语言学流派总结
语言学流派总结
西方主要语言学学派传统的语言学研究语言的重点是语音、语法和词汇。
传统语法的特点之一是把语法分为形态学(词法)和造句法(句法)两大部分,同时注重词与句法成分的对应关系(刘晶阳、李佳,2005)。
传统语法的另一特点是以规则为纲,讲述各类词的变化及各类句子的解剖,不深究句子的真正含义,很少讲怎样把适当的词组成结构和句子。
传统语法最早源头是古希腊语法,是一种口头话语语法,其句法结构限制在话语修辞上,但亚里士多德把语法的修辞转到了逻辑,从那时起,语法成为书面语的语法。
由于18 世纪以及18 世纪前的英语语法基本上全盘套用拉丁语法,用拉丁语来规范英语,因为19 世纪以前的拉丁语被看成是欧洲语言的典范和标准。
但这种语法只是以过去的语言现象为依据,只是书面语,无法反映人们日常交际中所使用的丰富多彩的口头语言。
所以,这种语法严重脱离了实际:它没有说明语言中与它有关的许多基本规律;没有考虑大多数人语言的实际表现形式;没有考虑活生生的、不断变化的英语语言的语法;它对语音、语调在句法中的作用未给予重视索绪尔的普通语言学/现代语言学的开端瑞士语言学家费尔南·德·索绪尔(Ferdinand de Saussure,1857-1913)是现代语言学的奠基人,他的著作《普通语言学教程》标志着现代语言学的开端。
索绪尔首先提出并区分了“语言”(langue)和“言语”两个概念的本质差别。
语言学家应该做的是从具体的语言实例中抽象概括出语言来,也就是从中去发现支配着各种各样的言语实例的规律性,并将其作为语言学的研究对象。
索绪尔反对把语言学当作一种分类命名集(naming-process)他认为,语言是一种符号,符号是概念与音响的结合。
因此,他用能指和所指分别代表形象与概念。
索绪尔同时还发现,语言还有另外一种重要的二重性:即历史过程和某时的状态,所以研究方法也不同。
一种语言起交流工具的作用,并不取决于它是如何演变而仅仅决定于它当时所处的状态。
语言学流派总结
4-3AD
出现了零星的对语法现象的说明
3AD-3BC
中国语言学开创时期,产生了文字学和训诂学。最早的词典《尔雅》东汉《说文解字》,解释了字记录的原始的语言意义。东汉出现词源学著作《释名》,解释词语产生的原因。
转换生成语言学
20世纪50年代后期在美国形成的语言学流派。代表学者是Chomsky。继承前人的演绎方法指出美国描写语言学的归纳方法的缺陷,强调从人认知心理学的角度对人类语言共性的普遍解释,区分人的大脑先天具备的语言能力和后天获得的语言知识,认为语言又生成能力,是有限规则的无限使用,转换是生成的重要手段。把语言的内容和形式有机地结合起来研究。
古罗马
把亚历山大里亚学派的希腊语法体系照搬到拉丁语上,编写出系统而使用的教材,通过教材传播了亚历山大里亚的语法思想。
4-14世纪欧洲封建社会
拉丁语使唯一被研究的语言,它的语法规则也被套到其他语言上。语言研究方面讲究维护传统规范。由于经院哲学的影响,出现了用逻辑代替语法的思辨语法。为了翻译传播《圣经》,出现了不少词典。
乔母斯基认为语言知识包括两部分,一部分是人类属性,是人类天生共同具备的普遍语言知识,一部分是在人类生存经验中后来获得的个别语言知识。他认为语言学应该采用演绎法,从语言能力研究中揭示人的认知过程。1957年他发表《句法结构》,标志着转换生成语言学的诞生。他提出利用移位、复写、插入、删除等转换规则把有限的核心句子转换成无限的非核心句子。这时的语法分析不考虑语义。
3-14世纪
音韵学占统治地位。
魏晋南北朝时期:开始重视语音结构的分析,编写韵书。
语言学流派
语言学流派语言学是研究语言的科学,它涉及到语言的结构、规则、功能以及语言与思维的关系等方面。
在语言学的研究中,有两个主要的流派,分别是形式主义派和功能派。
这两个流派在语言学的研究方法、理论观点以及研究重点上存在一定的差异。
形式主义派是一种以形式为中心的语言学流派。
形式主义派强调语言的内部结构、规则和形式,关注语言的句法、语音、词汇等方面。
形式主义派的代表人物有索绪尔、布洛赫等。
他们认为语言是一个独立的系统,与人类的思维和社会无关,语言的功能是次要的。
形式主义派通过研究语言的形式规则和结构,揭示语言的内在逻辑和规律。
功能派是一种以功能为中心的语言学流派。
功能派强调语言的使用和交际功能,关注语言的意义、语用、语境等方面。
功能派的代表人物有马尔库斯、哈贝马斯等。
他们认为语言是一种社会交往工具,语言的形式和结构是为了实现语言的功能。
功能派通过研究语言的使用和交际情境,揭示语言的功能和意义。
形式主义派和功能派在语言学的研究方法上存在一定的差异。
形式主义派主要采用分析和归纳的方法,通过对语言的形式和规则进行抽象和概括,寻找语言的普遍规律。
功能派主要采用描述和解释的方法,通过对语言的使用和交际情境进行观察和分析,揭示语言的功能和意义。
形式主义派和功能派在语言学的理论观点上存在一定的差异。
形式主义派认为语言是一种独立的系统,与人类的思维和社会无关,语言的功能是次要的。
功能派认为语言是一种社会交往工具,与人类的思维和社会密切相关,语言的形式和结构是为了实现语言的功能。
形式主义派和功能派在语言学的研究重点上存在一定的差异。
形式主义派主要关注语言的内部结构、规则和形式,研究语言的句法、语音、词汇等方面。
功能派主要关注语言的使用和交际功能,研究语言的意义、语用、语境等方面。
形式主义派和功能派是两个主要的语言学流派。
形式主义派强调语言的形式和结构,关注语言的内部规律;功能派强调语言的使用和交际功能,关注语言的意义和功能。
语言学理论及流派,最全
语言学流派布拉格学派狭义的布拉格学派是指本世纪20年代后半期以来,参加布拉格语言学会,以及在学术观点,学术活动上跟这个学会有密切联系的一批语言学家和文艺理论家。
广义的布拉格学派则包括参加捷克斯洛伐克语言学会等语言学团体,继承布拉格语言学会传统的当代语言学家。
布拉格学派接受了索绪尔的基本理论,承认语言是一个符号系统,但不把语言形式与超语言因素截然分开,重视语言的共时研究,但并不把它与历时研究割裂开来;他们还接受了俄国语言学家库尔德内的功能观,对语言进行结构与功能相结合的研究,因而自称为结构-功能学派。
这个学派颇有影响。
美国语言学家鲍林格作过这样的评价:"在欧洲语言学团体中,影响最大的莫过于布拉格语言学会,美国语言学的每一项重要发展,都与这一学派的学说有关。
"这一学派的先驱者是马泰修斯。
1926年10月,他与雅科布逊,哈弗拉奈克,贝克尔等6人发起,建立了布拉格语言学会。
参加学会的外族人中,以俄罗斯人最多,除雅科布逊外,著名的有:特鲁贝茨柯依,卡尔采夫斯基,柯别茨基,依萨钦柯等。
俄罗斯翼成员大多专注于语言内部结构的研究,忽视语言与超语言因素的关系。
捷克斯洛伐克的会员多数比较重视语言与社会的关系,注意语言理论的应用性。
他们被称为捷克翼或马泰修斯翼。
捷克翼的会员中除马泰修斯,哈弗拉奈克外,著名的还有:特伦卡,温伽尔特,穆卡硕夫斯基,瓦海克,斯卡利奇卡,柯日奈克,何拉莱克,特罗斯特,奥别尔普法尔采,博尔道夫,诺瓦克,鲍利尼等。
布拉格学派在第一届国际语言学会议(海牙,1928)上,第一次把他们的音位学的观点公诸于世,引起很大的反响。
该学派集体观点的全面叙述见于他们在第一届国际斯拉夫学会议上所提出的《论纲》。
《论纲》强调语言是一种功能体系,评价任何语言现象都应从它所达到的目的,所起的功能着眼。
1929年出版会刊《布拉格语言学会论丛》。
1935年创办期刊《词和文》。
1939年捷克斯洛伐克被德国占领和支解,学会为振奋民族精神,合写了文集《关于语言和诗歌的读物》。
语言学流派总结
语言学流派历史比较语言学历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法,通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们的共同母语。
历史比较语言学是在19世纪逐步发展和完善的,主要是印欧语系的历史比较。
19世纪之前,这种研究不是没有,但都是孤立的分散的研究,到19世纪才进入系统的研究,并使语言学走上独立发展的道路。
历史比较语言学的产生有两个不可或缺的条件,一是广泛收集世界各种语言材料,二是认识到梵语在语言比较中的地位和作用。
19世纪历史比较语言学在理论和方法上的发展大致可以分为三个阶段。
在初始阶段,丹麦的拉斯克(R·Rask)、德国的格里姆(J·Grimm)和葆扑(F·Bopp)被称为历史比较语言学的奠基者。
拉斯克在他的《古代北欧语或冰岛语起源研究》一书中第一个对基本语汇中的词进行系统的比较,找出其中的语音对应规律,由此确定语言的亲缘关系。
格里姆在拉斯克一书的启发下,在他的《日耳曼语语法》里确定了希腊语、峨特语和高地德语之间的语音对应关系,即所谓的"格里姆定律"(Grimm's Law)。
格里姆明确指出,语音对应规律是建立印欧语系和其他语系的基础。
维尔纳(K·Verner)后来补充解释清楚了"格里姆定律"难以解释的一组例外,世称"维尔纳定律",这就使音变规律的研究日臻完善,历史比较语言学的发展也就有了扎实的理论基础。
葆朴的主要著作是《梵语、禅德语、亚美尼亚语、希腊语、拉丁语、立陶宛语、古斯拉夫语、峨特语和德语比较语法》,旨在把梵语和欧洲、亚洲的几种其他语言相比较,找出它们在形态上的共同来源。
远离欧洲的梵语在这些语言中找到了它应有的位置:它既不是拉丁语、希腊语和其他欧洲语言的母语,也不是由其他语言演变而来,它和其他语言都出于一种共同的原始语言,只不过它比其他语言保存更多的原始形式。
19世纪中期,历史比较语言学发展到第二阶段,最有代表性的人物是德国的施莱歇尔(August Schleicher),其代表作是《印度日耳曼语系语言比较语法纲要》。
语言学流派专题知识
构造主义语言学阶段性小结
1950年代:构造主义旳时代 研究对象:作为人类行为旳语言 研究范式:发觉程序+分布理论(如音位
旳描写) 哲学基础:行为主义 关心旳是对语言本身旳构造和系统旳描写 就语言而研究语言和为语言而研究语言
构造主义语言学旳三个流派
1、布拉格学派
布拉格学派 也称功能语言学派。该学派创建于1926年10月,以布拉格语言学会成立
外部语言和内部语言
两者旳关系体现为:“外部语言学首先引起内部 语言学问题,继而成为内部语言学旳承载,内部 语言学则不失时机地转化为外部语言学旳前提。 内部语言学涉及言语体系旳恒定方面,它超越时 间和空间等诸多原因旳影响,是语言抽象旳部分; 外部语言学则观照语言旳动态方面,受制于时间 或空间,是言语体系旳具象旳部分。”“没有外 部语言学我们便不可能聚焦于内部语言学,便不 可能了解那种抽象旳‘一般’旳存在,而没有内 部语言学,我们便无从感知理论形态与实际中具 象旳言语之间旳关系,便无从实现理论旳升华与 转化。”
他一直在麻省理工学院任教,并任美国科学增进会委员、
美国科学院和文理科学院院士。他在29岁时出版旳《句法 构造》提出了转换生成语法旳思想,从而奠定了他在当代
语言学中旳地位。由他主持开发旳人机对译系统采用了转
换生成语法原理,成功地实现了印欧语系中不同语言之间
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
旳人机对译,被广泛用于国际会议旳同声传译。他后来提
构造主义语言学旳三个流派
3、美国描写语言学派
这个学派最主要旳人物是布龙菲尔德,他被誉为“美国语言学家之首”。 他于1933年出版旳《语言论》宣告了美国构造主义学派正式诞生。布龙 菲尔德在《语言论》中制定了语言构造旳基本原则和措施,成为这个学 派旳理论指南,所以有人称该学派为“布龙菲尔德学派”。
简述语言学流派
英语122班马巾帅 201236635222简述语言学流派现代语言学一百多年来的发展经历了三个主要时期,历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学(包括布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写主义学派)、转换-生成语言学分别是这三大时期的代表。
1、历史比较语言学历史比较语言学从前又称比较语法,通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们的共同母语。
历史比较语言学在语言学史上具有十分重要的地位。
语文学时期的学者,对语言的研究多是主观的规定和臆测,缺少客观的描述和检验,研究对象往往仅限于书面语,目的是校勘古书,解释传统经典中的微言大义,不准违背古人的说法,忽视语言本身的结构与发展,更不理解语言作为交际工具和思维工具的社会功能。
历史语言学建立了比较的方法,既注意语言古今的对比,又注意现代不同语言的对比,重视当代活的语言的研究,运用达尔文的进化论观点,考察语言的的历史来源和亲属关系,为语言建立了谱系,对各种语言做出了谱系分类。
所以,历史比较语言学是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志,是语言学史上的一个里程碑。
2、结构语言学语言学的重要流派之一。
结构语言学的主要论点扼要地说有两个方面:第一,认为每中语言都有一套独特的关系结构;第二,每种语言的个别单位都不是孤立存在的,而是在跟其它单位的区别、对立中存在的。
结构主义强调不能孤立地从事物的个别性去认识它,而要同时从各个成分之间的关系、从结构的分层符号系统的整体性去认识,这无疑是正确的,但结构主义语言学后来陷入了形式主义的死胡同,过于追求抽象形式,而忽视语句的具体内容,显得比较片面。
结构语言学内部又分为三大学派:布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派以及美国结构语言学派(也称美国描写语言学)。
(1)布拉格学派,又称“结构-功能学派”或“功能学派”。
其先驱者是马泰修斯,成员主要有雅科布逊、特鲁贝茨柯伊、哈弗阿奈克等。
1926年10月,由马泰修斯和雅克布逊等6人发起,建立了布拉格语言学会布拉格学派集体观点的全面论述见于《论纲》,《论纲》中强调语言是一个功能体系,对语言现象的评价应着眼于它的功能。
西方三大语言学流派。
西方三大语言学流派目录:【一】19世纪:历史比较语言学(也称比较语言学)【二】20世纪初期到中叶:结构主义语言学(也称结构语言学)【三】20世纪中叶至今:转换生成语言学【一】19世纪:历史比较语言学(也称:比较语言学)运用“历史比较法”,对不同语言进行比较分析,揭示语言间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展,这样的语言研究就是历史比较语言学。
【1】先驱人物——威廉·琼斯(英国东方学家,加尔各答最高法院法官)1786年是语言学诞生的一年,因为这年的9月27日有个名叫威廉·琼斯(W. Jones)的英国人在加尔各答“亚洲学会”宣读了一篇著名的论文《三周年演说》。
文章指出梵语(古印度语)和欧洲希腊语、拉丁语、凯尔特语和日耳曼语的结构具有惊人的相似之处,因而他断言,这些语言必有一个共同的来源。
威廉·琼斯的论文研究引起了欧洲学术界的广泛兴趣,在当时启蒙运动和浪漫主义思潮的影响下,许多学者把眼光引向过去,探索各民族的起源和史前史,古代的语言也是系统研究的对象之一。
此后的100年中,学者们忙于各种语言的历史比较——先是在印欧语系的各种语言之间进行比较,后来则是构拟它们的母语——原始印欧语。
【2】奠基人有:葆朴、拉斯克、格里木1816年,德国语言学家葆朴发表了《论梵语动词变位系统,与希腊语、拉丁语、波斯语和日耳曼语相比较》一文,揭示了这些语言的动词变位系统的对应规则,并认为这些语言应该具有共同的来源的结论,被认为是历史语言学的奠基之作。
1818年,丹麦语言学家拉斯克发表了《古代北方语或冰岛语的起源研究》,指出日耳曼诸语言和其他印欧语的词在语音上存在着有规律的形式对应关系。
拉斯克认为,语法对应是确定语言亲属关系和起源共同性的更为可靠的标志,该文所论述的方法和原理对历史语言学的建立具有很重要的意义。
德国语言学家雅各布·格里木对历史语言学的建立也作出了重要贡献。
他1819年出版的《德语语法》提出了语音演变规律(著名的格里木定律,受到拉斯克有关观点的影响),进一步揭示了日耳曼语与其他印欧语之间的语音对应关系。
语言学流派
语言学流派一、术语解释1.经验主义(empiricism)it is an approach to psychology which states that the development oftheory must be related to observable facts and experiments, or which states that all human knowledge comes from experience. Empiricism contrasts with the view that many forms human knowledge are in-born or innate.2.理性主义3.行为主义(Behaviorism)it is a theory of psychology which states that human and animalbehavior can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) causeda change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement. Itwas used by some psychologists like Skinner to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others.4.词素(Morpheme)it is a form that has no phonological commonness with other forms. Forexample, “poor John ran away” has 5 morphemes (4 words) “poor”“John”“run”“a ”“way”, which are the ultimate constituents. It is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. A morpheme can’t be divided without altering or desovying its meaning. But it can have grammatical functions. For example, in English the-s in she talks is a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is the third person singular present-tense form.5.归纳和演绎(Deduction and induction)Deduction: an idea that you reach about the truth of sth by using information that you already know is true, or the process of reaching that idea.Induction: a way of reasoning in which you arrive at general ideas by considering particular examples.In composition, two ways of presenting an argument are sometimes contrasted: reasoning by deduction and by induction. Reasoning by deduction proceeds from a generation to particular facts which support it, where as reasoning by induction involves moving from particular facts to generations about them.6.语言相对论(linguistic relativity)It is that the categories and distinctions encoded in onelanguage system are unique to that system and incommensurable with these of others. And linguistic relativity was strongly put forward by the American linguists Sapir and Whorf that the way people view the world is determined partially by the structure of their native language as Whorf said that the linguistic system is part of the background knowledge of mankind.7.语言决定论(linguistic determinism)The point of Sapir-Whorf’s linguistic determinism is thatone’s thinking is completely determined by his native language because one can only perceive the world in terms of the categories and distinctions encoded in the language. That is to say, the way people view the world is determined wholly by the structure of their native language.Human beings are greatly influenced by the particular language servicing as medium ofexpression their society.8.话语分析(discourse analysis )it is the study of how sentence is in spoken and writtenlanguage from larger meaningful units such as paragraphs conversations interviews etc. for example, discourse analysis deals with: how the choice of article pronounce and tenses affects the structure of the discourse; the relationship between utterance in discourse; the moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or assert a higher Role Relationship to the other participants. It is sometimes called Conversational analysis.9.符号学(siminology)it is the theory of science the analysis of system using signs or signals forthe propose of communication(semiotic systems). The most important semiotic system is human language, but there are other systems, e.g, sign language, traffic signals.10.描写语言学(descriptive linguistics)it describes how a language is actually spoken and /orwritten, and doesn’t state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written. Saussure’s separation of descriptive linguistics and historical linguistic into two defined spheres of interest, earned him the reputation of one of the founders of the structural linguists.11.心智主义(mentalism)it is the theory that a human being processes a mind which hasconsciousness, ideas etc., and that the mind can influence the behavior of the body.12.现实主义(positivism)it is a philosophic movement that began in the early 19th century,characterized by an emphasis on the scientific method of the only source of knowledge and designs to rebuild society on the bases of “positive knowledge” as a variation of empiricism, among the basis ideas of positivism are the idea that the world is orderly that all nature phenomenon of nature causes and that nothing is self-evident, but the laws of nature can be discovered through experimentation. Although few people nowadays subscribe to all of these beliefs, some depel of positivism characterizes most “scientific” approaches to understanding all phenomenon, including language learning, logical positivism as a scientific type of positivism that rejects as meaningless all statements that cannot be empirically verified.二简答1.刺激与反应理论It is a learning theory associated with B. F. Skinner, which describes learning as the formation of associations between responses. A stimulus is that which produces a change or reaction in an individual or organism. A response is the behavior which produced as a reaction to stimulus. Reinforcement is a stimulus which follows the occurrence of a response and affects the proporbility of that response occurring or not occurring again. Reinforcement which increases the likelihood of a response is known as positive reinforcement otherwise is called negative reinforcement. If no reinforcement is associated with a response the response may eventually disappear. This is known as extinction. If a response is produced to similar stimuli with which it was not original associated this is known as “stimulus generalization”.Bloomfield used an example to explicate the S-R theory. Suppose a boy and his girlfriend are taking a walk. The girl is hungry and sees apples on the tree, she makes some sounds and the boy jumps over the fence, climbs up the tree, picks an apple and gives it to the girl, the girl eats it. And the story can be divided into 3 parts: 1. The practical event prior to the act of speech; 2. Speech; 3. The practical event after the act of speech. In 1, the sight of apples on the tree, and her relationship with the boy constitute the speaker’s stimulus. In 3, the boy’spractical acts are called the nearer’s reaction. The result of the girl’s act of speech is that she got an apple without having to get it from the tree herself.2.天赋假说(The innateness Hypothesis)it is a theory held by some philosophers and linguistswhich says that language is somewhat innate and that children are born with what they calls a language acquisition device(LAD),which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. That is to say, human knowledge develops from structures, processes, and “ideas” which are in the mind at birth (i.e., innate), rather than from the environment, and that there are responsible for the basic structure of language and how it is learned. This hypothesis has been used to explain how children are able to learn language. The innate hypothesis approach to language is a reaction against behaviorism in psychology and empiricism in philosophy, making linguistics a branch of psychology.According to this view, Chomsky believes children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. 1st, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort. 2nd, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. 3rd, the child learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.All these suggest that the ability to speak and understand spoken language seems to be a natural human activity.3.福斯的系统与结构(J. R. Firth’s System and structure)Firth inherited the tradition by takingup some of Saussure’s and Malinovski’s views, he carried forward their theories and put forth his own original points of view. Firth regarded language as a social process, as a means of social life, rather than simply as a set of agreed –upon semiotics and signals.Following Saussure, Firth held that language consists of two elements; system and structure. While structure is the syntagmatic ordering of elements, system is a set of paradigmatic units, each of which can be substituted by others in certain places. Thus, structure is horizontal and system is longitudinal.On the grammatical level, some sentences are the same, for example:John helped Mary; John met Mary. All these sentences have the “S+V+O” structure, where “helped”, “met”are elements of a system of verbs. Thus Firth pointed out that the system prescribes the position where linguistic elements can occur, i.e. the rules for collection. The structure is not simply a matter of ordering, for these are relations of mutual expectancy between elements.4.共时与历时(Synchrony and Diachrony)The distinction between the synchronic study oflanguage and diachronic study of language is one of the important contribution of Saussure.Synchronic approach which is the study of a language system at one particular point in time, while diachronic approach which studies how a language changes over a period of time.For example, we can cut a tree trunk in two ways: the longitudinal cut can stand for the process of evolution for language, while a horizontal cut can symbolize the state of language at a certain time.Synchronic linguistic deals with the language system proper (itself), and it is more important than diachronic linguistic, which can be studied outside the language system.Without synchronic studies, there can be no diachronic studies. The only method for synchronic linguistic is to collect quantities of data from speakers of a language, and to analyzed the linguistic phenomena in order to determine their reality.However, Saussure’s distinction of diachronic linguistic from synchronic linguistics is not largely accepted, because it is not easy to draw a sharp line between these two aspects of language studies. 1. Languages are in a constant state of changing, 2. The language of any speech community is never uniform; 3. When a language changes, it is not the case that one set of features are suddenly replaced by another set of features.5.功能主义语境观(functionalist context of situation)Malinovski believed that utterance andsituation are bound up inextricably with each other and the context of situation is indispensable for the understanding of the words. The meaning of spoken utterance could always be determined by the context of situation. (The meanings are simply the human activities of specific time and place, and meanings come from the activities in which language is used). He distinguished 3 types of context of situation: 1. Situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, it means that the meaning of a word is not given by the physical properties of its referent, but by its functions. 2. Narrative situation he believed that narration can change the hearer’s social attitudes and emotions; 3. Situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vacuum-phatic communion, which refers to cases of language used in free, aimless social intercourse.In Firth’s view, meaning doesn’t simply cover lexical and grammatical meanings, but is a large concept covering the meaning in the context of language use. Firth’s study focus on the context of situation as Malinovski did. He defined the context of situation as including the entire culture setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment, Recognizing that sentences are infinitely various, he used the notion of typical context of situation, it means that social situations determine that social rules participants are obliged to play. By context of situation, Firth met a theory of context of situation, each smaller one being embedded into a larger one, to the extent that, all the context of situation play essential parts in the whole of the context of culture.According to Halidy, “context of situation consists of 3 parts: “field”, “tenor”, and “mode””,i.e. field determines the selection of experiential meanings, the tenor determines theselection of interpersonal meanings, and the mode determines the selection of texual meanings. So,6.T-G grammarTransformational generative grammar is also known as TG grammar. It is a theory of grammar which was proposed by the American linguist Chomsky in 1957. It has since been developed by him and many other linguists. Chomsky attempted to provide a model for the description of all languages. A TG grammar tries to show, with a system of rules, the knowledge which a native speaker of a language uses informing grammatical sentences.Chomsky has changed his theory over the years. The most well know version was publishedin his book Aspects of the Theory of Syntax in 1965. It is often refered to as the aspects model or standard theory. This model consists of 4 main parts:1.The base component, which produces or generates basic syntactic structures calleddeep structures;2.The transformational component, which changes or transforms these basic structuresinto sentences called surface structures;3.The phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so thatthey can be pronounced;4.The semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences.。
语言学流派及其发展
语言学流派及其发展
语言学是一门研究语言的学科,常常被划分为不同的流派。
以下是几个主要的语言学流派及其发展:
1.结构语言学:结构语言学是在20世纪初期发展起来的,主要
关注语言的结构和语法规则。
这个流派的代表人物包括布鲁姆菲尔德、哈里斯和卡内基学派。
他们主张所有语言都有一个结构性组成,并且可以通过分析语言的组成部分来理解这种结构。
2.生成语法学:生成语法学是在20世纪50年代和60年代发展
起来的,主要关注语言的生成过程和语法规则的内在结构。
这个流派的代表人物包括乔姆斯基、查姆斯基和洛卡斯。
他们主张语言是由内在的语法规则生成的,并且这些规则可以解释语言的所有特征。
3.功能语言学:功能语言学是在20世纪80年代发展起来的,主要关注语言在社会和文化中的功能和使用。
这个流派的代表人物包括哈林顿、哈斯和哈利德。
他们主张语言是一种用于交流的工具,其使用受到社会和文化因素的影响。
4.认知语言学:认知语言学是在20世纪90年代发展起来的,主要关注语言和认知过程之间的关系。
这个流派的代表人物包括莱克夫、福瑞和克罗格。
他们主张语言是认知和心理过程的一部分,语言的意义是通过认知机制来建立的。
这些语言学流派各有特点,但它们都试图解释语言的本质和语言现象的特征。
在未来,随着新的研究和技术的出现,语言学也将继续发展和演变。
语言学流派及其发展
语言学流派及其发展语言学是研究语言的学科,它可以分为多个流派。
下面将介绍几个主要的语言学流派及其发展。
1. 结构主义语言学结构主义语言学是20世纪50年代的一种语言学流派,主要代表人物是美国语言学家布洛姆菲尔德。
该流派认为语言是一种结构系统,它的组成部分相互关联,互相作用。
结构主义语言学主要研究语言的结构,包括音位、词汇、句法等。
该流派的发展推动了语言学从描述语言现象向分析语言结构的转变。
2. 生成语法语言学生成语法语言学是20世纪50年代后期到60年代初期的一种语言学流派,主要代表人物是美国语言学家查姆斯基。
该流派认为语言是人类大脑的一种天赋能力,人类天生就具有语言能力。
生成语法语言学主要研究语言的生成过程,包括句子的构成和语法规则等。
该流派的发展推动了语言学从描述语言结构向研究语言生成的转变。
3. 语用学语用学是20世纪60年代后期到70年代初期的一种语言学流派,主要代表人物是英国语言学家格里斯。
该流派认为语言是一种交际行为,它的目的是传递信息。
语用学主要研究语言的使用,包括语言交际的目的、语言交际的情境、语言交际的效果等。
该流派的发展推动了语言学从研究语言结构向研究语言使用的转变。
4. 社会语言学社会语言学是20世纪60年代后期到70年代初期的一种语言学流派,主要代表人物是美国语言学家拉卡特。
该流派认为语言是一种社会现象,它的使用受到社会因素的影响。
社会语言学主要研究语言的社会方面,包括语言变异、语言变化、语言规范等。
该流派的发展推动了语言学从研究语言结构向研究语言使用和社会因素的转变。
总之,语言学流派的发展推动了语言学从单一的研究语言结构向多方面的研究转变,丰富了语言学的研究内容和方法。
语言学流派(结构主义语言学)
结构主义语言学三大流派瑞士著名语言学家索绪尔是现代语言学的奠基者,是结构主义的创始人。
索绪尔的思想对整个人文科学产生了深远的影响。
在索绪尔之后,出现了结构主义语言学的三个流派:布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写语言学派。
以下就这三个流派的代表人物、代表著作、基本学术观点及其贡献分别作一个简要介绍。
一、布拉格学派也称功能语言学派。
该学派创立于1926年10月,以布拉格语言学会成立为标志,其创始人为马泰休斯,他担任这个学会的首任会长。
马泰休斯是布拉格学派的早期理论家,他深刻地分析了新语法学派的缺陷,强调以共时观指导语言研究。
特鲁别茨柯依是布拉格学派的杰出代表,他的《音位学原理》是现代音位学的经典著作。
另一位成就卓著的代表人物是雅柯布逊,他提出的“区别性特征”的学说对现代语言学具有重大意义。
法国著名语言学家马丁内虽然没有正式参加布拉格语言学会,但由于他的语言观体现了布拉格学派的学术思想,所以有的学者把他作为布拉格学派的代表人物。
布拉格学派自称结构-功能学派,他们的语言观是结构主义和功能主义的结合。
他们提出语言是多功能的结构体系,由多个相互依存的次系统构成;建立了音位学说;提出了“语言联盟”的理论和“句子的实际切分”的学说。
布拉格学派主要以音位研究著称,其主要贡献是首次系统地阐明了音位学的任务、原理和研究方法,使它在结构主义语言学诸领域中居于领先地位。
美国语言学家鲍林格评价说:“欧洲任何其他语言学团体都没有象布拉格语言学会那样产生了如此巨大的影响。
”二、哥本哈根学派也称丹麦学派,又叫语符学派,创立于1931年,以哥本哈根语言学会成立为标志。
代表人物为叶尔姆斯列夫、布龙达尔、乌尔达尔。
代表著作有叶尔姆斯列夫的《语言理论纲要》、布龙达尔的《结构语言学》、乌尔达尔的《语符学纲要》。
哥本哈根学派的核心人物是叶尔姆斯列夫,他对语言的观察细致入微,注意到了语言的一些重要特质:语言的遗传性、社会性、符号性;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;语言与言语的区别等。
西方语言学流派知识点总结
西方语言学流派知识点总结语言学是研究语言的一门跨学科科学,涉及语言的音韵、形态、句法、语义和语用等方面。
在语言学中,有许多不同的流派和理论,它们试图解释语言的起源、结构和功能,以及我们如何学习和使用语言。
本文将对一些西方语言学流派进行总结,包括结构主义、生成语法、认知语言学、功能语言学和社会语言学等。
结构主义结构主义是20世纪初期兴起的一种语言学流派,其核心观点是语言的结构是固定且普遍的,反映了人类思维和文化特征。
结构主义者相信每种语言都有自己独特的结构和规则,这些规则可以被描述和解释,从而揭示语言的本质和作用。
这一流派的代表人物包括索绪尔、布洛赫和哈里斯等。
在结构主义者的观点中,语言是受到语法和语义规则的约束的,这些规则决定了词汇如何组合成句子,以及句子如何表达意义。
他们强调语言的内在结构和语法规律,通过对语言结构的分析和比较来揭示这些规律。
结构主义者关注的重点是语言的形式和结构,而非语言的使用和历史演变。
生成语法生成语法是20世纪中期发展起来的一种语言学理论,其核心概念是在人类心智中存在一种通用的语法结构,是所有语言的共同基础。
生成语法的代表人物包括乔姆斯基和赫尔达利等,他们试图揭示语言的普遍规律和结构。
在生成语法中,语言的结构被看作是由一系列生成规则所描述的,这些规则可以生成句子的各种结构。
根据生成语法的观点,人类的语言能力是由先天的语言结构知识所决定的,这种语言结构知识被称为“普遍语法”。
生成语法试图通过分析句子的结构和语法规则来揭示这种普遍语法结构,以便理解和解释语言的本质和原理。
认知语言学认知语言学是20世纪后期兴起的一种语言学流派,其核心观点是语言和认知之间存在密切的关联,语言的结构和使用受人类认知能力的影响。
认知语言学的代表人物包括莱克夫和基特勒等,他们试图探索语言如何反映和塑造人类认知的方式。
在认知语言学中,语言被看作是一种认知活动和思维过程的产物,语言结构和语义规则受到人类认知能力的制约。
语言学流派读书报告
语言学流派读书报告语言学是一个涉及语言起源、语言发展、语言规则等方面的广泛领域。
在这个领域里,存在着许多流派,每一种流派都通过不同的理论和方法来研究语言。
下面介绍几种主要的语言学流派。
结构语言学结构语言学起源于20世纪初的欧洲。
它的主要特点是把语言看作是一种系统,这个系统由各种单元组成,这些单元之间通过规则联系在一起来构成语言结构。
这个流派强调语言形式、结构,而把语言的使用和语言用户的交互排除在研究范围之外。
代表人物有布隆菲尔德(Bloomfield)和哈里斯(Harris)等。
生成语法学生成语法学在20世纪50年代到60年代盛行,代表人物是诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)。
这个流派认为人类天生就有语言的能力和语言学习机制,这种能力存在于大脑中的“语言模块”内。
生成语法学主张人类天生掌握语音、语法、语义等语言要素,只需要从语言环境中获取数据来触发天生的语言能力即可。
社会语言学社会语言学从20世纪60年代开始发展。
这种语言学研究语言和社会之间的相互关系,特别是语言的地位、角色、群体意识等社会因素对语言使用的影响。
代表人物有威廉·莱布诺维茨(William Labov)和埃里克·洛思(Erving Goffman)等。
认知语言学认知语言学于20世纪80年代至90年代开始发展,代表人物是乔治·拉卡弗(George Lakoff)。
认知语言学主张人类使用语言思维是一种基于心理学实验和认知科学理论的复杂过程。
它从认知过程入手,研究语言和心理、认知之间的关系。
功能语言学功能语言学是反对结构语言学的一种流派。
它认为人们学习语言是为了实现各种特定功能,比如表达思想、建议、感情等等。
功能语言学强调在特定情境下语言的使用,关注说话者意图、听话者反应等等。
代表人物有迈克尔·哈尔德(Michael Halliday)和罗宾·芬诺(Robin Fawcett)等。
语言学各学派
布拉格学派基本观点:布拉格学派的基本观点是在J.N.博杜恩·德·库尔德内和F. de索绪尔的影响下形成的。
他们同哥本哈根学派、美国结构主义学派的看法有同有异。
相同之处是反对德国新语法学派的历史主义及分割主义,认为语言是一个系统,应对其结构进行共时的研究,不同之处是布拉格学派把语言的结构与功能结合起来研究。
他们认为语言的基本功能是作交际工具,语言是一个由多种表达手段构成的、为特定目的服务的功能系统。
因此要用功能的观点去研究语言。
布拉格学派认为句子能从语法角度分析也能从功能角度分析用主位和述位来分析句子。
主位指已知信息或在给定语境是明确的话语起点前信息述位指说话者陈述的有关或涉及话语起点内容。
与美国结构主义学派的区别:布拉格学派区别于美国结构主义学派之处是:他们主要研究已有悠久文化的欧洲语言,从功能观点出发广泛探讨标准语、语言修养、修辞学、文艺学、诗学、美学等问题。
他们重视语义标准,主张采用对立论,而不接受美国结构主义学派的分布论和直接成分分析法。
为了强调自己的特点,布拉格学派曾明确表示应该把自己称为功能语言学派。
主要贡献:布拉格学派发展了索绪尔和博杜恩·德·库尔德内的理论。
他们的主要贡献是首次系统地阐明了音系学的任务、原理和研究方法,使它在结构主义语言学诸领域中居于领先地位。
音系学中的理论原则、基本概念和研究方法对语法学、词汇学、语义学都产生了深远的影响。
布拉格学派的实际切分的理论已得到公认的发展,为话语语言学奠定了基础;他们的分析比较法对类型语言学和语言普遍现象的研究起了推动作用;他们的定量分析法又为数理语言学的形成准备了条件。
他们对语言结构的研究是机器翻译产生的重要前提之一。
1976年,法国成立了以马丁内为首的国际功能语言学协会,旨在发展布拉格学派的基本思想。
伦敦学派主要代表人物及成就:1.马林诺夫斯基的"情境意义"思想20 世纪20 年代,英国出现了马林诺夫斯基的"情境意义"思想。
专业的语言学派
专业的语言学派语言学派是指在语言学领域内具有一定学术立场和观点的学派。
在历史的长河中,各种不同的语言学派相继涌现,其中一些代表性的语言学派对于语言研究和语言教学产生了深远的影响。
本文将介绍几个具有代表性的专业的语言学派,并对其核心理论进行概述。
1. 结构主义语言学派结构主义语言学派,又称为结构语言学派,是20世纪上半叶发展起来的一支重要的语言学派别。
其核心观点是认为语言系统具有内在的结构,对语言要以其自身规律进行研究,而非通过与其他学科相比较的方式。
结构主义语言学派强调语言的内在结构是语言发展和语言使用的基础,因此,对语言系统的结构进行分析和描述是其主要任务。
该学派的代表学者有索绪尔、布洛赫、哈里斯等。
2. 生成语法语言学派生成语法语言学派,也被称为生成主义语言学派,是20世纪中叶的一个重要学派。
其核心理论是生成语法理论,通过对句子的生成机制和过程进行研究,揭示了语言产生的规律和模式。
生成语法语言学派认为,句子的结构和语法规则是由人类的语言能力在大脑中生成的结果。
该学派的代表学者有乔姆斯基、派克、丹尼森等。
3. 社会语言学派社会语言学派是20世纪后半叶兴起的一个重要学派,该学派将语言与社会和文化联系在一起,并强调语言的社会功能和变化。
社会语言学派关注言语行为和社会环境的相互关系,探索言语在社会交互中的功能和意义。
社会语言学派的代表学者有赫尔维希、格里姆斯、朱斯蒂斯等。
4. 语用学派语用学派是关注语言使用的学派,该学派强调语言使用者的意图和话语背景对语言理解和交际产生重要影响。
语用学派通过研究语言的功能和意义,揭示了语言规则和语境之间的关系。
语用学派关注的核心问题包括语用推理、言语行为、会话分析等。
该学派的代表学者有奥斯汀、格拉维尔斯、思达、雷沙等。
5. 范畴语法学派范畴语法学派是由霍尔德、拉康特、泽弗曼等学者建立的,主要强调语言结构与句子中的范畴关系。
范畴语法学派认为,语法是一种范畴关系的组织系统,通过范畴关系来分析和表示句子的结构和意义。
语言学的主要流派
语言学的主要流派
语言学的主要流派:历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学、转换生成语言学、系统功能语言学。
一、历史比较语言学:
(1)时间:1786——1916
(2)特点:独立性、历时的原子主义语言观;
(3)贡献:使语言研究成为一门独立的学科。
(4)主要人物:琼斯、拉斯克、格里姆、葆朴、维尔纳、施莱赫尔、勃鲁格曼、莱斯金、保罗、梅耶
二、结构主义语言学:
(1)代表人物:索绪尔(开创者)
(2)主要内容:区分语言和言语,认为语言是一个由符号组合而成的系统(依靠组合关系和聚合关系运转),语言符号有能指和所指,区分语言的共时研究和历时研究。
(3)主要学派:布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派、美国描写主义语言学派三、转换生成语言学:
(1)代表人物:乔姆斯基
(2)大致内容:采用现代数理逻辑的形式化方法,根据有限规则演绎无限的句子。
四、系统功能语言学
(1)代表人物:韩礼德
(2)主要内容:重视语言在社会学上的特征,研究如何根据特定交际目的选择特定的语句,集中力量发现描写语言在社会中的规律;从认知的角度解释语言现象;注重个别语言以及个别变体的描写,发现语句在社会中的规律。
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Theories and Schools of Modern LinguisticsPart One: Ferdinand de Saussure:1. Nature of the linguistic sign: linguistic unit is a sign. It is the combination of the the two (a concept and a sound-image) that makes up the whole of the linguistic sign. Signified (the matter) and signifier (the sound image)Characteristics of the linguistic sign:1.The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary.2.The linear nature of the signifier: the signifier is auditory and therefore is unfoldedsolely in time. As a result of this, the signifier represents a time span and the span is measurable in one single dimension, the dimension of time.2. Langue and parole3. Synchronic and diachronic studiesPart Two: The Prague School:V. Mathesius:The main emphasis of the Prague School theory is on the analysis of language as a system of functionally related units, an emphasis which shows Saussurean influence.The emphasis has led to the distinction between the phonetic and phonological analysis of sounds and the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features.Phonological oppositionsInfluential scholar Trubetzkoyprinciples of phonologyFor each abstract sound there is a range than a point in which speakers are allowed to make the actual realization of it different from every other Realization by themselves and also distinct from every other realization by other people.A phoneme can be defined as the sum of these differentiating functions. It has three characteristics:1.It has discriminative power2.It can not be analysed into smaller distinctive segments3.It can only be determined by distinctive features.Functional sentence perspective (FSP)FSP is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances or texts in terms of the information they contain. ( a theory that refers to a linguistic analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain.) The principle is that the role of each utterance part is evaluated for its semantic contribution to the whole. From a functional point of view, some linguists believed that a sentence contains a point of departure and a goal of discourse. The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer which it is their rallying point, the ground on which they meet. This is called the Theme. The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer. This is called the Rheme.It is believed that the movement from the Theme to the Rheme reveals the movement of the mind itself. Language may use different syntactic structures, but the order of ideas remains basically the same. Based on these observations, they created the notion of FSP todescribe how information is distributed in sentences. FSP deals particularly with the effect of the distribution of known information and new information in discourse. The known information refers to information that is not new to the reader or hearer, and the new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or hearer.Sally stands on the table.(1)On the table stands Sally.(2)Sally is the grammatical subject in both sentences, but Sally is the Theme in (1) and the Rheme in (2).We can approach a sentence at three levels and distinguish between the Grammatical Sentence Pattern(subject-berb-object), the Semantic Sentence Pattern (agent-action-goal) and the Communicative Sentence Pattern(theme-transition-rheme) . This shows that there is a distinction between sentence and utterance.CD: J. Firbas developed the notion of communicative dynamism.It is based on the fact that linguistic communication is not a static but a dynamic phenomenon.CD is meant to measure the amount of information an element carries in a sentence.Eg: He was angryHe carries the lowest degree of CD, angry carries the highest degree, and was will rank between them.Normally the subject carries a lower degree of CD than the verb and the object or adverbial. This is because a known or unknown agent appears to be communicatively less important than an unknown action expressed by the finite verb, an unknown goal expressed by the object or by the adverbial element.Part Three: American structuralismBoas/ SPIE/ Bloomfield/Fries/Chomsky1. Structural grammar: one point is that the grammatical categories should be defined in terms of distribution . The units of the analysis are defined internally in relation to each other.The other point is that the sentence is seen as a sequence of immediate constituents.IC analysis: it helps to account for the ambiguities of some structures, because IC analysis not only shows sequential relations but also hierarchical relations.2. Behaviorist psychology in structuralism (Bloomfield and B.F Skinner)1)Behaviourist holds that human beings cannot know anything they have not experienced.2)Human learn language through “stimulus-response”manner.Black box theory: put forward by Skinner. The basic position of radical behaviourism is that since we cannot observe the internal states, we cannot know anything about them. Any statements we make about internal states or processes are necessarily meaningless. Each organism should be regarded as a Black box that cannot be opened for observation. The only meaningful statements one can make about the organism concern what goes into it (stimuli) and what comes out of it.(response)3)A comparison between traditional and structural grammarsTraditional grammarStructural grammarPart Four Transformational –Generative Grammar1) The development of Chomsky’s TG Grammar: five stages. The Classical Theory aims to make linguistics a science. The Standard Theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistics theory. The Extended Standard focuses discussion on language universals and universal grammar. The Revised Extended Standard Theory focuses discussion on government and binding. The latest is the Minimalist Program, a further revision of the previous theory.The development of TG Grammar can be regarded as a process of constantly minimalising theories and controlling the generative powers. Although TG Grammar has involved putting forward, revising, and canceling of many specific rules, hypotheses, mechanisms, and theoretical models, its aims and purposes have been consistent to explore the nature, origin and uses of human knowledge on language.2) Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that children comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language. is strongly against Bloomfield’s behaviorist psychology and empiricism and adopts cognitive psychology and rationalism.Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis is baded on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately. First, children learn their native language very fast and with little effort. Second, there are other facts that are puzzling if language is not innate. Third, the child learns the total grammar of the language during a limited period of time, from limited exposure to speech.Language Acquisition Device: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a LAD, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning. He argues the child comes into the world with specific innate endowment, not only with general tendencies or potentialities, but also with knowledge of the nature of the world, and specifically with knowledge of the nature of language. According to this view, children are born with knowledge of the basic grammatical relations and categories, and this knowledge is universal. The categories and relations exist in all human languages and all human infants are born with knowledge of them.According to him, the study of language, or the structure of language, can throw some light on the nature of the human mind. LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an evaluation procedure.3) TG Grammar: the starting point of Chomsky’s TG Grammar is his innateness hypothesis, based on his observations that some important facts can never be otherwise explained adequately.Chomsky’s TG Grammar has the following features. First, Chomsky defines language as a set of rules or principles. Second, Chomsky believes that the aim of linguistics is to produce a generative grammar which captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.This concerns the question of learning theory and the question of linguistic universals. Third, Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the native speaker’s tacit knowledge. They seldom use what native speakers actually say; they rely on their own intuition.Fourth, Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis-deductive, which operates at two levels: (a) the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure-a general linguistic theory; this is tested by grammars for particular languages, and (b) each such grammar is a hypothesis o the general linguistic theory. Finally Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy and mentalist in psychology.London School:Lay stress on the functions of language and attaching great importance to contexts of situation and the system aspect of language. It is these features that have make this school of thought known as systemic linguistics and functional linguistics.Malinowski’s theory of meaning: the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprising it but from its relation to the situational context in which the utterance occurs.Malinowski distinguishes three types of context of situation:1) situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity; 2) narrative situations 3) situations in which speech is used to fill a speech vaccum—phatic cmmunionFirth’s theory of meaning: meaning is use. He defines meaning as the relationship between an element at any level and its context on that level.(Malinowski distinguished three types of context of situation: situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activity, narrative situation, and phatic situationsFirth defined the context of situation as including the entire cultural setting of speech and the personal history of the participants rather than as simply the context of human activity going on at the moment.)Halliday’s systemic grammar: 1) it attaches great importance to the sociological aspects of language;2) it views language as a form of doing rather than as a form of knowing.3) it explains a number of aspects of language in terms of clines.4) It has as its central category the category of the system.In systemic grammar, the notion of system is make a central explanatory principle, the whole of language being conceived as a “system of systems.”Halliday’s functional grammar: language is what it is because it has to serve certain functions. Social demands on language have helped to shape its structure.Three macrofunctions by Halliday:1)The ideational function(意念功能): to convey new information, to communicate acontent that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential.2)The interpersonal function(人际功能)It embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This function is realized by mood and modality.3) The textual function(语篇功能): it refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.The relation: systemic grammar aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential. While functional grammar aims to reveal that language is a means of social interaction.。