, mechanical composi tion of soil可塑性plasticity孔隙比void ratio孔隙率porosity粒度granularity, grainness, grainage粒组fraction, size fraction毛细管水capillary water密度density密实度compactionness年粘性土的灵敏度sensitivity of cohesive soil平均粒径mean diameter, average grain diameter曲率系数coefficient of curvature三相图block diagram, skeletal diagram, three phase diagram三相土tri-phase soil湿陷起始应力initial collapse pressure湿陷系数coefficient of collapsibility缩限shrinkage limit土的构造soil texture土的结构soil structure土粒相对密度specific density of solid particles土中气air in soil土中水water in soil团粒aggregate, cumularpharolith限定粒径constrained diameter相对密度relative density, density index相对压密度relative compaction, compacting factor, percent compa ction, coefficient of compaction絮状结构flocculent structure压密系数coefficient of consolidation压缩性compressibility液限liquid limit液性指数liquidity index游离水（台）free water有效粒径effective diameter, effective grain size, effective size有效密度effective density有效重度effective unit weight重力密度unit weight自由水free water, gravitational water, groundwater, phreatic water 组构fabric最大干密度maximum dry density最优含水量optimum water content5. 渗透性和渗流达西定律Darcy s law管涌piping浸润线phreatic line临界水力梯度critical hydraulic gradient流函数flow function流土flowing soil流网flow net砂沸sand boiling渗流seepage渗流量seepage discharge渗流速度seepage velocity渗透力seepage force渗透破坏seepage failure渗透系数coefficient of permeability渗透性permeability势函数potential function水力梯度hydraulic gradient6. 地基应力和变形变形deformation变形模量modulus of deformation泊松比Poisson s ratio布西涅斯克解Boussinnesq s solution残余变形residual deformation残余孔隙水压力residual pore water pressure超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure沉降settlement沉降比settlement ratio次固结沉降secondary consolidation settlement次固结系数coefficient of secondary consolidation地基沉降的弹性力学公式elastic formula for settlement calculation 分层总和法layerwise summation method负孔隙水压力negative pore water pressure附加应力superimposed stress割线模量secant modulus固结沉降consolidation settlement规范沉降计算法settlement calculation by specification回弹变形rebound deformation回弹模量modulus of resilience回弹系数coefficient of resilience回弹指数swelling index建筑物的地基变形允许值allowable settlement of building剪胀dilatation角点法corner-points method孔隙气压力pore air pressure孔隙水压力pore water pressure孔隙压力系数Apore pressure parameter A孔隙压力系数Bpore pressure parameter B明德林解Mindlin s solution纽马克感应图Newmark chart切线模量tangent modulus蠕变creep三向变形条件下的固结沉降three-dimensional consolidation settl ement瞬时沉降immediate settlement塑性变形plastic deformation谈弹性变形elastic deformation谈弹性模量elastic modulus谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium体积变形模量volumetric deformation modulus先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压缩层压缩模量modulus of compressibility压缩系数coefficient of compressibility压缩性compressibility压缩指数compression index有效应力effective stress自重应力self-weight stress总应力total stress approach of shear strength最终沉降final settlement7. 固结巴隆固结理论Barron s consolidation theory比奥固结理论Biot s consolidation theory超固结比over-consolidation ratio超静孔隙水压力excess pore water pressure次固结secondary consolidation次压缩（台）secondary consolidatin单向度压密（台）one-dimensional consolidation多维固结multi-dimensional consolidation固结consolidation固结度degree of consolidation固结理论theory of consolidation固结曲线consolidation curve固结速率rate of consolidation固结系数coefficient of consolidation固结压力consolidation pressure回弹曲线rebound curve井径比drain spacing ratio井阻well resistance曼代尔－克雷尔效应Mandel-Cryer effect潜变（台）creep砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 时间对数拟合法logrithm of time fitting method时间因子time factor太沙基固结理论Terzaghi s consolidation theory太沙基－伦杜列克扩散方程Terzaghi-Rendulic diffusion equation先期固结压力preconsolidation pressure压密（台）consolidation压密度（台）degree of consolidation压缩曲线cpmpression curve一维固结one dimensional consolidation有效应力原理principle of effective stress预压密压力（台）preconsolidation pressure原始压缩曲线virgin compression curve再压缩曲线recompression curve主固结primary consolidation主压密（台）primary consolidation准固结压力pseudo-consolidation pressureK0固结consolidation under K0 condition8. 抗剪强度安息角（台）angle of repose不排水抗剪强度undrained shear strength残余内摩擦角residual angle of internal friction残余强度residual strength长期强度long-term strength单轴抗拉强度uniaxial tension test动强度dynamic strength of soils峰值强度peak strength伏斯列夫参数Hvorslev parameter剪切应变速率shear strain rate抗剪强度shear strength抗剪强度参数shear strength parameter抗剪强度有效应力法effective stress approach of shear strength 抗剪强度总应力法total stress approach of shear strength库仑方程Coulomb s equation摩尔包线Mohr s envelope摩尔－库仑理论Mohr-Coulomb theory内摩擦角angle of internal friction年粘聚力cohesion破裂角angle of rupture破坏准则failure criterion十字板抗剪强度vane strength无侧限抗压强度unconfined compression strength有效内摩擦角effective angle of internal friction有效粘聚力effective cohesion intercept有效应力破坏包线effective stress failure envelope有效应力强度参数effective stress strength parameter有效应力原理principle of effective stress真内摩擦角true angle internal friction真粘聚力true cohesion总应力破坏包线total stress failure envelope总应力强度参数total stress strength parameter9. 本构模型本构模型constitutive model边界面模型boundary surface model层向各向同性体模型cross anisotropic model超弹性模型hyperelastic model德鲁克－普拉格准则Drucker-Prager criterion邓肯－张模型Duncan-Chang model动剪切强度非线性弹性模量nonlinear elastic model盖帽模型cap model刚塑性模型rigid plastic model割线模量secant modulus广义冯·米赛斯屈服准则extended von Mises yield criterion广义特雷斯卡屈服准则extended tresca yield criterion加工软化work softening加工硬化work hardening加工硬化定律strain harding law剑桥模型Cambridge model柯西弹性模型Cauchy elastic model拉特－邓肯模型Lade-Duncan model拉特屈服准则Lade yield criterion理想弹塑性模型ideal elastoplastic model临界状态弹塑性模型critical state elastoplastic model流变学模型rheological model流动规则flow rule摩尔－库仑屈服准则Mohr-Coulomb yield criterion内蕴时间塑性模型endochronic plastic model内蕴时间塑性理论endochronic theory年粘弹性模型viscoelastic model切线模量tangent modulus清华弹塑性模型Tsinghua elastoplastic model屈服面yield surface沈珠江三重屈服面模型Shen Zhujiang three yield surface method双参数地基模型双剪应力屈服模型twin shear stress yield criterion双曲线模型hyperbolic model松岗元－中井屈服准则Matsuoka-Nakai yield criterion塑性形变理论谈弹塑性模量矩阵elastoplastic modulus matrix谈弹塑性模型elastoplastic modulus谈弹塑性增量理论incremental elastoplastic theory谈弹性半空间地基模型elastic half-space foundation model谈弹性变形elastic deformation谈弹性模量elastic modulus谈弹性模型elastic model魏汝龙－Khosla－Wu模型Wei Rulong-Khosla-Wu model文克尔地基模型Winkler foundation model修正剑桥模型modified cambridge model准弹性模型hypoelastic model10. 地基承载力冲剪破坏punching shear failure次层（台）substratum地基subgrade, ground, foundation soil地基承载力bearing capacity of foundation soil地基极限承载力ultimate bearing capacity of foundation soil地基允许承载力allowable bearing capacity of foundation soil地基稳定性stability of foundation soil汉森地基承载力公式Hansen s ultimate bearing capacity formula极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium加州承载比（美国）California Bearing Ratio局部剪切破坏local shear failure临塑荷载critical edge pressure梅耶霍夫极限承载力公式Meyerhof s ultimate bearing capacity formula 普朗特承载力理论Prandel bearing capacity theory斯肯普顿极限承载力公式Skempton s ultimate bearing capacity formula太沙基承载力理论Terzaghi bearing capacity theory魏锡克极限承载力公式Vesic s ultimate bearing capacity formula 整体剪切破坏general shear failure11. 土压力被动土压力passive earth pressure被动土压力系数coefficient of passive earth pressure极限平衡状态state of limit equilibrium静止土压力earth pressue at rest静止土压力系数coefficient of earth pressur at rest库仑土压力理论Coulomb s earth pressure theory库尔曼图解法Culmannn construction朗肯土压力理论Rankine s earth pressure theory朗肯状态Rankine state谈弹性平衡状态state of elastic equilibrium土压力earth pressure主动土压力active earth pressure主动土压力系数coefficient of active earth pressure12. 土坡稳定分析安息角（台）angle of repose分析毕肖普法Bishop method分析边坡稳定安全系数safety factor of slope分析不平衡推理传递法unbalanced thrust transmission method分析费伦纽斯条分法Fellenius method of slices分析库尔曼法Culmann method分析摩擦圆法friction circle method分析摩根斯坦－普拉斯法Morgenstern-Price method分析铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope分析瑞典圆弧滑动法Swedish circle method分析斯宾赛法Spencer method分析泰勒法Taylor method分析条分法slice method分析土坡slope分析土坡稳定分析slope stability analysis分析土坡稳定极限分析法limit analysis method of slope stability分析土坡稳定极限平衡法limit equilibrium method of slope stability 分析休止角angle of repose分析扬布普遍条分法Janbu general slice method分析圆弧分析法circular arc analysis13. 土的动力性质比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity波的弥散特性dispersion of waves波速法wave velocity method材料阻尼material damping初始液化initial liquefaction地基固有周期natural period of soil site动剪切模量dynamic shear modulus of soils动力布西涅斯克解dynamic solution of Boussinesq 动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor动力性质dynamic properties of soils动强度dynamic strength of soils骨架波akeleton waves in soils几何阻尼geometric damping抗液化强度liquefaction stress孔隙流体波fluid wave in soil损耗角loss angle往返活动性reciprocating activity无量纲频率dimensionless frequency液化liquefaction液化势评价evaluation of liquefaction potential液化应力比stress ratio of liquefaction应力波stress waves in soils振陷dynamic settlement阻尼damping of soil阻尼比damping ratio14. 挡土墙挡土墙retaining wall挡土墙排水设施挡土墙稳定性stability of retaining wall垛式挡土墙扶垛式挡土墙counterfort retaining wall后垛墙（台）counterfort retaining wall基础墙foundation wall加筋土挡墙reinforced earth bulkhead锚定板挡土墙anchored plate retaining wall锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall锚杆式挡土墙anchor rod retaining wall悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall悬壁式挡土墙cantilever sheet pile wall重力式挡土墙gravity retaining wall15. 板桩结构物板桩sheet pile物板桩结构sheet pile structure物钢板桩steel sheet pile物钢筋混凝土板桩reinforced concrete sheet pile物钢桩steel pile物灌注桩cast-in-place pile物拉杆tie rod物锚定式板桩墙anchored sheet pile wall物锚固技术anchoring物锚座Anchorage物木板桩wooden sheet pile物木桩timber piles物悬壁式板桩墙cantilever sheet pile wall16. 基坑开挖与降水板桩围护sheet pile-braced cuts电渗法electro-osmotic drainage管涌piping基底隆起heave of base基坑降水dewatering基坑失稳instability (failure) of foundation pit基坑围护bracing of foundation pit减压井relief well降低地下水位法dewatering method井点系统well point system喷射井点eductor well point铅直边坡的临界高度critical height of vertical slope砂沸sand boiling深井点deep well point真空井点vacuum well point支撑围护braced cuts17. 浅基础补偿性基础compensated foundation持力层bearing stratum次层（台）substratum单独基础individual footing倒梁法inverted beam method刚性角pressure distribution angle of masonary foundation 刚性基础rigid foundation高杯口基础基础埋置深度embeded depth of foundation基床系数coefficient of subgrade reaction基底附加应力net foundation pressure交叉条形基础cross strip footing接触压力contact pressure静定分析法（浅基础）static analysis (shallow foundation)壳体基础shell foundation扩展基础spread footing片筏基础mat foundation浅基础shallow foundation墙下条形基础热摩奇金法Zemochkin s method柔性基础flexible foundation上部结构－基础－土共同作用分析structure- foundation-soil interactionanalysis 谈弹性地基梁（板）分析analysis of beams and slabs on elastic foundation条形基础strip footing下卧层substratum箱形基础box foundation18. 深基础贝诺托灌注桩Benoto cast-in-place pile波动方程分析Wave equation analysis场铸桩（台)cast-in-place pile沉管灌注桩diving casting cast-in-place pile沉井基础open-end caisson foundation沉箱基础box caisson foundation成孔灌注同步桩synchronous pile承台pile caps充盈系数fullness coefficient单桩承载力bearing capacity of single pile单桩横向极限承载力ultimate lateral resistance of single pile单桩竖向抗拔极限承载力vertical ultimate uplift resistance of single pile单桩竖向抗压容许承载力vertical ultimate carrying capacity of single pile单桩竖向抗压极限承载力vertical allowable load capacity of single pile低桩承台low pile cap地下连续墙diaphgram wall点承桩（台）end-bearing pile动力打桩公式dynamic pile driving formula端承桩end-bearing pile法兰基灌注桩Franki pile负摩擦力negative skin friction of pile钢筋混凝土预制桩precast reinforced concrete piles钢桩steel pile高桩承台high-rise pile cap灌注桩cast-in-place pile横向载荷桩laterally loaded vertical piles护壁泥浆slurry coat method回转钻孔灌注桩rotatory boring cast-in-place pile静力压桩silent piling抗拔桩uplift pile抗滑桩anti-slide pile摩擦桩friction pile木桩timber piles嵌岩灌注桩piles set into rock群桩pile groups群桩效率系数efficiency factor of pile groups群桩效应efficiency of pile groups群桩竖向极限承载力vertical ultimate load capacity of pile groups 深基础deep foundation竖直群桩横向极限承载力无桩靴夯扩灌注桩rammed bulb ile桩piles桩基动测技术dynamic pile test钻孔墩基础drilled-pier foundation钻孔扩底灌注桩under-reamed bored pile钻孔压注桩starsol enbesol pile最后贯入度final set19. 地基处理表层压密法surface compaction超载预压surcharge preloading袋装砂井sand wick地工织物geofabric, geotextile地基处理ground treatment, foundation treatment电动化学灌浆electrochemical grouting电渗法electro-osmotic drainage顶升纠偏法定喷directional jet grouting冻土地基处理frozen foundation improvement短桩处理treatment with short pile堆载预压法preloading粉体喷射深层搅拌法powder deep mixing method复合地基composite foundation干振成孔灌注桩vibratory bored pile高压喷射注浆法jet grounting灌浆材料injection material灌浆法grouting硅化法silicification夯实桩compacting pile化学灌浆chemical grouting换填法cushion灰土桩lime soil pile挤密灌浆compaction grouting挤密桩compaction pile, compacted column挤淤法displacement method加筋法reinforcement method加筋土reinforced earth碱液法soda solution grouting浆液深层搅拌法grout deep mixing method降低地下水位法dewatering method坑式托换pit underpinning冷热处理法freezing and heating锚固技术anchoring锚杆静压桩托换anchor pile underpinning排水固结法consolidation膨胀土地基处理expansive foundation treatment劈裂灌浆fracture grouting浅层处理shallow treatment强夯法dynamic compaction人工地基artificial foundation容许灌浆压力allowable grouting pressure褥垫pillow软土地基soft clay ground砂井sand drain砂井地基平均固结度average degree of consolidation of sand-drained ground 砂桩sand column山区地基处理foundation treatment in mountain area深层搅拌法deep mixing method渗入性灌浆seep-in grouting湿陷性黄土地基处理collapsible loess treatment石灰系深层搅拌法lime deep mixing method石灰桩lime column, limepile树根桩root pile水泥土水泥掺合比cement mixing ratio水泥系深层搅拌法cement deep mixing method水平旋喷horizontal jet grouting塑料排水带plastic drain碎石桩gravel pile, stone pillar天然地基natural foundation土工聚合物Geopolymer土工织物geofabric, geotextile土桩earth pile托换技术underpinning technique外掺剂additive旋喷jet grouting药液灌浆chemical grouting预浸水法presoaking预压法preloading真空预压vacuum preloading振冲法vibroflotation method振冲密实法vibro-compaction振冲碎石桩vibro replacement stone column振冲置换法vibro-replacement振密、挤密法vibro-densification, compacting置换率（复合地基）replacement ratio重锤夯实法tamping桩式托换pile underpinning桩土应力比stress ratio20. 动力机器基础比阻尼容量specific gravity capacity等效集总参数法constant strain rate consolidation test地基固有周期natural period of soil site动基床反力法dynamic subgrade reaction method动力放大因素dynamic magnification factor隔振isolation基础振动foundation vibration基础振动半空间理论elastic half-space theory of foundation vibration 基础振动容许振幅allowable amplitude of foundation vibration基础自振频率natural frequency of foundation集总参数法lumped parameter method吸收系数absorption coefficient质量－弹簧－阻尼器系统mass-spring-dushpot system21. 地基基础抗震地基固有周期natural period of soil site地震earthquake, seism, temblor地震持续时间duration of earthquake地震等效均匀剪应力equivalent even shear stress of earthquake地震反应谱earthquake response spectrum地震烈度earthquake intensity地震震级earthquake magnitude地震卓越周期seismic predominant period地震最大加速度maximum acceleration of earthquake动力放大因数dynamic magnification factor对数递减率logrithmic decrement刚性系数coefficient of rigidity吸收系数absorption coefficient22. 室内土工试验比重试验specific gravity test变水头渗透试验falling head permeability test不固结不排水试验unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test常规固结试验routine consolidation test常水头渗透试验constant head permeability test单剪仪simple shear apparatus单轴拉伸试验uniaxial tensile test等速加荷固结试验constant loading rate consolidatin test等梯度固结试验constant gradient consolidation test等应变速率固结试验equivalent lumped parameter method反复直剪强度试验repeated direct shear test反压饱和法back pressure saturation method高压固结试验high pressure consolidation test各向不等压固结不排水试验consoidated anisotropically undrained test 各向不等压固结排水试验consolidated anisotropically drained test共振柱试验resonant column test固结不排水试验consolidated undrained triaxial test固结快剪试验consolidated quick direct shear test固结排水试验consolidated drained triaxial test固结试验consolidation test含水量试验water content test环剪试验ring shear test黄土湿陷试验loess collapsibility test界限含水量试验Atterberg limits test卡萨格兰德法Casagrande s method颗粒分析试验grain size analysis test孔隙水压力消散试验pore pressure dissipation test快剪试验quick direct shear test快速固结试验fast consolidation test离心模型试验centrifugal model test连续加荷固结试验continual loading test慢剪试验consolidated drained direct shear test毛细管上升高度试验capillary rise test密度试验density test扭剪仪torsion shear apparatus膨胀率试验swelling rate test平面应变仪plane strain apparatus三轴伸长试验triaxial extension test三轴压缩试验triaxial compression test砂的相对密实度试验sand relative density test筛分析sieve analysis渗透试验permeability test湿化试验slaking test收缩试验shrinkage test塑限试验plastic limit test缩限试验shrinkage limit test土工模型试验geotechnical model test土工织物试验geotextile test无侧限抗压强度试验unconfined compression strength test无粘性土天然坡角试验angle of repose of cohesionless soils test压密不排水三轴压缩试验consolidated undrained triaxial compression test 压密排水三轴压缩试验consolidated drained triaxial compressure test压密试验consolidation test液塑限联合测定法liquid-plastic limit combined method液限试验liquid limit test应变控制式三轴压缩仪strain control triaxial compression apparatus应力控制式三轴压缩仪stress control triaxial compression apparatus有机质含量试验organic matter content test真三轴仪true triaxial apparatus振动单剪试验dynamic simple shear test直剪仪direct shear apparatus直接剪切试验direct shear test直接单剪试验direct simple shear test自振柱试验free vibration column testK0固结不排水试验K0 consolidated undrained testK0固结排水试验K0 consolidated drained test23. 原位测试标准贯入试验standard penetration test表面波试验surface wave test超声波试验ultrasonic wave test承载比试验Califonia Bearing Ratio Test单桩横向载荷试验lateral load test of pile单桩竖向静载荷试验static load test of pile动力触探试验dynamic penetration test静力触探试验static cone penetration test静力载荷试验plate loading test跨孔试验cross-hole test块体共振试验block resonant test螺旋板载荷试验screw plate test旁压试验pressurementer test轻便触探试验light sounding test深层沉降观测deep settlement measurement十字板剪切试验vane shear test无损检测nondestructive testing下孔法试验down-hole test现场渗透试验field permeability test原位孔隙水压力量测in situ pore water pressure measurement原位试验in-situ soil test最后贯入度final set。

(完整版)土木工程毕业设计外文文献翻译

外文文献翻译Reinforced ConcreteConcrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including the United States and Canada, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction. The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction, and the economy of reinforced concrete compared to other forms of construction. Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, buildings of all sorts underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.Reinforced concrete structures may be cast-in-place concrete, constructed in their final location, or they may be precast concrete produced in a factory and erected at the construction site. Concrete structures may be severe and functional in design, or the shape and layout and be whimsical and artistic. Few other building materials off the architect and engineer such versatility and scope.Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. As a result, cracks develop whenever loads, or restrained shrinkage of temperature changes, give rise to tensile stresses in excess of the tensile strength of the concrete. In a plain concrete beam, the moments about the neutral axis due to applied loads are resisted by an internal tension-compression couple involving tension in the concrete. Such a beam fails very suddenly and completely when the first crack forms. In a reinforced concrete beam, steel bars are embedded in the concrete in such a way that the tension forces needed for moment equilibrium after the concrete cracks can be developed in the bars.The construction of a reinforced concrete member involves building a from of mold in the shape of the member being built. The form must be strong enough to support both the weight and hydrostatic pressure of the wet concrete, and any forces applied to it by workers, concrete buggies, wind, and so on. The reinforcement is placed in this form and held in placeduring the concreting operation. After the concrete has hardened, the forms are removed. As the forms are removed, props of shores are installed to support the weight of the concrete until it has reached sufficient strength to support the loads by itself.The designer must proportion a concrete member for adequate strength to resist the loads and adequate stiffness to prevent excessive deflections. In beam must be proportioned so that it can be constructed. For example, the reinforcement must be detailed so that it can be assembled in the field, and since the concrete is placed in the form after the reinforcement is in place, the concrete must be able to flow around, between, and past the reinforcement to fill all parts of the form completely.The choice of whether a structure should be built of concrete, steel, masonry, or timber depends on the availability of materials and on a number of value decisions. The choice of structural system is made by the architect of engineer early in the design, based on the following considerations:1. Economy. Frequently, the foremost consideration is the overall const of the structure. This is, of course, a function of the costs of the materials and the labor necessary to erect them. Frequently, however, the overall cost is affected as much or more by the overall construction time since the contractor and owner must borrow or otherwise allocate money to carry out the construction and will not receive a return on this investment until the building is ready for occupancy. In a typical large apartment of commercial project, the cost of construction financing will be a significant fraction of the total cost. As a result, financial savings due to rapid construction may more than offset increased material costs. For this reason, any measures the designer can take to standardize the design and forming will generally pay off in reduced overall costs.In many cases the long-term economy of the structure may be more important than the first cost. As a result, maintenance and durability are important consideration.2. Suitability of material for architectural and structural function.A reinforced concrete system frequently allows the designer to combine the architectural and structural functions. Concrete has the advantage that it is placed in a plastic condition and is given the desired shapeand texture by means of the forms and the finishing techniques. This allows such elements ad flat plates or other types of slabs to serve as load-bearing elements while providing the finished floor and / or ceiling surfaces. Similarly, reinforced concrete walls can provide architecturally attractive surfaces in addition to having the ability to resist gravity, wind, or seismic loads. Finally, the choice of size of shape is governed by the designer and not by the availability of standard manufactured members.3. Fire resistance. The structure in a building must withstand the effects of a fire and remain standing while the building is evacuated and the fire is extinguished. A concrete building inherently has a 1- to 3-hour fire rating without special fireproofing or other details. Structural steel or timber buildings must be fireproofed to attain similar fire ratings.4. Low maintenance.Concrete members inherently require less maintenance than do structural steel or timber members. This is particularly true if dense, air-entrained concrete has been used for surfaces exposed to the atmosphere, and if care has been taken in the design to provide adequate drainage off and away from the structure. Special precautions must be taken for concrete exposed to salts such as deicing chemicals.5. Availability of materials. Sand, gravel, cement, and concrete mixing facilities are very widely available, and reinforcing steel can be transported to most job sites more easily than can structural steel. As a result, reinforced concrete is frequently used in remote areas.On the other hand, there are a number of factors that may cause one to select a material other than reinforced concrete. These include:1. Low tensile strength.The tensile strength concrete is much lower than its compressive strength ( about 1/10 ), and hence concrete is subject to cracking. In structural uses this is overcome by using reinforcement to carry tensile forces and limit crack widths to within acceptable values. Unless care is taken in design and construction, however, these cracks may be unsightly or may allow penetration of water. When this occurs, water or chemicals such as road deicing salts may cause deterioration or staining of the concrete. Special design details are required in such cases. In the case of water-retaining structures, special details and /of prestressing are required to prevent leakage.2. Forms and shoring. The construction of a cast-in-place structure involves three steps not encountered in the construction of steel or timber structures. These are ( a ) the construction of the forms, ( b ) the removal of these forms, and (c) propping or shoring the new concrete to support its weight until its strength is adequate. Each of these steps involves labor and / or materials, which are not necessary with other forms of construction.3. Relatively low strength per unit of weight for volume.The compressive strength of concrete is roughly 5 to 10% that of steel, while its unit density is roughly 30% that of steel. As a result, a concrete structure requires a larger volume and a greater weight of material than does a comparable steel structure. As a result, long-span structures are often built from steel.4. Time-dependent volume changes. Both concrete and steel undergo-approximately the same amount of thermal expansion and contraction. Because there is less mass of steel to be heated or cooled, and because steel is a better concrete, a steel structure is generally affected by temperature changes to a greater extent than is a concrete structure. On the other hand, concrete undergoes frying shrinkage, which, if restrained, may cause deflections or cracking. Furthermore, deflections will tend to increase with time, possibly doubling, due to creep of the concrete under sustained loads.In almost every branch of civil engineering and architecture extensive use is made of reinforced concrete for structures and foundations. Engineers and architects requires basic knowledge of reinforced concrete design throughout their professional careers. Much of this text is directly concerned with the behavior and proportioning of components that make up typical reinforced concrete structures-beams, columns, and slabs. Once the behavior of these individual elements is understood, the designer will have the background to analyze and design a wide range of complex structures, such as foundations, buildings, and bridges, composed of these elements.Since reinforced concrete is a no homogeneous material that creeps, shrinks, and cracks, its stresses cannot be accurately predicted by the traditional equations derived in a course in strength of materials forhomogeneous elastic materials. Much of reinforced concrete design in therefore empirical, i.e., design equations and design methods are based on experimental and time-proved results instead of being derived exclusively from theoretical formulations.A thorough understanding of the behavior of reinforced concrete will allow the designer to convert an otherwise brittle material into tough ductile structural elements and thereby take advantage of concrete’s desirable characteristics, its high compressive strength, its fire resistance, and its durability.Concrete, a stone like material, is made by mixing cement, water, fine aggregate ( often sand ), coarse aggregate, and frequently other additives ( that modify properties ) into a workable mixture. In its unhardened or plastic state, concrete can be placed in forms to produce a large variety of structural elements. Although the hardened concrete by itself, i.e., without any reinforcement, is strong in compression, it lacks tensile strength and therefore cracks easily. Because unreinforced concrete is brittle, it cannot undergo large deformations under load and fails suddenly-without warning. The addition fo steel reinforcement to the concrete reduces the negative effects of its two principal inherent weaknesses, its susceptibility to cracking and its brittleness. When the reinforcement is strongly bonded to the concrete, a strong, stiff, and ductile construction material is produced. This material, called reinforced concrete, is used extensively to construct foundations, structural frames, storage takes, shell roofs, highways, walls, dams, canals, and innumerable other structures and building products. Two other characteristics of concrete that are present even when concrete is reinforced are shrinkage and creep, but the negative effects of these properties can be mitigated by careful design.A code is a set technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes it produce structures so that the public will be protected from poor of inadequate and construction.Two types f coeds exist. One type, called a structural code, is originated and controlled by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific material or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures.The second type of code, called a building code, is established to cover construction in a given region, often a city or a state. The objective of a building code is also to protect the public by accounting for the influence of the local environmental conditions on construction. For example, local authorities may specify additional provisions to account for such regional conditions as earthquake, heavy snow, or tornados. National structural codes genrally are incorporated into local building codes.The American Concrete Institute ( ACI ) Building Code covering the design of reinforced concrete buildings. It contains provisions covering all aspects of reinforced concrete manufacture, design, and construction. It includes specifications on quality of materials, details on mixing and placing concrete, design assumptions for the analysis of continuous structures, and equations for proportioning members for design forces.All structures must be proportioned so they will not fail or deform excessively under any possible condition of service. Therefore it is important that an engineer use great care in anticipating all the probable loads to which a structure will be subjected during its lifetime.Although the design of most members is controlled typically by dead and live load acting simultaneously, consideration must also be given to the forces produced by wind, impact, shrinkage, temperature change, creep and support settlements, earthquake, and so forth.The load associated with the weight of the structure itself and its permanent components is called the dead load. The dead load of concrete members, which is substantial, should never be neglected in design computations. The exact magnitude of the dead load is not known accurately until members have been sized. Since some figure for the dead load must be used in computations to size the members, its magnitude must be estimated at first. After a structure has been analyzed, the members sized, and architectural details completed, the dead load can be computed more accurately. If the computed dead load is approximately equal to the initial estimate of its value ( or slightly less ), the design is complete, but if a significant difference exists between the computed and estimated values of dead weight, the computations should be revised using an improved value of dead load. An accurate estimate of dead load is particularly important when spans are long, say over 75 ft ( 22.9 m ),because dead load constitutes a major portion of the design load.Live loads associated with building use are specific items of equipment and occupants in a certain area of a building, building codes specify values of uniform live for which members are to be designed.After the structure has been sized for vertical load, it is checked for wind in combination with dead and live load as specified in the code. Wind loads do not usually control the size of members in building less than 16 to 18 stories, but for tall buildings wind loads become significant and cause large forces to develop in the structures. Under these conditions economy can be achieved only by selecting a structural system that is able to transfer horizontal loads into the ground efficiently.钢筋混凝土在每一个国家，混凝土及钢筋混凝土都被用来作为建筑材料。

土木工程外文文献及翻译

本科毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Designing Against Fire Of Building 文献、资料来源：国道数据库文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2008.3.25院（部）：土木工程学院专业：土木工程班级：土木辅修091姓名：xxxx外文文献:Designing Against Fire Of BulidingxxxABSTRACT:This paper considers the design of buildings for fire safety. It is found that fire and the associ- ated effects on buildings is significantly different to other forms of loading such as gravity live loads, wind and earthquakes and their respective effects on the building structure. Fire events are derived from the human activities within buildings or from the malfunction of mechanical and electrical equipment provided within buildings to achieve a serviceable environment. It is therefore possible to directly influence the rate of fire starts within buildings by changing human behaviour, improved maintenance and improved design of mechanical and electrical systems. Furthermore, should a fire develops, it is possible to directly influence the resulting fire severity by the incorporation of fire safety systems such as sprinklers and to provide measures within the building to enable safer egress from the building. The ability to influence the rate of fire starts and the resulting fire severity is unique to the consideration of fire within buildings since other loads such as wind and earthquakes are directly a function of nature. The possible approaches for designing a building for fire safety are presented using an example of a multi-storey building constructed over a railway line. The design of both the transfer structure supporting the building over the railway and the levels above the transfer structure are considered in the context of current regulatory requirements. The principles and assumptions associ- ated with various approaches are discussed.1 INTRODUCTIONOther papers presented in this series consider the design of buildings for gravity loads, wind and earthquakes.The design of buildings against such load effects is to a large extent covered by engineering based standards referenced by the building regulations. This is not the case, to nearly the same extent, in the case of fire. Rather, it is building regulations such as the Building Code of Australia (BCA) that directly specify most of the requirements for fire safety of buildings with reference being made to Standards such as AS3600 or AS4100 for methods for determining the fire resistance of structural elements.The purpose of this paper is to consider the design of buildings for fire safety from an engineering perspective (as is currently done for other loads such as wind or earthquakes), whilst at the same time,putting such approaches in the context of the current regulatory requirements.At the outset,it needs to be noted that designing a building for fire safety is far morethan simply considering the building structure and whether it has sufficient structural adequacy.This is because fires can have a direct influence on occupants via smoke and heat and can grow in size and severity unlike other effects imposed on the building. Notwithstanding these comments, the focus of this paper will be largely on design issues associated with the building structure.Two situations associated with a building are used for the purpose of discussion. The multi-storey office building shown in Figure 1 is supported by a transfer structure that spans over a set of railway tracks. It is assumed that a wide range of rail traffic utilises these tracks including freight and diesel locomotives. The first situation to be considered from a fire safety perspective is the transfer structure.This is termed Situation 1 and the key questions are: what level of fire resistance is required for this transfer structure and how can this be determined? This situation has been chosen since it clearly falls outside the normal regulatory scope of most build- ing regulations. An engineering solution, rather than a prescriptive one is required. The second fire situation (termed Situation 2) corresponds to a fire within the office levels of the building and is covered by building regulations. This situation is chosen because it will enable a discussion of engineering approaches and how these interface with the building regulations–since both engineering and prescriptive solutions are possible.2 UNIQUENESS OF FIRE2.1 IntroductionWind and earthquakes can be considered to b e “natural” phenomena over which designers have no control except perhaps to choose the location of buildings more carefully on the basis of historical records and to design building to resist sufficiently high loads or accelerations for the particular location. Dead and live loads in buildings are the result of gravity. All of these loads are variable and it is possible (although generally unlikely) that the loads may exceed the resistance of the critical structural members resulting in structural failure.The nature and influence of fires in buildings are quite different to those associated with other“loads” to which a building may be subjected to. The essential differences are described in the following sections.2.2 Origin of FireIn most situations (ignoring bush fires), fire originates from human activities within the building or the malfunction of equipment placed within the building to provide a serviceable environment. It follows therefore that it is possible to influence the rate of fire starts by influencing human behaviour, limiting and monitoring human behaviour and improving thedesign of equipment and its maintenance. This is not the case for the usual loads applied to a building.2.3 Ability to InfluenceSince wind and earthquake are directly functions of nature, it is not possible to influence such events to any extent. One has to anticipate them and design accordingly. It may be possible to influence the level of live load in a building by conducting audits and placing restrictions on contents. However, in the case of a fire start, there are many factors that can be brought to bear to influence the ultimate size of the fire and its effect within the building. It is known that occupants within a building will often detect a fire and deal with it before it reaches a sig- nificant size. It is estimated that less than one fire in five (Favre, 1996) results in a call to the fire brigade and for fires reported to the fire brigade, the majority will be limited to the room of fire origin. In oc- cupied spaces, olfactory cues (smell) provide powerful evidence of the presence of even a small fire. The addition of a functional smoke detection system will further improve the likelihood of detection and of action being taken by the occupants.Fire fighting equipment, such as extinguishers and hose reels, is generally provided within buildings for the use of occupants and many organisations provide training for staff in respect of the use of such equipment.The growth of a fire can also be limited by automatic extinguishing systems such as sprinklers, which can be designed to have high levels of effectiveness.Fires can also be limited by the fire brigade depending on the size and location of the fire at the time of arrival. 2.4 Effects of FireThe structural elements in the vicinity of the fire will experience the effects of heat. The temperatures within the structural elements will increase with time of exposure to the fire, the rate of temperature rise being dictated by the thermal resistance of the structural element and the severity of the fire. The increase in temperatures within a member will result in both thermal expansion and,eventually,a reduction in the structural resistance of the member. Differential thermal expansion will lead to bowing of a member. Significant axial expansion will be accommodated in steel members by either overall or local buckling or yielding of local- ised regions. These effects will be detrimental for columns but for beams forming part of a floor system may assist in the development of other load resisting mechanisms (see Section 4.3.5).With the exception of the development of forces due to restraint of thermal expansion, fire does not impose loads on the structure but rather reduces stiffness and strength. Such effects are not instantaneous but are a function of time and this is different to the effects of loads such as earthquake and wind that are more or less instantaneous.Heating effects associated with a fire will not be significant or the rate of loss of capacity will be slowed if:(a) the fire is extinguished (e.g. an effective sprinkler system)(b) the fire is of insufficient severity – insufficient fuel, and/or(c)the structural elements have sufficient thermal mass and/or insulation to slow the rise in internal temperatureFire protection measures such as providing sufficient axis distance and dimensions for concrete elements, and sufficient insulation thickness for steel elements are examples of (c). These are illustrated in Figure 2.The two situations described in the introduction are now considered.3 FIRE WITHIN BUILDINGS3.1 Fire Safety ConsiderationsThe implications of fire within the occupied parts of the office building (Figure 1) (Situation 2) are now considered. Fire statistics for office buildings show that about one fatality is expected in an office building for every 1000 fires reported to the fire brigade. This is an order of magnitude less than the fatality rate associated with apartment buildings. More than two thirds of fires occur during occupied hours and this is due to the greater human activity and the greater use of services within the building. It is twice as likely that a fire that commences out of normal working hours will extend beyond the enclosure of fire origin.A relatively small fire can generate large quantities of smoke within the floor of fire origin. If the floor is of open-plan construction with few partitions, the presence of a fire during normal occupied hours is almost certain to be detected through the observation of smoke on the floor. The presence of full height partitions across the floor will slow the spread of smoke and possibly also the speed at which the occupants detect the fire. Any measures aimed at improving housekeeping, fire awareness and fire response will be beneficial in reducing thelikelihood of major fires during occupied hours.For multi-storey buildings, smoke detection systems and alarms are often provided to give “automatic” detection and warning to the occupants. An alarm signal is also transmitted to the fire brigade.Should the fire not be able to be controlled by the occupants on the fire floor, they will need to leave the floor of fire origin via the stairs. Stair enclosures may be designed to be fire-resistant but this may not be sufficient to keep the smoke out of the stairs. Many buildings incorporate stair pressurisation systems whereby positive airflow is introduced into the stairs upon detection of smoke within the building. However, this increases the forces required to open the stair doors and makes it increasingly difficult to access the stairs. It is quite likely that excessive door opening forces will exist(Fazio et al,2006)From a fire perspective, it is common to consider that a building consists of enclosures formed by the presence of walls and floors.An enclosure that has sufficiently fire-resistant boundaries (i.e. walls and floors) is considered to constitute a fire compartment and to be capable of limiting the spread of fire to an adjacent compartment. However, the ability of such boundaries to restrict the spread of fire can be severely limited by the need to provide natural lighting (windows)and access openings between the adjacent compartments (doors and stairs). Fire spread via the external openings (windows) is a distinct possibility given a fully developed fire. Limit- ing the window sizes and geometry can reduce but not eliminate the possibility of vertical fire spread.By far the most effective measure in limiting fire spread, other than the presence of occupants, is an effective sprinkler system that delivers water to a growing fire rapidly reducing the heat being generated and virtually extinguishing it.3.2 Estimating Fire SeverityIn the absence of measures to extinguish developing fires, or should such systems fail; severe fires can develop within buildings.In fire en gineering literature, the term “fire load” refers to the quantity of combustibles within an enclosure and not the loads (forces) applied to the structure during a fire. Similarly, fire load density refers to the quantity of fuel per unit area. It is normally expressed in terms of MJ/m2 or kg/m2 of wood equivalent. Surveys of combustibles for various occupancies (i.e offices, retail, hospitals, warehouses, etc)have been undertaken and a good summary of the available data is given in FCRC (1999). As would be expected, the fire load density is highly variable. Publications such as the International Fire Engineering Guidelines (2005) give fire load data in terms of the mean and 80th percentile.The latter level of fire load density is sometimes taken asthe characteristic fire load density and is sometimes taken as being distributed according to a Gumbel distribution (Schleich et al, 1999).The rate at which heat is released within an enclosure is termed the heat release rate (HRR) and normally expressed in megawatts (MW). The application of sufficient heat to a combustible material results in the generation of gases some of which are combustible. This process is called pyrolisation.Upon coming into contact with sufficient oxygen these gases ignite generating heat. The rate of burning(and therefore of heat generation) is therefore dependent on the flow of air to the gases generated by the pyrolising fuel.This flow is influenced by the shape of the enclosure (aspect ratio), and the position and size of any potential openings. It is found from experiments with single openings in approximately cubic enclosures that the rate of burning is directly proportional to A h where A is the area of the opening and h is the opening height. It is known that for deep enclosures with single openings that burning will occur initially closest to the opening moving back into the enclosure once the fuel closest to the opening is consumed (Thomas et al, 2005). Significant temperature variations throughout such enclosures can be expected.The use of the word ‘opening’ in relation to real building enclosures refers to any openings present around the walls including doors that are left open and any windows containing non fire-resistant glass.It is presumed that such glass breaks in the event of development of a significant fire. If the windows could be prevented from breaking and other sources of air to the enclosure limited, then the fire would be prevented from becoming a severe fire.Various methods have been developed for determining the potential severity of a fire within an enclosure.These are described in SFPE (2004). The predictions of these methods are variable and are mostly based on estimating a representative heat release rate (HRR) and the proportion of total fuel ςlikely to be consumed during the primary burning stage (Figure 4). Further studies of enclosure fires are required to assist with the development of improved models, as the behaviour is very complex.3.3 Role of the Building StructureIf the design objectives are to provide an adequate level of safety for the occupants and protection of adjacent properties from damage, then the structural adequacy of the building in fire need only be sufficient to allow the occupants to exit the building and for the building to ultimately deform in a way that does not lead to damage or fire spread to a building located on an adjacent site.These objectives are those associated with most building regulations includingthe Building Code of Australia (BCA). There could be other objectives including protection of the building against significant damage. In considering these various objectives, the following should be taken into account when considering the fire resistance of the building structure.3.3.1 Non-Structural ConsequencesSince fire can produce smoke and flame, it is important to ask whether these outcomes will threaten life safety within other parts of the building before the building is compromised by a loss of structural adequacy? Is search and rescue by the fire brigade not feasible given the likely extent of smoke? Will the loss of use of the building due to a severe fire result in major property and income loss? If the answer to these questions is in the affirmative, then it may be necessary to minimise the occurrence of a significant fire rather than simply assuming that the building structure needs to be designed for high levels of fire resistance. A low-rise shopping centre with levels interconnected by large voids is an example of such a situation.3.3.2 Other Fire Safety SystemsThe presence of other systems (e.g. sprinklers) within the building to minimise the occurrence of a serious fire can greatly reduce the need for the structural elements to have high levels of fire resistance. In this regard, the uncertainties of all fire-safety systems need to be considered. Irrespective of whether the fire safety system is the sprinkler system, stair pressurisation, compartmentation or the system giving the structure a fire-resistance level (e.g. concrete cover), there is an uncertainty of performance. Uncertainty data is available for sprinkler systems(because it is relatively easy to collect) but is not readily available for the other fire safety systems. This sometimes results in the designers and building regulators considering that only sprinkler systems are subject to uncertainty. In reality, it would appear that sprinklers systems have a high level of performance and can be designed to have very high levels of reliability.3.3.3 Height of BuildingIt takes longer for a tall building to be evacuated than a short building and therefore the structure of a tall building may need to have a higher level of fire resistance. The implications of collapse of tall buildings on adjacent properties are also greater than for buildings of only several storeys.3.3.4 Limited Extent of BurningIf the likely extent of burning is small in comparison with the plan area of the building, then the fire cannot have a significant impact on the overall stability of the building structure. Examples of situations where this is the case are open-deck carparks and very large area building such as shopping complexes where the fire-effected part is likely to be small in relation to area of the building floor plan.3.3.5 Behaviour of Floor ElementsThe effect of real fires on composite and concrete floors continues to be a subject of much research.Experimental testing at Cardington demonstrated that when parts of a composite floor are subject to heating, large displacement behaviour can develop that greatly assists the load carrying capacity of the floor beyond that which would predicted by considering only the behaviour of the beams and slabs in isolation.These situations have been analysed by both yield line methods that take into account the effects of membrane forces (Bailey, 2004) and finite element techniques. In essence, the methods illustrate that it is not necessary to insulate all structural steel elements in a composite floor to achieve high levels of fire resistance.This work also demonstrated that exposure of a composite floor having unprotected steel beams, to a localised fire, will not result in failure of the floor.A similar real fire test on a multistory reinforced concrete building demonstrated that the real structural behaviour in fire was significantly different to that expected using small displacement theory as for normal tempera- ture design (Bailey, 2002) with the performance being superior than that predicted by considering isolated member behaviour.3.4 Prescriptive Approach to DesignThe building regulations of most countries provide prescriptive requirements for the design of buildings for fire.These requirements are generally not subject to interpretation and compliance with them makes for simpler design approval–although not necessarily the most cost-effective designs.These provisions are often termed deemed-to-satisfy (DTS) provisions. All aspects of designing buildings for fire safety are covered–the provision of emergency exits, spacings between buildings, occupant fire fighting measures, detection and alarms, measures for automatic fire suppression, air and smoke handling requirements and last, but not least, requirements for compartmentation and fire resistance levels for structural members. However, there is little evidence that the requirements have been developed from a systematic evaluation of fire safety. Rather it would appear that many of the requirements have been added one to another to deal with another fire incident or to incorporate a new form of technology. There does not appear to have been any real attempt to determine which provision have the most significant influence on fire safety and whether some of the former provisions could be modified.The FRL requirements specified in the DTS provisions are traditionally considered to result in member resistances that will only rarely experience failure in the event of a fire.This is why it is acceptable to use the above arbitrary point in time load combination for assessing members in fire. There have been attempts to evaluate the various deemed-to-satisfy provisions (particularly the fire- resistance requirements)from a fire-engineering perspective taking intoaccount the possible variations in enclosure geometry, opening sizes and fire load (see FCRC, 1999).One of the outcomes of this evaluation was the recognition that deemed-to- satisfy provisions necessarily cover the broad range of buildings and thus must, on average, be quite onerous because of the magnitude of the above variations.It should be noted that the DTS provisions assume that compartmentation works and that fire is limited to a single compartment. This means that fire is normally only considered to exist at one level. Thus floors are assumed to be heated from below and columns only over one storey height.3.5 Performance-Based DesignAn approach that offers substantial benefits for individual buildings is the move towards performance-based regulations. This is permitted by regulations such as the BCA which state that a designer must demonstrate that the particular building will achieve the relevant performance requirements. The prescriptive provisions (i.e. the DTS provisions) are presumed to achieve these requirements. It is necessary to show that any building that does not conform to the DTS provisions will achieve the performance requirements.But what are the performance requirements? Most often the specified performance is simply a set of performance statements (such as with the Building Code of Australia)with no quantitative level given. Therefore, although these statements remind the designer of the key elements of design, they do not, in themselves, provide any measure against which to determine whether the design is adequately safe.Possible acceptance criteria are now considered.3.5.1 Acceptance CriteriaSome guidance as to the basis for acceptable designs is given in regulations such as the BCA. These and other possible bases are now considered in principle.(i)compare the levels of safety (with respect to achieving each of the design objectives) of the proposed alternative solution with those asso- ciated with a corresponding DTS solution for the building.This comparison may be done on either a qualitative or qualitative risk basis or perhaps a combination. In this case, the basis for comparison is an acceptable DTS solution. Such an approach requires a “holistic” approach to safety whereby all aspects relevant to safety, including the structure, are considered. This is, by far, the most common basis for acceptance.(ii)undertake a probabilistic risk assessment and show that the risk associated with the proposed design is less than that associated with common societal activities such as using pub lic transport. Undertaking a full probabilistic risk assessment can be very difficult for all but the simplest situations.Assuming that such an assessment is undertaken it will be necessary for the stakeholders to accept the nominated level of acceptable risk. Again, this requires a “holistic”approach to fire safety.(iii) a design is presented where it is demonstrated that all reasonable measures have been adopted to manage the risks and that any possible measures that have not been adopted will have negligible effect on the risk of not achieving the design objectives.(iv) as far as the building structure is concerned,benchmark the acceptable probability of failure in fire against that for normal temperature design. This is similar to the approach used when considering Building Situation 1 but only considers the building structure and not the effects of flame or smoke spread. It is not a holistic approach to fire safety.Finally, the questions of arson and terrorism must be considered. Deliberate acts of fire initiation range from relatively minor incidents to acts of mass destruction.Acts of arson are well within the accepted range of fire events experienced by build- ings(e.g. 8% of fire starts in offices are deemed "suspicious"). The simplest act is to use a small heat source to start a fire. The resulting fire will develop slowly in one location within the building and will most probably be controlled by the various fire- safety systems within the building. The outcome is likely to be the same even if an accelerant is used to assist fire spread.An important illustration of this occurred during the race riots in Los Angeles in 1992 (Hart 1992) when fires were started in many buildings often at multiple locations. In the case of buildings with sprinkler systems,the damage was limited and the fires significantly controlled.Although the intent was to destroy the buildings,the fire-safety systems were able to limit the resulting fires. Security measures are provided with systems such as sprinkler systems and include:- locking of valves- anti-tamper monitoring- location of valves in secure locationsFurthermore, access to significant buildings is often restricted by security measures.The very fact that the above steps have been taken demonstrates that acts of destruction within buildings are considered although most acts of arson do not involve any attempt to disable the fire-safety systems.At the one end of the spectrum is "simple" arson and at the other end, extremely rare acts where attempts are made to destroy the fire-safety systems along with substantial parts of the building.This can be only achieved through massive impact or the use of explosives. The latter may be achieved through explosives being introduced into the building or from outside by missile attack.The former could result from missile attack or from the collision of a large aircraft. The greater the destructiveness of the act,the greater the means and knowledge required. Conversely, the more extreme the act, the less confidence there can be in designing against suchan act. This is because the more extreme the event, the harder it is to predict precisely and the less understood will be its effects. The important point to recognise is that if sufficient means can be assembled, then it will always be possible to overcome a particular building design.Thus these acts are completely different to the other loadings to which a building is subjected such as wind,earthquake and gravity loading. This is because such acts of destruction are the work of intelligent beings and take into account the characteristics of the target.Should high-rise buildings be designed for given terrorist activities,then terrorists will simply use greater means to achieve the end result.For example, if buildings were designed to resist the impact effects from a certain size aircraft, then the use of a larger aircraft or more than one aircraft could still achieve destruction of the building. An appropriate strategy is therefore to minimise the likelihood of means of mass destruction getting into the hands of persons intent on such acts. This is not an engineering solution associated with the building structure.It should not be assumed that structural solutions are always the most appropriate, or indeed, possible.In the same way, aircrafts are not designed to survive a major fire or a crash landing but steps are taken to minimise the likelihood of either occurrence.The mobilization of large quantities of fire load (the normal combustibles on the floors) simultaneously on numerous levels throughout a building is well outside fire situations envisaged by current fire test standards and prescriptive regulations. Risk management measures to avoid such a possibility must be considered.4 CONCLUSIONSFire differs significantly from other “loads” such as wind, live load and earthquakes i n respect of its origin and its effects.Due to the fact that fire originates from human activities or equipment installed within buildings, it is possible to directly influence the potential effects on the building by reducing the rate of fire starts and providing measures to directly limit fire severity.The design of buildings for fire safety is mostly achieved by following the prescriptive requirements of building codes such as the BCA. For situations that fall outside of the scope of such regulations, or where proposed designs are not in accordance with the prescriptive requirements, it is possible to undertake performance-based fire engineering designs.However, there are no design codes or standards or detailed methodologies available for undertaking such designs.Building regulations require that such alternative designs satisfy performance requirements and give some guidance as to the basis for acceptance of these designs (i.e. acceptance criteria).This paper presents a number of possible acceptance criteria, all of which use the measure of risk level as the basis for comparison.Strictly, when considering the risks。

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Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。

此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。

Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。

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