nature一篇文献的翻译《生物催化工程的第三次浪潮》

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2013英语一text3翻译

2013英语一text3翻译在过去几年里，英语考试中的翻译部分一直备受关注。

2013年的英语一翻译部分选取了一篇关于地球外生命探索的文章。

本文旨在通过对该文本的解析，帮助考生提高翻译技巧和阅读理解能力。

首先，让我们了解这篇文章的主题和背景。

文章讨论了地球外生命存在的可能性，以及科学家如何寻找外星生命的迹象。

在文章中，作者列举了一些有关外星生命存在的理论依据，并对这些依据进行了深入分析。

接下来，我们来分析文章的结构和组织。

文章分为三个部分：引言、主体和结论。

在引言部分，作者提出了地球外生命探索的重要性。

主体部分详细介绍了科学家寻找外星生命的依据和方法。

结论部分总结了全文内容，并对未来探索地球外生命的前景进行了展望。

为了更好地理解文章内容，我们需要提取关键信息和观点。

在文章中，作者提到了以下几点关键信息：1.地球外生命存在的可能性引发了许多科学家的关注和研究。

2.科学家通过研究行星环境和天体物理等领域来寻找外星生命的迹象。

3.一些探测器和观测项目，如Kepler太空望远镜和SETI项目，致力于寻找外星生命的信号。

4.尽管目前尚未发现确凿证据，但地球外生命的探索仍具有巨大潜力和价值。

最后，我们来总结全文内容和启示。

这篇文章向我们展示了科学家在探索地球外生命方面的最新成果和挑战。

尽管目前尚无确凿证据证明外星生命的存在，但这一领域的研究仍具有重要意义。

一方面，探索地球外生命有助于拓展我们对宇宙的认识。

另一方面，这一研究也提醒我们要珍惜地球上的生命，保护生态环境。

通过深入分析这篇文本，我们可以提高自己的阅读理解能力，并为未来的翻译考试做好准备。

同时，这篇文章也激发了我们对未知宇宙的好奇心，激发了探索地球外生命的热情。

2013年考研英语一第四篇文章阅读精讲

2013年考研英语一第四篇文章阅读精讲文章主题：文章讨论了人类对自然的干预和改造对生态系统的影响，指出过度干预可能导致生态系统的破坏和物种的灭绝。

文章通过举例说明，强调了保护生态系统的重要性。

文章结构：1. 引言：提出人类对自然的干预和改造对生态系统的影响问题。

2. 正文：过度干预可能导致生态系统的破坏和物种的灭绝。

举例说明人类对生态系统的干预和改造。

强调保护生态系统的重要性。

3. 结论：总结文章主旨，呼吁人们保护生态系统。

重点词汇：1. intervention：干预，介入。

2. transformation：改造，改变。

3. ecosystem：生态系统。

4. destruction：破坏，毁灭。

5. extinction：灭绝，消亡。

6. overexploitation：过度开发。

7. biodiversity：生物多样性。

8. conservation：保护，保存。

9. sustainable：可持续的。

10. interventionism：干预主义。

长难句解析：1. The world has already started down this path, with various environmental problems caused by the reckless use of technology and the relentless consumption of resources.（人类已经开始沿着这条道路前进，由于技术的滥用和资源的无节制消耗，已经引发了各种环境问题。

）2. The lesson from nature is that ecosystems are resilient only to the extent that they can fend for themselves, and human intervention is not always helpful.（从自然界中得到的教训是，生态系统只有在能够自我维持的情况下才具有弹性，而人类的干预并不总是有益的。

bioengineering and translational medicine简介

bioengineering and translational medicine简介《Bioengineering & Translational Medicine》是一本专注于工程生物医学领域的学术期刊。

以下是关于该期刊的简要介绍：
- 该期刊由美国化学工程师协会（AlChE）于2016年创办，现为AlChE会刊，每年出版3期，现在由Wiley出版管理，期刊主编为哈佛大学的Samir Mitragotri 教授。

- 该期刊旨在及时、准确、全面地报道国内外工程生物医学工作者在该领域的科学研究等工作中取得的经验、科研成果、技术革新、学术动态等。

- 该期刊已被多个数据库收录，包括SCIE、BIOSIS Previews、STM Source、PubMed via PMC deposit (NLM)、Biotechnology Source等。

- 该期刊发表的文章类型以研究文章（Article）为主，同时也有综述（Review）、社论（Editorials）等。

- 该期刊主编Samir Mitragotri教授是美国哈佛大学的工程与应用科学教授，也是Bioengineering & Translational Medicine的期刊主编。

他是一位在药物靶向输送、生物医学材料、生物启发工程等领域有深入研究的科学家，已经撰写及合著了210余篇期刊论文，并拥有约150项专利。

总的来说，《Bioengineering & Translational Medicine》是一本在工程生物医学领域具有较高影响力和权威性的学术期刊，为该领域的科研工作者提供了重要的学术交流平台。

【精品】策划生物催化的第三次浪潮

策划生物催化的第三次浪潮来源：生物谷日期:2012年09月13日生物催化是在合成化学中应用酶和微生物，将天然催化剂用于酶尚未进化到的新目的。

经过几次技术研究和创新浪潮，生物催化领域现被证明已经达到了工业化水平。

第一次生物催化浪潮始于一个多世纪前，科学家意识到活体细胞的某些成分可以用于有用的化学转化（与此不同的是，发酵过程早已经成为常事上千年了）。

比如，Rosenthaler使用从植物中提取的苯甲醛和氢氰酸合成了(R)-苯乙醇腈（维生素B17的有效成分之一），人们也已经知道微生物体内进行着甾体的羟基化反应。

更近的例子是，蛋白酶被用于洗衣液中，葡萄糖异构酶被用于将葡萄糖转化为更甜的果糖，盘尼西林G 酰基转移酶被用于生产半合成抗生素。

这些应用主要面临的挑战在于生物催化剂有限的稳定性，但这些缺陷首先由酶的固定化得以克服，该方法还易化了酶的重复利用。

第二次生物催化浪潮介于二十世纪八十至九十年代，最初的蛋白质工程技术，典型的是基于结构的，拓宽了酶的底物范围从而可以合成非常见的合成中间物上。

这一改变使得生物催化扩展至药物中间体和精细化学生产领域。

这方面的例子包括：脂肪酶催化拆分手性前体用于合成地尔硫卓（一种降压药）的手性前体，醇腈裂解酶催化合成除草剂的中间体，羰基还原酶催化合成纯化对映体醇用于生产降低胆固醇的沙汀类药物，脂肪酶催化合成酯化腊，如化妆品的添加物肉豆蔻醇肉豆蔻酸酯或鲸蜡醇蓖麻油酸酯，腈水合酶（提取自玫瑰红红球菌）催化丙烯腈水合生成丙烯酰胺用于形成聚合物。

除了酶的固定化，现有的挑战还包括为非天然底物优化生物催化剂。

现在这第三次生物催化浪潮始于PimStemmer和FrancesArnold在二十世纪九十年代中后期的工作。

他们开创性地借助分子生物学的方法通过体外版的达尔文进化快速而广泛的改变生物催化剂。

现在这种方法通常被称为定向进化，尽管该词从1972年的全细胞实验后一直在使用。

这项技术最开始的做法包括：将蛋白质中氨基酸的随机突变通过重复循环累积起来，然后选择或筛选所得到的文库，最终得到稳定性更高、底物更专一、手性选择性更好的变体。

新核心大学英语版读写教程第三单元课文翻译

Unit 3 Translation of the TextsMain Reading:化学计量学对食品安全的影响恰当应用信息技术会有奇效John R. Joyce 摘自《科学计算》食品安全，或者说是潜在缺乏安全，是我们时常关注的话题；各类媒体更是在这方面做足了文章。

不管是因为食品传播疾病的爆发还是因为类似三聚氰胺的化学污染，食品召回事件似乎没完没了。

然而，很多情况下，这种风险通常是被夸大了的，可能是因为评级，也可能是因为担心责任。

这并不是说接触到受污染食品不会对健康造成严重伤害，而是说为了把受污染食品撤出市场，召回范围通常是扩大了的。

这样做的原因可能有很多，但主要原因之一就是通常无法及时追踪到污染源而不能把未污染的类似产品在市场保留。

在食品安全中恰当应用实验信息技术能为极大改变这种现状，但也应该认识到这也不是能解决所有食品安全问题的金钥匙。

我们可以实验信息技术看成是一块多面的宝石，每个面代表不同的信息系统。

没有哪个单一方面比其他的方面重要。

但是，结合在一起，他们就能变成光芒四射的珠宝，引导我们一路解决这个问题。

尽管有人试图对这个系统进行分类，但所有分类都不是很严格的，因为它们大多有功能的重合。

尽管我们没有足够的空间对所有这些方面做深入的介绍，以下列出的是我们可能遇到的各类实验信息系统的非互斥的分类清单：•实验信息管理系统•分析自动化/色谱分析数据系统•科学数据管理系统•生产工艺控制•化学计量•跟踪系统•质量管理系统这些系统有的是为了生产高品质食品，有的为了分析食品样本并储存分析结果，有的为了利用这些结果来评估食品质量和安全。

然而，虽然每个系统都可以是独立的，但最佳效果还是这些系统相互结合在一起的。

我们最近检查了很多类似的数据系统，我们的讨论就仅限于化学计量。

根据国际纯化学与应用化学联盟的维基介绍，化学计量学是“是一门应用数学或统计学方法把对化学系统或工艺的测量数据与系统的状态相联系的科学，是多元实验设计与建模工具在化学领域的应用。

nature catalysis decision sent to author 情况

nature catalysis decision sent to author 情况
摘要：
1.催化剂的定义和作用
2.Nature Catalysis 期刊的简介
3.论文投稿流程和决策过程
4.作者收到决策后的行动
正文：
催化剂是一种可以加速化学反应速率，但在反应结束后并不参与反应的物质。

在化学和工业领域中，催化剂起着至关重要的作用，它们可以使反应过程更高效、更环保、更经济。

Nature Catalysis 是一本专注于催化剂研究领域的顶级期刊，它致力于发表关于催化剂的理论和实验研究成果。

当一篇关于催化剂研究的论文投稿到Nature Catalysis 期刊后，编辑会对论文进行初步评估，以确定它是否符合期刊的发表标准。

如果论文通过了初步评估，它会被送到同行评审环节。

在这个环节中，至少两名专家会对论文进行深入评估，包括论文的研究方法、数据分析和结论等方面。

在专家评审完成后，Nature Catalysis 的编辑会根据专家的意见做出决策。

如果论文被接受，编辑会通知作者，并要求作者对论文进行一些必要的修改。

如果论文被拒绝，编辑会给出拒绝的原因，并建议作者将论文改进后投稿到其他合适的期刊。

当作者收到Nature Catalysis 的决策后，他们需要仔细阅读编辑和专家的意见，并对论文进行相应的修改。

如果论文被接受，作者需要按照期刊的要
求进行修改，并提交最终版本的论文。

生物催化作业原文

Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic 65 (2010) 18–23Contents lists available at ScienceDirectJournal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymaticj o u r n a l h o m e p a g e :w w w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /m o l c a tbLipases for use in industrial biocatalysis:Speciﬁcity of selected structural groups of lipasesSangeeta Naik a ,∗,Aditya Basu a ,Rakhi Saikia a ,Bhawna Madan a ,Pritish Paul a ,Robin Chaterjee c ,Jesper Brask b ,Allan Svendsen baNovozymes South Asia Pvt.Ltd.,193,Hoody Circle,Whiteﬁeld Road,Bangalore,India bNovozymes A/S,Krogshoejvej 36,2880Bagsvaerd,Denmark cDepartment of Biochemistry at School of Biotechnology,Royal Institute of Technology,Stockholm,Swedena r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Available online 11 January 2010“Dedicated to Kalle Hult on his 65th birthday”.Keywords:LipaseBiocatalysisSubstrate speciﬁcity Enantio selectivitya b s t r a c tLipases for biocatalysisThe substrate speciﬁcity of a selected group of lipases was investigated.The enzymes selected were from four structural groups.Group 1:lipases having wide alcohol binding cleft but a narrow acyl binding cleft (Rhizomucor miehei lipase,Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase,Fusarium oxysporum lipase);Group 2:lipases which exhibit strong restriction on the acid part having a narrow tunnel to accommodate the acyl group but wider alcohol binding site (Candida antarctica A,Candida rugosa lipase);Group 3:lipases having wide acyl binding cleft but narrow alcohol binding cleft (C.antarctica lipase B,Ustilago maydis lipase),and Group 4:having wider alcohol and wider acyl binding clefts (Fusarium solani pisi cutinase,Humicola insolens cutinase).Owing to the wide substrate speciﬁcity and higher expression levels in recombinant host,these lipases have tremendous importance for hydrolysis and synthesis reactions.Various sub-strates with substitutions on the alcohol and/or the acid part of the ester molecule were selected.The experimental results support the classiﬁcation of lipases on the basis of their binding sites.For substrates with heavy alcohol side,C.Antarctica lipase A and R.miehei lipase type enzymes gave the highest extent of hydrolysis,while for acid heavy substrates the highest conversions were shown by C.antarctica lipase B.It is noteworthy that the acid heavy substrates which had aromatic side chains were hydrolyzed only by C.antarctica lipase B type of enzymes.Lipases were found to be more active on the alcohol-substituted substrates than acid-substituted substrates.© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.1.IntroductionOver the last few years,processes have been developed,using hydrolases,oxidoreductases or lyases as biocatalysts in phar-maceutical,agricultural,or synthetic organic chemistry industry.Lipases (triacylglycerol acyl hydrolases)exhibit wide substrate speciﬁcity,stereoselectivity and enantioselectivity and are there-fore,industrially signiﬁcant enzymes [1,2].The use of lipases in non-aqueous environments proves an excellent methodology for the preparation of single-isomer chiral drugs by enzymatic hydrolysis,transesteriﬁcation or aminolysis reactions.Applications of lipases in asymmetric synthesis include kinetic resolution of racemic alcohols,acids,esters or amines,as well as the desym-metrization of prochiral compounds [3–7].In the pharmaceutical industry,there has been an ever-increasing trend for chiral drug substances to focus enantiomers instead of racemic mixtures,∗Corresponding author.Tel.:+918030582171;fax:+918030582174.E-mail address:snai@ (S.Naik).A major part of the drugs manufactured today contains enan-tiopure molecules [8];hence,highly enantioselective reactions for the production of enantiopure building blocks are of great industrial importance.Enzymes are an attractive class of cata-lysts often used in the synthesis of enantiopure compounds.They usually exhibit high enantioselectivity,operate under mild reac-tion conditions and have a large substrate scope [9].However,with substrates that are very different from the natural sub-strate,enzymes can display low enantioselectivity and/or poor reactivity.A solution to this problem is to genetically modify the enzyme and thereby increase the substrate acceptance or enantioselectivity.Designing enantioselectivity of enzymes is one of the most attractive but challenging trials in the ﬁeld of protein engineer-ing for synthesis of enantiometically pure compounds,there is,however,no practical theory for introducing mutations into any enzyme to change its enantioselectivity.One way would be to model substrate lipases and esterases by substrate-imprinted dock-ing,which takes into account the substrate transition states,productive and non-productive hydrogen bonds as well as com-1381-1177/$–see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.molcatb.2010.01.002S.Naik et al./Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic65 (2010) 18–2319Table1Classiﬁcation of lipases on the basis of structural and physico-chemical properties of scissile fatty acid binding sites.Lipase class Group Active-site propertiesRmL type1Large alcohol binding cleft but a narrowacyl binding cleftCaLA type2Strong restriction on the acid part having anarrow tunnel to accommodate the acylgroup but wider alcohol binding siteCaLB type3Lipases having large acyl binding cleft butnarrow alcohol binding cleftCutinase type4Having wider alcohol and wider acylbinding cleftplete proteinﬂexibility.[10].Another approach would be to incorporate a desired enantioselectivity to enzymes by directed evolutionary strategy,which comprises iterative cycles of mutation and identiﬁcation of improved variants by screening or selec-tion[11–14].In one report,CaLA was made enantioselective for 4-nitrophenyl2-methylheptanoate,by using the CASTing(Com-binatorial active-site saturation test)[15],while another that the enantioselectivity of hydantoinase has been inverted towards D,L-5-(2-methylthioethyl)hydantoin by error-prone PCR and fol-lowing saturation mutagenesis[16],and enantioselectivity of a lipase from Pseudomonas aeruginosa was inverted by the combi-nation of error-prone PCR and DNA shufﬂing[17].Lipases have been classiﬁed on the basis of structural and physico-chemical properties of scissile fatty acid binding sites to understand the substrate speciﬁcity of lipases[18].In the current study,the substrate speciﬁcity of four structural groups of lipases (Table1):Group1:lipases having large alcohol binding cleft but a narrow acyl binding cleft(Rhizomucor miehei lipase(RmL),Ther-momyces lanuginosus lipase(TlL),Fusarium oxysporum lipase(FoL)); Group2:exhibit strong restriction on the acid part having a narrow tunnel to accommodate the acyl group but wider alcohol bind-ing site(Candida antarctica A(CaLA),Candida rugosa lipase(CrL)); Group3:lipases having large acyl binding cleft but narrow alcohol binding cleft(C.antarctica lipase B(CaLB),Ustilago maydis lipase (UmL)),and Group4:having wider alcohol and wider acyl binding cleft(Fusarium solani pisi cutinase(FsC),Humicola insolens cutinase (HiC))was investigated.The work presented here compares the substrate speciﬁcity of the various groups of lipases and also looks at the enantioselectivity of CaLB and some of its reported variants,M72L,T103G,and W104H [19].2.Experimental2.1.Strains,culture media and growth conditionsPichia.pastoris CoLS702[Mut−]strain(this strain is a deletion mutant of P.pastoris GS115strain,wherein the AOX1gene has been deleted)was used for heterologous expression of CaLA,CaLB, TlL,CrL-1,HiC and CaLB variants T103G,M72L and W104H.The strains were grown and maintained in YPD medium containing yeast extract(10g/l),peptone(20g/l),and dextrose(20g/l).For expression of the heterologous protein,the Pichia fermentation medium consisted of yeast extract(10g/l),peptone(20g/l),sor-bitol(10g/l),Potassium phosphate buffer(pH6.0,50mM),and yeast nitrogen base without ammonium sulphate and amino acids (3.4g/l).All fermentations were carried out in bafﬂed Erlenmeyer ﬂasks(1l)containing300ml of fermentation medium at27.5◦C and150rpm.The cells were induced after24h of growth with methanol(1%)and the temperature reduced to22◦C.Methanol induction was followed every24h for6days after which the cells were removed by centrifugation at12,000×g for25min,the super-natant wasﬁltered through0.2␮hollowﬁbreﬁlter and processed for puriﬁcation.2.2.Construction of expression plasmidsA P.pastoris vector CoLS789was used for the expression of CaLA, CaLB,TlL,CrL-1,HiC and CaLB variants T103G,M72L and W104H. This in-house vector has a HIS4selection marker,a multiple cloning site,the3 and5 sequences of a AOX1gene of P.pastoris and a pUC origin of replication.The genes with the native peptide signal were sub-cloned under the control of AOX1promoter.The resulting con-structs were used to transform Escherichia coli DH5␣.The plasmids were subjected to DNA sequencing for conﬁrming the sequence.2.3.Preparation of P.pastoris competent cells and transformationYPD100mL(1%(w/v)yeast extract,2%(w/v)peptone,2%(w/v) dextrose)medium was inoculated with a single P.pastoris colony and grown over night at30◦C,200rpm to an OD600of0.8–1.0. Cells were collected by centrifugation(10min,1500×g,and20◦C), washed with50ml of sterile water and suspended in2ml of 100mM LiCl2.The cells were washed twice with100mM LiCl2 and distributed in100␮l aliquots.To each cell aliquot was added 240␮L of PEG3350(50%),36␮L of LiCl2(1M),25␮L of single stranded DNA and50␮L of linearized plasmid DNA.The cells were mixed and were incubated at30◦C for30min without shaking and heat shock was given at42◦C for25min.The transformation mix was centrifuged and supernatant was discarded.The transformants were suspended in100␮L of sterile water spread on SD(Syn-thetic Dropout)plates(1.34%Yeast Nitrogen Base with ammonium sulphate without amino acids),4×10−5%(w/v)biotin,2%(w/v) dextrose)and incubated at30◦C for2–4days.The transformants were selected by their ability to synthesize and utilize histidine. 2.4.PuriﬁcationThe puriﬁcation methods for the various proteins are outlined below.Unless otherwise stated all columns used were of20ml col-umn volume(CV),and equilibration,washing and elution steps consisted to10CV buffer.2.4.1.CaLA and CaLBAmmonium sulphate(0.8M)was added to the fermentation broth and the broth passed through Butyl toyopearl hydropho-bic column which was previously equilibrated with Ammonium acetate(0.8M).The matrix was washed with equilibration buffer and the bound protein was eluted isocratically,ﬁrst with water and later with ethanol(50%).The eluted protein was dialyzed against HEPES(pH7.0,50mM)and passed through UnoQ(anion exchange). The unbound sample consisted of the puriﬁed protein which was concentrated using centrifugal concentrators and used for enzyme assay.2.4.2.TlLSodium chloride(2M)was added to the fermentation broth and the broth passed through Decyl agarose hydrophobic col-umn which had been previously equilibrated with sodium borate buffer(pH9.0,50mM).The matrix was washed with equilibration buffer and the bound protein was eluted isocratically with equi-libration buffer containing Isopropanol(30%).The eluted fraction were pooled,the conductivity was adjusted<7mS/cm and passed through Q-Sepharose(anion exchange)which had been previously equilibrated with sodium borate buffer(pH9.0,50mM).The matrix was washed with equilibration buffer and the bound protein was eluted using a linear gradient of sodium chloride(1M)in equilibra-20S.Naik et al./Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic65 (2010) 18–23Fig.1.The four selected structural classes of lipases.Representatives from each group oriented with superimposed active site.Active-site serine is shown in yellow,and with the acid binding part pointing upwards and the alcohol binding part pointing downwards.For the CrL the acid binding part is a deep tunnel going into the structure.Group 1;RmL (TlL:1GT6),Group 2;CaLA (CrL;1CrL),Group 3;CaLB (CaLB;1TCA),and Group 4;FsC (FsC;1CUS).tion buffer.The eluted protein was pooled,concentrated and used for enzyme assay.2.4.3.CrL-1Ammonium sulphate (0.8M)was added to the fermentation broth and the broth passed through Butyl toyopearl hydropho-bic column which was previously equilibrated with Ammonium acetate (0.8M).The matrix was washed with equilibration buffer and the bound protein was eluted isocratically ﬁrst with HEPES (pH 7.0,50mM)and later with HEPES (pH 7.0,50mM)contain-ing ethanol (50%).The eluted protein was dialyzed against HEPES (pH 7.0,50mM)and passed through UnoQ (anion exchange).The matrix was washed with equilibration buffer and the bound pro-tein was eluted using a linear gradient of sodium chloride (1M)in equilibration buffer.The eluted protein was pooled,concentrated and used for enzyme assay.2.5.Enzyme assaysThe activity of CaLA,CaLB,TlL,CrL-1,HiC and CaLB variants T103G,M72L and W104H were carried out in HEPES buffer (pH 7.050mM)containing CaCl 2(5mM)and Triton-X-100(0.4%).The reaction was started by the addition of substrate (40mM)and enzyme (0.1mg).All the reactions were performed at 30◦C for 2h,6h,or 24h to get appropriate conversion.The reactions were stopped with 100␮l HCl (1M)and the reactants extracted with dichloromethane.The organic phase (20␮l)was diluted with diethylether and analyzed on GC ﬁtted with chiral GC column (Var-ian CP-Chiralsil-DEX CB 10m).Two compounds,one from each substrate categories (A)sub-strates either branched/large on the alcohol part or (B)substrates either branched/large on the acid part were checked for enantiose-lective degradation of chiral isomers.The separation procedure for the two isomers on GC is outlined below.2-ethyl hexyl acetate:Oven T 1=70◦C,T 2=80◦C ( T =1◦C/min),T 3=90◦C ( T =2◦C/min),T 4=150◦C ( T =10◦C/min);Injector T =220◦C;Detector T =250◦C.Carrier N 2,ﬂow rate =0.5ml/min.Ethyl-2-methyl butyrate:Oven T 1=40◦C for 2min,T 2=52◦C ( T =2◦C/min),T 3=150◦C ( T =20◦C/min),Injector T =220◦C;Detector T =250◦C.Carrier N 2,ﬂow rate =1ml/min.Enantioselectivity (E )was calculated using below Equation.The activity is given as percentage conversion of the total amount sub-strate.E =ln {ee p (1−ee s )/(ee s +ee p )}ln {ee p (1+ee s )/(ee s +ee p )}3.Results and discussionLipases have been of signiﬁcant interest because of their wide substrate speciﬁcity.In this study,the speciﬁcity of lipases belonging to four structural groups (Table 1)has been exploited over a range of substrates based on the substrate site bind-ing geometry.Fig.1illustrates the four structural classes in this paper.The structural geometry of the lipase is the ﬁrst indication on the substrate binding possibility in the speciﬁc lipase type.Hydrogen bonding,van der Waals contacts and elec-trostatic interactions are the second important factors for the binding possibility.The X-ray structures indicate the potential main structural appearance of the enzyme under activated and inactivated conditions,respectively.In the present work the X-ray structures in the so-called “open”forms are used.For the practical measurements the structural forms may be dif-ferent and of course more dynamic,and for the lipases with lids and ﬂaps which need activation (like TlL,RmL,FoL,CrL,etc.)the experimental conditions have special impact on the binding of substrate to the enzyme.The assay condition has thus been focused to work with both lipases that need activa-tion (CaLA)and those that need little or no activation (FsC and CaLB).In accordance with the above hypothesis,two categories of substrates i.e.fatty acid esters were selected (A)substrates either branched/large on the alcohol part or (B)substrates either branched/large on the acid part.Examples included in ﬁrst category substrates—Isobutyl propionate,Styrallyl butyrate,2-ethyl-hexyl acetate and Cyclohexyl acetate.Examples included in the second category substrates—Ethyl-2-methyl butyrate,Ethyl-2-ethyl-hexanoate,Ethyl benzoate and ethyl-2-phenylpropionate.One of these substrates –ethyl-2-phenylpropionate is shown in Fig.2,which shows how the substrate –a profen core [20]–docks in a substrate binding pocket of CaLB (Fig.2).Most of the enzymes accept group “A”substrates,however,CaLA type enzymes,which are capable of accepting large alcohol groups,show highest activity.CaLB on the other hand is more strin-gent with respect to alpha carbon branching on the alcohol side as shown by its activity on styrallyl butyrate (Fig.3A).2-ethylhexyl acetate was chosen as a representative substrate for category A substrate and the enantioselectivity of all four groups of enzymes was checked this compound.Most of the enzymes except CaLB could not distinguish between the enantiomers (Fig.4).Docking studies (not shown here)showed that the different enan-tiomers bind in a similar fashion,which makes it hard for theS.Naik et al./Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic65 (2010) 18–2321Fig.2.(A)The acid and alcohol part of the substrate.(B)A profen core compound docked in the active site of CaLB.Fig.3.Enzyme activity on“branched”/“large”substrates on alcohol part(A)and acid part(B).The activity is given in conversion percentage of total amount substrate.Two conditions were chosen:Triton0,1%or Acetone5%,Buffer:50mM Tris-buffer,pH7,Amount of enzyme:0,5mg,Substrate volume:50␮l,All the reactions were performed in 30◦C and24h.The reactions were stopped with100␮l1M HCl and the reactants are extracted with dichloromethane.20␮l of the organic phase was diluted with diethylether and put on the GC.22S.Naik et al./Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic65 (2010) 18–23Fig.3.(Continued ).enzyme to experience any difference.This is probably due to the negligible size differences of the substituents in the branch-ing.CaLB showed very high enantioselectivity on 2-ethyl hexyl acetate.Therefore,it was decided to check the enantioselectivity of CaLB variants T103G,M72L and W104H [19]on the same sub-strate.The CaLB variant T103G which introduced the consensus mutation G-X-S-X-G in CaLB,thereby increasing thermostabil-ity,has shown reduced enantioselectivity towards 2-ethyl hexyl acetate (Fig.4).The CaLB variant W104H in which more space is introduced into the active site has shown 6.7-fold increase in enantioselectivity (Fig.4).The CaLB variant M72L having higher oxidation stability has also shown decrease in the enantioselectiv-ity (Fig.4).In group B substrates,ethyl-2-methyl butyrate was easily hydrolyzed by most of the enzymes (Fig.3B).The analysis based on molecular docking of CrL and TlL with this substrate showed that the R-enantiomer docked in an active fashion while the S docked with the oxygen orientated in the wrong direc-tion.This has also been shown by the results in which CaLA is showing better enantioselectivity than all the other groups (Fig.4).The hydrolysis of all other substrates was enzyme speciﬁc.RmL was the only enzyme which was capable of hydrolyzing Ethyl 2-ethylhexanoate (larger branch on acid part)(Fig.3B).This is prob-ably due to the large hydrophobic area of the active site of the RmL.Ethyl benzoate which had benzene ring on acid part was hydrolyzed only by CrL,TlL and CaLB (Fig.3B)whereas phenyl propionic acid ethyl ester having profen core structure was hydrolyzed only by enzymes in the CaLB group (Fig.3B).In conclusion,lipases are found to be more active on the alcohol branched substrates than acid-branched substrates.As depicted in the ﬁgures,for alcohol side large substrates,CaLA and RmL type enzymes give the highest extent of hydrolysis,while for large acid substrates the highest conversion was shown by CaLB.It is note-S.Naik et al./Journal of Molecular Catalysis B:Enzymatic65 (2010) 18–2323Fig.4.Enantioselective ratio of CaLA,CaLB,CaLB(T103G),CaLB(M72L)and CaLB (W104H),HiC,TlL and CrL-1on2-ethyl hexyl acetate and Ethyl-2-methyl butyrate.worthy that the large acid substrates which had aromatic side chains were hydrolyzed only by CaLB type of enzymes.4.ConclusionsStructural space for acceptance of substrates of different shapes in lipases from the groups of RmL,CaLA,CaLB and Cutinase has been explored.The RmL group allows large alcohol part substrate,but more limited/narrow acyl binding cleft on the acid part.CaLA group exhibits strong restriction on the acid part having a narrow tunnel to accommodate the acyl group from the acid part of the substrate and a much wider space on the alcohol part allowing highly branched and large groups on the alcohol part.The CaLB group shows more space on the acid part and less on the alcohol part and with restriction on the branching at CA carbon.Cutinase group has a reasonable open space on both the alcohol and the acid part of the substrate.This structural understanding was tested with the8substrates giving an overall result pointing in the same direction as the structural understanding.References[1]K.E.Jaeger,T.Eggert,Curr.Opin.Biotechnol.13(2002)390–397.[2]M.T.Reetz,Curr.Opin.Chem.Biol.6(2002)145–150.[3]S.T.Chen,J.M.Fang,.Chem.62(1997)4349–4357.[4]T.Shibatani,K.Omori,H.Akatsuka,E.Kawai,H.Matsumae,J.Mol.Catal.B.Enzym.10(2000)141–149.[5]H.Bernsmann,M.Gruner,P.Metz,Tetrahedron Lett.41(2000)7629–7633.[6]U.Ader,P.Andersch,M.Berger,U.Goergens,R.Seemayer,M.Schneider,PureAppl.Chem.64(1992)1165–1170.[7]V.Gotor-Fernandez,R.Brieva,V.Gotor,J.Mol.Catal.B Enzym.40(2006)111–120.[8]G.Beck,Synlett(2002)837–850.[9]O.Kirk,T.V.Borchert,C.C.Fuglsang,Curr.Opin.Biotechnol.13(2002)345–351.[10]P.B.Juhl,P.Trodler,S.Tyagi,J.Pleiss,BMC Struct.Biol.9(2009).[11]D.E.Robertson,B.A.Steer,Curr.Opin.Chem.Biol.8(2004)141–149.[12]P.A.Romero,F.H.Arnold,Nat.Rev.Mol.Cell Biol.10(2009)866–876.[13]M.J.Dougherty,F.H.Arnold,Curr.Opin.Biotechnol.20(2009)486–491.[14]J.D.Bloom, F.H.Arnold,A106(Suppl.1)(2009)9995–10000.[15]A.G.Sandstrom,K.Engstrom,J.Nyhlen,A.Kasrayan,J.E.Backvall,Protein Eng.Des.Sel.22(2009)413–420.[16]O.May,P.T.Nguyen,F.H.Arnold,Nat.Biotechnol.18(2000)317–320.[17]D.Zha,S.Wilensek,M.Hermes,E.J.Karl,M.T.Reetz,mun.(2001)2664–2665.[18]J.Pleiss,M.Fischer,R.D.Schmid,Chem.Phys.Lipids93(1998)67–80.[19]S.Patkar,J.Vind,E.Kelstrup,M.W.Christensen,A.Svendsen,K.Borch,O.Kirk,Chem.Phys.Lipids93(1998)95–101.[20]E.Henke,S.Schuster,H.Yang,U.T.Bornscheuer,Monatshefte fur Chemie131(2000)633–638.。

(完整版)《科技英语阅读教程》陈勇版课文翻译

核电与核辐射1986年4月26日，切尔诺贝利核电站的一个反应堆发生爆炸，将相当于400颗广岛原子弹的放射性尘降物散布到整个北半球。

在此之前，科学家对辐射对植物和野生动物的影响几乎一无所知。

这场灾难创造了一个活生生的实验室，尤其是在这个被称为禁区的1100平方英里的区域。

1994年，德州理工大学生物学教授罗纳德·切瑟和罗伯特·贝克是首批获准完全进入该区域的美国科学家之一。

“我们抓了一群田鼠，它们看起来和野草一样健康。

我们对此非常着迷。

”贝克回忆说。

当Baker和Chesser对田鼠的DNA进行测序时，他们没有发现异常的突变率。

他们还注意到狼、猞猁和其他曾经稀有的物种在这片区域游荡，仿佛这里是原子野生动物保护区。

2003年由一组联合国机构建立的切尔诺贝利论坛发表了声明一份关于灾难20周年的报告证实了这一观点，称“环境条件对该地区的生物群落产生了积极影响”，将其转变为“一个独特的生物多样性保护区”。

五年前，贝克和切塞尔在这片区域搜寻田鼠。

Mousseau到切尔诺贝利去数鸟，发现了与之相矛盾的证据。

穆萨乌是南卡罗莱纳大学的生物学教授，他的合作者安德斯·佩普·穆勒现在是巴黎南方大学生态、系统学和进化实验室的研究主任。

他们发现该地区家燕的数量要少得多，而那些存活下来的家燕则遭受着寿命缩短、(雄性)生育能力下降、大脑变小、肿瘤、部分白化病(一种基因突变)以及白内障发病率更高的痛苦。

在过去13年发表的60多篇论文中，Mousseau和Moller指出，暴露在低水平辐射下对该区域的整个生物圈产生了负面影响，从微生物到哺乳动物，从昆虫到鸟类。

包括贝克在内的批评人士对穆萨和穆勒持批评态度。

贝克在2006年与切塞尔合著的《美国科学家》(American Scientist)文章中指出，该区域“实际上已成为一个保护区”，穆萨和穆勒的“令人难以置信的结论只得到了间接证据的支持”。

我们所知道的关于电离辐射对健康影响的几乎所有信息都来自于一项正在进行的对原子弹幸存者的研究，该研究被称为寿命研究，简称LSS。

生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展

第３９卷第２３期２０１９年１２月生态学报ＡＣＴＡＥＣＯＬＯＧＩＣＡＳＩＮＩＣＡＶｏｌ．３９，Ｎｏ．２３Ｄｅｃ．，２０１９基金项目：十三五国家重点研发计划项目（２０１６ＹＦＣ０５０１１０８，２０１７ＹＦＣ０５０５９０４）收稿日期：２０１９⁃０６⁃０３；㊀㊀修订日期：２０１９⁃０８⁃０１∗通讯作者Ｃｏｒｒｅｓｐｏｎｄｉｎｇａｕｔｈｏｒ．Ｅ⁃ｍａｉｌ：ｌｕｚｈａｏｈｕａ＠ｃｕｍｔｂ．ｅｄｕ．ｃｎＤＯＩ：１０．５８４６／ｓｔｘｂ２０１９０６０３１１７７付战勇，马一丁，罗明，陆兆华．生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展．生态学报，２０１９，３９（２３）：９００８⁃９０２１．ＦｕＺＹ，ＭａＹＤ，ＬｕｏＭ，ＬｕＺＨ．Ｒｅｓｅａｒｃｈｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｎｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｙａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎａｂｒｏａｄ．ＡｃｔａＥｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａＳｉｎｉｃａ，２０１９，３９（２３）：９００８⁃９０２１．生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展付战勇１，马一丁２，３，罗㊀明４，陆兆华１，５，∗１中国矿业大学（北京）恢复生态学研究所，北京㊀１０００８３２中国科学院生态环境研究中心城市与区域生态国家重点实验室，北京㊀１０００８５３中国科学院大学，北京㊀１０００４９４自然资源部国土整治中心，北京㊀１０００３５５滨州学院山东省黄河三角洲生态环境重点实验室，滨州㊀２５６６０３摘要：人类进入的２１世纪，是一个人类真正需要进行生态反思的世纪㊂反思我们与自然的关系，反思我们与地球生命支持系统中植物㊁动物㊁抑或微生物的关系，反思我们与地球环境保障系统中的江河湖海㊁山川大地㊁森林草原㊁城镇乡村的关系㊂地球生物圈尚存的完整自然生态系统愈来愈少，人类未来生存㊁发展及适应全球变化的珍贵缓冲区（ｂｕｆｆｅｒｓ）正快速萎缩，地球表面随处可见的３Ｄ系统（ｄｅｇｒａｄｅｄ，ｄａｍａｇｅｄａｎｄｄｅｓｔｒｏｙｅｄｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ）正快速增加，人类生命支撑系统中最为重要的生物多样性也正以前所未有的速度丧失，人类生存与发展之基失稳，亟待从生态保护理念出发，探索生态技术解决方案㊂在辨析生态㊁生态保护与生态修复内涵的基础上，基于文献计量学方法，以生态保护（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ）和生态修复（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ）为主题词在ＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ上检索了生态保护与生态修复近７０年发文量及国际主流杂志发文量，分析了生态系统退化机制及驱动力，总结了国外生态保护与生态修复所依托的先进理论和技术方法，以期为我国生态系统保护与退化生态系统修复提供一定的理论指导㊂关键词：生态保护；生态修复；生态系统；退化ＲｅｓｅａｒｃｈｐｒｏｇｒｅｓｓｏｎｔｈｅｔｈｅｏｒｙａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎａｂｒｏａｄＦＵＺｈａｎｙｏｎｇ１，ＭＡＹｉｄｉｎｇ２，３，ＬＵＯＭｉｎｇ４，ＬＵＺｈａｏｈｕａ１，５，∗１ＩｎｓｔｉｔｕｔｅｏｆＲｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎＥｃｏｌｏｇｙ，ＣｈｉｎａＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＭｉｎｉｎｇａｎｄＴｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｙ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００８３，Ｃｈｉｎａ２ＳｔａｔｅＫｅｙＬａｂｏｒａｔｏｒｙｏｆＵｒｂａｎａｎｄＲｅｇｉｏｎａｌＥｃｏｌｏｇｙ，ＲｅｓｅａｒｃｈＣｅｎｔｅｒｆｏｒＥｃｏ⁃ＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔＳｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ，ＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＡｃａｄｅｍｙｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００８５，Ｃｈｉｎａ３ＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｏｆＣｈｉｎｅｓｅＡｃａｄｅｍｙｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅｓ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００４９，Ｃｈｉｎａ４ＬａｎｄＣｏｎｓｏｌｉｄａｔｉｏｎａｎｄＲｅｈａｂｉｌｉｔａｔｉｏｎＣｅｎｔｅｒ，ＭｉｎｉｓｔｒｙｏｆＮａｔｕｒａｌＲｅｓｏｕｒｃｅｓ，Ｂｅｉｊｉｎｇ１０００３５，Ｃｈｉｎａ５ＫｅｙＬａｂｏｒａｔｏｒｙｏｆＥｃｏ－ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｌＳｃｉｅｎｃｅｆｏｒＹｅｌｌｏｗＲｉｖｅｒＤｅｌｔａ，ＢｉｎｚｈｏｕＵｎｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ，Ｂｉｎｚｈｏｕ２５６６０３，ＣｈｉｎａＡｂｓｔｒａｃｔ：Ｔｈｅ２１ｓｔｃｅｎｔｕｒｙｉｓａｃｅｎｔｕｒｙｉｎｗｈｉｃｈｍａｎｋｉｎｄｒｅａｌｌｙｎｅｅｄｓｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｆｌｅｃｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｒｅｔｈｉｎｋｉｎｇｏｎｏｕｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｗｉｔｈｎａｔｕｒｅ，ｒｅｔｈｉｎｋｉｎｇｏｎｏｕｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｗｉｔｈｐｌａｎｔｓ，ａｎｉｍａｌｓ，ｏｒｍｉｃｒｏｏｒｇａｎｉｓｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｐｌａｎｅｔᶄｓｌｉｆｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ，ｒｅｔｈｉｎｋｉｎｇｏｎｏｕｒｒｅｌａｔｉｏｎｓｈｉｐｗｉｔｈｄａｍａｇｅｄｍｏｕｎｔａｉｎｓ⁃ｒｉｖｅｒｓ⁃ｆｏｒｅｓｔｓ⁃ｆａｒｍｌａｎｄｓ⁃ｌａｋｅｓ⁃ｇｒａｓｓｌａｎｄｓ，ｔｏｗｎｓａｎｄｖｉｌｌａｇｅｓｉｎｔｈｅｅａｒｔｈᶄｓｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ．Ａｔｐｒｅｓｅｎｔ，ｔｈｅｉｎｔｅｇｒａｔｅｄｎａｔｕｒａｌｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓｉｎｔｈｅｅａｒｔｈᶄｓｂｉｏｓｐｈｅｒｅａｒｅｂｅｃｏｍｉｎｇｌｅｓｓａｎｄｌｅｓｓ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｐｒｅｃｉｏｕｓｂｕｆｆｅｒｓｆｏｒｍａｎｋｉｎｄᶄｓｆｕｔｕｒｅｓｕｒｖｉｖａｌ，ｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔａｎｄａｄａｐｔａｔｉｏｎｔｏｇｌｏｂａｌｃｈａｎｇｅａｒｅｓｈｒｉｎｋｉｎｇｒａｐｉｄｌｙ．Ａｄｄｉｔｉｏｎａｌｌｙ，ｔｈｅｎｕｍｂｅｒｏｆｔｈｅ３Ｄｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ（ｄｅｇｒａｄｅｄ，ｄａｍａｇｅｄａｎｄｄｅｓｔｒｏｙｅｄｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ）ｔｈａｔｃａｎｂｅｓｅｅｎｅｖｅｒｙｗｈｅｒｅｏｎｔｈｅｅａｒｔｈᶄｓｓｕｒｆａｃｅｉｓｉｎｃｒｅａｓｉｎｇｄｒａｍａｔｉｃａｌｌｙａｎｄｔｈｅｍｏｓｔｉｍｐｏｒｔａｎｔｂｉｏｄｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙｉｎｔｈｅｓｕｐｐｏｒｔｉｎｇｓｙｓｔｅｍｏｆｈｕｍａｎｌｉｆｅｉｓｆａｌｌｉｎｇａｔａｎｕｎｐｒｅｃｅｄｅｎｔｅｄｒａｔｅ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｆｏｕｎｄａｔｉｏｎｏｆｈｕｍａｎｓｕｒｖｉｖａｌａｎｄｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｍｅｎｔｉｓｕｎｓｔａｂｌｅ，ｓｏｉｔｉｓｕｒｇｅｎｔｆｏｒｕｓｔｏｓｔａｒｔｆｒｏｍｔｈｅｃｏｎｃｅｐｔｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｘｐｌｏｒｅｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｔｅｃｈｎｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｓｏｌｕｔｉｏｎｓ．Ｂａｓｅｄｏｎｔｈｅｓｃｉｅｎｔｉｆｉｃｃｏｎｎｏｔａｔｉｏｎｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｙ，ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ，ａｎｄｔｈｅｂｉｂｌｉｏｍｅｔｒｉｃｍｅｔｈｏｄ，ｔｈｉｓｐａｐｅｒｓｅａｒｃｈｅｄｔｈｅｒｅｌａｔｅｄａｒｔｉｃｌｅｓａｎｄｔｈｅｐｕｂｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌｍａｉｎｓｔｒｅａｍｍａｇａｚｉｎｅｓｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｔｈｅｍｅｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎᶄｉｎｐａｓｔ７０ｙｅａｒｓｏｎＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ａｎａｌｙｚｅｄｔｈｅｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｄｅｇｒａｄａｔｉｏｎｍｅｃｈａｎｉｓｍａｎｄｄｒｉｖｉｎｇｆｏｒｃｅ，ａｎｄｓｕｍｍａｒｉｚｅｄｔｈｅａｄｖａｎｃｅｄｔｈｅｏｒｉｅｓａｎｄｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｓｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎａｂｒｏａｄ，ｗｈｉｃｈｗｏｕｌｄｐｒｏｖｉｄｅｓｏｍｅｔｈｅｏｒｅｔｉｃａｌｇｕｉｄａｎｃｅｆｏｒｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｆｒａｇｉｌｅｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓａｎｄｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆｄｅｇｒａｄｅｄｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓｉｎＣｈｉｎａ．ＫｅｙＷｏｒｄｓ：ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ；ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ；ｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ；ｄｅｇｒａｄａｔｉｏｎ工业革命以来，经济发展极大地加快了社会前进的步伐，改善了人民的物质生活水平，但经济发展所导致的全球气候变暖㊁极端天气频发㊁环境污染㊁栖息地丧失等生态环境问题却日益突出［１－２］，全球范围内，森林㊁草原㊁湿地等自然生态系统大面积消失［３⁃６］，结构和功能严重破坏，人造系统和受人类支配的半自然生态系统大幅度增加［７］，生态系统所能提供给人类的食物供给和服务功能大幅度减少［８］，人类的生存发展遇到了前所未有的挑战㊂当前，人类对社会经济发展所引发的生态与环境问题的认识尚存在理论上和科学上的不足，如何破解人类发展与生态保护这对矛盾，进而实现２０３０年全球可持续发展目标已成当今世界的最大难题㊂面对日益失衡的地球㊁日益破碎的生物圈以及日益扩大的人类足迹，我们已无法用传统的环境线性思维协调指数增长与几何增长的关系㊁整体与边际的关系㊁现实与未来的关系㊂生态学特有的非线性思维范式及其系统观㊁整体性㊁动态观及多学科交叉的特点为探索解决这些危机提供了理论基础和科学框架［９］㊂正如Ｐａｌｍｅｒ等２０位生态学家２００５年在Ｆｒｏｎｔｉｅｒｓｉｎｅｃｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｔｈｅｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ杂志上发表的‘２１世纪的生态学与可持续发展“一文中所说：生态学研究已为了解自然和人类对自然的影响做出了巨大贡献，在实现社会可持续发展中将起到愈来愈重要的作用㊂本文通过对国外生态保护与生态修复理论㊁技术与实践案例分析，力图为我国脆弱生态系统保护与退化生态系统修复提供理论和技术支撑㊂１㊀概念辨析１．１㊀生态与环境生态最早见于德国生物学家Ｈａｅｃｋｅｌ１８６６提出的生态学概念一词，其源于古希腊文ｏｉｋｏｓ，意指住所／房子（ｈｏｕｓｅ）或者栖息地（ｈａｂｉｔａｔ），即生态为生物的生存空间特征，生态学即研究生物与其周边生存环境的关系㊂生态作为生态学研究的对象，应为名词，但在国内生态一词长期作为环境一词的附属物，更多表现为形容词，其内涵与外延经常模糊不清㊂‘中国大百科全书“甚至未列入生态一词，‘辞海“中解释生态为生物圈内的生物，不论是同种或异种，彼此间都会相互影响㊂生物和它所生活的环境间，也会发生相互作用，这些现象称为生态㊂特别是在当下我国高度重视生态保护与生态修复，倡导生态文明的大背景下，急需厘清生态一词的科学内涵㊂生态应指生物与环境的有机组合体，即自然界中生物与生物㊁生物与环境所构成的具有一定结构㊁功能和动态特征的综合体，具有整体性㊁稳定性㊁动态性及服务功能等特征㊂生态是生态学的研究对象，生态不是研究关系的，它是具有明显地域特征的生物＋环境结构功能单元㊂可见生态应更接近生态系统㊂‘中国大百科全书“对环境的定义是：围绕着人群的空间及其中可以直接㊁间接影响人类生活和发展的各种自然因素和社会因素的总体㊂并指出：按环境主体可分为以人作为主体的人类生存环境和以生物为主体的生物界生存环境㊂环境科学语境下，多数人采用前者，而在生态学中，往往采用后者㊂可见环境常因研究主体不同而不同㊂环境概念从环境学科中产生即打上了以人为中心的烙印㊂从而也决定了现有环境问题中对环境污染控制㊁环境保护与治理中的线性思维，因为人只是自然界中具有社会属性的生物而已㊂９００９㊀２３期㊀㊀㊀付战勇㊀等：生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展㊀０１０９㊀生㊀态㊀学㊀报㊀㊀㊀３９卷㊀生态与环境概念在科学层面及不同话语体系下理解也有不同，比如环境在西语体系下常被理解为环境就是我们周围的一切事物㊂生态内涵和外延均大于环境，可以理解为环境是生态的重要组成部分，生态学研究可为人类开展环境问题的研究提供新视野与全新视角㊂１．２㊀生态环境生态环境一词最早由已故中科院院士黄秉维（五届全国人大常委）１９８２年在全国人大讨论宪法草案时，针对草案中保护生态平衡这一说法提出来的㊂他当时认为保护生态平衡不够确切，建议改为保护生态环境㊂他的建议在政府报告和宪法中都被采用，生态环境从此成为法定名词㊂但后来黄先生发现这个提法不当，在自己的文章中明确地说：顾名思义，生态环境就是环境㊁污染和其他的环境问题都应包括在内，不应该分开，所以我这个提法是错误的㊂生态环境在‘中国大百科全书“的定义是：环绕着人群的空间中可以影响到人类生活㊁生产的一切自然形成的物质㊁能量的总体㊂可见其仍秉持人本中心的理念，与环境无大差异㊂严格讲生态环境并不是一个科学的概念，把环境与生态叠加使用也是不妥的㊂生态环境的准确表达应当是自然环境，外文没有生态环境或生态的环境的说法，‘中国大百科全书“中即将生态环境译为ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ㊂生态与环境既有区别又有联系㊂生态偏重于生物与其周边影响因子相互作用及其综合特征，更多地体现出系统性㊁整体性㊁关联性，而环境更强调以人类生存发展为中心的外部因素，更多地体现为人类社会的生产和生活提供的广泛空间㊁充裕资源和必要条件㊂１．３㊀生态保护生态保护（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ）指人类对生态系统有意识的保护㊂生态保护是以生态科学为指导，遵循生态规律对生态及其环境的保护对策和措施㊂生态保护的关键在于应用生态学的理论和方法，研究并解决人与生态环境之间相互影响的问题，协调人类与生物圈之间的相互关系㊂生态保护的重点是通过保护生态系统结构的完整性来维持其功能的可持续性㊂通常生态保护的对象主要为自然㊁近自然生态系统及自然资源㊁生物多样性等㊂１．４㊀生态修复Ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ在学术上比较常用的中文释义是生态恢复和生态修复，不同国家叫法不同，我国与日本叫做生态修复，欧美国家称之为生态恢复㊂生态修复（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ）是指辅助退化㊁受损或被破坏的生态系统而进行的恢复过程㊂在生态学原理指导下，以生物修复为基础，结合物理修复㊁化学修复和工程技术措施，通过优化组合，使之达到最佳效果的修复技术㊂生态修复的施行需要生态学㊁植物学㊁微生物学㊁栽培学和环境工程等多学科的结合㊂当前，生态修复理论和实践走在世界前列的是欧洲㊁北美㊁新西兰和澳洲，其中，欧洲偏重矿区修复，北美偏重森林和水体修复，而新西兰和澳洲则偏重于草原的生态修复㊂１．５㊀环境保护与生态保护环境保护（ｅｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ）简称环保，指人类为解决现实的或潜在的环境问题，协调人类与环境的关系，保障经济㊁社会的可持续发展而采取的各种行动的总称，环境保护是单因素和单方面的，保护重点以人为中心㊂生态保护（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ或ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｃｏｎｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ）是指对生态系统整体的保护，保护重点以生物为主，包括不同层次的生物，亦包括不同尺度的生物环境，乃至整个地球生物圈及其组成部分㊂２㊀生态保护与生态修复国外研究进展２．１㊀生态保护与生态修复研究趋势分析基于文献计量学，以生态保护（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｃｏｎｓｅｒｖａｔｉｏｎ／ｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ）与生态修复（ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎ／ｒｅｃｌａｍａｔｉｏｎ／ｒｅｃｏｖｅｒｙ／ｒｅｍｅｄｉａｔｉｏｎ／ｒｅｈａｂｉｌｉｔａｔｉｏｎ）为主题词在ＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ上检索了１９５０年至２０１８年相关文献的发表情况（图１）㊂近７０年来，国际上生态保护与生态修复研究大致呈现出以下特征：（１）生态研究图１㊀近７０年ＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ生态保护和生态修复为主题词的ＳＣＩ论文发表情况Ｆｉｇ．１㊀ＳＣＩｐａｐｅｒｓｗｉｔｈｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎ，ｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔ７０ｙｅａｒｓ１１０９㊀２３期㊀㊀㊀付战勇㊀等：生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展㊀中有关生态保护与生态恢复的研究明显可以划分为两个阶段，即前５０年平稳发展期（１９５０１９９９年）和近２０年的快速增长期（２０００２０１８年）㊂（２）总体来看，国际上发表的生态保护研究论文多于生态恢复研究论文数量，特别是进入２１世纪以来的近２０年，生态保护研究呈现快速增长态势，明显高于生态修复研究论文数量，表现出保护研究优先的特征㊂（３）从国际上生态保护与生态修复研究论文占生态研究论文总数的比例看，自１９６３年以来均呈现快速增长态势，特别是生态保护论文比例从１９６３年的１．９１％增长到２０１８年的２６．２４％，生态保护研究更加受到重视，发文数量也自此明显超过生态修复研究，这与１９６２年美国生物学家ＲａｃｈｅｌＣａｒｓｏｎ‘寂静的春天“的发表不无关系㊂依据２０１７年２０１８年两期ＮａｔｕｒｅＩｎｄｅｘ收录的国际顶级期刊（选取综合类期刊：Ｎａｔｕｒｅ，Ｓｃｉｅｎｃｅ，ＰＮＡＳ和美国㊁英国等生态学顶级专业期刊：Ｅｃｏｌｏｇｙ，ＥｃｏｌｏｇｙＬｅｔｔｅｒｓ，ＦｒｏｎｔｉｅｒｓｉｎＥｃｏｌｏｇｙａｎｄｔｈｅＥｎｖｉｒｏｎｍｅｎｔ，ＪｏｕｒｎａｌｏｆＥｃｏｌｏｇｙ对生态保护与生态修复近２０年论文（１９９９年２０１８年）在ＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ上进行检索（图２）㊂整体来看，生态保护与生态修复的发文数量随时间均呈波动增长态势㊂图２㊀近２０年国际顶级综合类期刊与生态学顶级专业期刊生态保护和生态修复发文量对比图Ｆｉｇ．２㊀Ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｏｆｐｕｂｌｉｃａｔｉｏｎｓｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎｂｅｔｗｅｅｎｉｎｔｅｒｎａｔｉｏｎａｌｔｏｐｃｏｍｐｒｅｈｅｎｓｉｖｅｊｏｕｒｎａｌｓａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｆｅｓｓｉｏｎａｌｊｏｕｒｎａｌｓｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔ２０ｙｅａｒｓ从生态保护与生态修复的研究对象看，以山（ｍｏｕｎｔａｉｎ／ｒｉｄｇｅ／ｍｉｎｅ）㊁水（ｒｉｖｅｒ）㊁林（ｆｏｒｅｓｔ）㊁田（ｃｒｏｐｌａｎｄ／ｆａｒｍｌａｎｄ）㊁湖（ｌａｋｅ）㊁草（ｇｒａｓｓｌａｎｄ）㊁城（ｃｉｔｙ／ｕｒｂａｎ）㊁海（ｏｃｅａｎ／ｓｅａ）㊁湿地（ｗｅｔｌａｎｄ／ｍａｒｓｈ／ｓａｌｔｍａｒｓｈ／ｐｅａｔｌａｎｄ／ｐｏｏｌ）为主题词在ＷｅｂｏｆＳｃｉｅｎｃｅ上进行检索㊂结果表明，生态保护与生态修复的对象多集中在森林㊁海洋㊁河流㊁湿地和山体㊂２１０９㊀生㊀态㊀学㊀报㊀㊀㊀３９卷㊀图３㊀近２０年来不同生态系统的生态保护与生态修复发文情况对比图Ｆｉｇ．３㊀Ｃｏｍｐａｒｉｓｏｎｃｈａｒｔｏｆｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｐｒｏｔｅｃｔｉｏｎａｎｄｅｃｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｒｅｓｔｏｒａｔｉｏｎｏｆｄｉｆｆｅｒｅｎｔｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓｉｎｒｅｃｅｎｔ２０ｙｅａｒｓ２．２㊀国外生态保护与生态修复理论２．２．１㊀生态系统退化机制干扰（ｄｉｓｔｕｒｂａｎｃｅｓ），即由外部因素引起的生态系统的任何可见的变化，是调节生态系统结构和功能的自然驱动力［１０］㊂以陆地生态系统（森林㊁草原㊁荒漠㊁冻原㊁城市㊁农田㊁山体）和水生生态系统（河流㊁湖泊㊁沼泽㊁海洋㊁滨海湿地）为研究对象，比较分析不同生态系统退化的主要驱动力（表１）㊂当前，许多管理行动旨在缓解当地的干扰与压力，以增强生态系统对全球气候变化的适应能力㊂通过管理可预测的人为干扰，以维持足够高的生物多样性水平，确保生态系统的恢复能力，确定生态阈值，为应对全球气候变化中的不确定性和生态恢复提供切实可行的解决方案㊂２．２．２㊀生态保护与生态修复原则干扰是生态系统退化的驱动力和退化发生的必要前提，一旦干扰超过了生态系统的抵抗力阈值后，生态系统就会发生退化，退化程度决定于干扰强度㊁干扰频率㊁干扰时间和干扰规模［１０，２９］㊂一般而言，针对一个受到干扰而正在退化或者已经退化的生态系统，该如何保护与修复，应依据退化生态系统所受的干扰程度和生态系统结构㊁功能破坏程度而定，一般可分为三种情况：３１０９㊀２３期㊀㊀㊀付战勇㊀等：生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展㊀表１㊀生态系统退化与驱动因子Ｔａｂｌｅ１㊀Ｄｅｇｒａｄａｔｉｏｎａｎｄｄｒｉｖｉｎｇｆａｃｔｏｒｓｏｆｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ生态系统Ｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ干扰类型Ｄｉｓｔｕｒｂａｎｃｅｓｔｙｐｅｓ自然干扰因子人为干扰因子造成后果Ｃｏｎｓｅｑｕｅｎｃｅｓ研究案例Ｃａｓｅｓｔｕｄｙ陆地生态系统Ｔｅｒｒｅｓｔｒｉａｌｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍ森林气候灾害（森林火）㊁病虫害滥砍滥伐㊁毁林开荒森林大面积消失㊁生态环境受到破坏㊁水土流失［１１⁃１３］草原全球气候变化㊁干旱㊁灌木入侵过度放牧㊁管理方式不科学㊁农业用地开发㊁采矿草地植被产量和覆盖度减少㊁土壤盐渍化㊁土地沙化［１４⁃１５］荒漠暖干化㊁干旱㊁多风矿产资源开发㊁采挖植物沙尘暴㊁荒漠化［１６］冻原全球气候变暖环境污染冻土退化㊁极小种群的消失［１７⁃１８］城市地震㊁泥石流滑坡等自然灾害城市化进程加快，自然空间萎缩威胁人类的生命㊁财产安全，城市结构和功能丧失［７］农田全球气候变化城市化㊁工业化的推进；大量施用化肥㊁农药农作物减产㊁重金属污染［１９⁃２０］山体泥石流㊁滑坡凿山取石㊁滥砍滥伐土壤侵蚀㊁水土流失［８］水生生态系统Ａｑｕａｔｉｃｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍ河流涝灾㊁外来物种的侵入过度捕捞㊁生活排污㊁农药化肥污染水体富营养化，生物多样性丧失［２１⁃２３］湖泊全球气候变化围湖造田㊁农药㊁化肥污染面积萎缩㊁水体富营养化［２４］沼泽全球气候变暖填海造地面积萎缩㊁功能受损㊁水体富营养化［２５］海洋全球气候变化㊁海平面上升海上开采油气资源㊁过度捕捞海洋污染，危及海洋生物；引发赤潮，危害海水养殖业等［２６］滨海湿地全球气候变化㊁海平面上升㊁海水入侵㊁风暴潮港口建设㊁人为开垦引发赤潮，危害国土安全［２７⁃２８］（１）生态系统受外界干扰程度较小，对原有生态系统结构和功能影响较小，这种情况下，可以充分依靠生态系统的自我调节与自恢复能力，遵循保护为主原则；（２）生态系统受外界干扰程度较大，对生态系统结构与功能造成较大影响，在开展生态保护与生态修复时应视生态系统结构和功能受损程度梯度㊁格局，实行修复中的保护，遵循保护＋修复并重原则；（３）生态系统受外界干扰程度很大，造成原有生态系统的结构和功能遭受严重破坏，生物多样性显著降低，远远超出了生态系统自然恢复的能力，这种情况下，必须借助生态修复来促进生态系统结构与功能修复甚而重建，遵循修复为主原则㊂２．２．３㊀生态保护理论（１）大地共同体理论‘大地伦理“在生态学群落（ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙ）概念的基础上扩充为大地共同体（ｌａｎｄｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙ）概念㊂１９４９年，Ｌｅｏｐｏｌｄ在大地伦理中对大地伦理学的科学内涵作了进一步阐述：当一切事情趋向于保持生命共同体的完整㊁稳定和美丽时，方为正［３０］㊂这里的完整指生态系统的完整性与物种的多样性及其协调的关系；稳定指维持生态系统自我调节和自我更新的功能；美丽则是指一种超越了经济利益的更高的审美意识㊂完整㊁稳定和美丽是三位一体的有机整体，是大地共同体不可分割的三个要素㊂随着人们生态意识的提高，大地伦理主张扩大共同体的界限和研究对象，使之包括土壤㊁水㊁植物和动物，也就是由它们组成的整体大地㊂同时，人类再也不能再像以前那样把大地视为自己的附属品，只从经济角度去滥用和破坏大地，人类应该把自己看作大地共同体的一员，有责任维护生命共同体的完整㊁稳定和美丽㊂（２）岛屿生物地理学理论１９６７年，ＭａｃＡｒｔｈｕｒ和Ｗｉｌｓｏｎ提出了岛屿生物地理学理论，首次阐述了物种多样性和岛屿面积㊁隔离程度的关系，即岛屿的面积及其隔离程度决定了物种丰富度［３１］㊂岛屿生物地理学理论作为研究破碎化生境和物种保护问题的基础，是应用科学方法解决由人类干扰或其它因素引起的物种㊁群落和生态系统出现的４１０９㊀生㊀态㊀学㊀报㊀㊀㊀３９卷㊀各种问题的学科，其应用与发展也有了更加广阔的空间，成为物种及其栖息地保护和自然保护区设计的理论基础［３２⁃３４］㊂（３）生物多样性保护理论生物多样性（ｂｉｏｌｏｇｉｃａｌｄｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ或ｂｉｏｄｉｖｅｒｓｉｔｙ）指生物（植物㊁动物㊁微生物）与环境形成的生态复合体以及与此相关的各种生态过程的总和㊂生物多样性作为最重要的生态系统结构与功能特征，是生态学领域最为重要的研究内容㊂２０１０年，国际生物多样性公约缔约方大会第十届会议制定了２０个包括爱知生物多样性目标在内的战略计划，采取有效行动来制止生物多样性的丧失㊂只有保护了地球上的种质资源，才能可持续的保持生态系统的稳定性和服务功能㊂鉴于越来越多的人认识到生物多样性在生态系统功能和服务中所发挥的重要作用，当今时代的生态保护已经从单纯的物种保护转变到物种㊁群落和生态系统多层次的保护［１０，１２，３５⁃３６］㊂（４）涌现性理论在生态保护中，系统性原理强调的整体性与功能性是内部结构与外部系统环境综合作用的结果，也就是我们所说的涌现（ｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅ）㊂涌现过程是新功能和新结构产生的过程，是一种从低层次到高层次的过渡，但这个性质并不存在于任何单个要素中，而是系统在由低层次构成更高层次时才表现出来㊂系统功能之所以表现为整体大于部分之和，就是因为系统涌现了新质的缘故，其中大于部分就是涌现的新质㊂系统的这种涌现性是系统的适应性主体之间非线性相互作用的结果，这有助于认识生态系统结构与功能特征㊂（５）立法保护法律法规为更高层次的生态保护提供了一定的依据，欧美国家在立法保护方面一直走在世界前列㊂１８９１年，美国‘森林保护法案“颁布，国有森林系统形成，从法律意义上来约束人们保护森林；１９６４年，美国的‘荒野法“（ＷｉｌｄｅｒｎｅｓｓＡｃｔ）提出了对联邦土地的荒野价值进行特别保护的立法理念，成功保护了３．７万平方千米的联邦土地，并且创设了国家荒野地保护系统，开启了美国荒野保护历史的新篇章，这对荒野地后续的生态保护提供了一定的新思路㊂１９７０年，美国濒危物种保护法（ＥｎｄａｎｇｅｒｅｄＳｐｅｃｉｅｓＡｃｔ）指出，政府要划出保护地并资助濒危物种的保护；２００８年，Ｄａｖｉｄ的‘荒野：美国价值观的历史，意义和前途“一文认为荒野保护是美国环境传统发展的中心价值，并且已经建立在法律和机构当中，通过荒野法案得以更加广泛的保护㊂２．２．４㊀生态修复理论生态修复的对象是生态系统，它作为改善退化生态系统的生产力和缓解生态系统损失的一种方法，为生物多样性保护和自然资源管理提供了新的思路和机遇㊂生态修复是建立在恢复生态学的理论基础上所进行的实践，生态修复的理论基础来源于恢复生态学㊂Ｊｏｒｄａｎ等提倡采用综合方法进行修复，以促进科学方法和生态修复实践的融合［３７］㊂目前，国外生态修复依据的理论主要包括以下四个方面：（１）群落演替理论群落演替（ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙｓｕｃｃｅｓｓｉｏｎ）一般指植物群落在受到干扰后的恢复过程或在裸地上植物群落的形成和发展过程㊂群落演替的定义有广义和狭义之分，广义上是指植物群落随时间变化的生态过程，狭义上是指在一定地段上群落由一种类型变为另一种类型的质变㊁且有顺序的演变过程㊂无论原生演替还是次生演替，都可以通过一定的人为操作进行调控，从而改变演替方向和演替速度，即只要克服或消除外界的干扰压力，将有助于对自然生态系统和人工生态系统进行有效地控制和管理，并且可指导退化生态系统恢复和重建［３８］㊂群落演替过程中，演替方向易受到干预，其中，营养级联效应在一定程度上显得尤为重要㊂营养级联（ｔｒｏｐｈｉｃｃａｓｃａｄｅ）是在多营养级中的自上而下的链式反应，生态系统中某营养级生物数量明显改变后，其他营养级生物数量会发生相应变化㊂在生态恢复实践中，应当注意生态演替过程中的营养级联效应，使演替朝着合适的方向进行㊂目前群落演替理论被广泛用于退化森林㊁草原㊁湿地植被的恢复中［３９］㊂５１０９㊀２３期㊀㊀㊀付战勇㊀等：生态保护与修复理论和技术国外研究进展㊀６１０９㊀生㊀态㊀学㊀报㊀㊀㊀３９卷㊀㊀㊀（２）生态系统稳定性理论生态系统具有趋于平衡点的稳定特性，生态系统稳定性（ｅｃｏｓｙｓｔｅｍｓｔａｂｉｌｉｔｙ）通常被定义为生态系统在应对干扰发生状态变化的同时并进行重组以维持生态系统功能的能力［１０，４０⁃４１］㊂生态系统稳定性由生态系统的抵抗力和恢复力两个独立的过程共同决定，抵抗力指引起生态系统结构变化的干扰的大小，而恢复力是指返回到生态系统最初结构的速度㊂这两个过程从根本上是不同的，但很少被区分开来㊂目前，生态系统稳定性理论已经成为自然生态系统管理和生态修复的核心概念［４２⁃４３］㊂（３）群落构建理论在一个特定的时间和空间中，群落构建（ｃｏｍｍｕｎｉｔｙａｓｓｅｍｂｌｙ）是一个群落中物种在空间和时间尺度上组合的决定因素，物种多样性越高，组合越复杂，生态系统就越稳定［４４］㊂群落构建研究对于解释物种共存和物种多样性的维持是至关重要的，生态修复工作越来越侧重于受干扰地区生物群落的物种组成多样性和功能多样性，通过物种结构㊁时空结构和营养结构的组合来指导修复工作㊂在过去２０年中，生态修复研究主要集中于如何提升生态系统功能和促进生物多样性的恢复，群落构建在生态修复工作中得以被应用［３，４５⁃４６］㊂（４）生态位理论生态位（ｎｉｃｈｅ）是指在自然生态系统中一个种群在时间和空间上的位置关系及其与相关种群之间的功能关系㊂１９１７年，Ｇｒｉｎｅｌｌ最早提出了生态位的概念，用来划分环境的空间单位和一个物种在环境中的地位㊂１９５７年，英国生态学家Ｈｕｔｃｈｉｎｓｏｎ进一步完善了生态位的概念和内涵，并提出了ｎ维生态位（ｎ⁃ｄｉｍｅｎｓｉｏｎａｌｎｉｃｈｅ），该种定义被广泛接受，沿用至今㊂Ｙｏｕｎｇ等［３８］和Ｗａｉｎｗｒｉｇｈｔ等［４４］在探究生态恢复和生态学理论的关系时，提及生态位所发挥的重要作用㊂根据生态位理论，在生态修复过程中，首先要调查修复区的生态环境条件，根据生态环境因子选择适当的生物种类，同时避免只引进生态位相同或者相似的物种，使得各种群在群落中拥有自己的生态位，避免或者减少种群间的竞争，实现物种间共存，维持生态系统的长期稳定㊂２．３㊀国外生态保护与生态修复技术２．３．１㊀生态保护技术生态保护直接作用于山体㊁河流㊁森林㊁农田㊁湖泊㊁草原㊁湿地等生态系统，从而提高了山㊁水㊁林㊁田㊁湖㊁草的保持水土㊁涵养水源和孕育生物多样性的能力，使各系统的生态功能得到进一步提升，发挥未来更大的社会效益㊁经济效益和生态效益㊂生态保护的根本就是保护生物多样性，这是基础，也是保护的核心㊂目前，相关生态保护技术主要包括以下三个方面：（１）自然保护地技术全球气候变化背景下，人类越来越重视生物多样性的保护工作，在全球范围内分别成立了世界自然保护联盟（ＩＵＣＮ）㊁ＩＵＣＮ世界保护地委员会（ＷＣＰＡ）㊁生物多样性公约（ＣＢＤ）和西班牙生物多样性基金会（ＴｈｅＦｕｎｄａｃｉóｎＢｉｏｄｉｖｅｒｓｉｄａｄ）等机构，旨在保护自然资源和维持生态系统服务功能㊂自然保护地是一个明确界定的地理空间，通过法律或其他有效方式获得认可㊁得到承诺和进行管理，以实现对自然及其拥有的生态系统服务和文化价值的长期保护㊂国外设立自然保护地的时间较早，１８７２年，经美国政府批准建立了世界上公认的第一个国家公园黄石国家公园，这一举动为全球国家公园的建立开辟了一条全新的道路㊂目前，自然保护地和国家公园的实践从美国一个国家发展到全球近２００个国家，从国家公园单一概念发展成为自然保护地体系，并产生了世界自然和文化遗产地㊁国际重要湿地㊁世界地质公园等一系列概念，国家公园的概念本身也从单一的生物保护扩展到生态系统水平的保护㊂（２）生态功能群重建技术功能性状（ｆｕｎｃｔｉｏｎａｌｔｒａｉｔｓ）决定了生物体的生物学和生态学特性，即在特定的生物和非生物条件下生物体生长㊁生存和繁殖的能力，个体间功能特征值的分布决定了群落的功能结构［４７］，可以更直观的表明物种的生态策略和对环境变化的响应机制㊂近年来，基于功能性状的方法越来越多地被用于研究演替过程中的生态变迁［３９］和应对栖息地退化［４８⁃４９］㊁气候变化［５０］或外来物种入侵等的干扰［５１］㊂Ｌｅｃｈêｎｅ等基于功能特征方法，。

Four Laws of Ecology中英对照

Four Laws of Ecology1 In broad outline,there are environmental cycles which govern the behavior of the three great global systems:the air,the water,and the soil.Within each of them live many thousands of different species of living things.Each species is suited to its particular environmental niche,and each,through its life processes,affects the physical and chemical properties of its immediate environment.1概括来讲,地球的三大系统—空气、水和土壤的行为由环境循环所决定。

每个系统中都生活着成千上万个不同物种的生物,每个物种都有与之相适宜的独特的环境生位,并且每一物种,在其整个生命历程中,都影响着它的周边环境的物理和化学特性。

2 Each living species is also linked to many others.These links are bewildering in their variety and marvelous in their intricate detail.An animal,such as a deer,may depend on plants for food;the plants depend on the action of soil bacteria for their nutrients;the bacteria in turn live on the organic wastes dropped by the animal on the soil.At the same time.the deer is food for the mountain lion. Insects may live on the juices of plants or gather pollen from their flowers.Other insects suck blood from animals.Bacteria may live on the internal tissues of animals and plants.Fungi degrade the bodies of dead plants and animals.All this,many times multiplied and organized species by species in intricate,precise relationships,makes up the vast network of life on the earth.2每个生物物种也与许多其他的物种相联系。

研究生英语读写译教程课文-第三单元

研究生英语读写译教程课文-第三单元（ADB’s GMS program）亚洲开发银行的大湄公河次区域合作规划[1]The Greater Mekong Sub-region (GMS) is a brainchild of the Asian Development Bank(ADB) comprising of five countries and one province Kingdom of Cambodia, Union of Myanmar kingdom of Thailand, socialist Republic of Vietnam, Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Yunnan Province of the People’s Republic of China.[1] 大湄公河次区域是亚洲开发银行（亚行）的创意，它最初由五个国家和一个省份组成-他们分别是柬埔寨王国，缅甸联邦，泰王国，越南社会主义共和国，老挝人民民主共和国和中华人民共和国的云南省。

[2] The Greater Mekong Sub-region GMS is an area with immense economic potential and rich natural resources. As many as 70 million people are living within the Mekong River Basin area and 260 million throughout the sub region. The GMS is also experiencing some of the fastest economic growth rates in the world Sustainable and equitable development, though, is hindered by poverty environmental degradation and lack of human resources, as well as differential social development and governance structures. Since its inception in 1992 by the 6 member governments, the GMs had undergo process of integration unprecedented in the region. Through multilateral cooperation and funding by international organizations( IOs), non-governmental organizations( NGOs), and private investments the Sub-region has experienced a boom in economic growth Until now, however, sub-regional integration has primarily been externally-driven through the funds ofinternational organizations, particularly the ADB, and foreign governments In order to achieve true integration and cooperation among the 6 member nations, it is necessary to create a new GMS spirit 15 years after its initial inception. An intensification of bi-and multilateral cooperation and an identification of GMS citizens with their region will pave the way for sustainable development and prolonged peace in the historically troubled region[2] 大湄公河次区域是一个拥有巨大经济潜力和丰富自然资源的区域。

外刊及中国日报精选文章改编：语法填空--高三英语三轮冲刺

外刊及中国日报精选文章改编：语法填空（答案+译文）第一篇世界首例！猪到人的异种肝移植临床手术在安徽完成The world's fifth living-body alien organ transplant, the first liver transplant from a pig to a living human, was successfully completed by the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University on May 17,______ brings new hope to the over 140,000 domestic registered patients waiting for an organ transplant and the possibly higher number of unregistered people facing organ failure.________ a living person can donate part of his or her liver without sacrificing his or her life, the operation in Anhui province is still a significant development because compatible(兼容的) liver sources are not that easy _______(find) and a liver transplant________(involve) high medical costs and pain to get part of the liver from a donor. A liver transplant is even _________(complicated) than that of a heart and kidney that function as blood pump and water cycler respectively, as the liver is involved in metabolism, immunity, digestion and many more functions.The Anhui hospital's transplant operation is ________(medical) considered a success because the transplanted pig liver is reportedly operating normally in the patient's body, secreting 200 millilitres of gall every day._______ fact that cannot be omitted(遗漏) is that in previous cases the patients in the United Kingdom and the United States who received heart and kidney transplants(移植的器官) _______ pigs all passed away within two months after receiving the organs. The transplant operations have still prolonged the patients' lives and sustained them without a rejection reaction after the transplant operations till their _______(death). Further, the transplanted liver in the domestic case had only 10 genes edited to prevent a rejection reaction, fewer than the transplanted hearts and kidneys in the US and UK cases, which shows that domestic medical experts may have developed a methodology that can support the patient's _______(survive) without changing the liver too much.With the gene-editing technology aimed at "cutting" more gene clips that trigger a rejection reaction away from pig organs maturing, the risks of transplanted alien organsbeing rejected will be minimized and the technology will be applied more widely to save lives.第二篇社会：英格兰收养儿童的悲惨故事【经济学人】The sorry story of children in care in EnglandJADE BARNETT learned that she was being moved from foster c are(看护中心) into a children’s home a few years ago when she saw her possessions in the back of a taxi. The children’s home turned out ______(be) near Blackpool, in north-west England—330 kilometres from London, where she grew up and where the social workers who were meant to be lookingafter her were based. She expected to stay in the home for two weeks. It turned into one and a half years.Some 84,000 children in England are in the care of local authorities _______their parents cannot look after them for one reason or another. In an extremely centralised(集中的) country, it is one of the few important responsibilities that those _______( institution) still have. Every year councils spend more money on the children in their care. Every year the system serves the country’s most vulnerable children less well.Adult social care, including ________(nurse) homes for the old and frail, is notorious(臭名昭著的) for straining local authorities’ budgets. But spending on children in care is rising ________a faster rate, says Roger Gough, the leader of Kent County Council. In England as a whole, local authorities spent more than £7bn ($8.6bn) on looked-after children in the 2022-23 fiscal year, a 36% increase in real terms ________(compare) with 2015-16. That squeezes budgets for everything else, including help for families not yet in crisis.Over the ten years to 2023 the number of children in care swelled(增加) by 23%, or by 16%if you do not count unaccompanied children seeking asylum（庇护）, _______numbers have risen recently. And the children who enter the care system are becoming older and needier. Whereas(然而) young children tend to live with foster carers, older ones are more likely to end up inchildren’s homes; some require intensive, round-the-clock attention. Caring for them can be costly—sometimes amazingly costly.The Local Government Association estimates that in the 2018-19 fiscal year, England had 120 children who were each costing local authorities at least £10,000 per week. By 2022-23 the number had jumped to 1,500. One explanation is that local authorities are now looking after some teenagers who might once have ended up in psychiatric wards（精神病病房）or young offenders’ institutions. Over the past two decades the number of children in custody________(go) from 2,800 to around 400, reflecting not only less youthful offending but also a growing reluctance(不情愿) to lock them up.But the main reason for the increase in costs is economics. “It’s simply a supply-and-demand issue,” says Stuart Ashley, the head of children’s services for Hampshire County Council. England has too few foster carers _______ too few children’s homes. Councils end up competing for scarce places, with predictable consequences.England has a “mixed model” of care (in Scotland the state plays a bigger role). About half of children________(place) in foster care by independent agencies, which charge local authorities for their services; four-fifths of children’s homes are privately run. To judge by the ratings they receive from inspectors, private homes are no worse than state ones. But they are often in the wrong places, because firms tend to build them where property is cheap (see map). North-West England has fewer inhabitants than London, but it has 746 children’s homes compared with 164 in the capital.第三篇经济：为什么花钱让妇女多生孩子是行不通的？【经济学人】Why paying women to have more babies won’t workAS BIRTH RATES plunge, many _______(political) want to pour money into policies that might lead women _______(have) more babies. Donald Trump has v owed(发誓) to dish out bonuses if he returns to the White House. In France, _______ the state already spends 3.5-4% of GDP on family policies each year, Emmanuel Macron wants to “demographically rearm(人口统计上的重新调整)” his country. South Korea is contemplating(考虑) handouts worth astaggering（难以置信的）$70,000 for each baby. Yet all these ________(attempt) are likely to fail, because they are built on a misapprehension(误解).Governments’ concern is ________(understand). Fertility rates(生育率) are falling nearly everywhere and the rich world faces a severe(严重的) shortage of babies. At prevailing birth rates, the average woman in ______ high-income country today will have just 1.6 children over her lifetime. Every rich country except Israel has a fertility rate beneath the replacement level of 2.1, at which a population is stable without immigration. The decline(减少) over the past decade________(be) faster than demographers(人口统计学)expected.Doomsayers such as Elon Musk warn that these shifts threaten civilisation_______(it). That is ridiculous, but they will bring profound(深刻的) social and economic changes. A fertility rate of 1.6 means that, without immigration, each generation will be a quarter smaller than the one before it. In 2000 rich countries had 26 over-65-year-olds for every 100 people _______(age) 25-64. By 2050 that is likely to have doubled. The worst-affected places will see even more dramatic change. In South Korea, where the fertility rate is 0.7, the population is projected to fall by 60% _______ the end of the century.The decision to have children is a personal one and should stay that way. But governments need to pay heed to rapid demographic shifts(人口变化). Ageing and shrinking societies will probably lose dynamism and military might. They will certainly face a ________(budget) nightmare(噩梦), as taxpayers(纳税人) struggle to finance the pensions(养老金) and health care of legions of oldies.Many pro-natalist（亲出生主义者）policies come with effects that are valuable in themselves. Handouts for poor parents reduce child poverty（短缺）, for instance, and mothers who can afford child care are more likely to work. ________, governments are wrong to think it is within their power to boost fertility rates. For one thing, such policies ________(found) on a false diagnosis(判断) of what has so far caused demographic decline. For another, they could cost more than the problems they are designed to solve.One common assumption is that falling fertility rates stem from professional women________(put) off having children. The notion that they run out of time to have as many babies as they wish before their childbearing years(生育年龄) draw to a close explains why policies tend tofocus on offering tax breaks and subsidised child care. That way, it is argued,women do not have to choose between their family and their career.That is not the main story. University-educated women are indeed having children later in life, but only a little. In America their average age at the birth of their first child has risen from 28 in 2000 to 30 now. These women are having _______(rough) the same number of children as their peers did a generation ago. This is a little below what they say is their ideal family size, but the gap is no different from ________ it used to be.答案第一篇：Which Although to find involves more complicated medically A from deaths survival第二篇：to be because institutions nursing at compared whose has gone and are placed第三篇：politicians to have where attempts understandable a has been itself aged by budgetary However are founded putting roughly what译文第一篇：5月17日，安徽医科大学第一附属医院成功完成了世界上第五次活体外来器官移植，这是第一次猪向活人的肝移植。

认识小干扰RNA_微RNA和RNA干扰

认识小干扰RNA、微RNA和RNA干扰雷宇华　廖峥嵘　赵　娟　王忠海3　(河北医科大学生物教研室　石家庄　050017)摘　要　近年来随着RNA干扰(RNA i)技术在生命领域的应用和小分子RNA研究的深入,RNA逐渐成为生命科学领域的一个研究热点。

本文就RNA干扰技术及小干扰RNA(si RNA)和微RNA(m i RNA)间的关系进行了介绍。

关键词　si RNA m i RNA RNA i DNA分子携带着控制细胞生命活动的全部遗传信息,能决定生物体的遗传性状及生物学行为,在整个生命活动中的作用无以伦比。

将遗传信息从DNA传递给RNA的过程称为转录,这是细胞合成有功能的蛋白质所必需的重要环节,因此RNA分子扮演着同等重要的作用。

近年来随着研究的深入,特别是RNA干扰(RNA i)技术在生命领域的应用和小分子RNA的研究,RNA逐渐成为生命科学领域的一个研究热点,甚至从“配角”变成“主角”。

人们对细胞质中的mRNA(信使RNA)、tRNA(转运RNA)和rRNA(核糖体RNA)三类RNA已很熟悉。

什么是小干扰RNA(siRNA)、微RNA(m iRNA)和RNA i?它们之间有着什么样的关系呢?下面我们就来认识它们。

1　RNA干扰RNA i现象早在1993年就有报道:将产生紫色素的基因转入开紫花的矮牵牛中,希望得到紫色更深的花,可是事与愿违,非但没有加深紫色,反而成了白色。

当时认为这是矮牵牛本来有的紫色素基因和转入的外来紫色素基因都失去了功能,称这种现象是“共抑制”。

直到1998年,Fire等的研究证明,在正义RNA 阻断了基因表达的试验中,真正起作用的是双链RNA,使基因“沉默”了[1]。

研究人员将这一现象称为RNA干扰(RNA interference,RNA i)。

研究者因此获得了2006年诺贝尔生理学或医学奖。

随后陆续发现RNA i也存在于水稻、烟草、果蝇、小鼠及人等几乎所有的真核生物中。

研究生英语课文翻译

研究生英语课文翻译Unit one Passage A推进绿色革命――造纸业和气候变化技术和环境一直无法兼得。

一些环保人士仇视技术发展。

大多数环境政策聚焦于价格、能耗和针对太阳能和风能的补贴。

但是，太阳能和风能现在并非前沿技术。

能够列入榜单的重大技术突破寥寥无几。

前途最为光明的技术突破之一是碳捕获和碳存储，它可以中和化石燃料燃烧时所释放出来的二氧化碳。

挪威的蒙斯塔德原本正在建设一个碳捕获和碳存储的大型项目――但是挪威政府却突然叫停了该项目。

鉴于此，我们更有理由带着兴趣――和些许怀疑――来审视欧洲纸浆造纸企业为削减二氧化碳排放量在技术革新方面所做出的努力了。

本周，这些企业宣布了一些富有创意的理念。

如果这些理念被整个造纸行业所采纳，那么到2050年，造纸业的能源消耗将可以降低四分之一，其二氧化碳排放量将可以减少一半还多。

这些理念将会检验各个公司发展的技术可以从多大程度上减缓全球变暖。

纸浆造纸业是一个能源消耗大项――从能耗角度来看，它是全球第五大工业用户。

根据智囊机构世界资源研究所（World Resources Institute）的数据，这一行业在2021年的全球二氧化碳排放量大约为5亿吨。

但是，欧洲的造纸企业相对比较环保：贸易协会欧洲纸业联盟（Confederation of European Paper Industries）表示，该联盟的成员企业在2021年的二氧化碳排放量大约为4600万吨。

缺乏监管的纸浆作坊也制造了大量令人恶心的垃圾。

位于俄罗斯贝加尔湖沿岸的一个小作坊多年以来一直向这个世界上最大的淡水湖排放漂白剂。

面临着大幅削减二氧化碳排放量的要求，欧洲纸业联盟决定尝试技术改革，以观其能否带来大幅改善。

该联盟成立了两个由科学家和商业人士组成的专门小组，每个小组都由一位前CEO来领导（分别是欧洲第四大造纸企业Smurfit Kappa和第五大造纸企业Mondi的前CEO）。

两个小组建立了一个常识资料库，原因是这一理念在于检验创造性想法，而不是专利信息。

选修一 the ocean deep课文翻译

选修一 the ocean deep课文翻译This year’ s Nobel Prize for Physi ology or Medicine has been awarded to Tu Youyou (co-winner), whose research led to the discovery of artemisinin, a crucial new treatment for malaria. Artemisinin has saved hundreds of thousands of lives, and has led to improved health for millions of people. Over 200 million people around the world get malaria each year, and a bout 600, 000 die from it. Artemisinin has become a vital part of the treatment for malaria, and is thought to save 100, 000 lives a year in Africa alone.今年的诺贝尔生理学或医学奖授予了屠呦呦(共同获奖者)，她的研究促使了青蒿素的发现。

这是一种至关重要的治疗疟疾的新疗法。

青蒿素挽救了数十万人的生命，并改善了数百万人的健康状况。

全世界每年有超过2亿人罹患疟疾，约60万人死于疟疾。

青蒿素已成为治疗疟疾的重要组成部分，据认为仅在非洲一年就能挽救10万人的生命。

Tu Youyou, a committed and patient scientist, was born in N ingbo, China, on 30 December 1930, and graduated from Peking University Medical School in 1955. After she graduated, she worked at the China Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine in Beijing. In 1967, the Chinese government formed a team of scientists with the objective of discovering a new treatmentfor malaria, and Tu Youyou was among the first researchers chosen. In the beginning, Tu Youyou went to Hainan, where malaria was more common, to study malaria patients. In 1969, she became the head of the project in Beijing, and decided to review ancient Chinese medical texts to find traditional botanical treatments for the disease. Her team examined over 2, 000 old medical texts, and evaluated 280, 000 plants for their medical properties. From their research, they discovered and tested 380 distinct ancient Chinese medical treatments that showed promise in the fight against malaria.屠呦呦是一-位坚定而耐心的科学家，1930 年12月30日出生于中国宁波，1955 年毕业于北京大学医学院。

nature catalysis 状态manuscript under consideration

nature catalysis 状态manuscript under consideration
我们非常高兴地宣布，我们的研究论文已经成功提交给了顶级期刊《Nature Catalysis》并进入了审稿阶段。

这是我们团队多年努力的成果，对于我们的研究能够在这个高影响力的期刊上得到展示感到非常兴奋。

这篇论文探讨了催化剂在化学反应中的关键作用，并提出了一种全新的催化剂设计方法。

我们通过使用先进的计算模拟方法和实验验证相结合的方式，成功开发出一种高效的催化剂，可用于加速某种重要的化学反应。

这项研究为解决环境和能源领域的挑战提供了新的策略和工具。

在这篇论文中，我们详细描述了催化剂的设计思路和研究方法，并提供了实验结果和计算模拟的详细数据。

我们的研究结果显示，新型催化剂在催化反应中表现出了出色的活性和选择性，比传统催化剂具有更高的效能。

此外，我们还通过对催化剂表面结构的调控，成功地实现了对反应过程的精确控制，进一步提高了反应的效率。

我们相信，这项研究对于催化化学和可持续发展领域都具有重要的意义。

催化剂的设计和优化是提高化学反应效率和减少能源消耗的关键步骤。

通过深入理解催化剂的工作原理和反应机制，我们可以开发出更高效、更可持续的催化剂，为未来的化学工业提供可持续发展的解
决方案。

我们对这篇论文能够引起《Nature Catalysis》编辑们的兴趣并进入审稿阶段感到非常荣幸。

我们期待着编辑们和同行专家们对我们的研究进行审稿，并提供宝贵的意见和建议。

我们相信，这篇论文将为催化化学领域的进展做出重要贡献，并推动新一代高性能催化剂的开发。

生物专业英语第三版蒋悟生__课文翻译

Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell PartsCytoplasm: The Dynamic, Mobile Factory细胞质：动力工厂Most of the properties we associate with life are properties of the cytoplasm. Much of the mass of a cell consists of this semifluid substance, which is bounded on the outside by the plasma membrane. Organelles are suspended within it, supported by the filamentous network of the cytoskeleton. Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。

细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成，并由细胞膜（原生质膜）包被。

细胞器悬浮在其中，并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑。

细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质，离子，可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。

The Nucleus: Information Central（细胞核：信息中心）The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material (DNA) on chromosomes. (In prokaryotes the hereditary material is found in the nucleoid.) The nucleus also contains one or two organelles-the nucleoli-that play a role in cell division. A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器，细胞核对染色体组有保护作用（原核细胞的遗传物质存在于拟核中）。

文献翻译陈朋

铜促进三氟甲基化和三氟甲基芳基重氮四氟硼酸盐与三氟甲基亚磺酸钠(NaSO2CF3)的反应Ke Zhang,Xiu-Hua Xu,和 Feng-Ling Qing大学化学，化学工程与生物技术，东华大学，2999北人民路，上海201620（中国）有机氟化学重点实验室、上海有机化学研究所，中国科学院，零陵路00345号，上海200032（中国）支持信息：摘要：现已开发了可选择的芳基重氮四氟硼酸盐与Langois试剂（NaSo2CF3）的三氟甲磺酰基化和三氟甲基芳化。

以DMSO作为溶剂的Cu2O催化反应下主要生成产物三氟甲磺酰基芳。

另一方面，三氟甲基芳烃是在氧化剂叔丁基过氧化氢，CuBF4（MeCN）4，2,2′;6′,2″-吡啶（tpy）的存在下生成。

这些转变都是在温和的条件进行和具有良好的官能团耐受性。

简介：含氟基团的芳香族化合物在医药业和农药行业将是非常重要的，因为含氟基团能使芳香族化合物改善代谢稳定性；使其具有独特的物理和化学性能、更高的亲脂性和更好的生物利用度。

[1]因此，在有机合成中对含有氟芳香族化合物的制备具有持续兴趣。

最近，已经开发了主要涉及过渡金属催化/介导的氟化/氟烷基化反应的新的合成方法。

[2]我们通常从易获取的市售苯胺中获得芳基重氮盐，通过Sandmeyer反应制备官能化芳烃。

命名为Balz−Schiemann 的苯胺类到芳香族氟化物转化是一个典型的例子（方案1a）[4]。

最近，Sandmeyer反应已被证明是引入含氟基团到芳香环（方案B）的有效策略，包括引入三氟甲基（CF3）、[5、6]三氟甲基硫（SCF3）、二氟甲基(CF3H)、[7]二氟甲基硫代（SCF2H）和全氟烷基（R F）[9]。

通过这些研究受到启发，我们知道了芳三氟甲磺酰基（ArSO2CF3）可以由芳基重氮盐制备。

芳三氟甲磺酰基是重要的结构片段，经常在生物活性化合物[10]，手性催化剂[11]，和[9]利用三氟甲磺酰基组的独特性质（SO2CF3）的功能材料中发现[12]。