市场营销外文文献翻译--定义“新产品策略”

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市场营销策略外文文献及翻译

市场营销策略外文文献及翻译Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-marketstrategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiplesegment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, acompany still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entailsselecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagement's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a long way toward determining that product's revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intelunched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match anyclever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or AttributeSometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with or distancing it from a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such as"Madein the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S..3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-qualitycontinuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at theother.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired―and for the most part succeeded in―repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrowerterms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the product of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products.A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark isrecognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Lauren's Polo Brand.Green Giant canned and frozen vegetable products and Arm&Hammer baking soda are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law RevisionAct,which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms.For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that needs to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand alsoinfluences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities Sunkist oranges,Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example .PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through itslife cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the imum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situations.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing fromalternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally,international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution channel―a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job tointermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to targetmarkets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distribution channel moves goods from producers to customers.Itovercomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:rmation.2.Promotion.3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to intermediaries, the producer's costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costsof their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channellevels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size andquality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in adirect channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.PromotionPromotion is one of the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools――advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling――work together to achieve the company'scommunications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers.市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。

市场营销策略Marketing-Strategy大学毕业论文外文文献翻译及原文

毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：市场营销策略文献、资料英文题目：Marketing Strategy文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14市场营销策略1 市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。

然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。

因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。

一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。

市场细分使公司能更加有效地利用其营销资源。

而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。

市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。

但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。

确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。

统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。

采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。

多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。

2 产品定位管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。

因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。

市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。

有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。

以下是几种主要的定位策略：2.1与竞争者相关的定位对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。

该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。

为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。

市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献

市场营销价格策略外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIESAll for-profit organizations and many nonprofit organizations set prices on their goods or services. Whether the price is called rent (for an apartment), tuition (for education), fare (for travel), or interest (for borrowed money), the concept is the same. Throughout most of history, prices were set by negotiation between buyers and sellers.Setting one price for all buyers arose with the development of large-scale retailing at the en d of the nineteenth century, when Woolworth’s and other stores followed a “strictly one-price policy” because they carried so many items and had so many employees.Now, 100 years later, technology is taking us back to an era of negotiated pricing. The Internet, corporate networks, and wireless setups are linking people, machines, andcompanies around the globe, connecting sellers and buyers as never before. Web sites like and allow buyers to compare products and prices quickly and easily. On-line auction sites like and make it easy forbuyers and sellers to negotiate prices on thousands of items. At the same time, new tech-nologies are allowing sellers to collect detailed data about customers’ buying habits, preferences—even spending limits—so they can tailor their products and prices.1In the entire marketing mix, price is the one element that produces revenue; the others produce costs. Price is also one of the most ﬂexible elements: It can be changed quickly, unlike product features and channel commitments. Although price competi- tion is a major problem facing companies, many do not handle pricing well. The most common mistakes are these: Pricing is too cost-oriented; price is not revised oftenenough to capitalize on market changes; price is set independent of the rest of the marketing mix rather than as an intrinsic element of market-positioning strategy; and price is not varied enough for different product items, market segments, and purchase occasions.215Designing PricingStrategies andProgramsWe will address the following questions:■ How should a company price a new good or service?■ How should the price be adapted to meet varying circumstances and opportunities?■ When should the company initiate a p rice change, and how should it respond to competitive price changes?224 CHAPTER 12 DESIGNING PRICING STRATEGIES AND PROGRAMS Value PricingValue pricing is a method in which the company charges a fairly low price for a high- quality offering. Value pricing says that the price should represent a high-value offer toconsumers. This is a major trend in the computer industry, which has shifted from charging top dollar for cutting-edge computers to offering basic computers at lower prices. For instance, Monorail Computer started selling PCs in 1996 for as little as $999to woo price-sensitive buyers. Compaq and others quickly followed suit. More recently,eMachines began selling its PCs for less than $500 without a monitor, targeting the 55 percent of computerless households with annual incomes of $25,000 to $30,000.13Value pricing is not a matter of simply setting lower prices on one’s products compared to those of competitors. It is a matter of reengineering the company’s oper- ations to become a low-cost pro ducer without sacriﬁcing quality, and lowering pricessigniﬁcantly to attract a large number of value-conscious customers. An important typeof value pricing is everyday low pricing (EDLP), which takes place at the retail level. Retailers such as Wal-Mart and use EDLP pricing, posting a constant, everyday low price with few or no temporary price discounts. These constant prices eliminate week-to-week price uncertainty and can be contrasted to the “high-low” pric-ing of promotion-oriented competitors. In high-low pricing, the retailer charges higher prices on an everyday basis but then runs frequent promotions in which prices are temporarily lowered below the EDLP level.14Retailers adopt EDLP for a number of reasons, the most important of which isthat constant sales and promotions are costly and erode consumer conﬁdence in the credibility of everyday prices. Consumers also have less time and patience for such time-honored traditions as watching for specials and clipping coupons. Yet promo- tions are an excellent way to create excitement and draw shoppers. For this reason, EDLP is not a guarantee of success. As supermarkets face heightened competition from store rivals and alternative channels, many are drawing shoppers using a combi- nation of high-low and EDLP strategies, with increased advertising and promotions.15Going-Rate PricingIn going-rate pricing, the ﬁrm bases its price largely on competitors’ prices. The ﬁrm might charge the same, more, or less than its major competitor(s) charges. In oligop- olistic industries that sell a commodity such as steel, paper, or fertilizer, ﬁrms normallycharge the same price. The smaller firms “follow the leader,” changing their prices when the market leader’s prices change rather than when their own dema nd or costs change. Some ﬁrms may charge a slight premium or slight discount, but they typically preserve the amount of difference. When costs are difﬁcult to measure or competitive response is uncertain, ﬁrms feel that the going price represents a good so lution, sinceit seems to reﬂect the industry’s collective wisdom as to the price that will yield a fair return and not jeopardize industrial harmony.Sealed-Bid PricingCompetitive-oriented pricing is common when ﬁrms submit sealed bids for jobs. In biddi ng, each ﬁrm bases its price on expectations of how competitors will price rather than on a rigid relationship to the firm’s own costs or demand. Sealed-bid pricing involves two opposite pulls. The ﬁrm wants to win the contract—which means submit-ting the lowest price—yet it cannot set its price below cost.To solve this dilemma, the company would estimate the proﬁt and the probabil-ity of winning with each price bid. By multiplying the proﬁt by the probability of win- ning the bid on the basis of that pr ice, the company can calculate the expected proﬁt for each bid. For a ﬁrm that makes many bids, this method is a way of playing the oddsSetting the Price 225to achieve maximum proﬁts in the long run. However, ﬁrms that bid only occasionally or that badly want to win certain contracts will not find it advantageous to use the expected-proﬁt criterion.Step 6: Selecting the Final PriceThe previous pricing methods narrow the range from which the company selects its ﬁnal price. In selecting that price, the company must consider additional factors: psy- chological pricing, the inﬂuence of other marketing-mix elements on price, company pricing policies, and the impact of price on other parties.Psychological PricingMany consumers use price as an indicator of quality. Image pricing is especially effec-tive with ego-sensitive products such as perfumes and expensive cars. A $100 bottle ofperfume might contain $10 worth of scent, but gift givers pay $100 to communicate their high regard for the receiver. Similarly, price and quality perceptions of cars inter- act:16 Higher-priced cars are perceived to possess high quality; higher-quality cars are likewise perceived to be higher priced than they actually are. In general, when infor- mation about true quality is unavailable, price acts as a signal of quality.When looking at a particular product, buyers carry in their minds a reference price formed by noticing current prices, past prices, or the buying context. Sellers often manipulate these reference prices. For example, a seller can situate its product among expensive products to imply that it belongs in the same class. Reference-price thinkingis also created by stating a high manufacturer’s suggested price, by indicating that the product was priced much higher ori ginally, or by pointing to a rival’s high price.17Often sellers set prices that end in an odd number, believing that customers whosee a television priced at $299 instead of $300 will perceive the price as being in the $200 range rather than the $300 range. Another explanation is that odd endings con- vey the notion of a discount or bargain, which is why both and set prices ending in 99. But if a company wants a high-price image instead of a low- price image, it should avoid the odd-ending tactic.The Inﬂuence of Other Marketing-Mix ElementsThe ﬁnal price must take into account the brand’s quality and advertising relative to competition. When Farris and Reibstein examined the relationships among relative price, relative quality, and relative advertising for 227 consumer businesses, they foundthat brands with average relative quality but high relative advertising budgets were able to charge premium prices. Consumers apparently were willing to pay higher prices for known products than for unknown products. They also found that brands with high relative quality and high relative advertising obtained the highest prices, while brands with low quality and advertising charged the lowest prices. Finally, the positive relationship between high prices and high advertising held most strongly in the later stages of the product life cycle for market leaders.18 Smart marketers there-fore ensure that their prices ﬁt with other marketing-mix elements.定价战略以营利为目的的组织和非营利组织的都对他们的商品或服务制定价格。

市场营销策略外文文献及翻译

市场营销-外文翻译

外文原文[1]Sales IncentivesThe enthusiasm and drive required in most types of sales work demand that sales employees be highly motivated. This fact, as well as the competitive nature of selling, explains why financial incentives for salespeople are widely used. These incentive plans must provide a source of motivation that will elicit cooperation and trust. Motivation is particularly important for employees away from the office who cannot be supervised closely and who, as a result, must exercise a high degree of self-discipline.Unique Needs of Sales Incentive PlansIncentive systems for salespeople are complicated by the wide differences in the types of sales jobs. These range from department store clerks who ring up customer purchases to industrial salespeople from McGraw-Edison who provide consultation and other highly technical services. Salespeople's performance may be measured by the dollar volume of their sales and by their ability to establish new accounts. Other measures are the ability to promote new products or services and to provide various forms of customer service and assistance that do not produce immediate sales revenues.Performance standards for sales employees are difficult to develop, however, because their performance is often affected by external factors beyond their control. Economic and seasonal fluctuations, sales competition, changes in demand, and the nature of the sales territory can all affect an individual's sales record. Sales volume alone therefore may not be an accurate indicator of the effort salespeople have expended.In developing incentive plans for salespeople, managers are also confronted with the problem of how to reward extra sales effort and at the same time compensate for activities that do not contribute directly or immediately to sales. Furthermore, sales employees must be able to enjoy some degree of income stability.[2]360-degree performance assessmentEnterprises exist mainly in the pursuit of profit, the pursuit of growth, and achieve sustainable business purposes. But in the course of business of raw materials, capital and equipment are required by the "person" can operate. Therefore, how to let the limited raw materials, equipment, and funds created endless profits, human resources play a very important role. A lot of human resources in enterprises, "manager" towards the success of the enterprise is at stake. The manager must often make many in the management decision-making, although the correct decision-making enterprises to be another peak, but it may be the wrong decision based company accumulated overnight. Therefore, how to understand the manager in an appropriate manner to the management, development and recognition of their request on a corporate human resources management a very important task.What is an assessmentComprehensive assessment, also known as the "360-degree performance appraisal system," the earliest known "symbol of the United States forces" model enterprise Intel first proposed and implemented. It refers to the staff themselves, supervisors, direct subordinates, peers, colleagues and even customers, the all-round perspective of the performance of individual understanding : communication skills, interpersonal, leadership and administrative capabilities : : Through this ideal performance assessment, the assessment was not only from those who own, supervisors, subordinates, colleagues and even customers to obtain feedback from a variety of angles. The feedback from these can be clearly aware of their different shortcomings, strengths and development needs, so that future career development more smoothly. I personally think : to assess the way many managers, but "360-degree evaluation - management skills" may be the best.What is self-evaluationThe so-called self-evaluation means : Let the manager's performance against its own performance in the period, or to assess their performance based on the performance and capacity of the future and set goals accordingly. When employees to do their own assessment, usually lower self-defense awareness and thereby understand his own shortcomings and thereby to strengthen, develop or add to their own inadequacies.Generally speaking, employees are usually the result of self-assessment and evaluation of different supervisors. And the evaluation of supervisors or colleagues compared regular staff will give their own high scores. Therefore, the use of self-assessment should be particularly careful. In return for the higher self-assessment, evaluation and staff should know that their self-assessment may have differences, and may form the rigid positions of the two sides, and this is the use of self-assessment should pay particular attention to the matter.Members of the evaluationMembers of the evaluation is to assess the performance of each of my colleagues that the way to achieve performance evaluation purposes. For some work, sometimes with the superior and subordinate time and communication opportunities, but not between subordinate. In such superior and subordinate contacts are short of time, have very little communication between the cases, superior to the performance assessment will be very difficult to establish. But on the contrary, among subordinates work together for a long time, they will understand each other more than superior and subordinate. At this time, among them mutual assessment, but can more objective. Moreover, the return on each other between, let them know that they can be in interpersonal communication capacity in this respect. For example, the foreign invested enterprises in Beijing a performance evaluation methods, it contains a peer evaluation. According to the company's Human Resources Manager said that in assessing the accuracy of the appraisal method, and not higher than the appraisal results for the poor. And peer evaluation forms can also fill his subordinates to assess mistakes. And the assessment results, but also for my colleagues in the eyes of their subordinates understand themselves in teamwork, interpersonal, how performance. In addition the company also said that if performanceassessment results for selected personnel, peer evaluation in this way often meet people convinced that the results.Subordinate evaluationBy the Ministry to evaluate supervisors, the traditional concept of human resources, workers seem to be a bit incredible. However, as the development of the knowledge-based economy, a growing number of companies allow employees to assess their level of competence performance, the process known as upward feedback (positive feedback). This approach to performance assessment of the development potential for the development of superior, particularly valuable. Feedback through subordinate managers, clearly aware of their need to strengthen local management capacity what? If their own understanding and direction for the evaluation of the gap between too much, can address this gap competent, in-depth understanding of these reasons. Therefore, some experts believe that human resources management, subordinate to the higher authorities for the assessment of its management will be a great benefit to the development.Customer evaluationClients in the evaluation of services, marketing, personnel of particular importance. Because only the most clear customer relations staff in customer service, marketing skills and attitude to performance. Therefore, in similar related industries, the performance assessment system in the evaluation could be included in the assessment system customers.In fact, the number of services (for example : the financial industry, catering industry, etc.) often use such performance assessment (such as the selection of best service personnel). Because service quality of service, customer service attitude by most clearly. As far as I know, many renowned domestic companies customer service department will periodically to sample the way, please assess the customer service performance of the company customer service personnel. For the evaluation ofFor the assessment of our performance evaluation is the most common way that performance is assessed by a competent implementation. As for the need to become familiar with the assessment methods, and use of performance assessment results as guidance units, the development potential of important commands weapons.[1] George Bohlander sott snell Managing Human Resources[M]. Dongbai University of Finance& Economics press 2003.10 P437-438[2] George Bohlander sott snell Managing Human Resources[M]. Dongbai University of Finance& Economics press 2003.10 P343-345外文译文[1]销售人员的激励各种类型的销售工作所必需的热情与动力要求销售人员得到高度激励。

市场营销外文文献翻译定义“新产品策略” 中英文版

中文翻译：定义“新产品策略”罗伯特G·库珀摘要：新产品对于大多公司的成长和生存至关重要。

新产品策略是公司的主要计划，它指导公司的产品创新力度，并链接企业的新产品开发计划。

本文首先探讨什么是产品创新策略，其在公司中的作用，以及为什么创新策略是一个有效的新产品计划必不可少的一部分。

接下来，本文着重于一个新产品策略的发展过程，从开发目标产品开始和再到产品开发领域的选择。

文章使用到矩阵方法去定义和选择产品开发的领域。

来源于笔者的实证研究数据在优先选择新产品开发的领域的模型中将会被用到。

一、简介新产品是现代企业发展和繁荣的核心。

越来越多的有见地的管理者认识到，一个新产品或新技术战略应该成为企业策略的明确和中心要素。

这篇文章是关于在企业层面上的新产品策略——关于对一个新的产品策略的需求和关于定义和开发这样一个战略。

二、新产品策略的重要性新产品开发和技术通过帮助定义公司决策的范畴，对公司的战略性思维起到支撑性的完整的关系作用。

对于许多公司来说，新的产品和技术已成为企业战略、开辟新的市场、新的商业机会的先驱。

无数在办公室的未来，生物工程，微电子，机器人快速增长的公司表明，一个精心构思的新产品战略具有潜在发展势头。

同样地，今天的许多企业巨头，如IBM，施乐，宝丽来德州仪器，在几十年前羽翼未丰的公司，如今能成为伟大的公司，就是因为管理者在早期做出了新产品决策。

在开发和推出新产品上最有可能取得成功的公司就是那些明确核心新产品策略，为之实施公司的具体做法，驱使和带动企业目标及策略的公司。

这些都是一些布兹- 艾伦和汉密尔顿的关于商业惯例的研究结论。

还有其他发现，在企业成功要素上，产品创新策略也起到至关重要的作用。

有些公司制定这样的策略。

例如，克劳福德在研究了125家公司后的研究结果中提出了产品创新章程。

他指出，公司现在开始在一个文件中一起推出一个具有多功能元素的新产品策略，这个策略指定了市场类型，产品，技术和公司在新产品项目上追求的方向。

市场营销英文版13Product Strategy

However, be careful. Overpromising and under delivering through warranties and guarantees can be a big money loser.
Product Strategy
New Products
What is a new product for a company?
Product Strategy
Warranties and guarantees:
A warranty is a formal statement of expected product performance by the manufacturer. They are legally enforceable.
Product Strategy
Most products have life spans, meaning they can be marketable for weeks or decades, but at a certain point in time in the future consumers will no longer be interested in the product and buy it. These life spans often are referred to as the product life cycle.
products • Re-positioning • Cost reductions
Product Strategy
Most new products fail. Reasons: • Market/marketing failure (small size of the potential

市场营销战略外文翻译文献

文献信息：文献标题：Marketing strategy：From the origin of the concept to the development of a conceptual framework（市场营销战略：从概念的起源到概念框架的发展）国外作者：Eric H. Shaw文献出处：《Journal of Historical Research in Marketing》,2012, 4(1):30-55字数统计：英文1716单词，9394字符；中文3209汉字外文文献：Marketing strategy：From the origin of the concept to the development of a conceptual frameworkEarly marketing strategy conceptsBefore marketing strategy developed as an off-shoot of marketing management in the 1970s, even before marketing management emerged as a school of thought in the 1960s to replace the traditional approaches to marketing (Bartels, 1988; Sheth et al., 1988; Shaw and Jones, 2005), a few isolated concepts were developed in the 1950s literature that form the core of modern marketing strategy. These seminal concepts include: Borden’s (1957, 1964) expression of the “marketing mix,”Smith’s (1956) development of “product differentiation”and “market segmentation”as alternative marketing strategies, Dean’s (1951) conception of “skimming”and “penetration”as alternative pricing (that he extended to the whole marketing mix) strategies, and Forrester’s (1959) description of the “product life cycle (PLC).”Corporate strategy conceptsThe strategic concepts discussed so far (the marketing mix, skimming and penetration, differentiation and segmentation, and the PLC), were created by economists and marketing scholars and gained popularity in early marketing management textbooks. The following strategic concepts, Andrews’SWOT, Ansoff’s growth strategies, Porter’s generic strategies, and Henderson’s product portfolio model, were developed for corporate management, not marketing management. Because marketing strategy is a major component of corporate strategy there is overlap, but these two areas are not isomorphic. Nevertheless, corporate strategy concepts have been shoehorned intact into subsequent generations of marketing textbooks from the 1970s and 1980s to the present. It is largely shoehorning of borrowed concepts that has created the present state of isolated bits and pieces of marketing strategy rather than the development of an overarching conceptual framework.Framework for marketing strategyHaving followed the literature and dissected marketing strategy terms, this section integrates the concepts into a framework that identifies alternative marketing strategies at different stages of the PLC and under various SWOT conditions.Market introduction strategiesAt introduction, the marketing strategist has two principle strategies to choose from: penetration or niche. A penetration strategy (Dean, 1951; Ansoff, 1965) emphasizes an aggressive marketing mix for a mass market or a large segment of the market. As the term has been developed in this research, a penetration strategy is not limited to a current product in a current market (Ansoff) or just a low introductory price (Dean). A penetration strategy involves using the marketing mix aggressively. Although every mix element need not be aggressive, a penetration strategy should include some combination of a no-frills product, minimal service, low price, high promotional expenditures and intensive distribution effort. A penetration strategy, following Andrew’s SWOT, is ideal for large firms with strong financial resources facing a large and growing market, price sensitive customers with minimal brandawareness or preference, many potential competitors and few barriers to entry. A penetration strategy will work from the introduction into the growth stage and perhaps as late as the early maturity stage of the PLC. As an offering approaches maturity, however, high marketing mix expenditures cannot be sustained as sales growth slows and marginal costs rise more rapidly than marginal revenue.Alternatively, a niche strategy (Kotler, 1980; Porter, 1980; McCarthy, 1981) focuses on a narrowly defined customer segment and is ideal for smaller firms with limited resources. The niche strategy expands Porter’s “focus”(Porter, 1980) or “narrow target segment”(Porter, 1990) strategy and incorporates Dean’s (1951) price skimming but from the angle of a market segment’s price sensitivity. Although a segmentation-oriented strategy, the marketing mix aimed at a niche is largely dictated by company and market considerations. With the niche strategy (Alderson, 1957; confusingly termed concentrated segmentation by Kotler, 1976) a firm targets a narrowly defined customer segment. The marketing mix typically involves a custom tailored product offering, a high price, and given the small-sized customer base, promotional expenditures are focused and thereby relatively low, with selective or exclusive distribution coverage. This strategy works well in smaller segments requiring higher profit margins to compensate for lack of sales volume, when customers are insensitive to price, can easily be made aware of the brand with minimal promotional effort, and the firm can create some barriers to entry resulting in few direct competitors. The niche strategy can be highly profitable, even in very small segments, because it combines high price with low marketing mix expenditures (Kotler, 1980). This strategy has the added virtue of allowing pin-point timing. A niche strategy does not require a lot of set-up and breakdown time, effort or money, allowing a firm to move in and out of the market quickly. Taking advantage of “windows of opportunity”(Abell, 1978), a niche is therefore potentially profitable at virtually any stage of the life cycle from introduction to decline. For example, the General Pencil Company (GPC) founded in 1889, produced a high quality lead pencil (once the standard bearer of the ubiquitous No. 2 pencil), but since pencils have become a throw-away, even single-use product, GPC was unable to compete withcheap imports on price. Facing a declining market, for a commodity type product, GPC found their niche –artists and illustrators who required a harder more durable lead in their pencil and were willing to pay a premium price for a higher quality product.Market growth strategiesIn the early growth stage, the marketing manager may choose from two additional strategic alternatives: segment expansion (Smith, Ansoff) or brand expansion (Borden, Ansoff, Kerin and Peterson, 1978). In segment expansion, the strategist adds new targets (each with their own marketing mixes) to the market segments already served. A classic example was Toyota’s Crown automobile entering the US market in 1956 with a niche strategy –a single marketing mix targeted at a single segment –economy conscious sub-compact auto buyers. After gaining a toehold in the market, it used segment expansion to go beyond its niche, offering brands for multiple segments, including the sub-compact, compact, mid-size, large size and sports-car segments. Ultimately targeting across-the-board, it aimed a marketing mix at virtually all auto and small truck market segments, and even developed the separate Lexus brand to target the luxury auto segment. Although also a form of segment expansion, it is useful to separate geographics from other forms of segmentation, such as demographics, psycho-graphics, sociographics, and behavioral characteristics. In geographic expansion, firms shift their sights from local, to regional, to national, to international, to global customer targets. This strategy is increasingly used when growth slows down as local (or domestic) markets approach maturity.Similar to expanding segments, another strategic alternative in the growth stage involves brand expansion. This strategy adds new products or variations to the line, offering the customer segment more choice, or it provides additional services, such as delivery or gift wrapping, to offer customers greater value.During the late growth stage, sales are still growing rapidly, but hit an inflection point where they shift from increasing at an accelerating rate to increasing at a de-accelerating rate. In markets growing very rapidly, this shift in the rate of growth often produces a competitive turbulence (Wasson, 1974), in which an industryshake-out occurs, because of excess capacity. During this turbulence another strategy is often called for –a differentiation strategy. If not used in late growth, as firms jockey for advantage, then differentiation is often employed in the maturity stage, discussed next.Market maturity strategiesIn maturity, sales growth slows, stabilizes and starts to decline. In early maturity, it is common to employ a maintenance strategy (BCG), where the firm maintains or holds a stable marketing mix. This is common in oligopoly industries, where a small number of firms hold a large share of the market. Satisfied with maintaining their market share and milking profits, these firms prefer not to rock the boat. If firms can preserve a rough equilibrium, a maintenance strategy could work until sales decline to meet costs. But maintenance is a rather passive strategy subject to a shake-up by an aggressive competitor.If a firm wants to shuffle the deck, differentiation offers an aggressive but affordable strategy in maturity (Smith, Porter). It involves a firm using one or more elements of the marketing mix to enhance purchase value for its customers. For example, product quality could be improved, price lowered to offer greater economy, upscale advertising media employed to create more brand prestige or distribution outlets added to provide greater customer convenience. Although aggressive, differentiation is far less forceful and far less expensive than a penetration strategy. Because it involves more marketing mix finesse and need not be expensive, a differentiation strategy could work at virtually any stage of the life cycle, from growth into decline.As a firm moves further along the maturity curve, a harvesting strategy (Henderson, 1970; Kotler, 1978) becomes an option if not a necessity. Typically, as a market shifts from early to late maturity, a maintenance strategy evolves into a harvesting strategy. In harvesting, marketing mix effort is reduced following the declining sales, and the brand remains a cash cow as long as the cost reductions are more than (or at least) proportional to the declining sales.Market decline strategiesAt some point the decline in sales approaches and then begins to exceed costs. And not just accounting costs, there are hidden costs as well; as Kotler (1965, p. 109) observed:No financial accounting can adequately convey all the hidden costs.At some point, with declining sales and rising costs, a harvesting strategy becomes unprofitable and a divesting strategy necessary.Although if a firm is one of the “last men standing”it may remain a “profitable survivor”(Kotler, 1997) in the market, if most of the competition has dropped out, if there are a sufficient number of laggards with purchasing power and a desire to buy lingering in the market, and if the costs of serving these remaining customers stays low. This is essentially an extreme harvesting strategy. Non-filter cigarettes or double edge razor blades provide examples of how a few competitors have survived in slowly declining markets. Eventually, as customers die out, marketing mix expenditures decline to zero and the brand is removed from the market.中文译文：市场营销战略：从概念的起源到概念框架的发展早期市场营销战略的概念在20世纪70年代市场营销战略作为营销管理的一个分支之前，甚至在20世纪60年代营销管理成为一个学派以取代传统的营销方法之前（巴特尔斯，1988；谢思等人，1988；肖和琼斯，2005），20世纪50年代的文献中就形成了一些独立的概念，这些概念构成了现代市场营销战略的核心。

市场营销原理外文翻译外文文献英文文献

本科毕业论文外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：New-Product Pricing Strategies 文献、资料来源：著作文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.4外文文献：Principles of Marketing1.New-Product Pricing StrategiesPricing strategies usually change as the product passes through its life cycle. The introductory stage is especially challenging. We can distinguish between pricing a product that imitates existing products and pricing an innovative product that is patent protected.A company that plans to develop an imitative new product faces a product-positioning problem. It must decide where to position the product versus positioning strategies. First，the company might decide to use a premium pricing competing products in terms of quality and price. Figure 17.1 shows four possible strategy - producing a high-quality product and charging the highest price. At the other extreme，it might decide on an economy pricing strategy - producing a lower-quality product，but charging a low price. These strategies can coexist in the same market as long as the market consists of at least two groups of buyers，those who seek quality and those who seek price. Thus，Tag-Heuer offers very high-quality sports watches at high prices，whereas Casio offers digital watches at almost throwaway prices.Companies bringing out an innovative，patent-protected product face the challenge of setting prices for the first time. They can choose between two strat-egies：market-shimming pricing and market-penetration pricing.(1) Market-Skimming PricingMany companies that invent new products initially set high prices to 'skim'revenues layer by layer from the market. Intel is a prime user of this strategy，called market-skimming pricing. When Intel first introduces a new computer chip，it charges the highest price it can，given，the benefits of the new chip over competing chips. It sets a price that makes it just worthwhile for some segments of the market to adopt computers containing the chip. As initial sales slow down and as competitors threaten to introduce similar chips，Intel lowers the price to draw in the nest price-sensitive layer of customers.(2) Market-Penetration PricingRather than setting a high initial price to skim off small but profitable market segments，some companies use market-penetration pricing. They set a low initial price in order topenetrate the market quickly and deeply - to attract a large number of buyers quickly and win a large market share. The high sales volume results in falling costs，allowing the company to cut its price even further. For example，Dell and Dan used penetration pricing to sell high-quality computer products through lower-cost mail-order channels. Their sales soared when IBM，Compaq，Apple and other competitors selling through retail stores could not match their prices. The Bank of Scotland and Winterthur of Switzerland used their Direct Line，Privilege and Churchill subsidiaries to grab profits and share in the motor insurance market by selling direct to consumers at market-penetrating prices. The high volume results in lower costs that，in turn，allow the discounters to keep prices low.Several conditions favour setting a low price. First，the market must be highly price sensitive，so that a low price produces more market growth. Second，production and distribution costs must fall as sales volume increases. Finally，the low price must help keep out the competition - otherwise the price advantage may he only temporary. For example，Dell faced difficult times when IBM and Compaq established their own direct distribution channels.2.Product-Mix Pricing StrategiesThe strategy for setting a product's price often has to he changed when the product is part of a product mix. In this case，the firm looks for a set of prices that maximizes the profits on the total product mix. Pricing is difficult because the various products have related demand and costs，and face different degrees of competition.(1) Product Line PricingCompanies usually develop product lines rather than single products. For example，Merloni's sells Indesit，Ariston and Seholte with price and –status ascending in that order. There arc full ranges of Indesit to Ariston appliances，from washing machines to freezers，covering the first two price hands，while Scholte sells expensive built-in kitchen equipment. Kodak offers not just one type of film，hut an assortment including regular Kodak film，higher-priced Kodak Royal Gold film for special occasions，and a lower-priced，seasonal film called Runtime that competes with store brands. Each of these brands is available in a variety of sizes and film speeds. In product line pricing，management must decidion the price steps to set between the various products in a line.The price steps should take into account cost differences between the prod-ucts in the line，customer evaluations of their different features and competitors' prices. If the price difference between two successive products is small，buyers will usually buy the more advanced product. This will increase company profits if the cost difference is smaller than the price difference. If the price difference is large，however，customers will generally buy the less advanced products.(2) Optional-Product PricingMany companies use optional-pro duet pricing - offering to sell optional or acces-sory products along with their main product. For example，a ear buyer may choose to order power windows，cruise control and a radio with a CD player. Pricing these options is a sticky problem. Car companies have to decide which items to include in the base price and which to offer as options. BMWs basic cars come famously under equipped. Typically the 318i is about DM40，000，but the customer then has to pay extra for a radio (prices vary)，electric windows (DM700)，sun roof (DM! ，800) and security system (DM1，100). The basic model is stripped of so many comforts and conveniences that most buyers reject it. The pay for extras or buy a better-equipped version. More recently，however，American and European car makers have been forced to follow the example of the Japanese car makers and include in the basic price many useful items previously sold only as options. The advertised price now often represents a well-equipped car.(3) Cap Live-Pro duct PricingCompanies that make products that must be used along with a main product are using captive-product pricing. Examples of captive products are razors，camera film and computer software. Producers of the main products (razors，cameras and computers) often price them low and set high mark-ups on the supplies. Thus Polaroid prices its cameras low because it makes its money on the film it sells. And Gillette sells low-priced razors，but makes money on the replacement blades. Camera makers that do not sell film have to price their main products higher inorder to make the same overall profit.(4) By-Product PricingIn producing proeessed meats，petroleum products，chemicals and other products，there are often by-products. If the by-products have no value and if getting rid of them is costly，this will affect the pricing of the main product. Using by-product pricing，the manufacturer willseek a market for these by-products and should accept any price that covers more than the cost of storing and delivering；them. This practice allows the seller to reduce the main product's price to make It more competitive. By-products can even turn out to be profitable. For example，many lumber mills have begun to sell bark chips and sawdust profitably as decorative mulch for home and commercial landscaping.Sometimes companies don't realize how valuable their by-products are. For example，most Zoos don't realize that one of their by-products –their occupants' manure - can be an excellent source of additional revenue. But the Zoo-Doo Compost Company has helped many zoos understand the costs and opportunities involved with these by-products. Zoo-Dolicenses its name to zoos and receives royalties on manure sales. 'Manyzoos don't even know how much manure they are producing or the cost of disposing of it，' explains president and founder Fierce Ledbetter. Zoos are often so pleased with any savings they can find on disposal that they don't think to move into active by-product sales. However，sales of the fragrant by-product can be substantial. So far novelty sales have been the largest，with tiny containers of Zoo Doo (and even 'Love，Love Me Doo'valentines) available in 160 zoo stores and 700 additional retail outlets. For the long-term market，Zoo-Doo looks to organic gardeners who buy15 to 70 pounds of manure at a time. Zoo Doo is already planning a 'Dung of the Month' club to reach these lucrative by-product markets.(5) Product-Bundle PricingUsing，product-bundle pricing，sellers often combine several of their products and offer the bundle at a reduced price. Thus theatres and sports teams sell seas on tickets at less than the cost of single tickets；hotels sell specially priced packages that include room，meals and entertainment；computer makers in elude attractives of ware packages with their personal computers. Price bundling can promote the sales of products that consumers might not otherwise buy，but the combined price must be low enough to get them to buy the bundle. "In other cases，product-bundle pricing is used to sell more than the customer really wants. Obtaining a ticket to an exclusive sports event is difficult，but World Cup football finals tickets are available to people willing to buy them bundled with a supersonic Concorde flight.3. Price-Adjustment StrategiesCompanies usually adjust their basic prices to account for various customer differencesand changing situations. Seven price-adjustment strategics：discount and allowance pricing，segmented pricing，psychological pricing，promotional pricing，-value pricing，geographical pricing and international pricing.(1) Discount and Allowance PricingMost companies adjust their basic price to reward customers for certain responses，such as early payment of bills，volume purchases and off-season buying. These price adjustments - called discounts and allowances - can take many forms.A cash discount is a price reduction to buyers who pay their bills promptly，Atypical example is '2/10，net 30'. which means that although payment is due within 30 days，the buyer can deduct 2 per cent if the hill is paid within 10 days. The discount must be granted to all buyers meeting these terms. Such discounts are customary in many industries and help to improve the sellers' cash situation and reduce bad debts and credit-collection costs.A quantity discount is a price reduction to buyers who buy large volumes. Atypical example might be 'K10 per unit for less than 100 units，$9 per unit for 100or more units'. Wine merchants often give 'twelve for the price of eleven' andMakro，the trade warehouse，automatically gives discounts on any product bought in bulk. Discounts provide an incentive to the customer to buy more from one given seller，rather than from many different sources.A quantity premium is sometimes charged to people buying higher volumes. In Japan it often costs more per item to buy a twelve-pack of beer or sushi than smaller quantities because the larger packs are more gift able and therefore less price sensitive. Quantity surcharges can also oecur when die product being bought is in short supply or in sets - for example，several seats together at a 'sold-out' rock concert or sports event - and some small restaurants charge a premium to large groups. Similarly，in buying antiques，it costs more to buy six complete place settings of cutlery than a single item. In this case the price will continue toincrease with volume，eight place settings costing more than six，and twelve place settings costing more than eight. Quantity premiums are more common than people imagine，and that is why they work. Consumers expect prices to deerease with volume and so do not check unit prices. This allows retailers to slip in high-margin items. Quantity surcharge increases with the variety and complexity of pack sizes and，in some markets，over 30 per cent of ranges include some quantity surcharging.A trade discount (also called a functional discount) is offered by the seller to trade channel members that perform certain functions，such as selling，storing and record keeping. Manufacturers may offer different functional discounts to different trade channels because of the varying services they perform，but manufacturers must offer the same functional discounts within each trade channel.A seasonal discount is a price discount to buyers who buy merchandise orservices out of season. For example，lawn and garden equipment manufacturers will offer seasonal discounts to retailers during the autumn and winter to encourage early ordering in anticipation of the heavy spring and summer selling seasons. Hotels,motels and airlines will offer seasonal discounts in their slower selling periods. Seasonal discounts allow the seller to keep production steady during the entire year.Allowances are another type of reduction from the list price. For example，trade-in allowances are price reductions given for turning in an old item when buying a new one. Trade-in allowances are most common in the car industry，but are also given for othe rdurable goods. Promotional allowances are payments or price reductions to reward dealers for participating in advertising and sales-support programmes.(2) Segmented PricingCompanies will often adjust their basic prices to allow for differences in customers，products and locations. In segmented pricing，the company sells aproduct or service at two or more prices，even though the difference in prices is not based on differences in costs. Segmented pricing takes several forms：* Customer-segment pricing. Different customers pay different prices for thesame product or service. Museums，for example，will charge a lower admission for young people，the unwaged，students and senior citizens. Inmany parts of the world，tourists pay more to see museums，shows andnational monuments than do locals.* Product-form pricing. Different versions of the product are priced differently，but not according to differences in their costs. For instance，the Dutch company Skil prices its 6434H electric drill at DF1200，which isDF1125 more than the price .of its 6400H. The 6434H is more powerful and has more features，yet this extra power and features cost only a few more guilders to build in.* Location pricing. Different locations are priced differently，even though the cost of offering each location is the same. For instance，theatres vary theirs cat prices because of audience preferences for certain locations and EU universities charge higher tuition fees for non-EU students.* Time pricing. Prices vary by the season，the month，the day and even the hour. Public utilities vary their prices to commercial users by time of day and weekend versus weekday. The telephone company offers lower 'off-peak' charges and resorts give seasonal discounts.For segmented pricing to be an effective strategy，certain conditions must exist. The market must be segmen table and the segments must show different degrees of demand. Members of the segment paying the lower price should not beably to turn around and resell the product to the segment paying the higher price.Competitors should not be able to undersell the firm in the segment being charged the higher price. Nor should the costs of segmenting and watching the market exceed the extra revenue obtained from the price difference. The practice should not lead to customer resentment and ill will. Finally，the segmented pricing must he legal.(3) Promotional PricingWith promotional pricing，companies will temporarily price their products below list price and sometimes even below cost. Promotional pricing takes several forms. Supermarkets and department stores will price a few products as toss leaders to attract customers to the store in the hope that they will buy other items at normal mark-ups. Kellers will also use special-event pricing in certain seasons to draw in more customers. Thus linens are promotionally priced every January to attract weary Christmas shoppers back into the stores. Manufacturers will sometimes offer cash rebates to consumers who buy the product from dealers within a specified time；the manufacturer sends the rebate directly to the customer. Rebates have recently been popular with car makers and producers of durable goods and small appliances. Some manufacturers offer low-interest financing，longer warranties or free maintenance to reduce the consumer's price'. This practice has recently become a favourite of the car industry. Or，the seller may simply offer discounts from normal prices to increase sales and reduce inventories.Pricing strategies and tactics form an important element of a company's marketing mix. Insetting prices，companies must carefully consider a great many internal and external factors before choosing a price that will give them the greatest competitive advantage in selected target markets. However，companies are not usually free to charge whatever prices they wish. Several laws restrict pricing practices and a number of ethical considerations affect pricing decisions. Pricing strategies and tactics also depend upon the way that we pay for things. Increasingly what we spend does not depend on how much money we have on us or how much we earned that week. These days our money is rarely something we sec or feel；it is the electronic transmission of data between files. Also，as currency is becoming an increasingly small part of our lives，barter is coming back in international and interpersonal dealing. Marketing Highlight 17，3 tells more about how money is changing.中文译文：市场营销原理第一节新产品定价策略定价策略在产品生命周期的不同阶段常常要改变，尤其是产品的新生期极具挑战性。

营销策略业务英文文献及翻译

营销策略业务英文文献及翻译1 IntroductionMarketing continues to be a mystery to those who create it and to those who sponsor it. Often, the ad t hat generates record-breaking volume for a retail store one month is repeated the following month and b ombs. A campaign designed by the best Madison Avenue ad agency may elicit mediocre response. The s ame item sells like hotcakes after a 30-word classified ad, with abominable grammar, appears on page 35 of an all-advertising shopper tossed on the front stoops of homes during a rainstorm! The mystery elude s solution but demands attention. The success of an enterprise and development of enterprises depends to a large extent on whether or not they have advanced, meet the needs of the enterprise marketing strateg y. For Marketing is the definition, The well-known American scholar Philips marketing of the core marke ting concept of the following description : "Marketing is individuals or groups to create, provide and exc hange with other valuable products, to satisfy their own needs and desires of a social activities and mana gement process. " In the core concept contains a number of elements: needs, desires and needs; Products or provide; Value and satisfaction; exchange and transactions; and networking; market; Marketing and sa les were a series of concept.This article is devoted to the idea that your marketing results can be improved through a better Understa nding of your customers. This approach usually is referred to as the marketing concept.Putting the customer first is probably the most popular phrase used by firms ranging from giant conglom erates to the corner barber shop, but the slogan zing is often just lip service. The business continues to operate under the classic approach -- "Come buy this great product，if you dedicate your activities e xclusively to solving your customer's problems. The quality of services, and enterprises to culti vate customers satisfaction and loyalty, and can create enterprise value.Any marketing program has a better chance of being productive if it is timed, designed and w ritten to solve a problem for potential customers and is carried out in a way that the customer understands and trusts. The pages that follow will present the marketing concept of putting th e customer first. Marketing is a very complex subject; it deals with all the steps between deter mining customer needs and supplying them at a profit. In addition to some introductory materi al on marketing, this publication includes practical material on the marketing approaches to bu dgeting, layout design, and headline writing, copywriting and media analysis. So that a clear u nderstanding of enterprise marketing strategy to improve the operations of enterprises.2 The marketing conceptMarket positioning is identifying the target market, enterprises will adopt what marketing m ethods, which provide products and services the target market and competitors to show distincti on, thereby establishing corporate image and obtain favorable competitive position. Market posit ioning is a process of enterprise differentiation process, how to find the differences, identify di fferences and show differences. Today too many similar products, consumers how to choose? Consumers buy what is the justification? On the effective positioning for a solution. Positionin g is the first to propose in the advertising industry, advertising emphasized in the eyes of the public who left the location, And people often prefer preconceptions; If enterprises can target your customers mind to establish a definite position, to the consumer a reason to buy, enterpri ses can often compete in an advantageous position.Marketing is an economy built on science, behavioral science and modern management theory on the basis of applied sciences. It enterprise marketing activities and to study law, customers.− Determine what you are now doing to satisfy those wants and needs.− Prepare a marketing plan that allows you to reach out to new customers or to sell more to your present customers.− Test the results to see if your new strategies are yielding the desir ed results.Market research must be used in each of these six steps to help define your business for your customer's interests, not your own. It is the process of learning what customers want or need and determining how to satisfy those wants or needs. It is also used to confirm whether the customer reacted to a marketing program as expected. The benefits of market research include− Learning who your customers are and what they want.− Learning how to reach your customers and how frequently you should try to communicate with them.− Learning which advertising appeals are most effective and which ones get no response.− Learning the relative success of is that, properly done, market research is quite expensive, takes time and requires professional expertise. Acquiring all the necessary data to reduce the risk to your venture may cost so much and take so long that you may go out of business. The answer is to find a quick and inexpensive way of getting enough data to help you make the right decision most of the time. Some obvious pitfalls are− Using a sample that does not represent the total market.− Asking the wrong questions.− Not listening to the responses.− Building in biases or predispositions that distort the reliability of information.− Letting arrogance or hostility cut off communi cation at some point in the marketing process.If you have a limited budget, develop the skills to hear what your customers and potential customers are telling you. Some techniques worthy of consideration are− Advisory board -- Occasionally convene a group of local people, whose opinions you respect, to act as a sounding board for new ideas. Choose your group with extreme care; one or two negative thinkerscan distort the thought process of the entire group.− User group -- Gather customers together to discuss new ideas. Their opinions can help you keep your business on track. Pick a neutral setting where the people will talk. Be sure to reward the participants and share the credit for good ideas.− Informal survey -- If you seek feedback from customers by simply asking how was everything? You can be seriously misled. Most people, even those with legitimate complaints, are reluctant to speak out because they are afraid of appearing foolish.对于企业的创造者和提案者而言营销策略是一个谜。

市场营销学外文翻译外文文献英文文献市场营销

Marketing(From: Sun Kun of Accounting English, 2008.)Marketing is a group of interrelated activities designed to identify consumer needs and to develop,distribute,promote,and price goods and services to satisfy these needs at a profit.Whether an organization is large or small,whether it produces a product or provides a service,its long-range future is linked to successful markting practices.The old saying "Build a better mousetrap and the world will beat a path to your door"is not true. "They" must need the product,know about it,be able to get it when and where they want it,and be able to afford it.Marketing provides the means to make the organization successful in the long run.1.The Marketing ConceptMarketing was unheard of in the early 1900s. This period can best be described as one where far more people needed consumer goods than companies were able to manufacture.This intense demand on manufacturing led to organizations dominated by production management. Companies had a production orientation: where the number one priority is to produce a good to keep up with demand. All energies and talents were laced in the production function. Selling a good was incidental; determining consumer needs was unheard of.As manufacturers increased their production capabilities,the supply of goods available increased and inventories of goods developed. An emphasis on selling occurred. This need to sell led to a sales-dominated company-a sales orientation,whereby the energy of the company is focused on selling the products produced. The salespersio's job:(1)to make the desires of the consumers "fit"the products the company manufactures and (2)to convince the consumer to buy. The company's goal:to"send the out full and bring it back empty."As more producers began competing for consumer dollars by making such high-demand products as automobiles,vacuum cleaners,and refrigerators,the supply of goods began to exceed the demand. Companies had to find a way to identify consumer demand.Company profits.Companies that are marketing oriented have adopted a philosophy for the firm known as the marketing concept.The marketing concept is a belief that the companyshould adopt a companywide consumer orientation directed at long-range profitability.It includes the belied that all efforts of the organization should be directed at identifying and satisfyingProduction OrientationCompanies were essentially production-oriented from the latter part of the nineteenth century to about 1920. Emphasis was placed on filling the demand for basic commodities. The typical family had little discretionary income and there was little demand for products not associated with filling those basic family requirements.Demand was usually supplied by the producer's perception of what consumers needed. Product design and product line decisions were heavily influenced by manufacturing considerations.Management attention was directed primarily toimproving production methods,increasing output,and lowering costs. Sales OrientationThe period of sales orientation covered roughly the years from 1920 to 1950.With the exception of the years of the Grat Depression ,this period was characterized by gradually rising discretionary income,emerging demand for products,increasing competition,and the expansion of distribution channels.Although product decisions continued to be dominated by what the manufacturing department wanted to make ,the role of sales became increasingly important. With the production department capable of tuning out increasing quantities of goods through mass production techniques,company success began to turn on the ability of the sales force to move inventories.Market OrientationCovering the years from about 1950 to 1970 ,this period was characterized by a continuing shift in business emphasis to understanding and reacting to changing markets.The dramatic rise in consumer discretionary income following World War II created demand for new products and services. The mobility provided by mass ownership of automobiles encouraged the development of suburbs, new shopping patterns, and changes in distribution methods. Markets became more segmented and more complex. Product life cycles shortened.With these conditions,production people no longer were in a position to determine accurately what would sell. Selling skills were no longer sufficient to overcome the problems created when products were not attuned to a more discriminant market demand. In order to provide a better fit between marketdemand and company offerings-and in order to provide for better coordination of marketing activities-companies reorganized and assigned increased responsibilities to the marketing department.Marketing took on the role of analyzing markets and interpreting the needs, and manufacturing departments. More sophisticated aproaches were developed to fulfill the traditional marketing roles of product promotion and the management of distribution channels. The role of marketing in pricing increased.And finally, the marketing department became the focal point for the development of corporate strategies needed to adjust to market change.Societal OrientationWhen managements adopted the marketing concept, they could not foresee the environmental problems or the changes in society's values that would raise questions about the market orientation philosophy. In terms of what we now know about pollution, the finiteness of raw materials, and the apparent inability of our economic system to eliminate poverty, some people question whether what is good for the individual consumer is always good for society.Increasingly, national policy-and, in turn, business policy-is tempering concern for the consumer with concern for society as a whole. Thomas A. Murphy, chairman of General Motors, addressed this dilemma when he said , "We may have let ourselves grow out of touch with the customer's need for continued satisfaction in a time of heightened expectations and the society's concern for environmental improve-ment and energy conservation."Marketing policies attuned to serving the market as the market wants to be served continue to represent modern company policy. But we are also seeing market-oriented decisions modified by societal concerns, as a result both of law and of responsible management policies.2.Channels of distributionEfficient production methods, coupled with skilful marketing ,may have ensured that we can produce goods or services cheaply and that there is a market for them. There remains the vitally important question of how we actually get our goods and services to the customer.Direct sales to CustomersThis ,of course, is the oldest form of distribution and in many trades it remains the most important. However, it can be a very awkward one in somebusinesses such as manufacturing. Customers especially private buyers, are unlikely to go to a factory to buy what they want, and manufacturing firms , at least one company seeking to sell its chains of petrol filling stations in the mid 1980s.There are other trades where producers sell directly to customers. In some cases this is because producers find it advantageous to control the final retail stage and be in a position to offer a complete service, including after-sales service,to the customer.In other industries producers may sell directly to consumers through factory shops, farm shops ,"pick-your-own" arrangements at farms,by mail order or any other scheme that business ingenuity may devise.Organized MarketsAfter direct selling ,markets represent the oldest form of trade from producer to consumer. Here we have in mind not the ratail mardets found in many towns on "market days" but the markets where producers and traders, especially the traders in commodities make their deals . These markets , located in many of the world's major trading centers , including London where most of the main British commodity exchanges are found ,bring together producers and traders who wish to buy in bulk for onward Distribution to the final customer.By commodities we mean goods such as tin, copper , zinc and other metals or bulk foodstuffs like tea, coffee, wheat and cocoa. What distinguishes commodities is that they tend to be sold on the basis of objective descriptions , such as " Brazilian coffee" or "Sri Lankan tea", rather than according to some brand name, though, of course, the experienced buyer will be able to distinguish high and low quality goods according to their source or to a wholesaler.WholesalingThe markets we have just outlined are wholesale markets . Wholesaling involves purchasing goods in large quantities from the producer or importer and selling in smaller quantities to the retailer, or sometimes, to another wholesaler or dealer. A service is provided as the producer prefers to deal with large orders and the retailer in smaller purchases. There are ,however, other services provided by wholesaling besides this 'breaking bulk.Conventional wholesaling has declined in importance in recent decades. The functions of wholesaling still have to be undertaken but are now often less important than in the past and where they remain essential are often carried out by manufacturers, or, more noticeably, by retailers. The growth of large chains inretailing has often been made possible by the incorporation of wholesaling and retailing within the one organization.Develoments in production methods, in transport and communications have all contributed to this process . When flour was sold by millers in large sacks, breaking bulk was a necessary service for small shops selling to ordinary households. Modern machines have no difficulty in packing flour in paper bags at the end of the production line. Motorway transport, the telephone and telex have brought retailer and manufacturer closer together and the wholesaler's warehousing is not always essential to bridge the gap between them. AgentsAgents may offer an alternative to wholesalers. An agent acts on behalf of another, the principal. The role of the agent in distribution is to take over the work of distribution from the manufacturer. In some ways agents may act much like a wholesaler; in other ways they may act like a retailer and sell to the final customer. Agents can be particularly important in servicing foreign markets where they have special local knowledge.FranchisingThis is a growing form of distribution. A franchise gives the sole right to serve a locality with a particular good or service. Agents often hold sole franchises.The modern trend in franchising is for producers carefully to develop and market the product, including the organization of advertising,and then to leave the retail stage to a franchised independent firm. The franchise holder normally has to pay for the franchise. In return they receive a wide range of services from the producer. The shop will be laid out according to a distinctive pattern. Special equipment will be provided,training given and exclusive supplies of materials provided.Franchising has been particularly important in some service trades such as fast foods. Its supporters claim that it combines the individual'entrepreneurship' of the independent franchise holder with the economies of large scale production, advertising and so on. It also provides a role for small firms and personal initiative in an economy which often seems to be dominated by large organizations . The system's critics claim that large producers favor it as it gives them retail outlets and retail management at very low cost. It can also lead to frustrated expectations among the franchise holders who will never truly be 'their own bosses.The marketing MixAs with all business decisions, there is no one right form of distribution andno one right approach to marketing a firm's products. Indeed a single firm may choose different ways of marketing different products. Marketing and distribution managers must choose a combination of different strategies in response to an environment in which a number of forces, many of them beyond their control, are at work. The chosen marketing mix (or market mix) of price, distribution channel, advertising and product promotion must be the result of careful analysis of the environment, the available strategies and the nature of the firms product.市场营销市场营销是一组相互关联的活动，用于确定消费者的需求并对商品和服务进行开发、分销、促销和给产品和服务定价，从而在赢利的前提下满足这些需求。

市场营销专业毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献

市场营销专业毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献文献翻译原文Marketing theoryMcCarthy (E.J.Mccarthy) ,in 1960, also under the micro-marketingdefinition: Marketing is the responsibility of business activities, products and services will be directly from the producer towards the consumer or userin order to meet customer needs and the achievement of the company profits,but also a process of socio-economic activities with the aim to meet thesocial or human needs, to achieve social goals. this definition than in the United States, although the definition of marketing association a step forward that meet customer needs and realize the company's operating profit as a goal, but two definitions that marketing activities are production activities in the beginning of the end of the middle after a series of business sales activities, when the commodity to the user the hands of the end, the enterprise marketing activities and therefore is limited to the narrow scope of circulation, rather than operating as a business for sale throughout the entire process, including marketing research, product development, pricing, distribution, advertising, publicity reports, sales promotion, marketing staff, after-sales service andso on.Christian Grnroosto the definition and emphasized the purpose of marketing: Marketing is in the interests of a whole, through mutual exchange and commitment to establish, maintain, consolidate and consumers and other participants in the relationship between the parties to achieve the purpose. This definition has been in use ever since, until the summer of 2021 was revised. The new definition is nearly 20 years on the marketing of the first amendment to the definition, no wonder the majority of marketers attracteduniversal attention. The development of marketing theory has the following four stages:The first stage: start-up phase. Marketing in the late 19th century to 20 in the United States the world's creation of 20, due to industrial development and marketing at this time by a very narrow scope of the study, but research and commercial advertising network settings. Island in Illinois and other related courses at the universities. By the \of American Advertising\to\Advertising and Marketing Association of Science Teachers\to marketing research to ensure the organization. At this time of marketing research is characterized by: a. focus on marketing and advertising techniques, modern marketing theory, concepts, principles had yet to emerge; b. University research activities are basically confined to the classroom and a professor of the study, and also society and the business community did not receive attention.Phase II: Application stage. During the 20th century to the end of World War II 20 for the application stage, begun to take shape at this time, the United States began large-scale domestic enterprises to use marketing to operate businesses, open overseas markets, European countries have to follow. Established in 1931, \Marketing Association\Marketing preach, and in 1937 merged the two organizations, academia and the business community to absorb a wide range to join the Marketing from the University of the rostrum to the community. This stage of the development of marketing in the applications. The capitalist world in 1929 due to the outbreak of an unprecedented economic crisis, the economy of the Great Depression, large shrinkage in the purchasing power of a sharp decline in the community, the unprecedented sharp market. The whole capitalist economic crisis dealt a serious blow. This stage, marketing research is characterized by: a. there is no product to sell out of this narrow concept of; b. at a deeper study on the basis of a broader marketing and advertising technique; c. study in favor of selling the business organization set; d. beginning of the study of marketing theory to society, paying attention to the general business community.The third phase: the formation period of development. The 20th century, the 50's to 80's for the marketing stage of development, the U.S. military-industrial economy has begun to shift the public economic, social goods, the sharp increase in social productivity improved significantly, while the corresponding consumption level of residents has not been much improvement, market began to emerge in a state of oversupply. At this point the U.S. marketing expert R. Cox and W. Aderson the \sense of Marketing is to promote the potential producers and consumers of goods or services of any transaction activity.\the new marketing stage. Previously that the market is the end ofthe production process, is now considered to be the starting point of the production process; the original that is marketing to sell products, now that marketing through the investigation to understand the needs and desires of consumers, and production in line with consumer needs and desires goods or services, which meet the needs and desires of consumers; so that from the marketing companies to enter the framework of social vision and a clear management guidance.Phase IV: the mature stage. Since the 80's for the marketing of the mature stage, in: a. associated with other disciplines such as economics, mathematics, statistics, psychology, etc.; b. theory began to form their own system; 80 is the age of marketing revolutionary period, begun to enter the field of modern marketing, so marketing the new look.译文市场营销理论麦卡锡(E.J.Mccarthy)于1960年对微观市场营销下了定义：市场营销是企业经营活动的职责，它将产品及劳务从生产者直接引向消费者或使用者以便满足顾客需求及实现公司利润，同时也是一种社会经济活动过程，其目的在于满足社会或人类需要，实现社会目标。

市场营销战略论文中英文外文翻译文献

市场营销战略论文中英文外文翻译文献XXXConsumer r studies how individuals。

groups。

and ns choose。

acquire。

use。

dispose of products。

services。

experiences。

and ideas to satisfy their needs and the XXX。

consumer r research has focused on pre-purchase and post-XXX。

XXX view and can help us examine the indirect effects of consumer n-making and the XXX。

companies must offer more value to their target customers than their competitors。

Customer value is the balance of XXX.1.Marketing StrategiesFor each selected target market。

XXX a target market is whether the company can provide higher consumer value compared to XXX strategies。

XXX markets.1.1 ProductA product XXX of their needs。

not the specific material characteristics.1.2 nXXX includes advertising。

personal selling。

public ns。

packaging。

XXX.1.3 PricingPrice is the amount of money consumers must pay to acquire and use a product。

企业市场营销外文文献——中文译文

Science and technology enterprises Marketing StrategyABSTRACTWith the coming of knowledge-based economy,higll&new-tech enterprises play an increasingly strategic role in national economy，and also make great contribute to providing advanced products and services，promoting technical progress,enlarging employment and developing the national economic competitive power．But while they make a SUCCESS upon advanced technology and hi—tech products，they usually put too much emphasis oll technology advantages，accordingly neglect the research and applications of marketing strategy and management，and then caused the Marketing Myopia resulting in passiveness evefl defeat to the management．So how to exercise modem marketing theories，research and constitute marketing strategy and policy of lIigh&new—tech enterprises，and provide necessary theory base and suppoaing to the marketing problems of hiigh&new—tech enterprises,has some reality significance and generalize application value to promote continuance，healthy and rapidly development ofhigh＆new-tech enterprises．KEYWORDS：high＆new—tech enterprise,marketing strategy，technical marketing，innovation ofmarketing theoriesFirst，the science and technology enterprise marketing strategyMarketing strategy is the enterprise under the guidance of the marketing concept ，the application of modern management methods ，for a period of time , the development of the overall business marketing ideas and planning. Marketing strategy consists of three different levels of content ：target market，market positioning and marketing mix . The so-called target market is the company established to serve customers. The so-called market positioning is an enterprise cultivate certain characteristics for the product , and establish a certain image of the product ，in the minds of customers in order to form a special preference ，it is to attack the target market point of attack and defense point selection 。

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中文翻译：定义“新产品策略”罗伯特G·库珀摘要：新产品对于大多公司的成长和生存至关重要。

新产品策略是公司的主要计划，它指导公司的产品创新力度，并链接企业的新产品开发计划。

本文首先探讨什么是产品创新策略，其在公司中的作用，以及为什么创新策略是一个有效的新产品计划必不可少的一部分。

接下来，本文着重于一个新产品策略的发展过程，从开发目标产品开始和再到产品开发领域的选择。

文章使用到矩阵方法去定义和选择产品开发的领域。

来源于笔者的实证研究数据在优先选择新产品开发的领域的模型中将会被用到。

一、简介新产品是现代企业发展和繁荣的核心。

越来越多的有见地的管理者认识到，一个新产品或新技术战略应该成为企业策略的明确和中心要素。

这篇文章是关于在企业层面上的新产品策略——关于对一个新的产品策略的需求和关于定义和开发这样一个战略。

二、新产品策略的重要性新产品开发和技术通过帮助定义公司决策的范畴，对公司的战略性思维起到支撑性的完整的关系作用。

对于许多公司来说，新的产品和技术已成为企业战略、开辟新的市场、新的商业机会的先驱。

无数在办公室的未来，生物工程，微电子，机器人快速增长的公司表明，一个精心构思的新产品战略具有潜在发展势头。

在开发和推出新产品上最有可能取得成功的公司就是那些明确核心新产品策略，为之实施公司的具体做法，驱使和带动企业目标及策略的公司。

这些都是一些布兹- 艾伦和汉密尔顿的关于商业惯例的研究结论。

还有其他发现，在企业成功要素上，产品创新策略也起到至关重要的作用。

有些公司制定这样的策略。

例如，克劳福德在研究了125家公司后的研究结果中提出了产品创新章程。

三、问题忽视新产品的重要性，管理者从传统的模式的文献得到关于新产品策略的帮助微乎其微。

很少指示被发展，用于协助管理者在新产品项目开发的领域和方向上做出。

也就是说，基本没有几个概念框架，或成熟的方法来帮助制定新产品策略。

此外，很少人做关于确定公司的新产品计划的组成和结果的实证研究：这就是，企业如何直接或间接地选择新的市场和技术领域，用不同方式组织和集中自己的研发成果。

虽然在今天有很多战略发展模式被使用到，但是大多至少被公司现有的业务单位，现有的发展产品线使用到，它们一般涉及资源分配和战略发展而已。

例如，各种组合模式被开发出来，基本变化遵循波士顿咨询集团模型——现金奶牛，明星，狗和野猫。

这些组合或资源分配模型被应用在产品开发的新领域的同时，这些模型也被主要开发应用在公司既有的产品或业务处理上。

同样，另一种流行的战略发展援助模型，PIMS模型，着眼于可供选择的战略及其对企业盈利能力的影响，同样也是主要针对在公司现有业务的。

总之，这些策略模型着重处理的是什么，而不是可能是什么。

这些方法是模型缺乏一个生成和选择新的战略选项的系统程序，其中包括新产品和新业务。

四、产品创新章程在商业竞争中，战略已被定义为“根据企业的资源和优势管理（部署）制定出的以诧异和超越竞争对手或利用机会的计划”。

更具体地说，随着公司的产品或市场环境重新调整，战略的变化也随之重新定义。

战略与产品和市场规范是紧密联系在一起的。

科瑞指出，市场选择和产品划分是企业战略的两个关键维度。

产品创新策略与企业策略密切相关，将变得更加具体。

近年来，“产品创新章程”或PIC精简版已经被使用。

PIC记录了企业新产品项目的所有策略。

在产品发展项目和该公司的企业战略中，这也是必不可少的联系。

4.1 PIC有两个关键要素：1、PIC指明了游戏的目标，产品创新在帮助企业实现其企业目标过程中扮演的角色。

它回答了这个问题：新产品和产品创新在哪里与公司的整体规划相契合？这个角色然后被转化成新产品计划的具体目标。

报表，如“到1990年，我们的企业30％的销售额将来自新产品，我们将在未来五年的开发和推出这些新产品”，就是在PIC中发现的典型目标。

2、PIC指明了比赛进行的具体区域。

即，它定义了类型的市场，市场适应者，技术和新产品项目专注的产品。

这些领域为企业的产品开发项目提供了一个重点。

五、为什么会有产品创新章程？开发PIC是艰苦的工作。

它涉及到很多人，特别是高层管理人员。

那么，为什么会付出所有的努力？我们大多数人或许可以说出很多没有一个新产品项目总体规划的企业。

他们是如何做到的？5.1没有创新章程下开展业务在没有PIC下运行一个创新项目就像在打一场没有重点军事战略的仗。

在没有舵，没有方向的时候，没到彼岸我们早已沉没。

一个没有PIC的新产品项目将不可避免地导致每个人做出一些各自独立的临时的决定。

新产品研发项目的启动仅仅参照各自的长处，很少考虑到他们是否适合宏大的项目。

其结果是，该公司发现自己身处无关或不必要的市场，产品和技术。

5.2目标：与企业战略链接一个PIC给予公司的新产品项目什么类型的方向指引呢？首先，PIC的目标使得产品开发成功与公司战略紧密联系在一起。

新产品的开发，成为企业战略的核心组成部分，成为公司的整体战略平台一块关键的木板，往往是理所当然的。

预算费用承诺的问题正通过定义新产品项目的角色和目标来处理研发项目或新产品的产品预算问题在经济困难时期经常不能幸免于难。

在一些公司中，研发项目被认为是软金钱——一种奢侈品。

但是，随着产品创新作为公司战略中的核心面，产品创新的角色和目标牢固地确立起来，缩减这个预算会变得没那么随意。

要有连续性的利用资源致力于新产品。

5.3范畴：指导规范游戏计划PIC的第二个方面，即范畴的定义，对于指导和专注于新产品成果非常关键（见图1）。

新产品的开发过程中的第一步是创意产生。

但是，新产品的创意如何产生？除非限定范畴的，否则结果就像散射枪击打的结果一样，无方向，重点不突出，无效！在新产品开发过程中的第二个关键步骤的创意筛选。

早期筛选创意的第一标准是：“所提及的产品是否属于公司新产品项目的强制任务？这也可以解释成：我们作为一家公司什么样的市场，产品，技术，是否对我们公平？如果没有公平的游戏的定义——范畴——有利于对试图做出有效的创意筛选！范畴的定义也引导着资源和人力资源计划。

如果某些市场被指定为重点市场，那么企业可以收购资源，技能和知识，以能够更好地打开那些市场。

同样，如果目标技术被挑选出来作为重点，企业可以雇佣和获取资源，以加强其在这些领域的能力。

资源的建设不是一朝一夕的事。

在片刻的注意间人们不可能雇佣到一支销售队伍，没有人可以在当地的超市上获得大量重要的，在特定技术上有作为的研究人员或工程师。

把合适的人，资源和技能用到合适的地方，需要领先时间和方向，因此需要进行定义范畴重点。

5.4 证据在哪儿？PIC理论的论断，虽然有逻辑性，但看起来似乎还是有点学术性。

不禁会让人想起那些想那些没有宏伟的产品创新策略却已经成功的公司。

那么，哪来的证据支持PIC理论呢？，很遗憾的是并没有太多证据，原因之一是关于创新策略的作用和影响的研究调查并不是很多。

大多数关于产品创新的商业研究一直专注于以个别产品项目为单位来进行分析，例如，是什么让一个新产品成功，而不是对整个公司的新产品计划。

关于企业的新产品策略的研究，传递了一个清晰及一贯的信息：新产品策略在企业层面来说是成功的关键，而一些策略显然比其他策略做得更好。

1、布兹- 艾伦和汉密尔顿的关于企业新产品策略实践的研究发现：“成功的企业更致力于通过内部的新产品来实现增长”，并认为“他们更容易有一个包括来源于新产品的若干部分发展的战略计划”。

研究的作者继续解释为什么成功与拥有新产品策略息息相关：新产品战略把新产品的开发过程链接到公司的目标，并为想法/概念的产生提供焦点和建立适当的筛选标准。

这一战略分析的结果是一组战略性的角色，不是用来产生特定的新产品的创意，但却可以帮助确定将新产品开发的市场。

这些市场机会提供产品组合和新产品创意的产生的市场需求。

此外，战略角色为新产品表现测评标准提供指引。

性能阈值和战略角色一起为筛选新的产品理念提供了更精确的手段。

2、PIMS研究（利润影响市场战略）考虑了新产品策略的影响，但仅限于在外围方法。

这些研究侧重于为什么某些特定业务单元比其他的更有利可图，并且试图把盈利能力与市场策略相连接起来等。

研发项目的支出和产品质量水平是在研究中众多被考虑到的策略因素中的两个变量，发现两个因素均与盈利能力紧密相连（虽然研究的反对者在因果关系的方向上有争论）。

3、奈斯特龙和爱德华松研究了大量的工业产品企业，并确定了各种新产品策略捆绑如何与企业表现相关联。

策略强调协同技术的运用，一个负责任的研发项目组织和一个外向型的研发成功一般比较顺利。

这项研究局限于只有极少数的战略维度，而且研发项目策略与新产品研发策略是有不同的。

尽管如此，该消息显示新产品策略和业绩表现密切相关。

4、我们自己的研究涉及到产品创新策略对120家企业表现的影响。

这项研究是少数考虑到大量策略维度，和在大量公司中，策略是如何与公司表现联系在一起的调查之一。

最重要的结论是，产品创新策略和业绩表现是强烈联系在一起的。

市场、产品和公司选择技术的类型、方位和他们的产品创新计划的方向对项目的成功和盈利能力有着明显的影响。

策略的确非常重要！5.5选择正确范畴的证据我们的调查提供远不止策略表现的强烈暗示。

该研究深入洞察一个成功的创新策略的成分：目标的类型是合理的和可测量的；有利于选择范畴的标准——产品、市场和公司选择成功的技术的种类。

下面是一些更重要的结论，我们稍后在范畴的选择的部分将会用到：1、大量影响公司新产品表现的策略因素被发现。

这些因素适合分为两类：一类是他们描述了公司已选择的新产品范畴的类型，一类是他们获得的公司如何完成任务的基础。

2、获得竞争基础的因素描绘了新产品项目的方向和目标。

他们包括诸如技术的侵略性和复杂性的因素，市场导向，项目的重点，研发支出等有利于指引如何在新的产品项目的进行导向和管理。

3、描述范畴选择的因素构成了第二类因素，影响着后续项目的表现。

这些可以被进一步细分为如下因素：1）区域范畴的吸引力（例如，市场的需求，成长和规模，在区域范畴内技术的可操作性等）；2）公司的利用区域范畴的实力或能力（例如，在公司资源和新产品开发区域范畴内的适应和协调能力）。

在随后的分析中，我们可以把不同因素赋予权重——每个因素在“成功等式”中有多重要。

这些因素和它们的权重我们如表1所示，我们用表1为选择争取的区域范畴提供的重要标准和权重。

然而要告诫读者的是，这些权重来自一项研究，并作为指导或区域范畴选择的标准点。

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