language transfer语言迁移
语言负迁移——精选推荐
语言迁移（language transfer）是指在第二语言学习中，学习者在使用第二语言时，借助于母语的发音、词义、结构规则或习惯来表达思想这样一种现象。
如果母语的语言规则和外语是一致的，那么母语的规则迁移会对目标语有积极的影响，这被称为正迁移（positive transfer）。
负迁移（negative transfer）则是指，如果母语的语言规则不符合外语的习惯，对外语学习产生消极影响。
语言迁移可以用来解释历史上不同民族之间的语言接触和语言变迁。
语言迁移是指母语的影响进入第二语言的习得，包括语言上的影响，如语音、语汇、语法、语义等方面的影响。
语言迁移还包括语言之外因素的影响，如思维模式、文化传统、社会历史等方面的影响。
某些语言学家认为，语言迁移只是由于学习者对外语的掌握不足。
认知主义学派的注意力主要投向迁移的制约性因素，以及迁移的认知准则研究。
所谓迁移的制约性因素研究就是研究由哪些因素制约迁移的发生和隐退。
Ellis（2000）列出了制约迁移的6 个因素：语言的不同层面，如音系、词汇、语法、语篇等；社会因素，如不同的交际对象与学习环境的影响；标记性，如某些语言特征的特殊性；原型概念，如某个词的某一涵义与其它意义相比在多大程度上被认为是核心、基础的；语言距离和心理语言类型，如学习者对一语和二语之间距离的心理感受；发展因素，如对中介语发展的自然过程的限制。
摘要: 英语写作历来是中国学生的薄弱环节,重要原因之一就是他们对英语的句法篇章规律缺乏了解, 从而在英语写作中套用汉语思维模式。
本文从思维方式、词汇、句法、语法四个层面对母语负迁移现象进行分析, 并提出若干减少母语负迁移对英语写作产生干扰的有效方法。
一、前言随着社会的发展, 英语写作无论在学校的英语学习中还是在实际的社会工作中都十分重要。
英语写作能力的高低能体现出学生英语综合素质。
然而它却是英语教学中的薄弱环节。
中国学生写英语作文时往往摆脱不了汉语思维的影响, 写出的文章大都句式单调、简单句堆砌甚至错误百出, 遣词造句处处留下汉语的痕迹, 这便是母语在英语写作中产生的负迁移, 它严重阻碍了学生英语写作能力的提高。
左彪-英汉对比与翻译(全)
Two Types of Transfer
• Negative Transfer (负迁移) Errors arise from analogy. 类推会产生错误。 • Positive Transfer （正迁移） Errors decrease by analysis. 分析能减少错误。
We could turn negative transfer (interference) into positive (facilitation) by making analysis on differences between the two languages and arouse the learner‟s awareness of avoiding or reducing errors from analogy. 我们可以通过分析两种语言的差异，提高学生避免 或减少类推错误的意识，把负迁移（干扰）转化为正迁 移（促进）。
人在阵地在。 The position will not be given up so long as we are still living. 人无远虑， If one has no long-term considerations, 必有近忧。 he will find trouble at his doorstep.
English-Chinese Contrast and Translation 左飚
英 汉 对 比 与 翻 译
English-Chinese Contrast and Translation
左 飚
上海建桥学院 上海海事大学 zuobiao212@
欢迎光临
英 汉 对 比 与 翻 译
Chinese
Lacking inflection in the strict sense 缺少严格意义的 形态变化 老师们、同学们 我的爸爸、你的妈妈 认真的态度、 认真地学习
二语习得中正负迁移其对策论文
二语习得中的正负迁移及其对策【摘要】语言迁移（ language transfer）是二语习得过程中一种非常普遍的现象，对于第二语言习得有着重要的影响，它分为正迁移（positive transfer）和负迁移（ negative transfer）。
汉语和英语属于完全不同的两种语系，因而两种语言在语音、词汇、语法、文化、篇章组织、思维方式等方面都存在着相当大的差别。
因此，以汉语为母语的中国大学生在英语学习的过程中，汉语所产生的负迁移远远大于正迁移，从而阻碍了英语的学习。
【关键词】英语学习母语正负迁移对策一、母语正迁移现象的分类及表现语言的普遍特性体现出母语的正迁移。
在语言普遍的特征的帮助下，汉语的使用有助于英语的学习，学习者会有意识或无意识地使用这种资源帮助他们审查输入的二语或外语数据，从而中英文之间的相同或相似点在而与写的过程中产生了正迁移。
（一）语音正迁移汉、英两种语言都有元音和辅音系统，而且存在一定的相似性。
掌握了汉语拼音以后，学习英语语音就相对容易，就能比较容易地学好汉语中没有而英语中有的音。
汉语语调有升调、降调、曲折调，因此可利用汉语语调来促进英语语调的学习。
（二）词汇正迁移1.外来词与拟声词基本相似由于中西方文化的相互渗透，英语中出现了越来越多的外来语，而这些外来语多数是拟声词，其发音与汉语意思的发音近似。
如：hacker——黑客 toefl——托福 sofa——沙发coffee——咖啡拟声词是指以声音为理据的词，多半为模仿人、动植物、机器等发出的声音，所以这类词的发音与它所模仿的声音相似，只要借助汉语意思。
如：hey（嘿）、 hiss（丝丝声）、 buzz（嗡嗡声）、 tick（滴答）2.词语表达方式相同英、汉两种语言中的某些词语的本义和引申义是相一致的，所以它们的表现形式基本相同。
如：“blood”一词，本义指血液，可以有如下的表达：cold-blooded（冷血的）、warm-blooded（热血的）等等。
语言迁移研究新视角
UG视角 4.1 UG视角
最小树(Minimal Tree)理论 最小树(Minimal Tree)理论 (Vainikka & YoungScholten 1994, 1996a, 1996b, 1998)
认为只有一语中的实义语类和中心语方向性(head directionality)会迁移到二语的初始状态中去，而功能 语类C和I 都不能迁移。因此，二语的初始状态是一种 只有实义语类而没有功能语类的语法。在该理论中， 二语初始状态的最大投射(maximal projection)是动词 短语VP。由于表示VP的树形图比表示IP和CP的都小， 因此，该理论被称为“最小树(Minimal Tree)理论”。
二、语言迁移研究简要回顾
5.语言迁移不仅从L1向L2迁移（顺向迁移）， 也能从L2向L3迁移（侧向迁移）（如： Ringbom 1978b），还能从L2向L1迁移（反向 迁移）（如：Jakobovits 1970; 参见Weinreich 1953）。 6. 在某一语境下，跨语言影响和其他因素一起 决定某一结构迁移的可能性——可迁移性 （transferability）。
语言迁移研究新视角
俞理明 常辉
上海交 通 大 学
一、语言迁移的概念
• 语言迁移又称“语际影响” 语言迁移又称“语际影响”或“跨语言影响” 跨语言影响” (crosslinguistic influence)
• Gass 和Selinker 编著的 《语言学习中的语言迁移》 语言学习中的语言迁移》 learning> <Language transfer in language learning>一书的不完 全的统计， 语言迁移”至少有17 17种说法 全的统计，对“语言迁移”至少有17种说法
语用迁移
在二语习得过程中, 人们受社会环境和个体差别的影响通常把母语中的语言规则和文化历史背景带入其中, 这种原有知识对新知识的影响语言学称之为语言迁移现象(Language Transfer Phenomenon)。
语言迁移分为正迁移和负迁移。
正迁移指母语(L 1) 的语言规则和文化习惯同第二语言的语言规则和文化习惯相似或相同, 学习者可以将这种相似或相同运用到二语学习过程当中, 起积极的促进作用;负迁移指母语中的语言规则和文化习惯同第二语言有着根本的不同, 如将这些规则和习惯运用到二语习得中去就会对新知识的学习产生消极和干扰作用。
本文主要分析汉语在英语学习中的迁移现象及影响迁移的非语言因素.一、常见的英汉语言迁移现象在英语学习过程中,语言的迁移影响是多方面、多层次的,不同的情况发生在不同人的身上,所产生迁移的影响也不尽相同。
在英语教学中,语言迁移影响着语音、词汇、句法、语篇,语用等方面。
现简单说明如下:(一) 语音层次英语和汉语这两种语言完全属于两个不同的语系，在发音和规则上及形式上是有着根本的分歧的. 汉语的韵母19个,生母21个,英语的元音20个,辅音28个,其差异性主要表现在1）汉语中没有象英语中那样的辅音群，汉语的声母之间总存在一个韵母，学生在读英语时，总习惯在辅音簇之间加一个元音; 2）英语单词常以辅音结尾,而汉语单词则主要以韵母和ｎ／ｎｇ结尾，因而中国学生读英语单词时习惯在辅音后面加上一个元音。
而两种语言中的一致性或相似性，则有利于学生正确的发音。
由于汉语中也有诸如／ｐ／和／b／以及/ t / 的音，他们就很容易学会发英语当中的／ｐ／和／b／以及/ t / ，但是老师也应强调这些音在英语和汉语中并不能等同起来。
(二)词汇层次由于两种语言的社会文化背景不同,两种语言的词汇意义也有很大差异,其中绝对等值的词除专用名词、科技术语等之外,为数不多。
母语词汇的干扰表现得比较突出，我们着重从词义方面把握,主要有以下几点:1)某些词汇在汉、英语中内涵或外延不一致而造成负迁移。
第二讲 语言迁移与对比分析假说
第二讲语言迁移与对比分析假说（Language Transfer and Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis）对儿童而言，他们从对母语一片空白到流利表达，一语习得是个虽然复杂但是相对快速的过程。
过了儿童时期，再来学习一门新的语言，似乎就没有母语那么简单，这个过程相比之下显得极其困难，而且绝少能够达到精通与流利的程度。
成人学习者往往花费数年时间，才能够达到儿童在四五岁时轻而易举就可以达到的语言熟练程度。
过了儿童期，无论成人如何努力，二语习得似乎都很难达到类似母语的水平。
二语习得者经常困惑于这样的问题：成人二语学习者与儿童一语学习者的差异、成人的二语学习效果为何如此糟糕、成人的二语学习与儿童的一语学习路径是否一致、成人的二语学习如何达到高效，等等。
对于二语习得领域的这些核心议题，虽然一些学者已经关注了很长时间，不过第二语言习得仍然是一个新的领域。
从1940年代至今，学界一直试图运用许多理论研究人类如何学习第二语言，从行为主义学习模式，到近来认知视角的输入与互动假说，不一而足。
如今，第二语言习得领域的诸多论题，大多植根于早期的语言学、心理学、社会学以及教学论的研究进展，从本章开始，我们试图探究第二语言习得研究的理论基础，这种基础的构建大致从20世纪50年代开始，而这正是对语言学习进行理论研究的时期。
一、理论背景语言迁移一直是应用语言学、第二语言习得和语言教学领域有争议的论题。
其理论基础就是对比分析理论假说。
对比分析理论假说主要是基于行为主义心理学与结构主义语言学的背景，在20世纪50-60年代盛于一时，余脉迄今未歇。
在20世纪50-60年代，第二语言习得的理论探索绝对是语言教学实践的附属，从19世纪的教学革新运动开始，语言教学只能适应于学习过程的观念深入人心。
当时语言学理论体系里，索绪尔仍然居于统治地位，乔姆斯基的生成语法理论还在摇篮之中。
“the conviction that language systems considered fo a finite set of ‘patterns’or ‘structures’which acted as models……for the production of an infinite number of similary constructed sentences;the belief that repetition and practice resulted in the formation of accurate and fluent foreign language habits; a methodology which set out to teach ‘the basics’before encouraging learners to communicate their own thoughts and ideas”.对比分析假说理论的首创者Charles Fries (1945)就提出假设：语言教学的最终目的是建立一套习惯，在此过程中，人们倾向于把母语及其文化的形式、意义以及分布迁移到目的语及其文化之中。
从社会语言学的角度看语言迁移
从社会语言学的角度看语言迁移( Sociolinguistic analysis of language transfer )语言是其文化中一系列规律和准则的系统运用。
文化的不同势必形成语言间的个性差异。
语言作为文化的使者和媒介，既根源于文化又服务于文化。
因此，学习一门语言更像是学习这门语言的交际能力，学习指导我们在人类活动中各种具体情形下如何恰当使用语言的知识。
但是，很多的语言学习者往往把学习语言看作是一种纯粹的语言现象，而忽视了语言的社会性和文化性。
这种缺乏对语言内部结构及其社会文化因素的认识在外语学习的过程中造成了不少的误解和失误。
在学习和使用一门外语的过程中，我们不可避免地要考虑到这门语言背后隐藏的各种文化信息。
同样，把语言独立于其所属的文化和社会之外也是不明智和错误的。
除了目的语本身的难点外，学习者的母语也在随时不断地给学习者施加各种各样的影响，既有正面的影响也有负面的影响。
在二语习得的研究中，母语造成的这种语言迁移一直是个颇受争议的话题。
长期以来，一些学者对迁移的重要性不以为然; 另一些学者对此持怀疑态度; 而有些学者则甚至认为迁移是成功习得第二语言的关键之一。
现在，对学习者母语和目的语之间的这种语际影响的性质和作用仍没取得一致的意见。
本文将着重介绍两种与语言迁移有着密切联系的心理学观点：行为主义和认知主义。
并随机抽查武汉理工大学外国语学院英语专业二年级学生的100份英语作文，归纳并分析其中的典型错误。
再结合该范围的最新研究结果，以大量详实的例子从社会语言学的角度尝试性的说明如何用认知心理学的观点处理语言迁移。
这些例子，有的耳熟能详，有的则比较少见，主要出自笔者自身的学习经历。
在此基础上文中还就如何对待对比分析，错误分析等语言学理论及学生和老师如何应付语言中的各种挑战作了比较详细的说明。
从新的观察角度分析这些例子，有助于我们更进一步地了解语言与文化之间的相互作用关系，文化间的差异如何造就语言和意识形态领域的独特之处。
二语学习——精选推荐
浅析母语正负迁移对中国英语学习者学习的影响摘要：在学习外语的过程中，母语的影响在所难免。
传统语言学认为母语思维对外语学习只有负面影响，要熟悉掌握一门外语必须用外语思维。
该文章认为母语思维对外语习得既存在正面影响也存在负面影响，并从母语对外语学习的正迁移和负迁移两个方面加以阐明其对英语学习的影响。
关键词：母语，外语学习，正迁移，负迁移一、语言迁移理论迁移（Transfer）本是一个心理学术语，是指学习者在学习新知识时，将先前所掌握的知识、经验和体会积累运用于学习新知识的一种过程。
迁移分为正迁移（Positive Transfer）和负迁移（Negative Transfer），凡先前的学习成果有利于以后的学习，即称为“正迁移”；反之，产生抑制影响的为“负迁移”。
迁移理论同样适用于语言的学习。
语言迁移研究学习者已有的语言知识（主要是母语）在学习第二语言中的作用，因此母语在二语习得中的地位是语言迁移研究的核心问题。
语言迁移自二十世纪五六十年代，对比分析（Contrast Analysis）理论的奠基人Robert Lado，以行为主义心理学及结构主义语言学为理论支撑。
Lado 指出在第二语言习得中那些与母语的相似之处有利于二语的学习，那些与母语的不同之处则造成一定的困难。
因此，第二语言的困难可以通过对比跨语言的差异性来确定，即“差异=难度”。
二十世纪六十年代到七十年代，由于对比分析的局限性，即难点“无法从直接对比两种语言之间的差异程度来推测或预测，研究者开始对学习者的错误进行分析。
错误分析理论是认知心理学在语言习得中的体现，根据错误分析理论，第二语言学习者所犯的错误除了受母语影响外，还有不受母语影响而出现的错误。
许多学者试图对错误进行分类，他们将研究者产生的错误分为三类: 语际错误（Interlingual Errors）语内错误（Intralingua Errors）和其他方面的错误（Other Error）语际错误是由于学习在目标语言的学习和运用过程中收到本族语的表达习惯和文化的影响所致。
二语习得中的正负迁移及其对策
二语习得中的正负迁移及其对策作者：刘伟强来源：《教育界》2012年第01期【摘要】语言迁移（ language transfer）是二语习得过程中一种非常普遍的现象，对于第二语言习得有着重要的影响，它分为正迁移（positive transfer）和负迁移（ negative transfer）。
汉语和英语属于完全不同的两种语系，因而两种语言在语音、词汇、语法、文化、篇章组织、思维方式等方面都存在着相当大的差别。
因此，以汉语为母语的中国大学生在英语学习的过程中，汉语所产生的负迁移远远大于正迁移，从而阻碍了英语的学习。
【关键词】英语学习母语正负迁移对策一、母语正迁移现象的分类及表现语言的普遍特性体现出母语的正迁移。
在语言普遍的特征的帮助下，汉语的使用有助于英语的学习，学习者会有意识或无意识地使用这种资源帮助他们审查输入的二语或外语数据，从而中英文之间的相同或相似点在而与写的过程中产生了正迁移。
（一）语音正迁移汉、英两种语言都有元音和辅音系统，而且存在一定的相似性。
掌握了汉语拼音以后，学习英语语音就相对容易，就能比较容易地学好汉语中没有而英语中有的音。
汉语语调有升调、降调、曲折调，因此可利用汉语语调来促进英语语调的学习。
（二）词汇正迁移1.外来词与拟声词基本相似由于中西方文化的相互渗透，英语中出现了越来越多的外来语，而这些外来语多数是拟声词，其发音与汉语意思的发音近似。
如：Hacker——黑客 TOEFL——托福 Sofa——沙发 coffee——咖啡拟声词是指以声音为理据的词，多半为模仿人、动植物、机器等发出的声音，所以这类词的发音与它所模仿的声音相似，只要借助汉语意思。
如：Hey（嘿）、 hiss（丝丝声）、 buzz（嗡嗡声）、 tick（滴答）2.词语表达方式相同英、汉两种语言中的某些词语的本义和引申义是相一致的，所以它们的表现形式基本相同。
如：“blood”一词，本义指血液，可以有如下的表达：cold-blooded（冷血的）、warm-blooded（热血的）等等。
语言迁移与英语教学宋-PPT资料81页
Negative Transfer (负迁移): Interference (干扰)
Causes: • analogical use of one’s prior knowledge of the mother
tongue 母语先知结构的类推运用
• scanty knowledge of differences between the two languages 对两种语言的差异所知甚少
他不怕死。
(night)
He does not hear to die.
(fear)
Phonological transfer (语音迁移)
The sound /n/ or /f/ does not exist in some Chinese
dialects and /l/ or /h/ serves as a substitute. 在有些中国方言（如南京/闽南方言）中没有辅音/n/或
翻译
Four Parts
1. Language transfer 语言迁移 2. Linguistic contrast 语言对比 3. Contrast and translation 对比与翻译
4. English Tea欢chin迎g/L光ea临rning 英语教与学
Part One
Language Transfer in FL Learning: Interference or Facilitation?
Shanghai is said to have thirty-three million population.
Shanghai is said to have a population of thirty-three million.
Language transfer 语言迁移
Negative Transfer in Foreign Language Learning AbstractAccording to the language transfer theory, it is assumed that the learner’s mother tongue will positively or negatively affect one’s learning a foreign language. When there are differences between one’s mother tongue and target language, the mother tongue tends to interfere with the learning of the foreign language. This paper attempts to give a brief analysis of negative transfer in students’pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and culture learning. It also discusses what pedagogical concerns the existence of negative transfer warrants and what learners can do to reduce the influence of negative transfer.Key words: Native language, Negative transfer, pedagogical implication1. IntroductionLanguage transfer has been an important issue in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and language learning. When language learners have been using their native language for many years, they are very likely to transfer those roles in their mother tongue into the foreign language that they are learning. That’s what we call negative transfer. Therefore, differences between the native language and the foreign language should be taken into consideration to find out what difficulties might be. At the same time, teachers as well as learners should come up with solutions to reduce the influence of negative transfer.2. Defining negative transferLanguage transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer. However, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.3. Manifestations of the negative transfer in English learning3.1 Negative transfer in pronunciationWhen people hear a speaker with a “foreign accent”, they often try to guess the speaker’s background. Often the clue seems to be how the individual talks. In such cases, questions put to the speaker such as “Are you German?”“Are you Spanish?” or “Are you Asian?”suggest an intuition about the nature of language, an awareness, however unconscious, that the native language of a speaker can somehow cause the individual to sound “foreign” in speaking another language. The detection of foreign accents is one example of the awareness that people often have of language transfer in pronunciation.3.1.1 Negative transfer in segmental levelSome difficulties in pronouncing inaccurately are caused by the non-existence of the phonemes in the mother tongue. Take /v/ and /θ/ for an example. Many English learners mispronounce them as they do not exist in Mandarin, and their mistakes can be attributed to the similarity of these two sounds with Chinese [w] and [s]. Chinese learners’ performances on the sound of /æ/ are not quite satisfying, for the phoneme is often replaced by [e], a sound that is close to Chinese [ai], and thus happiness or apple is mispronounced by many learners. Two languages also frequently have sounds which may seem identical but which in fact are acoustically different and may be perceived to be divergent from the target by the listener. For example, a comparison of an English ∕d∕with a Saudi Arabian Arabic ∕d∕ shows several differences. Among the differences, the duration of an English ∕d∕ at the end of a word tends to be shorter than its Arabic counterpart.3.1.2 Negative transfer in suprasegmental levelAlthough cross-linguistic influences on pronunciation frequently involve segmental contrasts, the influences are also frequently evident in suprasegmental contrasts involving stress, tone, rhythm, and other factors.Stress patterns are crucial in pronunciation in English since they affect syllables in English between certain nouns and verbs, such as between combine COMbine and comBINE. The first syllable in these two words has a different vowel sound, with thesound varying according to the acoustic prominence of the syllable. Such interactions have important implications not only for speech production but also for comprehension. When non-native speakers do not use a stress pattern that is a norm in the target language, this can result in a total misperception by listeners. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and one is not allowed to change it.In Chinese, stress does not have great influence. Thus stress errors are frequently committed by a Chinese learner.One of the most important typological distinctions between languages involves tone and intonation. Chinese is a “tone language”. It has four tones, that is, the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone. The syllable “ma”represents “mother”when it is used with a high level tone, and “horse” with a low rising tone. In contrast, English words have no fixed tones and their meanings are not identified by tones. In fact, the words in English sentences are influenced by different intonation. Different intonation can express different communicative intentions, attitudes and emotions. In other words, the meaning of a word in one English sentence not only has the meaning of vocabulary but also the meaning of the corresponding intonation. When Chinese students read English sentences, they are apt to replace the English intonation with fixed lexical tones instead of subordinating the lexical tones to the sentence intonation. As a result, every English word is pronounced clearly. Thus, the flexibility of English words is destroyed.3.2 Negative transfer in vocabularyA fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought. Expressions such as “learning to think in English”reflect a common belief that learning a particular language requires adopting a worldview which, to some extent, is unique to that language. When Chinese learners start learning English, they have been equipped with the deep-rooted Chinese way of thinking and their mother tongue inevitably influences their learning, especially the learning of vocabulary.3.2.1 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent conceptual meaning of wordsThe conceptual meaning is also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. The negative transfer often occurs when there is only a partial identity of conceptual meaning. “It was quite warm when I got here, but the climate suddenly changed.”“C limate” refers to the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of years, but in this sentence, the change means the particular condition at a certain time, so “weather” is the correct choice. To some students, these two words have the same conceptual meaning. It’s hard for them to tell the difference so that they usually take it for granted that these two words could be used indiscriminately.Let’s look at another example. “He also studies French except English. “Except” means “but not, leaving out”. So “except English” means that English is not the subject he is learning. B ut when we look at the second word “also”, it’s obvious that the word “except” is not correct. “B esides” should be the right answer as it means “as well as”. Chinese learners tend to mix up the conceptual meanings of these two words for they not perceive the distinction between them.3.2.2 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent connotative meaning of wordConnotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. When we study English, we usually memorize a group of words such as grin, beam, smile and smirk. They are all types of smile. The real differences between them lie in their connotative meanings. Beam is a smile which connotes happiness, while smirk is a smile which connotes gloating of some kind. Most Chinese learners find it hard to distinguish the connotative meanings of words, especially words which are called synonyms.In compositions, some learners use the word “peasant” which has a derogatory meaning in the present English dictionary. It refers to persons without education ormanners. If someone uses this word in their communication, they hold contempt on that person. Therefore, westerners prefer to use the word “farmer.” Without knowing the connotative meaning of different words, learners are very likely to commit mistakes.3.3 Negative transfer in grammarThere are often grammatical restrictions found in one language but not in another and such restrictions can occasion difficulty. A French-speaking student may make a sentence like this: At sixty-five years old they must retire themselves because this is a rule of society. While the form “retire”reflects a true French-English cognate, the French lexical item has a grammatical restriction that the ESL student applied erroneously to the English form- the use of the reflexive pronoun is necessary in French, whereas the use of the English reflexive themselves is not grammatical in the context of the sentence.3.3.1 Negative transfer in Syntax levelA great deal of evidence has been found for syntactic negative transfer in studies of word order, relative clauses, and negation.3.3.1.1 Word orderWord order has been one of the most intensively studied syntactic properties in linguistics. “Japanese learners of English do not at any time produce writing in which the verb is wrongly placed sentence-finally.” When the Japanese speak English, many times they put objects before verbs since the basic order of Japanese is SOV and the basic order of English SVO. The vast majority of human languages have CSO, SVO, or SOV as their basic word order. Yet while most languages can be compared in terms of these three patterns, they vary considerably in terms of rigidity. Speakers of a flexible language may use several word orders in English even though English word order is quite rigid. Finnish is a flexible SVO language. Speakers of Finnish may make such a sentence “This weekend got F. any fish”when they actually want to express that “This weekend F. caught no fish”. The sentence made by a French “I think it’s very good the analysis between the behavior of animals and the person” also reflect the relatively flexible word order of French. Chinese also has SVO as its basicorder but it’s relatively flexible compared with English.Other constituents besides S, V, and O are also subject to word-order rules. In noun phrases in English, for example, articles normally precede adjectives and nouns in the noun phrase and languages generally have rules specifying the occurrence of elements within noun phrases, verb phrases and other constituents. Since the rules governing the position of adjectives, adverbs, and other word classes vary considerably form one language to the next, it is natural to expect to find cases of word-order negative transfer in constituents. There is a strong tendency for Chinese speakers to follow Chinese instead of English norms for the replacement of adverbial elements, as seen in the following error: I very much like movies. From this we can see that native language influence does account well for the vast majority of the errors.3.3.1.2 Relative clausesEnglish primarily relies on a right branching direction, in which the relative clauses appear to the right of the head noun. In contrast, Chinese primarily relies on a left branching direction, in which modifying clauses appear to the left of the head noun. And the differences in branching directions favored in relative clause patterns occasion underproduction. Most Chinese learners seem to have often avoided using relative clauses in written compositions; in contrast, equally proficient students who speak Arabic and Persian used many more such clauses. Although the Arabic and Persian speakers produce a great number of errors in the relative clauses that they use, the similarity of patterns in the native and target languages apparently led them to attempt writing more sentences with relative constructions.In the case of relative clauses, another crucial factor is the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns. Restrictive relativization is a construct usually having a “domain noun”and invariably having a modifying clause. For example, the sentence “The musician who played at the concert is from China”has a relative construction consisting of a domain noun and a clause modifying the noun. One of the most common patterns in relative clauses is to have within the clause a pronoun with the same reference as the domain noun. This poses a great difficulty for Chinese wholearn English. There is considerable cross-linguistic variation in relative clause structures, and such variation occasions negative transfer.3.3.2 Negative transfer in semantic levelChinese and English belong to different language families. Thus there is a huge difference between the two grammatical systems. Chinese learners are prone to apply the grammatical rules of Chinese in their English learning. As a result, grammatical mistakes are frequently committed when Chinese learners study English. Chinese nouns have no plural forms and changing nouns into their plural forms is not easy for Chinese learners. They tend to decide the plural forms of English nouns based on Chinese abstract and non-abstract nouns. Usually errors would appear, such as “a good advice”, “a bad news”, “a fine weather”, “some changes”, “five equipments”, etc. On the other hand, some Chinese nouns are abstract, while the corresponding English nouns are countable and t hey have plural forms, such as “goods”, “table manners”, “many thanks”, “in high spirits”, etc.Influenced by the usage of the Chinese equivalent of “marry”, a lot of learners make sentences like “She married with a poor man.” The learner clearly thinks that the verb “marry”is intransitive as it is used this way in Chinese. It actually is a transitive verb in English. So we are supposed to say “She married a poor man”. Take the verb “serve” as another example. In Chinese way of thinking, the sentence goes like this: He serves for the people. But again “serve” is a transitive verb; “He serves people” is the correct answer. On the contrary, the Chinese equivalent of “laugh” is transitive while “laugh”is intransitive. So the sentence “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me” should be changed into “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me.”3.4 Negative transfer in cultureNegative transfer in culture refers to the cultural interference caused by cultural differences, which shows that people subconsciously use their cultural norms and values not only to guide their behaviors and thoughts but also to judge others’ behaviors and thoughts. Negative transfer in culture often results in communicative difficulties, misunderstandings and even hatred. When learners violate norms ofconversation in the target language, the violations are potentially much more serious than syntactic or pronunciation errors since such violations can affect what is often termed “the presentation of self.” Negative cultural transfer occurs in all processes of intercultural communication and foreign language learning and is of great significance in both fields.3.4.1 Negative Transfer of Surface-Structure CulturePoliteness is probably a universal notion; the expression of politeness in different societies varies considerably. One of the basic challenges in the study of politeness is to understand the differences of interpretation that different cultures make of certain kinds of behavior. The norms of linguistic politeness in France and the United States are the same in many situations, but there is at least one context in which the norms differ considerably-using the telephone. Telephone calls in France are seen as impositions more often than they are in the United States, and thus the etiquette of making calls in France more frequently requires callers to make an apologetic statement at the beginning of the call. Consequently, phone calls between French and American individuals who are bilingual but unfamiliar with the differences in telephone etiquette may give rise to perceptions of bizarre or rude behavior. Another most frequently quoted example is that when Chinese people is praised by a foreigner, they tend to be modest and say “where, where”, which makes foreigners puzzled and a little bit angry as they think that their judgment is doubted.Speakers of different languages prefer different levels of directness in their requests. For example, German speakers show a strong preference for modal forms suggesting a sense of obligation, whereas English speakers prefer modal forms with a weaker force, as in “Can you close the window?” Moreover, it appears that German speakers more often prefer declarative statements in contrast to English speakers, who more often prefer interrogative statements to make requests. The speech act study indicates that speakers of German often produce requests in ESL that are too direct and they may sound not very polite.Apologies also show considerable cross-linguistic variation and pose problems for second language learners. The comparison of the verbal behavior of speakers ofHebrew and English shows that English speakers use apologetic formulas more than the Hebrew speakers do. And native speakers of Hebrew generally use apologies when using English less often than native speakers of English do. Differences in the relations between apologies and other speech acts can lead to inappropriate uses of apologetic formulas. When English speakers cough or sneeze, they say “Excuse me”beforehand or afterwards. But it’s not the form in Chinese. So Chinese learners of English use “Excuse me” mush less than native speakers of English do.Requests and apologies are not the only types of speech acts that can cause difficulties in learning to be polite in a foreign language. Language-specific speech acts require learners to become familiar with very new patterns of culture. In second language acquisition, much of the difficulty in becoming a competent speaker is likely to come from the simultaneous existence of universal and specific elements in spoken interactions. The difficulty may be compounded by beliefs on the part of learners that their requests, their greetings, their facial expressions, their volume, and so on, are not arbitrary in the way that words in their native language are.3.4.2 Negative Transfer of deep-Structure CultureUnder the influence of traditional worldviews and value orientations, Chinese thinking patterns are characterized by synthesis, vagueness and retrospection; whereas thinking patterns of most native speakers of English are characterized by analysis, precision and anticipation. Influenced by the specific thinking patterns, Chinese people are used to talking or writing in a roundabout way and keeping off the point and often putting the most important or critical points at the end or even just to give a hint. Such a circular way of talking or writing is regarded as politeness in Chinese culture and it can save enough "face" for both sides. Native speakers of English, especially Americans, however, like coming straight to the point in conversations or writing. The topic is often mentioned at first so as to attract hearers’ or readers’ attention.In Sino-American communications, the transfer of thinking patterns often arises at the level of discourse whose realm of study has been extended to include literary discourse and whole fields of culture and symbolic systems, among whichface-to-face conversation within speech acts is paid more attention to. The following hypothetical conversation may demonstrate the striking difference in discourse pattern influenced by different thinking patterns. “Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson have a conversation. Mr. Richardson has enjoyed this conversation and when they are ready to part he says to Mr. Wong that they really should get together to have lunch sometime. Mr. Wong says that he would enjoy that. After a few weeks, Mr. Wong begins to feel that Mr. Richardson has been rather insincere because he has not followed up his invitation to lunch with a specific time an d place”.The difference in discourse pattern expected by Asian speakers of English (such as Chinese) and by western speakers of English (such as Americans) is the source of the problem between Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson. As is mentioned above, Americans often put the important points at the beginning of a conversation, while Chinese people are used to displacing important points until nearer the end of a conversation, which has led Mr. Wong to think that this mention of having lunch is of some importance to Mr. Richardson. Whether it is important to him or not, Mr. Wong believes that Mr. Richardson is seriously making an invitation to lunch. Mr. Richardson, however, has made such invitation at the end of his conversation because it is of little major significance. For him it does not signify any more than that he has enjoyed his conversation with Mr. Wong. It is not a specific invitation, but just a conversational way of parting with good feelings toward the other. It is this difference in discourse pattern that results in misunderstanding between two participants.In intercultural communication, people often take what they believe for granted because they have grown up in the culture and think their way is the best. In this case, they tend to transfer their own cultural values and beliefs to the situation of intercultural communication as guidelines for their behaviors, so that misunderstandings or ineffective communications arise.4. Implications for teachingWhat we talked above implicates that cross-linguistic influence has considerable potential to affect the course of second language acquisition. Therefore, in foreignlanguage learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was the differences between the native language and target language, contrastive Analysis came into fashion in the 1960s. Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language, contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatch or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. However, the contrastive analysis was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative: teachers had known about these errors already, or inaccurate: predicted errors did not materialize in the learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. People came to realize that “Difference” and “Difficulty” are not identical concepts. The once predominant contrastive analysis was gradually replaced by Error Analysis.The contrastive approach to learners’ errors sheds new light on people’s attitudes: the incorrect English sentence “He comes from China, Beijing” is produced according to the word order of Chinese, instead of the correct English word order “He comes from Beijing, China”. By error’s analysis, teachers know what the key points and important points are.There are many ways to help learners reduce the influence of negative transfer. 4.1 increasing the amount of language inputThe reason why many learners are influenced by negative transfer is that they are lack of input of the target language. Therefore, language learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input. By listening to original materials, learners know how native speakers speak English and they get the correct pronunciation; by reading original books, learners learn how native speakers write in English and get the correct usage of words. It helps learners reduce the influence of negative transfer in pronunciation as well as vocabulary.4.2 Getting a better understanding of the cultureLanguage is part of the culture and plays a very important role in it. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of the people, the history andtheir ways of living and thinking. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. Therefore, learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. It also means learning to see the world as native speakers of the language do, learning to understand the way in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behaviors of the society. To better avoid negative transfer, learners should think in the second language and avoid relating everything to their native language. So getting students familiar with the culture in which the target language is used should be a goal for teachers.5.ConclusionThis paper is a preliminary attempt to explore the different variables affecting language transfer. It can be seen that language transfer is important to foreign language learning. To subdue negative transfer, learners should increase the amount of language input and have a better understanding of the culture in which the target language is used. The methods presented in the paper are finite. Teachers and learners can come up with many more feasible and practical methods to accomplish the formidable and complicated process of eliminating interference of the native language.Reference1. Terence Odlin. 1989. Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press2. Diane Larsen Freeman and Michael H. Long. 2008. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press3. Kellerman, E.. 1977. Towards the characterization of the strategy of transfer in second language learning. In Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 58-146.4. 夏纪梅. 1995. 英语交际常识: 中国人与外国人之间的误会实例分析. 广州:中山大学出版社5. 李文中. 1993. 中国英语与中国式英语. 外语教学与研究. 18-24.。
语言迁移中的文化迁及如何应对
3 价值观
传统价值观是文化的核心（胡文仲，1992） 并且每个国家都有自己的传统价值观。 中国：天人合一（整体性，普遍性，统一性） 西方：对抗自然，拒绝同化（追求个性） • 个人主义、利己主义（不利于集体主义） • Individualism（独立、有创造性）
四、如何应对文化迁移
1. 利用语言的普遍性
充分利用语言、文化的普遍性可使二语 学习者把语言的正迁移最大化，用已经获得 的知识或经验对新知识的学习起促进作用， 有利于新知识的掌握。
2. 对比母语与目标语 母语与目标语的对比学习有利于发现二 者的差异，预知二语学习时可能遇到的难点 与易错点，并对此着重解释说明，以减少不 必要的错误。
3. 语言学习结合文化知识 语言与文化是紧密结合在一起的，因此 语言的学习离不开对该语言文化背景的了解。 在二语习得过程中，只有充足地了解了对方 的文化才能避免文化负迁移带来的误解，从 而更加顺畅地学习、理解与交流。
二、语言迁移的类型
据Ellis的观点，语言迁移有四种形式： 正迁移，母语与二语有类似的形式，表现为正确的 语言运用（中英语序） 负迁移，母语的规则导致二语学习中错误的语言运 用（说话者的外国口音） 回避，学习者回避使用由于母语与二语的不同造 成的较难的语言结构（从句） 过度使用，常常是对一些错误结构回避的结果。
五、结论
在二语习得中，语言、文化的迁移是一个复 杂的动态过程，纯粹地正、负迁移几乎不存在。 很多情况下它们交互出现，相互影响，并在二语 习得过程中起重要作用。因此，在二语习得和教 学过程中，我们需要重视文化迁移，充分利用正 迁移，及时纠正负迁移，以达到最佳学习或教学 效果。
“All people engage in eating, working, sleeping and procreating. They make artifacts such as furniture, tools and vehicles. They organize themselves into families, class, in-groups, nations, and and associations of nations. In fact, different peoples throughout the world have far more in common than they have of what separate them from one another.” (Jin Di, Eugine Nida 1984)
The Effects of Language Transfer on English Learning 语言迁移现象对英语学习的影响
四川大学锦城学院语言迁移现象对英语学习的影响The Effects of Language Transfer on English Learning学院：外国语学院专业：英语年级班级：08级英语1班制表日期：2012年3月7日摘要语言迁移现象一直为人们关注和探讨，并在第二语言习得理论和研究中占有重要地位，它与英语学习者能否学好英语有重大关系。
在语言学习过程中，第一语言对第二语言学习产生影响的现象就是语言迁移。
语言迁移分为正迁移和负迁移，正迁移是指个体已经获得的语言(通常为母语)，对第二语言的学习产生积极促进的作用；反之负迁移则是指个体先前习得的语言对第二语言的习得产生的阻碍作用。
本文主要在回顾语言迁移理论的基础上，通过调查问卷的形式了解到汉语语言的正负迁移现象影响英语语言输入（听和读）和输出（说和写）的因素，并总结概括出一些能促进英语学习中语言的正迁移，尽量避免其负迁移的方法，希望能够帮助英语学习者更好地学习英语。
关键词：语言迁移；正迁移；负迁移；语言输入；语言输出AbstractLanguage transfer, which linguists have paid attention to, plays a significant role in theory and research of second language acquisition, and is closely linked with English learners‟ English learning. In language learning, transfer is the influence of the first language on the second language acquisition. Language transfer can be classified into positive transfer and negative transfer. The positive transfer refers to facilitating effects of the language already obtained by individual, especially the first language, on the second language acquisition. Conversely, the negative transfer refers to detrimental effects of the first language on second language acquisition. Based on a review of language transfer theories, this study will probe the factors of the effects of positive transfer and negative transfer of Chinese on English input (listening and reading) and output (speaking and writing) through the questionnaire. And the dissertation will summarize some ways to promote the positive transfer and avoid the negative transfer in English learning to help English learners learn it more effectively.Key words: language transfer; positive transfer; negative transfer; language input; language outputContents1. Introduction (1)2. Literature review (3)3. Effects of language transfer: A study based on a questionnaire (6)3.1 Questions to be answered in this stu dy (6)3.2 Design of questionnaire (6)3.3 Data Collection and Data Analysis...... .. (7)3.4 Findings (8)3.4.1 On input (8)3.4.1.1 Effects of langua ge transfer on English listening (8)3.4.1.2 Effects of l anguage transfer on English reading (11)3.4.2 On output (13)3.4.2.1 Effects of language transfer on English speaking (13)3.4.2.2 Effects of lan guage transfer on English writing (15)4. Conclusion (18)Notes (19)Bibliography (20)Acknowledgements…………….…………………….…………………….…….. Appendix………………………………………….…………………………………1. IntroductionIt is not unusual to found that lots of English learners can‟t apply English proficiently though they have studied English for many years or passed kinds of English tests, like PET, CET and TEM. But why? The reasons may be diverse and complicated. But language transfer, which plays an important role in English learning when learners are in a native language environment, is one of the main reasons.Language transfer，which linguists have paid attention to, plays a significant role in theory and research of second language acquisition, and is closely linked with English learners‟ English learning. Language transfer includes positive transfer and negative transfer. The former is the facilitating influence of cognate vocabulary or any other similarities between the native and the target language, while the latter is a falling back of difference between the native and the target language.1Just like what Odlin said, “Transfer is the influence resu lting from similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (perhaps imperfectly) acquired”.2Therefore when there are big differences or similarities between the native and the target language, the negative transfer in the process of acquisition of the target language will correspondingly appear.Language transfer has been a central issue in applied linguistics, second language acquisition, and language teaching for at least a century. Although there have been a large number of studies on language transfer, the problems of language acquisition in daily life are in suspense, and more practical studies and methods to solve these problems are needed. So we should pay more attention to the effect of language transfer in the process of language acquisition, and make efforts to promote positive transfer and try to minimize negative transfer.Behaviorist accounts of L2 acquisition propose a direct relationship between input and output.3In the process of language acquisition, for any foreign language learners, to comprehend and assimilate the language, namely input, goes first. It means that first we must input the knowledge of the target language through listening and reading. And then we gradually develop the ability to output the target language.But what is input ? According to Ellis‟ words, input is used to refer to the language that is addressed to the L2 learner either by a native speaker or by another L2 learner or language which learners are exposed to.4More prosaically, input is a short word for "sentences that you read and listen to". Take English as an example, first an English learner gets input —he reads and listens to sentences in English. If he understands these sentences, they are stored in his brain. More specifically, they are stored in the part of his brain responsible for language. The acquisition of the symbols and structures of target language begins from our perception organs, ears and eyes, then the mind，which is the input of the target language, and such inpu t is very important. An Fengcun said in his dissertation “For any language learner, to comprehend the target language is very important, the essence of language comprehension is the same, which is to grasp the meaning of the langu age.”5Krashen and Long have argued strongly that SLA is dependent on the availability of comprehensible input before the learners‟ internal processing mechanism can work. If one really wants to learn a second language well, first he has to have an abundant input.6And output is the opposite of input, which means "producing sentences by speaking and writing". But how is it possible that one can speak his native language so easily? He want to say something (express some meaning), and correct phrases and sentences just come to him. Most of this process is unconscious: something just appears in his head. He can say it or not, but he doesn‟t know where it comes from. When he wants to say or write something in that language (when he wants to produce output), his brain can look for a sentence that he has heard or read before —a sentence that matches the meaning he wants to express. Then, he imitates the sentence (produces the same sentence or a similar one) and he says his "own" sentence in the language. This process is unconscious: the brain does it automatically. We can speak and write in target language after we listen and read more. The essence of language expression is also important, which is a competence to apply the target language. When we began to learn a target language, first we must input the knowledge of target language through listening and reading. Listening and reading belong to the input category of language study. And speaking and writing belong to the category of output.These two categories are both key components in language study. When we study a second language, we just begin to use another language symbols and structures to express the meanings of the language we have acquired.7But the acquisition of the new symbols and structures is influenced by the previous symbols and structures in our minds. Therefore, the rules of previous language are important in second language acquisition and we should acquire a second language by contrast between mother tongue and the target language, and try best to promote positive transfer and avoid negative transfer between languages.This paper is composed of four parts: introduction, literature review, a study of effects of language transfer based on a questionnaire and conclusion. The purpose and significance of this study, as well as the definition of language transfer, language input and language output are presented in the part of introduction.Based on a lot of related documents, the second part reviews the previous studies and the current situation of the research at home and abroad, and confirms the research range of the thesis and research approach. The third part describes the progress of the questionnaire, states the causes and effects of language transfer, and summarizes some feasible and practical methods to help English learners learn English. And the last part reviews the findings of this study and concludes the shortcoming of this study.Through detailed description of the impact of Chinese transfer on English learning from the aspects of language input (listening and reading) and output (speaking and writing), this paper puts forward relevant measures for the promotion of the positive influence and the prevention of the negative influence of Chinese transfer on English learning.2. Literature reviewLanguage transfer refers to the effects of mother tongue on the second language acquisition, including effects on language, such as pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, semantics, etc. The effects of mother tongue also lie in extralinguistic aspects, such as thinking mode, cultural tradition and social history.Transfer can be divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. Positivetransfer, which plays a promoting role, arises when the rules of mother tongue and the target language are the same or similar to each other. But negative transfer appears, when there are differences between rules of mother tongue and the target language, especially those underlying differences which are similar to each other in surface. Those underlying differences may be taken as the interference of language learning and the causes of language errors.Discussions of transfer often begin with the work of American linguists in the 1940s and 1950s.8Yet while the work of Charles Fries, Robert Lado, and others was clearly a major catalyst for subsequent research, serious thinking about cross-linguistic influences dates back to a controversy in historical linguistics in the nineteenth century. The effects of cross-linguistic influence can often be distinguished through the use of the terms borrowing transfer and substratum transfer.9Borrowing transfer refers to the influence a second language has on a previously acquired language. And substratum transfer is the type of cross-linguistic influence investigated in most studies of second language acquisition; such transfer involves the influence of a source language (typically, the native language of a learner) on the acquisition of a target language.10Since transfer occurs in a wide variety of social contexts, a thorough understanding of cross-linguistic influence depends very much on a thorough understanding of those contexts. Dulay, Burt and Krashen have claimed that transfer will be significant in acquisition affected by formal instruction but will be less so in naturalistic second language acquisition. While transfer is primarily a psychological phenomenon, its potential effect on acquisition may be large or small depending on the complex variations of the social settings in which acquisition takes place.Some linguists consider that language transfer is just because of the lack of knowledge of foreign language mastered by learners. But the cognitive school paid much attention to the study of restrictive factors of transfer and the research of cognitive criterion of transfer. And the study of restrictive factors of transfer mainly probed factors which make transfer wax and wane. In 2000, Ellis listed six constraints on transfer:(1) different levels of language (phonology, lexis, grammar, anddiscourse) ，(2) social factors (the effect of the addressee and of different learning contexts on transfer), (3) markedness(the extent to which specific linguistic features are …special‟ in some way), (4) prototypicality(the extent to which a specific meaning of a word is considered …core‟ or…basic‟ in relation to other meanings of the same word), (5) language distance and psychotypology (the perceptions that speakers have regarding the similarity and difference between languages), and (6) developmental factors (constraints relating to the natural processes of interlanguage development).11 It is considered that the studies of language transfer in recent 50 years can be classified into three categories: (1) Contrastive Analysis Theory and researches of language transfer, (2) Markedness Theory and researches of language transfer, (3) Cognitive Theory and researches of language transfer.12From the nineteenth century on, the standards of evidence for transfer have been rising, and the empirical support for the importance of cross-linguistic influences on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, etc., is now quite strong.Despite the conflicting views on the significance of language contact in historical linguistics, the notion of language transfer remained uncontroversial among language teachers well into the twentieth century. As early as the schools of the ancient world, teachers were writing down contrastive observations about the languages students knew and the languages they wished to learn. And as recently as the schools influenced by figures such as Sweet, Jespersen, Palmer, Fries, and other proponents of new methods of language teaching, there was a widespread acceptance of the idea that native language influences could greatly affect second language acquisition. Challenges to assumptions about the importance of transfer did not have much impact on the history of language teaching until the late 1960s. The challenges that arose in that period were largely in reaction to two claims that American scholars had made about transfer in the preceding twenty or so years. The first of those claims was that the existence of cross-linguistic differences made second language acquisition extremely different from first language acquisition. And the second claim that came to be challenged was that the difficulties of second language acquisition could be determined through contrastive analyses. In the process of study, itsimportance has been reassessed several times, but its role in second language acquisition is widely accepted now and it has developed a wide range of theory with the efforts and continuous probe of large scholars.Although discussion about this topic has been for half a century, we feel it seems to be just the beginning. Old debates have not yet been settled, and new perspective brings us new problems. Is distance between mother tongue and the second language proportional to difficulty of the second language acquisition? According to the point of view of traditional contrastive analysis, the answer to the question is yes. The doubt put forward by Zobl, is the problem that Lado and his proponents can‟t solve.As researchers of modern language, we should not avoid these problems. Is there any other possible except for explanation of Markedness Theory? Is there any change of effects of mother tongue coming with the improvement of the second language? What roles do mother tongue plays in cognitive process? How does mother tongue affect in the process of understanding the article written in the second language? The answer is still unknown. Similarly, effects of mother tongue in output process of the second language are to be discussed. I agree with the view that language transfer brings big effects on language acquisition.These unsolved problems remind us the language transfer is not a simple phenomenon, and it should be studied in multilayer in multilayer and should be explained by many theoretical and experimental models. Obviously, these efforts are not nearly enough.3.Effects of language transfer : A study based on a questionnaire3.1 Questions to be answered in this studyThis dissertation is finished on the basis of union of theory probing and experiment study. This study probes the effects and reasons of transfer from Chinese to English from two aspects of English learning: language input (including listening and reading) and language output (including speaking and writing). Then it analyzes connection between the transfer phenomenon and reasons, especially reasons ofeffects on English listening. At last, the paper have consulted some related previous researchers‟ results, and then compared with the questionnaire findings, and tried to find some feasible and practical methods to make best use of the positive transfer and subdue the negative transfer for improving the second language learning results.3.2 Design of questionnaireThe questionnaire is composed of three parts: preface, questions and acknowledgements. The questionnaire is made up of 20 items and designed in the form of multiple choices. The questions in the questionnaire mainly consist of background questions and subjective questions. The background questions are designed for knowing the situation of the respondents‟ language knowledge and language ability and contrasting the language ability of Chinese and English of the respondents. The bac kground questions also involve the respondents‟ English input quantity and their current English level. And the subjective questions are designed for knowing the respondents‟ attitude to English and the reasons preventing their progress of language ability. Besides, the arrangement of the questions is logical, because the items are arranged by the nature of questions. The background questions are placed before the subjective questions, and all of questions are from easy to difficult, objective to subjective. The respondents are students in grade one to three in Dali University.3.3 Data collection and data analysisThe questionnaire was finished in November 2011. It was administered to the students from grade one to three in different classes during the same week. The questionnaire was completed in class, supervised by the author, and then collected immediately. Totally, 110 copies of questionnaires were delivered. But some accident situation happen to the process of the arrangement of the questionnaire, and eight copies of them were mistakenly answered and thus were invalid. So, all the questionnaires were collected and 102 of them were found to be valid.From the analysis of the questionnaire, some useful data are obtained. Firstly, from the study of the background questions, we find that about 70% of the respondents come into contact with English in their junior high time. It indicates thatthe majority of English learners have a late start of English learning, so to them, their childhood life is full of Chinese and lack of English. In addition to the late starting time, the questionnaire shows that about 80% of the students want English teacher give lessons in English, while only 30% of the English teachers use English to teach in class. 70% of the English teachers teach in class in Chinese. So it is clear that the majority of students always learn English in the environment of their mother tongue. It can be seen that the mother tongue environment plays an enormous hindrance role to the progress of the stude nts‟ English competence.Another part of quantitative data collected will be presented in the following tables.The above table indicates that, in the questionnaire, there are 88% of the respondents who have a good listening ability, and among them there are 70% of the respondents who are also good at English listening. And by this analogy, there are 72% of the 90% good Chinese readers who can do well in English reading. There are 65.66% of the 80.81% good Chinese speakers who can speak English well too. And there are 53.33% of the 78.33% good Chinesewriters who can do well in English writing. It can be seen that, on the whole, the Chinese students do better in Chinese than English. And it can also be found that the English competences are positively correlated with the Chinese competence.It can be seen that the three main factors which affect English listeningcomprehension are pronunciation and intonation, language knowledge and mother tongue environment.3.4 Findings3.4.1 On input3.4.1.1Effects of language transfer on English listeningFrom the view of linguistics, the medium of human communication basically can be classified into two kinds: speech and handwriting. In these two mediums, speech is antecedent to writing, because the language itself is articulate speech. And writing is just a set of arbitrary symbols invented by human to record words. At the same time if one wants to acquire a language, he must first master its sound system and then its writing system. For English learners, language acquisition also follows the same law. In English learning, many scholars have emphasized five basic ability of language application, namely, listening, speaking, reading, writing and translation. It can be seen that listening holds a very important position. Listening is the foundation and premise of language learning. If one doesn‟t listen first, he can not speak out, let alone language communication. But in the case of Chinese English learners, listening is still one of the biggest difficulties in English acquisition. What factors affects the English learners' listening and what kind of strategies we can use to solve this problem become the real urgent problem needed to solve by present language researchers. According the above data analysis, the paper draws the following conclusion.The first factor affecting English listening is language knowledge deficiency. Difficulties in English listening caused by language knowledge deficiency mainly lie in vocabulary, grammar, language cultural background. Firstly, vocabulary is the foundation of all language and all language training. Listening is no exception. If there is no certain vocabulary, he still can't connect it with things that vocabulary symbols represent and can‟t know meanings that symbols represent, even in the process of listening one can discern the heard voice. Questionnaire shows that 84.67% of the students think that vocabulary is the most main factors affecting listening comprehension. So, to a great extent, the amount of vocabulary decides the extent oflistening comprehension in theory. Therefore, it can be seen that vocabulary is of great importance and complexity in English listening. V ocabulary learning should not only have a certain amount of accumulation, but also should achieve a qualitative leap. That is to say one should assimilate the knowledge of vocabulary and use it proficiently. Only in this way can one identify any kind of listening texts under a complex scene.For example, no matter how complicated the situation is, everyone can recognize father, mother, love and these similarly simple words. The fact that one can recognize these words is that they have been internalized as a part of people. Secondly, the lack of grammar increases the burden of listening comprehension and slows down the speed of understanding, so that the auditor misses much important information in later listening text. So learners should strengthen their grammar learning. Along with the progress of t he education teaching, the listening materials‟ contents often involve the current political affairs, economic, history and culture, geography, customs and life common sense of developed countries, like Britain and the United States, and such developing countries as China. It is difficult to believe that one can have a good listening when he is ignorant of culture of language background. In listening learning, on one hand, one should grasp international political change in time, and compare the differences of eastern and western culture and British and American national cultural background in a planned way. On the other hand, one should read widely and work hard to grasp and accumulate various cultural backgrounds so as to increase the familiarity with listening materials. As the increase of difficulty of listening, the influence of cultural background on the listening comprehension is more and more obvious. Therefore it can be seen that cultural background plays a big role in listening comprehension. To some degree, it can reduce the listeners‟ dependence on voice and enhance his describing and reasoning strategy competence, and then help listeners understand listening materials correctly.The second key factor is mother tongue thinking. A fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought.13 Expressions such as …learning to think in English‟ reflect a c ommon belief thatlearning a particular language requires adopting a worldview which, to some extent, is unique to that language. From the psychological perspective, the process of listening can be divided into three stages, namely, stimulating and perception, decoding and application. In process of English listening comprehension, first the external listening materials stimulate one‟s brain. And then one decodes and analyzes the text he heard according to the corresponding language knowledge. Finally, he connects the decoded content to comprehension of materials. In this decoding process, the listener deals with the oral discourse on the basis of implicated meaning or characteristics of structures which are made up by words and information. The strategies used by listener to dispose units of information deicide the strength of listening ability. And the learner with good listening ability, who is familiar with the segmentation rules of language section, can cut words into larger units, listen according to the groups of words, guess the meaning of unknown and key words for accurately, and understand the whole piece from contexts. The difficulties in listening comprehension caused by language knowledge embody in vocabulary, phrase, sentence patterns and grammar, etc. The language organization structures are different between English and Chinese.For example, the position of clause in English composite sentences is more flexible than Chinese sentences, because Chinese sentences often arrange the words order according to the sequence of things. And listening is a fast psychological process needed to be finished in a moment. However, when Chinese students listen to English materials, most of them used to convert the contents that they heard to their mother tongue, and then return to the materials‟ understanding. There was one who surveyed students in the university and found that most 78% of the students in English learning will often unconsciously process English into Chinese to understand. And this transformation will invisibly slow down the speed of materials‟ understanding. Therefore, to improve the sensitivity and accuracy of understanding listening sentences, paragraphs and discourse, one has to master the relevant knowledge of English grammar and understand the grammar structure regularity, and learn to think in English rather than in Chinese.Pronunciation and intonation are the last but not least factors concluded in thispaper. Language is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication. First, language is for the purpose of human communication. And the main medium of human communication is words, vocal words. So the most essential physical form of language is pronunciation and intonation. Learning a language, if one‟s pronunciation is not accurate and he can't correctly grasp the intonation, he will lose ability to distinguish some pronunciation. In the same way, if one is not familiar with pronunciation and intonation, his whole listening comprehension also will be definitely affected. And this is why one who first listens to English text feels frustrated. In the questionnaire there are 25% of the students who think pronunciation and intonation is one of the main factors affecting listening comprehension. Visibly, the standard pronunciation and intonation play important roles in English listening. Therefore, English learner should not only exercise standard pronunciation but also attach importance to develop the ability to adapt the speed and tone.3.4.1.2 Effects of language transfer on English readingEnglish learning can be divided into two levels: acquisition and application, which can be decomposed into input (listening and reading) and output (speaking, writing and translating). Between these two levels, input goes first, so reading is as important as listening as a learning method in English learning. An intensive reading is the secret of learning English well. In a sense, English is acquired by reading. First of all, reading is first. A psychological study found that a normal person takes in outside information among which 60% is from visual sense, 20% is from auditory sense and 20% is from other organs, which showed the importance of reading and reading is the first input method in English learning. Second, the quantity of one‟s reading is very important. As the old saying goes, “Having pored over ten thousand volumes, one can write with godly power”. So the quantity of reading is in positive proportion to learning efficiency. And reading is one of the main forms of getting in touch with English. Reading is so important. But do you know what influence reading comprehension, especially the higher levels of comprehension? It can be seen from the questionnaire, the Chinese reading speed is positively correlated with the English reading speed. Combined the data with the previous researchers‟ find ings, the paper。
language transfer语言迁移 PPT课件
Current thinking
◆ Avoidance ◆ Differential learning rates ◆ Different paths ◆ Overproduction ◆ Predictability/selectivity ◆ Second language processing
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Historical development
Discussions of transfer often begin with the work of American linguists in the 1940s and 1950s.
1. In the 1950s, language transfer was often deemed the most important factor to consider in theories of SLA. Based on behaviorist position: Second language was seen as the development of a new set of habits. The role of the native language, then, took on great significance, because it was the major cause for lack of success in learning the L2. From this framework emerged contrastive ananlysis. (contrastive ananlysis)→→(error analysis)
Most important is the broadening and reconceptualization of language transfer and the concomitant examination of the terminology generally employed.
语言迁移名词解释
语言迁移名词解释什么是语言迁移语言迁移（Language Transfer）是指在学习或使用第二语言时，受到母语的影响，将母语的语法、词汇、发音等特点迁移到第二语言中的现象。
这种迁移可能对学习者的语言能力和交流产生积极或消极的影响。
语言迁移的类型正迁移（Positive Transfer）正迁移指的是母语对于第二语言学习的积极影响。
学习者通过母语的知识和技能，能够更快、更准确地掌握第二语言的相关内容。
例如，如果学习者的母语是西班牙语，那么学习意大利语时，他们可能会发现两种语言有很多相似的词汇和语法规则，这就是正迁移的表现。
负迁移（Negative Transfer）负迁移指的是母语对于第二语言学习的消极影响。
学习者在学习第二语言时，由于母语的习惯性表达方式或语法规则的限制，可能会产生错误或不自然的表达。
例如，英语中名词的单复数形式是通过加“s”或“es”来表示的，而在某些语言中形式变化更加复杂，学习者可能会错误地将这种复杂性迁移到英语中，导致单复数形式的错误使用。
部分迁移（Partial Transfer）部分迁移指的是母语对于第二语言学习的部分影响。
学习者在学习第二语言时，可能会同时受到正迁移和负迁移的影响，表现出一定程度的正确和错误的语言使用。
这种情况在学习者的语言能力逐渐提高时较为常见。
影响语言迁移的因素语言迁移受到多种因素的影响，包括以下几个方面：母语对第二语言的相似性如果母语和第二语言在词汇、语法、语音等方面存在较高的相似性，学习者更容易发生正迁移。
相反，如果两种语言差异较大，负迁移的可能性就会增加。
学习者的语言能力和学习经历学习者的语言能力和学习经历也会影响语言迁移的程度。
具有较高语言能力和丰富学习经历的学习者，可能更容易准确地区分母语和第二语言的差异，从而减少负迁移的发生。
学习者对第二语言的接触时间和环境学习者对第二语言的接触时间和环境也会对语言迁移产生影响。
如果学习者长时间处于第二语言的环境中，并有频繁的使用机会，他们可能更容易适应第二语言的规则和习惯，减少母语对第二语言的影响。
language transfer语言迁移ppt课件
结果(Outcome)
陈述性
正
程序性
负
6
Possible reasons for LT
l Interlanguage (the learner's interim grammar of the L2) is not fixed and rigid like the L1, but "permeable". (目标语水平)
l In all learning situations, previous knowledge is a starting point for acquiring new knowledge; and in a languagelearning situation, this means previously-learnt languages. （子集原则）
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Hale Waihona Puke Types of LT--ten dimensions(Jarvis, Pavlenko)
语言知识/使用的领域(Area of Language Knowledge/use) 语音 书写 词汇
有意性(Intentionality) 有意 无意
语义 形态 句法 语篇 语用 社会语言
模式(Mode) 产出 接受
2
Introduction
It has always been assumed that, in a second language learning situation, learners rely extensively on their native language.
Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and cultue--both productively and receptively...
语言迁移
标记理论某种程度上弥补了对比分析假设的不足, 指出并非 所有目标语与母语的差异都会发生迁移。标记性与母语迁移 之间的关系可归纳为: 表1 语言的标记性和母语迁移
母语L1 1 无标记 2 无标记 3 有标记 4 有标记 目标语L2 无标记 有标记 无标记 有标记 过渡语 无标记 无标记 无标记 无标记
句法层面 主谓关系 时态表达 句子结构
汉语无标记 英语强标记 英语的标记性强于汉语 英语强调语法标记性
后期 基于普遍语法的迁移研究把视角转向了中介语的表征层 面 , 并形成了三个有代表性的假设 : (1) Schwartz & Sprouse(1996) 的“ 完全迁移 / 完全可及假 设” ( the Full Transfer Full Access Hypothesis) 母语语法构成了中介语的初始状态 , 也就是说 , 学习者借助 其母语表征来解释所接触到的第二语言输入。 “ 完全迁移 ” 实际上就是指母语特征可以全部迁移到中介语的初始语法中。
reference:
[1] ELLIS R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[ M].上海 : 上海外语教育出版社 ,1994. [2] JAMES C. Contrastive Analysis [ M ]. London : Longman ,1980. [3] KELLERMAN E ,SHARWOOD S M. Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford:PergamonPress ,1986. [4] ODLIN T. Language Transfer [ M ]. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press ,1989. [5] LADO R. Linguistics across Cultures[ M]. Ann Arbor ,MI:University of Michigan Press ,1957. [6] DULAY H ,BURT M. Should we Teach Children Syntax [J ].Language Learning ,1973(23) :245 2 258. [7] Ellis. R. Understanding Second LanguageAcquisition. [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Languages EducationPress, 2004.
Language transfer 语言迁移
Negative Transfer in Foreign Language Learning AbstractAccording to the language transfer theory, it is assumed that the learner’s mother tongue will positively or negatively affect one’s learning a foreign language. When there are differences between one’s mother tongue and target language, the mother tongue tends to interfere with the learning of the foreign language. This paper attempts to give a brief analysis of negative transfer in students’pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and culture learning. It also discusses what pedagogical concerns the existence of negative transfer warrants and what learners can do to reduce the influence of negative transfer.Key words: Native language, Negative transfer, pedagogical implication1. IntroductionLanguage transfer has been an important issue in applied linguistics, second language acquisition and language learning. When language learners have been using their native language for many years, they are very likely to transfer those roles in their mother tongue into the foreign language that they are learning. That’s what we call negative transfer. Therefore, differences between the native language and the foreign language should be taken into consideration to find out what difficulties might be. At the same time, teachers as well as learners should come up with solutions to reduce the influence of negative transfer.2. Defining negative transferLanguage transfer refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from their native language to a second language. When the relevant unit or structure of both languages is the same, linguistic interference can result in correct language production called positive transfer. However, that language interference is most often discussed as a source of errors known as negative transfer. Negative transfer occurs when speakers and writers transfer items and structures that are not the same in both languages. Within the theory of contrastive analysis, the greater the differences between the two languages, the more negative transfer can be expected.3. Manifestations of the negative transfer in English learning3.1 Negative transfer in pronunciationWhen people hear a speaker with a “foreign accent”, they often try to guess the speaker’s background. Often the clue seems to be how the individual talks. In such cases, questions put to the speaker such as “Are you German?”“Are you Spanish?” or “Are you Asian?”suggest an intuition about the nature of language, an awareness, however unconscious, that the native language of a speaker can somehow cause the individual to sound “foreign” in speaking another language. The detection of foreign accents is one example of the awareness that people often have of language transfer in pronunciation.3.1.1 Negative transfer in segmental levelSome difficulties in pronouncing inaccurately are caused by the non-existence of the phonemes in the mother tongue. Take /v/ and /θ/ for an example. Many English learners mispronounce them as they do not exist in Mandarin, and their mistakes can be attributed to the similarity of these two sounds with Chinese [w] and [s]. Chinese learners’ performances on the sound of /æ/ are not quite satisfying, for the phoneme is often replaced by [e], a sound that is close to Chinese [ai], and thus happiness or apple is mispronounced by many learners. Two languages also frequently have sounds which may seem identical but which in fact are acoustically different and may be perceived to be divergent from the target by the listener. For example, a comparison of an English ∕d∕with a Saudi Arabian Arabic ∕d∕ shows several differences. Among the differences, the duration of an English ∕d∕ at the end of a word tends to be shorter than its Arabic counterpart.3.1.2 Negative transfer in suprasegmental levelAlthough cross-linguistic influences on pronunciation frequently involve segmental contrasts, the influences are also frequently evident in suprasegmental contrasts involving stress, tone, rhythm, and other factors.Stress patterns are crucial in pronunciation in English since they affect syllables in English between certain nouns and verbs, such as between combine COMbine and comBINE. The first syllable in these two words has a different vowel sound, with thesound varying according to the acoustic prominence of the syllable. Such interactions have important implications not only for speech production but also for comprehension. When non-native speakers do not use a stress pattern that is a norm in the target language, this can result in a total misperception by listeners. Every English word has a definite place for the stress and one is not allowed to change it.In Chinese, stress does not have great influence. Thus stress errors are frequently committed by a Chinese learner.One of the most important typological distinctions between languages involves tone and intonation. Chinese is a “tone language”. It has four tones, that is, the level tone, the rising tone, the falling-rising tone and the falling tone. The syllable “ma”represents “mother”when it is used with a high level tone, and “horse” with a low rising tone. In contrast, English words have no fixed tones and their meanings are not identified by tones. In fact, the words in English sentences are influenced by different intonation. Different intonation can express different communicative intentions, attitudes and emotions. In other words, the meaning of a word in one English sentence not only has the meaning of vocabulary but also the meaning of the corresponding intonation. When Chinese students read English sentences, they are apt to replace the English intonation with fixed lexical tones instead of subordinating the lexical tones to the sentence intonation. As a result, every English word is pronounced clearly. Thus, the flexibility of English words is destroyed.3.2 Negative transfer in vocabularyA fundamental issue in the study of semantic transfer is the relation between language and thought. Expressions such as “learning to think in English”reflect a common belief that learning a particular language requires adopting a worldview which, to some extent, is unique to that language. When Chinese learners start learning English, they have been equipped with the deep-rooted Chinese way of thinking and their mother tongue inevitably influences their learning, especially the learning of vocabulary.3.2.1 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent conceptual meaning of wordsThe conceptual meaning is also called denotative or cognitive meaning, is the essential and inextricable part of what language is, and is widely regarded as the central factor in verbal communication. The negative transfer often occurs when there is only a partial identity of conceptual meaning. “It was quite warm when I got here, but the climate suddenly changed.”“C limate” refers to the average weather conditions at a particular place over a period of years, but in this sentence, the change means the particular condition at a certain time, so “weather” is th e correct choice. To some students, these two words have the same conceptual meaning. It’s hard for them to tell the difference so that they usually take it for granted that these two words could be used indiscriminately.Let’s look at another example. “He also studies French except English. “Except” means “but not, leaving out”. So “except English” means that English is not the subject he is learning. B ut when we look at the second word “also”, it’s obvious that the word “except” is not correct. “B esides” should be the right answer as it means “as well as”. Chinese learners tend to mix up the conceptual meanings of these two words for they not perceive the distinction between them.3.2.2 The negative transfer caused by the non-equivalent connotative meaning of wordConnotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. Compared with conceptual meaning, connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable, that is, it may vary according to culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual. When we study English, we usually memorize a group of words such as grin, beam, smile and smirk. They are all types of smile. The real differences between them lie in their connotative meanings. Beam is a smile which connotes happiness, while smirk is a smile which connotes gloating of some kind. Most Chinese learners find it hard to distinguish the connotative meanings of words, especially words which are called synonyms.In compositions, some learners use the word “peasant” which has a derogatory meaning in the present English dictionary. It refers to persons without education ormanners. If someone uses this word in their communication, they hold contempt on that person. Therefore, westerners prefer to use the word “farmer.” Without knowing the connotative meaning of different words, learners are very likely to commit mistakes.3.3 Negative transfer in grammarThere are often grammatical restrictions found in one language but not in another and such restrictions can occasion difficulty. A French-speaking student may make a sentence like this: At sixty-five years old they must retire themselves because this is a rule of society. While the form “retire”reflects a true French-English cognate, the French lexical item has a grammatical restriction that the ESL student applied erroneously to the English form- the use of the reflexive pronoun is necessary in French, whereas the use of the English reflexive themselves is not grammatical in the context of the sentence.3.3.1 Negative transfer in Syntax levelA great deal of evidence has been found for syntactic negative transfer in studies of word order, relative clauses, and negation.3.3.1.1 Word orderWord order has been one of the most intensively studied syntactic properties in linguistics. “Japanese learners of English do not at any time produce writing in which the verb is wrongly placed sentence-finally.” When the Japanese speak English, many times they put objects before verbs since the basic order of Japanese is SOV and the basic order of English SVO. The vast majority of human languages have CSO, SVO, or SOV as their basic word order. Yet while most languages can be compared in terms of these three patterns, they vary considerably in terms of rigidity. Speakers of a flexible language may use several word orders in English even though English word order is quite rigid. Finnish is a flexible SVO language. Speakers of Finnish may make such a sentence “This weekend got F. any fish”when they actually want to express that “This weekend F. caught no fish”. The sentence made by a French “I think it’s very good the analysis between the behavior of animals and the person” also reflect the relatively flexible word order of French. Chinese also has SVO as its basicorder but it’s relatively flexible compared with English.Other constituents besides S, V, and O are also subject to word-order rules. In noun phrases in English, for example, articles normally precede adjectives and nouns in the noun phrase and languages generally have rules specifying the occurrence of elements within noun phrases, verb phrases and other constituents. Since the rules governing the position of adjectives, adverbs, and other word classes vary considerably form one language to the next, it is natural to expect to find cases of word-order negative transfer in constituents. There is a strong tendency for Chinese speakers to follow Chinese instead of English norms for the replacement of adverbial elements, as seen in the following error: I very much like movies. From this we can see that native language influence does account well for the vast majority of the errors.3.3.1.2 Relative clausesEnglish primarily relies on a right branching direction, in which the relative clauses appear to the right of the head noun. In contrast, Chinese primarily relies on a left branching direction, in which modifying clauses appear to the left of the head noun. And the differences in branching directions favored in relative clause patterns occasion underproduction. Most Chinese learners seem to have often avoided using relative clauses in written compositions; in contrast, equally proficient students who speak Arabic and Persian used many more such clauses. Although the Arabic and Persian speakers produce a great number of errors in the relative clauses that they use, the similarity of patterns in the native and target languages apparently led them to attempt writing more sentences with relative constructions.In the case of relative clauses, another crucial factor is the grammatical role of nouns and pronouns. Restrictive relativization is a construct usually having a “domain noun”and invariably having a modifying clause. For example, the sentence “The musician who played at the concert is from China”has a relative construction consisting of a domain noun and a clause modifying the noun. One of the most common patterns in relative clauses is to have within the clause a pronoun with the same reference as the domain noun. This poses a great difficulty for Chinese wholearn English. There is considerable cross-linguistic variation in relative clause structures, and such variation occasions negative transfer.3.3.2 Negative transfer in semantic levelChinese and English belong to different language families. Thus there is a huge difference between the two grammatical systems. Chinese learners are prone to apply the grammatical rules of Chinese in their English learning. As a result, grammatical mistakes are frequently committed when Chinese learners study English. Chinese nouns have no plural forms and changing nouns into their plural forms is not easy for Chinese learners. They tend to decide the plural forms of English nouns based on Chinese abstract and non-abstract nouns. Usually errors would appear, such as “a good advice”, “a bad news”, “a fine weather”, “some changes”, “five equipments”, etc. On the other hand, some Chinese nouns are abstract, while the corresponding English nouns are countable and they have plural forms, such as “goods”, “table manners”, “many thanks”, “in high spirits”, etc.Influenced by the usage of the Chinese equivalent of “marry”, a lot of learners make sentences like “She married with a poor man.” The learner clearly thinks that the verb “marry”is intransitive as it is used this way in Chinese. It actually is a transitive verb in English. So we are supposed to say “She married a poor man”. Take the verb “serve” as another example. In Chinese way of thinking, the sentence goes like this: He serves for the people. But again “serve” is a transitive verb; “He serves people” is the correct answer. On the contrary, the Chinese equivalent of “laugh” is transitive while “laugh”is intransitive. So the sentence “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me” should be changed into “I made a silly mistake and she laughed at me.”3.4 Negative transfer in cultureNegative transfer in culture refers to the cultural interference caused by cultural differences, which shows that people subconsciously use their cultural norms and values not only to guide their behaviors and thoughts but also to judge others’ behaviors and thoughts. Negative transfer in culture often results in communicative difficulties, misunderstandings and even hatred. When learners violate norms ofconversation in the target language, the violations are potentially much more serious than syntactic or pronunciation errors since such violations can affect what is often termed “the presentation of self.” Negative cultural transfer occurs in all processes of intercultural communication and foreign language learning and is of great significance in both fields.3.4.1 Negative Transfer of Surface-Structure CulturePoliteness is probably a universal notion; the expression of politeness in different societies varies considerably. One of the basic challenges in the study of politeness is to understand the differences of interpretation that different cultures make of certain kinds of behavior. The norms of linguistic politeness in France and the United States are the same in many situations, but there is at least one context in which the norms differ considerably-using the telephone. Telephone calls in France are seen as impositions more often than they are in the United States, and thus the etiquette of making calls in France more frequently requires callers to make an apologetic statement at the beginning of the call. Consequently, phone calls between French and American individuals who are bilingual but unfamiliar with the differences in telephone etiquette may give rise to perceptions of bizarre or rude behavior. Another most frequently quoted example is that when Chinese people is praised by a foreigner, they tend to be modest and say “where, where”, which makes foreigners puzzled and a little bit angry as they think that their judgment is doubted.Speakers of different languages prefer different levels of directness in their requests. For example, German speakers show a strong preference for modal forms suggesting a sense of obligation, whereas English speakers prefer modal forms with a weaker force, as in “Can you close the window?” Moreover, it appears that German speakers more often prefer declarative statements in contrast to English speakers, who more often prefer interrogative statements to make requests. The speech act study indicates that speakers of German often produce requests in ESL that are too direct and they may sound not very polite.Apologies also show considerable cross-linguistic variation and pose problems for second language learners. The comparison of the verbal behavior of speakers ofHebrew and English shows that English speakers use apologetic formulas more than the Hebrew speakers do. And native speakers of Hebrew generally use apologies when using English less often than native speakers of English do. Differences in the relations between apologies and other speech acts can lead to inappropriate uses of apologetic formulas. When English speakers cough or sneeze, they say “Excuse me”beforehand or afterwards. But it’s not the form in Chinese. So Chinese learners of English use “Excuse me” mush less than native speakers of English do.Requests and apologies are not the only types of speech acts that can cause difficulties in learning to be polite in a foreign language. Language-specific speech acts require learners to become familiar with very new patterns of culture. In second language acquisition, much of the difficulty in becoming a competent speaker is likely to come from the simultaneous existence of universal and specific elements in spoken interactions. The difficulty may be compounded by beliefs on the part of learners that their requests, their greetings, their facial expressions, their volume, and so on, are not arbitrary in the way that words in their native language are.3.4.2 Negative Transfer of deep-Structure CultureUnder the influence of traditional worldviews and value orientations, Chinese thinking patterns are characterized by synthesis, vagueness and retrospection; whereas thinking patterns of most native speakers of English are characterized by analysis, precision and anticipation. Influenced by the specific thinking patterns, Chinese people are used to talking or writing in a roundabout way and keeping off the point and often putting the most important or critical points at the end or even just to give a hint. Such a circular way of talking or writing is regarded as politeness in Chinese culture and it can save enough "face" for both sides. Native speakers of English, especially Americans, however, like coming straight to the point in conversations or writing. The topic is often mentioned at first so as to attract hearers’ or readers’ attention.In Sino-American communications, the transfer of thinking patterns often arises at the level of discourse whose realm of study has been extended to include literary discourse and whole fields of culture and symbolic systems, among whichface-to-face conversation within speech acts is paid more attention to. The following hypothetical conversation may demonstrate the striking difference in discourse pattern influenced by different thinking patterns. “Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson have a conversation. Mr. Richardson has enjoyed this conversation and when they are ready to part he says to Mr. Wong that they really should get together to have lunch sometime. Mr. Wong says that he would enjoy that. After a few weeks, Mr. Wong begins to feel that Mr. Richardson has been rather insincere because he has not followed up his invitation to lunch with a specific time a nd place”.The difference in discourse pattern expected by Asian speakers of English (such as Chinese) and by western speakers of English (such as Americans) is the source of the problem between Mr. Wong and Mr. Richardson. As is mentioned above, Americans often put the important points at the beginning of a conversation, while Chinese people are used to displacing important points until nearer the end of a conversation, which has led Mr. Wong to think that this mention of having lunch is of some importance to Mr. Richardson. Whether it is important to him or not, Mr. Wong believes that Mr. Richardson is seriously making an invitation to lunch. Mr. Richardson, however, has made such invitation at the end of his conversation because it is of little major significance. For him it does not signify any more than that he has enjoyed his conversation with Mr. Wong. It is not a specific invitation, but just a conversational way of parting with good feelings toward the other. It is this difference in discourse pattern that results in misunderstanding between two participants.In intercultural communication, people often take what they believe for granted because they have grown up in the culture and think their way is the best. In this case, they tend to transfer their own cultural values and beliefs to the situation of intercultural communication as guidelines for their behaviors, so that misunderstandings or ineffective communications arise.4. Implications for teachingWhat we talked above implicates that cross-linguistic influence has considerable potential to affect the course of second language acquisition. Therefore, in foreignlanguage learning and teaching the basis of language instruction was the differences between the native language and target language, contrastive Analysis came into fashion in the 1960s. Starting with describing comparable features of the native language and the target language, contrastive analysis compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatch or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter. However, the contrastive analysis was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative: teachers had known about these errors already, or inaccurate: predicted errors did not materialize in the learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. People came to realize that “Difference” and “Difficulty” are not identical concepts. The once predominant contrastive analysis was gradually replaced by Error Analysis.The contrastive approach to learners’ errors sheds new light on people’s attitudes: the incorrect English sentence “He comes from China, Beijing” is produced according to the word order of Chinese, instead of the correct English word order “He comes from Beijing, China”. By error’s analysis, teachers know what the key points and important points are.There are many ways to help learners reduce the influence of negative transfer. 4.1 increasing the amount of language inputThe reason why many learners are influenced by negative transfer is that they are lack of input of the target language. Therefore, language learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input. By listening to original materials, learners know how native speakers speak English and they get the correct pronunciation; by reading original books, learners learn how native speakers write in English and get the correct usage of words. It helps learners reduce the influence of negative transfer in pronunciation as well as vocabulary.4.2 Getting a better understanding of the cultureLanguage is part of the culture and plays a very important role in it. In the broadest sense, language is the symbolic representation of the people, the history andtheir ways of living and thinking. On the other hand, language is influenced and shaped by culture. Therefore, learning a foreign language well means more than merely mastering the pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar. It also means learning to see the world as native speakers of the language do, learning to understand the way in which their language reflects the ideas, customs, and behaviors of the society. To better avoid negative transfer, learners should think in the second language and avoid relating everything to their native language. So getting students familiar with the culture in which the target language is used should be a goal for teachers.5.ConclusionThis paper is a preliminary attempt to explore the different variables affecting language transfer. It can be seen that language transfer is important to foreign language learning. To subdue negative transfer, learners should increase the amount of language input and have a better understanding of the culture in which the target language is used. The methods presented in the paper are finite. Teachers and learners can come up with many more feasible and practical methods to accomplish the formidable and complicated process of eliminating interference of the native language.Reference1. Terence Odlin. 1989. Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press2. Diane Larsen Freeman and Michael H. Long. 2008. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press3. Kellerman, E.. 1977. Towards the characterization of the strategy of transfer in second language learning. In Interlanguage Studies Bulletin. 58-146.4. 夏纪梅. 1995. 英语交际常识: 中国人与外国人之间的误会实例分析. 广州:中山大学出版社5. 李文中. 1993. 中国英语与中国式英语. 外语教学与研究. 18-24.。
语言迁移与英语学习
连串句
Loosely-linked Clauses
• Sometimes I come by train, sometimes I come by plane, usually I come by car. （误） • Sometimes I come by train. Sometimes I come by plane. However, usually I come by car. （正） • Sometimes I come by train, and sometimes I come by plane, but usually I come by car. （正） • I come sometimes by train, and sometimes by plane, but usually by car. （正）
Typical Syntactic Errors
典型病句
连串句
Loosely-linked Clauses
• The weather was fine, the party was held outdoors. （误） • The weather was fine. The party was held outdoors. （正） • The weather was fine, so the party was held outdoors. （正） • As the weather was fine, the party was held outdoors. （正）
1、这位作家喜欢晚上写作。 The writer likes writing at light. (night) 他不怕死。 He does not hear to die. (fear)
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Introduction
It has always been assumed that, in a second language learning situation, learners rely extensively on their native language.
Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and cultue--both productively and receptively...
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Types of LT--ten dimensions(Jarvis, Pavlenko)
语言知识/使用的领域(Area of Language Knowledge/use) 语音 书写 词汇
有意性(Intentionality) 有意 无意
语义 形态 句法 语篇 语用 社会语言
模式(Mode) 产出 接受
方向性(Directionality) 顺向(foward) 反向(reverse) 侧向(lateral) 双向或多向（bi- or multi-directional）
认知层面(Cognitive Level) 语言 概念
信息频道(Channel) 听觉 视觉
形式(Form) 言语 非言语
知识类型(Type of knowledge)
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2. It can lead to differential learning rates :
l either delay, when learners whose L1 contains a particular form spend longer at that stage of development than L1 learners or learners whose L1 does not contain that form.( e.g., Spanish negation is realized by "no" + verb. Children learning English as L1 use "no + verb" form for negation before they learn "auxiliary + not" form; many foreign learners appear to go through this stage, but Spanish learners tend to stay there longer).
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Current thinking
◆ Avoidance ◆ Differential learning rates ◆ Different paths ◆ Overproduction ◆ Predictability/selectivity ◆ Second language processing
The influence of a person's knowledge of one language on that person's knowledge or use of another language.
----Jarvis, Pavlenko(2008)
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Transfer may occur at all levels:
Most important is the broadening and reconceptualization of language transfer and the concomitant examination of the terminology generally employed.
Kellerman and Sharwood Smith(1986) suggested the term cross-linguistic influence, which is suffiently broad to include transfer, in the traditional sense, but also aviodance, language loss(whether of the L1 or of another L2), and rate of learning.
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Historical development
Discussions of transfer often begin with the work of American linguists in the 1940s and 1950s.
1. In the 1950s, language transfer was often deemed the most important factor to consider in theories of SLA. Based on behaviorist position: Second language was seen as the development of a new set of habits. The role of the native language, then, took on great significance, because it was the major cause for lack of success in learning the L2. From this framework emerged contrastive ananlysis. (contrastive ananlysis)→→(error analysis)
l Markedness（标记性原则） l Perceived language distance. If two languages are perceived
as close, transfer (both positive and distance negative) is more likely to occur. For example, research in Finland, where Finnish and Swedish are both offcial languages, suggests that L1 Swedish learners of English more readily transfer from their mother language.（语言类型距离）
Culture
--Lado, in his Linguistics Across
3
Definitions
l Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously acquired (and perhaps imperfectly acquired). ----Odlin(1989)
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2. During the 1960s to the late 1970s, its importance waned as learners' errrors were seen not as evidence of language transfer but rather of " the creative construction process". Some researchers virtually denied the existence of language transfer in their enthusiam for universalist explanations. Since the late1970s, research on the role of the native language has taken on a different view, advocating a nonbehaviorist position. View transfer as a creative process.
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During the mid- to late 1970s, the emphasis was on the determination of how and when learners use their language and on explanations for the phenomenon.
结果(Outcome)
陈述性
正
程序性
负
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Possible reasons for LT
l Interlanguage (the learner's interim grammar of the L2) is not fixed and rigid like the L1, but "permeable". (目标语水平)
l In all learning situations, previous knowledge is a starting point for acquiring new knowledge; and in a languagelearning situation, this means previously-learnt languages. （子集原则）
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3. In recent years, however, a more balanced perspective has emerged in which the role of transfer is acknowledged and in which transfer is seen to interact with a host of other factors in ways not fully understood.