刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(7-12章)【圣才出品】
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题( 语义学)【圣才出品】
5. Major sense relations
(1) Homonymy
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圣才电子书
(2) Polysemy
十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
(3) Homophony
(4) Synonymy
(5) Antonymy
(6) Hyponymy
(7) Meronymy
成分分析 5. Sentence meaning
句子意义
本章考点： 语义学的定义；词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义)；识别各种实例中词与词的意义关系、
以及句与句之间的蕴涵、前提、会话含义、同义、不相容、语义矛盾、语义反常等意义关系; 用成分分析法分析同义词、反义词，句子意义的区别等; 反义词的种类及举例。
圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
第 5 章 语义学
5.1 复习笔记
本章要点： 1. Semantics
语义学 2. The referential and sense
指称和涵义 3. Analysis of meaning
意义分析 4. Component analysis
(4) Inconsistency
(5) Implicature
I. Semantics (语义学) 【考点：名词解释】
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.
practical events that precede and follow it. The meaning of a linguistic form is thus defined as observable behaviors. Such an approach to meaning is called behaviorism, or behaviorist theory, which clearly draws on psychology.
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第四章至第七章【圣才出品】
第4章句法I.Fill in the blanks.1.IC is the short form of immediate_____used in the study of syntax.（北二外2003研）【答案】constituent【解析】直接成分分析法是一种句法分析方法。
它指先把句子分析为直接成分——词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
2.______refers to ties and connections which exist within texts.They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.（人大2007研）【答案】Cohesion【解析】衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系。
3.A______sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word，such as“and”,“but”,“or”.【答案】coordinate【解析】并列从句是指一个句子由两个分句组成，这两个分句通常是由如but,and,or这些并列连词来连接的。
4.A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb,and at the same time stands structurally alone is known as a______clause.【答案】finite【解析】限定性从句通常有一个主语和一个限定性动词，且在结构上是独立的。
5.Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called_____rules,whose operation may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.【答案】transformational【解析】句法移位是一种转换规则，指一个句子的任意成分从原来的位置移到另一个新位置。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》考研真题精选(选择题)【圣才出品】
二、选择题1. Derivational morpheme contrasts sharply with inflectional morpheme in that the former changes the _____ while the latter does not.（北二外2017研）A. meaningB. word classC. formD. speech sound【答案】B【解析】morpheme语素，分为自由语素和黏着语素，其中黏着语素包括词根和词缀两种类型，词缀分为派生词缀（derivational affixes）和屈折词缀（inflectional affixes）。
派生词缀黏附在词根语素上构成新词，也即增加了新的词汇义内容或改变了词的类别归属。
屈折词缀只能改变一个词的形式，不能构成新词。
也即屈折词缀增加的是表示句法范畴的意义，并且总是不改变词的类别归属。
即两者重要区别在于是否改变了词的类别，故B为正确答案。
2. The branch of linguistics that studies the systems and patterns of speech soundsin a language is called _____.（对外经贸2017研）A. acousticsB. phonologyC. phoneticsD. articulation【答案】B【解析】音位学是研究人类语言中的语音模块系统和模式的方法。
3. Point out which item does not fall under the same category as the rest, and explain the reason in ONE sentence.（南京大学2007研）A. resolutionB. residentC. restartD. resignation【答案】C【解析】/s/ 在restart中位于清辅音前，所以被轻音化。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》考研真题精选(判断正误)【圣才出品】
7. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communications are all phonemes.（对外经贸 2006 研） 【答案】F 【解析】Those are phones.
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圣才电子书 十万种考研考证电子书、题库视频学习平台
三、判断正误 1. During two-word stage, children begin to learn words at a rate of one every two
waking hours, and keep learning that rate or faster through adolescence.（北二外 2016 研） 【答案】T 【解析】本题考查双词语阶段的特征。儿童两岁左右的时候，开始构建句子。早期句子仅仅
12. Compound refers to the words hat consist of more than one lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form base form.（北二
【答案】T 【解析】根据塞尔，指令类是说话人试图让听话人做某一件事。邀请、建议、请求、警告、
威胁、命令都是最典型的指令类。
11. The word of “impossibility” contains four morphemes.（对外经贸 2006 研） 【答案】F (“im-” “possibl-” “-ity”)
【答案】T
4. Bilabial consonant is produced when the obstruction is partial and the air is
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(形态学)【圣才出品】
第3章形态学3.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Definition of Morphology形态学的定义2. Definition and Classification of Morphemes词素的定义及分类3. Morphs and Allomorphs词素变体4. Types of Word Formation词语构成的分类常考考点：词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法(合成与派生)；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素(词根，词缀和词干)。
本章内容索引：I. MorphologyDefinition of MorphologyII. Morphemes1. Definition2. Types of Morphemes(1) Free morpheme(2) Bound morphemeIII. Morphs and AllomorphsDefinition of Morphs and AllomorphsIV. Types of Word Formation1. Compounding2. Derivation3. Other ways of word formation(1) Conversion(2) Backformation(3) Clipping(4) Blending(5) Acronym(6) InitialismI. Morphology形态学【考点：名词解释】Morphology, as a branch of linguistics, is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.形态学作为语言学的一个分支，是研究词语的内部结构，形式及分类的一门科学。
II. Morpheme语素1. Definition定义Morpheme is the smallest unit of language, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.语素是最小的语言单位，不能再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(认知语言学)【圣才出品】
第10章认知语言学10.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学2. Categorization and categories范畴化与范畴3. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy概念隐喻与转喻4. Iconicity and grammaticalization象似性与语法化常考考点：认知语言学定义；范畴化与范畴定义分类等；概念隐喻与转喻的定义，层次分类；象似性的分类以及语法化等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitive linguisticsII. Categorization and categories1. Definition of categorization2. The classical theory3. The prototype theory4. Levels of categorizationIII. Conceptual metaphor and metonymy1. Conceptual metaphor2. Conceptual metonymyIV. Iconicity1. Iconicity of order2. Iconicity of distance3. Iconicity of complexityV. GrammaticalizationI. Definition of cognitive linguistics (认知语言学定义)【考点：名词解释】Cognitive linguistics is an approach to the analysis of natural language that focuses on language as an instrument for organizing, processing, and conveying information.认知语言学是一种研究自然语言的方法，集中研究语言组织，处理与传达信息的作用。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第一章至第三章【圣才出品】
第二部分章节题库第1章导论I.Fill in the blanks.1.In Saussure’s view,the relationship between signifier(sound image)andsignified(concept)is_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】arbitrary【解析】索绪尔认为符号的形式或声音与其意义之间没有逻辑联系，所以两者之间的关系是任意的。
2.Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present(in time and space)at the moment of communication.This quality is labeled as_____.（北二外2003研）【答案】displacement【解析】移位性是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间和空间上不可及的物体、事件和观点。
3._____refers to the role language plays in communication(e.g.to express ideas, attitudes)or in particular social situations(e.g.Religious,legal).（北二外2016研）【答案】Function【解析】本题考查语言学中对“语言的功能”的定义。
功能指的是语言在沟通中（例如表达观点、态度）或在特定社交场合（如宗教、法律）中所起的作用。
4.The features that define our human languages can be called_____features.（北二外2006研）【答案】design【解析】人类语言区别于其他动物交流系统的特点是语言的区别特征，是人类语言特有的特征。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(1-6章)【圣才出品】
第1章导言1.1复习笔记本章要点：1.The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究的范围2.The definition and the origins of language语言的定义与起源3.The design feature and the function of language语言的特征和功能4.Some major concepts in linguistics语言学中重要的概念本章考点：1.有关语言学的常考考点(1)语言学的定义，现代语言学与传统语法学研究的区别。
(2)语言学中几组重要概念，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3)普通语言学的主要分支学科及各自的研究范畴。
(4)宏观语言学及应用语言学的主要分支及各自的研究范畴。
2.有关语言的常考考点(1)语言的定义；语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位性、互换性、专门性和文化传递性)；(2)语言的功能(寒暄、指示、信息、疑问、表达、劝说和施为)；(3)语言的起源(叮咚说、唱歌说、哒哒说、汪汪、噗噗、哟嘿吼理论等。
)本章内容索引：I.Definition of linguisticsII.Linguistics vs.traditional grammarIII.Scope of linguistics1.Microlinguistics2.MacrolinguisticsIV.Definition of languageV.Origins of language1.Ding-Dong Theory2.Sing-Song Theory3.Pooh-Pooh Theory4.Yo-He-Ho Theory5.Ta-Ta Theory6.Bow-Wow TheoryVI.Design features of language1.Arbitrariness2.Duality3.Productivity4.Interchangeability5.Displacement6.Specialization7.Cultural transmissionVII.Functions of language1.Phatic function/communion2.Directive functionrmative function4.Interrogative function5.Expressive function6.Evocative function7.Performative functionVIII.Some major concepts in linguistics1.Descriptive and prescriptive grammar2.Synchronic and diachronic linguisticsngue and parolepetence and performance5.Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations6.Functionalism and formalismI.Definition of linguistics(语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】The scientific or systemic study of language,which is always guided by the-three canons ofscience:exhaustiveness,consistency and economy.语言学是对语言的科学或系统的研究。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(语篇分析)【圣才出品】
第7章语篇分析7.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Discourse and discourse analysis语篇及语篇分析2. Given and new information已知信息与新信息3. Cohesion and coherence衔接与连贯4. Conversational analysis对话分析常考考点：语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of discourse and discourse analysisII. Information structure1. Given and new information2. T opic and comment3. ContrastIII. Cohesion and coherence1. Cohesion.(1) Reference(2) Substitution(3) Ellipsis(4) Conjunction(5) Lexical cohesion2. CoherenceIV. Discourse markers1. Definition2. Functional-pragmatic nature3. Features of discourse markersV. Conversational analysis1. Adjacency pairs2. Preference structure3. PresequencesVI. Critical discourse analysisI. Definition of discourse and discourse analysis (语篇及语篇分析的定义)1. Discourse (语篇)A general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews.泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(社会语言学)【圣才出品】
第8章社会语言学8.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Sociolinguistics社会语言学的概念2. Language varieties语言变体3. Linguistic taboos and euphemisms禁忌语与委婉语4. Language and gender语言与性别常考考点：社会语言学的定义；语言的各种变体；禁忌语与委婉语；语言和性别的关系。
本章内容索引：I. DefinitionII. Language varieties1. Standard language2. Dialects3. Registers4. Pidgins and creolesIII. Choosing a code1. Diglossia2. Bilingualism and multilingualism3. Code-switchingIV. Linguistic taboos and euphemismsV. Language and gender1. Two focuses2. The correlation between sex and style of speechI. Definition (定义)Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. In sociolinguistics we are interested in how social factors influence the structure and use of language. It is the field that studies the relationships between language and society, between uses of language and the social structures in which the language users live.【考点：区分“研究社会的社会语言学”与“研究语言的社会语言学”】社会语言学是研究语言与社会关系的学科，研究社会因素是如何影响语言的结构和使用。
[全]刘润清《新编语言学教程》-考研真题详解[下载全]
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刘润清《新编语言学教程》-考研真题详解1. When air is forced out of the lungs, it causes the _____ _____ to vibrate.（中山大学2018研）【答案】vocal folds查看答案【解析】语音产生是以气流为能量来源的。
在大多数情况下，气流源自肺部，气流从肺中压出，引起声带的振动。
2. _____ is the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speaker’s immediate situation.（北二外2016研）【答案】Displacement查看答案【解析】本题考查语言本质特征的移位性。
移位性指的是就内容或者思想的表达来讲，人类语言的使用是不受时空限制的，可以用于涉及真实的或者想象的，过去的、现在的或将来的事情。
这不同于动物“语言”，因为大多数动物的“语言”需要“即时刺激控制”。
3. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _______ and performance.（人大2006研）【答案】competence查看答案【解析】语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。
4. Phonetics is the study of ______ sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.（北京邮电大学2015研）【答案】speech查看答案【解析】本题考查语音学和音系学的含义。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库-第八章至第十二章【圣才出品】
第8章社会语言学I.Fill in the blanks.1.“Linguistic relativity”was proposed by_____and_____.（清华2001研）【答案】Sapir,Whorf【解析】萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说认为，一方面，语言可以决定我们的思维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构性差异越大，反映出对于世界认识的越不同。
因此，这个假说也被称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。
nguage varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard,_____ language.【答案】vernacular【解析】凡属标准语之外的那些语言变体都被叫做非标准语或本地语。
3.A speech_____is a group of people who share the same language or a particular variety of language.【答案】community【解析】语言社区指的是说同一种语言或语言变体的一群人。
4.In terms of sociolinguistics,_____is sometimes used to refer to the whole of a person’s language.【答案】idiolect【解析】从社会语言学的角度讲，个人习语指个人语言风格。
5.In many societies of the world,we find a large number of people who speak more than one language.As a characteristic of societies,_____inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.【答案】bilingualism【解析】双语现象源于不同文化和不同语言相互交流的结果。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(语音)【圣才出品】
第2章语音I. Fill in the blanks.1. The sound B. can be described with “_____, bilabial, stop”.（北二外2004研）【答案】voiced【解析】/b/是双唇音，爆破音，浊音。
2. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of _____ and manner of articulation.（北二外2004研）【答案】place【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
3. ______ are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.（中山大学2006研）【答案】Consonants【解析】发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻塞而产生的音叫做辅音。
4. Voicing refers to the _____ of the vocal folds.（北二外2016研）【答案】vibration【解析】本题考查辅音发音过程中的清浊特征的定义。
若发音过程中，声带振动，则为浊辅音，反之则为清辅音。
5. Consonant articulations are relatively easy to feel, and as a result are most conveniently described in terms of place and _____ of articulation.（北二外2008研）【答案】manner【解析】辅音根据发音方式和发音部位进行分类。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（语用学）【圣才出品】
刘润清《新编语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（语⽤学）【圣才出品】第6章语⽤学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory⾔语⾏为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语⽤学的定义；语法分析与语⽤学的区别；微观语⽤学中的基本概念；宏观语⽤学中⾔语⾏为理论(发话⾏为、⾏事⾏为和取效⾏为)；合作原则；实例分析⾔语⾏为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语⽤学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语⽤学是研究语⾔实际运⽤的学科，集中研究说话⼈意义、话语意义或语境意义。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(语用学)【圣才出品】
第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Politeness principle礼貌原则常考考点：语用学的定义；语法分析与语用学的区别；微观语用学中的基本概念；宏观语用学中言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则；实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义；礼貌原则。
本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition of pragmatics2. Difference between pragmatics analysis and grammatical analysis3. Definition of micropragmatics and macropragmaticsII. Micropragmatics1. Reference2. Deixis3. Anaphora4. PresuppositionIII. Macropragmatics1. Speech Act Theory(1) Theory of the Illocutionary Act①Locutionary act②Illocutionary act③Perlocutionary act(2) Classification of Illocutionary Act①Representatives②Directives③Commissives④Expressives⑤Declarations(3) Indirect speech acts2. The Cooperative Principle (CP)(1) Cooperative Principle and Its Maxims(2) Violation of the Maxims3. Politeness Principle (PP)I. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释】1. Definition of pragmatics（定义）Pragmatics is the study of speakers’intended meaning, or even the “invisible”meaning, that is, how hearers recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written.语用学是研究语言实际运用的学科，集中研究说话人意义、话语意义或语境意义。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(应用语言学)【圣才出品】
第12章应用语言学I. Fill in the blanks.1. _____ is a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities. 【答案】Grammar-translation Method【解析】语法翻译法即在外语教学中主要运用翻译和语法学习为教学活动的方法.2. _____ is a grammar-based language teaching method in which principles of grammatical and lexical gradation are used and new teaching points presented and practiced through situations.【答案】Situational language teaching【解析】情景教学法基于语法的教学方法，强调在情境中呈现语法规则和词汇级别等教学点。
3. There are three principles of language testing: _____, _____ and _____.【答案】validity; reliability; practicality【解析】语言测试的三个原则：效度原则，信度原则及实用性原则。
Ⅱ. Multiple Choices.1. _____ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics【答案】C【解析】应用语言学（Applied linguistics）是研究语言在各个领域中实际应用的语言学分支，尤其是在教学中的应用。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(应用语言学)【圣才出品】
第12章应用语言学12.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Language teaching method英语教学法的种类2. Language tests语言测试的种类3. The principles of language tests语言测试的原则常考考点：各个语言教学法的特点、理论基础、优缺点；语言测试主要的种类；语言测试的原则。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of Applied LinguisticsII. Language Teaching Method1. The Grammar-translation Method(1)Definition(2)Main features2. The Direct Method(1)Definition(2)Main features3. The Audiolingual Method(1)Definition(2)Main features(3)Theoretical base4. Situational Language Teaching(1)Definition(2)Main features(3)Theoretical base5. Functional Language Teaching(1)Definition(2)Main features(3)Theoretical base6. Communicative Language T eaching(1)Definition(2)Main features(3)Theoretical base7. Other ApproachesIII. Main Types of Language Tests1. Subjective and objective tests2. Discrete-point and integrative tests3. Criterion-referenced and norm-referenced tests4. Language aptitude tests5. Diagnostic testsIV. Principles of language Testing1. Validity2. Reliability3. PracticalityI. Definition of Applied Linguistics (应用语言学的定义)【考点：名词解释】Broadly speaking, applied linguistics refers to the study of language and linguistics in relation to language-related problems, such as lexicography, translation, etc. Applied linguistics uses information from linguistics with the aim to develop its own theoretical models of areas, such as syllabus design, speech therapy, language planning, stylistics etc. Narrowly speaking, applied linguistics refers to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, i.e. the study of language and linguistics in relation to language learning and teaching.从广义上讲，应用语言学是对与语言相关的语言问题及语言学问题的研究，例如词典编纂学，翻译等。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》章节题库(语篇分析)【圣才出品】
第7章语篇分析I. Fill in the blanks.1. ______ refers to ties and connections which exist within texts. They are also called formal links between sentences and between clauses.（人大2007研）【答案】Cohesion【解析】衔接不是一个句法概念，它指文本中存在的一种意义上的联系或关系，也包括句子或分句之间存在的一种形式上的联系。
2. ______ is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee, while ______ is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.【答案】Given information; new information【解析】已知信息是指说话者认为听话者已经知道的信息，而新信息是指说话者认为听话者不知道的信息。
3. ______ represents what the utterance is about; ______ is what is said about it. 【答案】The topic; the comment【解析】话题是谈话的主题，述题是围绕主题所谈论的内容。
Ⅱ. True or False.1. All languages have some differences in verb forms which are used to produce cohesion.（南开大学2005研）【答案】T【解析】语言中的动词会有不同的形式来连接上下文。
2. One of properties of the adjacency pairs is that the form and content of the first part depends on the type of the second part.【答案】F【解析】配租对话的其中一个特征是第二部分的内容与构成取决于第一部分。
刘润清《新编语言学教程》考研真题精选(术语解释)【圣才出品】
四、术语解释1. connotation（中山大学2018研）【答案】In the philosophers’usage, connotation, opposite to denotation, means the properties of the entity a word denotes. For example, the connotation of human is “biped”, “featherless”，“rational”, etc. Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or several individuals and depend on their personal experience.2. morpheme（武汉大学2013研）【答案】Morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, in boys, there are two morphemes: “boy”and “-s”; in international, there are three morphemes: “inter-”“nation”and “-al”.3. implicature（南开大学2012研）【答案】According to Grice, it refers to the extra meaning not contained in the utterance, but understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or he knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the fourmaxims of CP.4. arbitrariness（四川大学2006研）【答案】Arbitrariness is one of the design features of language. It refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. There is no reason, for example, why English should use the sounds /dɒg/ to refer to the animal dog, or why Chinese should use “gou”to refer to the same animal. The relationship between the sounds and their meaning is quite accidental.5. cohesion（中山大学2018研）【答案】Cohesion refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. The cohesive devices usually include: conjunction, ellipsis, lexical collocation, lexical repetition, reference, substitution, and so on.6. cooperative principle（北师大2003研）【答案】Cooperative principle was proposed and formulated by Grice. It expresses that in making a conversation, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk. It goes like this: “make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged”. This principle can be further specified as the four followingmaxims: Quantity, Quality, Relation; Manner.7. conceptual meaning (of a word)（上海交大2006研）【答案】Conceptual meaning. According to Leech, conceptual meaning refers to the logical, cognitive, or denotative content of the meaning of a word. It is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it refers to. For example, the conceptual meaning of “human”is any person such as John and Mary.8. initialism（人大2008研）【答案】Some new words are composed of the first letters of a series of words, esp. the name of an organization when it has a heavily modified head words. Words of this kind are called initialisms. Initialism is different from acronym in that the former cannot be pronounced as a new word, but has to be pronounced by saying each letter in them. For example, VIP, WTO, BBC etc.9. deep structure（上外2000研）【答案】Deep structure is a central theoretical term in generative grammar opposed to surface structure. It is the abstract syntactic representation of a sentence—an underlying level of structural organization which specific all the factors governing the way the sentence should be interpreted.10. constituent analysis（北外2015研）【答案】a. Definition: Constituent analysis (also called Immediate constituent analysis or IC Analysis) refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.b. Advantages: Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities, if any, will be revealed.c. Problems:①It is not always possible to cut any construction, at any level into two parts.②Discontinuous constituents will be hard to deal with in IC analysis and there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.11. langue（华南理工2017研）【答案】Langue is proposed by Saussure to distinguish from parole. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue. Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech. Langue is the code, and parole is the message. Parole is the concrete manifestation of language either through speech or writing. Langue is the abstract knowledge necessary for speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is relatively stable and systematic, whereas parole is more variable and may change according to contextual factors.Langue and parole together constitute language.12. linguistic determinism（中山大学2018研）【答案】Linguistic Determinism is a theory which believes that our language will influence or decide our way of looking at the world. In a loose sense, linguistic determinism, linguistic relativity, and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis can be regarded as synonyms.13. manner of articulation（武汉大学2010研）【答案】manner of articulation: It refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract. The manner of articulation refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instance or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. For example, in English, [p, b, t, d, k, g] are stops.14. Pidgins and Creoles（上海交大2007研）【答案】It is a language which develops as a contact language when groups of people who speak different languages try to communicate with one another on a regular basis. The language Tok Pisin is an example of pidgin. Creole is a pidgin language which has become the native language of a group of speakers, beingused for all or many of their daily communicative needs. For example, a French-based creole is spoken by the majority of the population in Haiti.15. error analysis（人大2008研）【答案】Error Analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors of common difficulties in language learning. It is an alternative to contrastive analysis since not all learners’mistakes or errors occur because of the inter-language influence that contrastive analysis can explain. By using error, analysis, linguists can analyze intra-language error such as over-generalization.16. polysemy（中山大学2018研）【答案】Polysemy means a single word having several or many meanings. According to Crystal: Polysemy is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. Polysemic words are signs of an advanced culture. Polysemy is also an essential feature of a language’s economy and efficiency.17. blending（北外2015研）【答案】Blending is a kind of word formation. It means a process in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words, such as faction。
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第7章语篇分析7.1复习笔记本章要点：1.Discourse and discourse analysis语篇及语篇分析2.Given and new information已知信息与新信息3.Cohesion and coherence衔接与连贯4.Conversational analysis对话分析常考考点：语篇及语篇分析的定义；已知信息与新信息的异同；衔接手段包括指称、替代、省略、连接与词汇衔接；语篇标记的定义与特征；对话分析中的配组会话、偏好结构及前序列；批判性语篇分析。
本章内容索引：I.Definition of discourse and discourse analysisrmation structure1.Given and new information2.Topic and comment3.ContrastIII.Cohesion and coherence1.Cohesion.(1)Reference(2)Substitution(3)Ellipsis(4)Conjunction(5)Lexical cohesion2.CoherenceIV.Discourse markers1.Definition2.Functional-pragmatic nature3.Features of discourse markersV.Conversational analysis1.Adjacency pairs2.Preference structure3.PresequencesVI.Critical discourse analysisI.Definition of discourse and discourse analysis(语篇及语篇分析的定义)1.Discourse(语篇)A general term for examples of language use,nguage which has been produced as the result of an act of communication.It refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations,and interviews.泛指语言的运用，也就是说，语篇是人们进行交流的产物。
它指更大的语言单位比如段落、对话、采访等。
2.Discourse analysis(语篇分析)The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs,conversations,and interviews.研究句子在口语及书面语中如何构成有意义的语言单位比如段落，对话，采访等。
rmation structure(信息结构)1.Given and new information(已知信息与新信息)Given information is the information that the addresser believes is known to the addressee, while new information is the information that the addresser believes is not known to the addressee.New information is commonly expressed in a more elaborate fashion,for example,with a full noun phrase instead of a pronoun.In contrast,given information is commonly expressed in more attenuated ways-ways that are abbreviated or reduced.Typical attenuating devices include pronouns and unstressed noun phrases.已知信息是指说话者认为听话者已经知道的信息，而新信息是指说话者认为听话者不知道的信息。
新信息通常以详尽的方式表述，例如，用完整的名词短语而不是代词。
相比较而言，已知信息以更加简洁的方式表达——即简短或精简的方式。
典型的简洁表达有代词和非强调性的名词短语。
2.Topic and comment话题与述题【考点：名词解释】(1)Definition定义The topic represents what the utterance is about;the comment is what is said about it.话题是谈话的主题，述题是围绕主题所谈论的内容。
(2)Differences with given-new information话题与述题的区别The given-new distinction depends on the point of view of the listener,whereas the topic-comment distinction relates to that of the speaker.已知信息与新信息的区别在于听话者一方，而话题与述题的区别在于说话者一方。
3.Contrast(对比)A noun phrase is said to be contrastive when it occurs in opposition to another noun phrase in the discourse.Here,for example,the noun phrase John in Speaker B’s answer is contrasted with the noun phrase Tom.A:Did Tom see the ghost?B:No,John did.在语篇中，当一个名词短语与另一个名词短语意义正好相反时，则他们被叫做对比。
例如，B的话就是与Tom这个名词短语成对比。
A:Tom见过鬼吗？B:没有，John见过。
III.Cohesion and coherence(衔接与连贯)【考点：衔接与连贯的区别】1.Definition of cohesion.(衔接的定义)Cohesion is an important field of study in discourse analysis.It refers to the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elements of a discourse.This may be the relationship between different sentences or between different parts of a sentence.衔接是语篇分析中的一个重要研究领域。
它是指语篇中不同要素间的语法与(或)词汇关系。
也许是不同句子间的相互关系，也可能是一个句子中不同部分间的关系。
2.Cohesive divices(衔接手段)(1)Reference(指称)A very common cohesive device is the use of reference words which include pronouns(e.g. it,they,he,she,them,etc.),demonstratives(this,that,these,those),the article the,and items like such as.Reference consists of two types:One is endophoric reference(endophora),where the referent lies in the prior text;the other is exophoric reference(exophora),where the referent lies in the text to come.最常用的衔接手段就是指称词汇的运用，包括代词(如它、他们、他、它等)，指示代词(这个、那个、这些、那些)，定冠词the，还有像such as这样的短语。
指称包括两种类型：一种是内参照，其所指在上文中，另一种是外参照，其所指在其下文中。
(2)Substitution(替代)The process or result of replacing one word by another at a particular position in a structure is called substitution.There are three types of substitution,that is,nominal(to replace a noun or noun phrase), verbal(to replace a verb phrase)and clausal(to replace a clause)substitution.用一个词代替另一个词在结构中的位置的过程或结果叫做替代。
替代有三种类型，分别是，名词替代(替代名词或名词性短语)，动词替代(替代一个动词短语)及从句替代(替代一个从句)。
(3)Ellipsis(省略)Ellipsis is to leave out a word or phrase of a sentence for reasons of economy,emphasis or style,and the omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.There are three types of ellipsis i.e.nominal,verbal and clausal.省略是指为了简洁，强调或风格而省去句子中的词或短语，并且读者可以在前文中找到省略的部分。
省略有三种类型：名词省略、动词省略、从句省略。
(4)Conjunction(连接)Conjunction refers to an item or a process whose primary function is to connect words or other constructions.In the example,“I was not invited.Otherwise,I would have been there”,the two clauses are connected by the cohesive conjunction otherwise.There are three types:coordinating conjunctions(e.g.and,or,but),subordinating conjunctions(e.g.because,when,unless)and adverbial words(however,moreover,indeed, nevertheless).连接是指具有连接词汇或其他结构的功能的词。