托福TPO28阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析
托福阅读TPO28-1 Groundwater
TPO-28GroundwaterMost of the world’s potable water----freshwater suitable for drinking----is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.Aquifers, Porosity and PermeabilityGroundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorly sorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is ,the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks----the most common rock type near the surface----are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.The Water TableThe water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the wate r table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersect the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, weather to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.[Glossary]Sediment: materials (such as sand or small rocks) that are deposited by water, wind, or glacial ice.Topography: the shape of a surface such as Earth’s, including the rise and fall of such features as mountains and valleys.Paragraph 1: Most of the world’s potable water----freshwater suitable for drinking----is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.1.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention “the pressure of the overlying rock”?O To show how water can be forced deep under Earth’s surfaceO To show why groundwater is more plentiful than surface freshwaterO To correct a commonly made error about the location of groundwaterO To explain why most groundwater lies near Earth’s surface2.According to paragraph 1, groundwater differs from the water in rivers and lakes in terms of itsO portabilityO usefulnessO abundanceO costParagraph 2: Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from whichwater can is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through thefluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.e is closest in meaning toO usedO pouredO removedO kept outO consideredO calledO limited toO caused by5.According to paragraph 2, what does porosity determine?O The rate at which the aquifer’s water overcomes resistance to flowO The amount of water that the aquifer can holdO The likelihood that fractures and joints will occur in the aquiferO The depth underground at which the aquifer lies6.According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity?O The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability.O Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have high porosity but low permeability.O If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity.O Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa.Paragraph 3: Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorlysorted or the more a sediment is ,the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks----the most common rock type near the surface----are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.O hardO compressedO heavyO deeply buried8.According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer?O When it has many connected fracturesO When it lies next to metamorphic rockO When it lies relatively near the surfaceO When it is crystallineParagraph 4: The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is theleaving behind a of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.O streamO barrierO amountO layer10.Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the roots of plants?O They prevent water from reaching the vadose zone.O They mark the boundary between the vadose zone and the water tableO They do not typically get their water from the water table.O They help keep the water table from dropping farther.Paragraph 5: Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls withGroundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.O Groundwater only flows out of the ground if the water table intersects the land surface.O If the land surface and the water table intersect, groundwater can flow underground.O Groundwater may be drained if springs occur where the water table intersects the land surface.O Where the water table meets the land surface, groundwater flows out through surface springs.12.Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the level of the waterO It may rise or fall from year to year, depending on annual rainfall.O It does not vary in arid regions.O It rarely intersects the land surface of most regions.O It is unrelated to the rate at which groundwater flows.Paragraph 4: The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. ■Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. ■The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. ■Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. ■Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.This is a consequence of the slow rate of movement of the groundwater, which often prevents the water table from attaining a flat (horizontal) level.Where would the sentence best fit?14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Most of the world’s potable water is stored as groundwater in the pores and fractur es of underground rock, much of it at depths of less than 1,000 meters.●●●Answer ChoicesO Sedimentary rock may make poor aquifers because of tightly compacted sediment, which reduces porosity and permeability.O Porosity is a measure of the empty space within rock while permeability measures the degree to which water can flow freely through rock.O In arid regions, the water tables remain at a constant level far below the surface, preventing stream-beds from filling up even during wet years.O Groundwater reservoirs are characterized by the porosity and permeability of the rock in which theylie, and these factors vary according to the type of rock.O The vadose zone is typically dry because water does not stay in it, but instead percolates down to aquifers below or drains out through springs and streams.O Although the water table usually follows the contours of the land surface, its level may vary from year to year and may intersect to the surface in places.参考答案1.○42.○33.○34.○25.○26.○27.○18.○29.○410.○311.○412.○113.○314. Porosity is a measure of the…In arid regions, the water …Although the water table usually …。
托福阅读TPO28（试题+答案+译文）第1篇：Groundwater
托福阅读TPO28(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Groundwater为了帮助大家备考托福。
提高阅读成绩，打有准备的仗，下面小编给大家带来托福阅读TPO28(试题+答案+译文)第1篇:Groundwater，希望大家喜欢。
托福阅读原文【1】Most of the world’s potable water—freshwater suitable for drinking is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface. Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.Aquifers, Porosity and Permeability【2】Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water—storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flowaround and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.【3】Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorly sorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is, the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks—the most common rock type near the surface—are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.The Water Table【4】The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.【5】Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affectedby gravity in the same fashion as surface water. Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersects the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, weather to be collected there or to subsequently flow farther along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface.[Glossary]Sediment: materials (such as sand or small rocks) that are deposited by water, wind, or glacial ice.Topography: the shape of a surf ace such as Earth’s, including the rise and fall of such features as mountains and valleys.托福阅读试题1.In paragraph 1, why does the author mention "the pressure of the overlying rock"?A.To show how water can be forced deep under Earth's surface.B.To show why groundwater is more plentiful than surface freshwater.C.To correct a commonly made error about the location of groundwater.D.To explain why most groundwater lies near Earth's surface.2.According to paragraph 1, groundwater differs from the water in riversand lakes in terms of itsA.portability.efulness.C.abundance.D.cost.3.The word "extracted" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toed.B.poured.C.removed.D.kept out.4.The word "termed" in the passage(paragraph 2)is closest in meaning toA.considered.B.called.C.limited to.D.caused by.5.According to paragraph 2, what does porosity determine?A.The rate at which the aquifer's water overcomes resistance to flow.B.The amount of water that the aquifer can hold.C.The likelihood that fractures and joints will occur in the aquifer.D.The depth underground at which the aquifer lies.6.According to paragraph 2, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity?A.The more pores a rock has, the higher its porosity but the lower its permeability.B.Rocks with many internal spaces that are not connected with each other will have high porosity but low permeability.C.If water flows through a rock easily, it has high permeability but low porosity.D.Rocks that have high permeability have high porosity and vice versa.7.The word "compacted" in the passage(paragraphy 3)is closest in meaning toA.hard.pressed.C.heavy.D.deeply buried.8.According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer?A.When it has many connected fractures.B.When it lies next to metamorphic rock.C.When it lies relatively near the surface.D.When it is crystalline.9.The word "coating" in the passage(paragraph 4)is closest in meaning toA.stream.B.barrier.C.amount.yer.10.Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the rootsof plants?A.They prevent water from reaching the vadose zone.B.They mark the boundary between the vadose zone and the water tableC.They do not typically get their water from the water table.D.They help keep the water table from dropping farther.11.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage paragraph 5 ? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Groundwater only flows out of the ground if the watertable intersects the land surface.B.If the land surface and the water table intersect, groundwater can flow underground.C.Groundwater may be drained if springs occur where the water table intersects the land surface.D.Where the water table meets the land surface, groundwater flows out through surface springs.12.Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the level of the waterA.It may rise or fall from year to year, depending on annual rainfall.B.It does not vary in arid regions.C.It rarely intersects the land surface of most regions.D.It is unrelated to the rate at which groundwater flows.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Where would the sentence best fit? This is a consequence of the slow rate of movement of the groundwater, which often prevents the water table from attaining a flat (horizontal) level.The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracksand pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth's surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes and marshes. ■【A】Typically,though,the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. ■【B】The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. ■【C】Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. ■【D】Water in the vadosezone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water onmineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface withwater.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Most of the world's potable water is stored as groundwater in the poresand fractures of underground rock, much of it at depths of less than 1,000 meters.A.Sedimentary rock may make poor aquifers because of tightly compacted sediment, which reduces porosity and permeability.B.Porosity is a measure of the empty space within rock while permeability measures the degree to which water can flow freely through rock.C.In arid regions, the water tables remain at a constant level far below the surface, preventing stream-beds from filling up even during wet years.D.Groundwater reservoirs are characterized by the porosity and permeability of the rock in which they lie, and these factors vary according to the type of rock.E.The vadose zone is typically dry because water does not stay in it, but instead percolates down to aquifers below or drains out through springs and streams.F.Although the water table usually follows the contours of the land surface, its level may vary from year to year and may intersect to the surface in places.托福阅读答案1.在高亮部分的描写之后，本段的最后一句出现了，therefore。
TPO28 R 1 解析
overcomes resistance to flow B. The amount of water that the aquifer
can hold C. The likelihood that fractures and joints
will occur in the aquifer D. The depth underground at which the
Q7 According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer? A. When it has many connected fractures B. When it lies next to metamorphic rock C. When it lies relatively near the surface D. When it is crystalline Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrow>
Comment [l2]: 正确答案：C。对应原 文第二句话，也就是将地下水和江河 湖泊水进行比较的那句话。原句说 more than 50 times。就证明是地下水 的水量大。这里 A 是饮用性，原文并 没有说江水不能喝。B 是有用，同理。 D 是代价。这个就更没提到了。所以 答案为 C 丰富。
TPO28听力解析—徐小欣自制
TPO28听力解析：C1：1、解析：老师见到学生说的第一句话：“you have good structure..but critical thinking…”包括之后老师一直在说学生需要加哪些东西，需要删掉哪些东西，所以—D排除法：A. 学生文章中critical的具体细节不选B. 这是最后才提到的，属于细节不选C.有change一般不选，但这个题错的离谱，C选项就是典型的迷惑选项，recent changes 完全没有说到，reference却在后边的对话中时常提到，所以这就是ETS迷惑人的地方2、解析：开头第一句，学生说，I am sorry for late, I went to medical center .. soccer..这句就可以判断出他是因为去看医生所以迟到了C选项典型的迷惑选项，如果没有听到medical 只听到了soccer 很有可能就直接奔着C 去了，所以一开始还是要认真听得3、解析：这个题呢其实就是把老师说的改正的地方都包括了，<做一二题时候还好奇怎么这篇文章信息量如此大第二题还出这么无聊的考点>，额，看到第三题瞬间明白了。
其实这个题算是比较好做，因为三个点基本上都重复了至少两遍。
A．老师说more influences critical thinking，然后学生反问了一句一样的，得到了老师确认B．最开始老师说过学生的great sketch，只是不连贯所以不需要改动，B错C．这个地方也是一问一答之后，老师在问过他有没有写完之后回看了一遍，学生说没有。
之后老师就说cut…make..clear，所以就说remove unnecessary contentD．这个点应该算是最好听清楚的，学生提问老师强调，老师说the most important thing is consistent reference 不管什么new system什么的E．Individual这个点也提到了，在最开始老师要求学生加上critical thinking处，但是老师说的是学生individual section 位置不对，应该在整篇文章的最后Ps：重复多的是考点，这个题明显体现，答案中的关键词都是听力中多次重复的内容4、解析：最后提到了political science club，让学生去lead meeting，学生很开心的答应了5、解析：重放录音题对我一向很坑爹！但是这个题因为我是笔记上有重点标注的所以印象深刻。
托福TPO28听力Conversation1文本+题目+答案解析
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO28听力Conversation1文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
托福TPO28听力Conversation1文本 Narrator: Listen to part of a conversation between a student and a professor.Student: I am so sorry I am late. Professor Mills. I just finished at the student medical center.I twisted my ankle playing soccer this morning. It took longer than I expected to see the doctor. Professor: That’s okay. Don’t worry about it. David. So let’s get started. Your paper on John Dewey’s political philosophy has a few issues I’d like to cover. You gave a great biographical sketch in the beginning. Okay. But then as you get into his political philosophy, I don’t think you’ve done enough to situate his philosophy within the time period. In other words, you haven’t connected Dewey’s philosophy to the thinking of other intellectuals of the time. Student: So I haven’t captured the most critical influences, the influences that were most significant to his political thinking? Professor: Exactly. OK. Now, look back up at the section here, where you wrote about Dewey’s view of individuality. This is all good content. But you haven’t presented the information in a systematic way. I really think this portion on individuality needs to come later, after your paragraphs on Dewey’s intellectual influences Student: After my revised paragraphs on what influenced them. Professor: Yes. Revised. Let me ask. Uh. When you were finished writing, did you go back and ask yourself if all of the material was relevant? Student: Well, no. Professor: I do think there are areas that can be cut. I guess what I am saying is that your paragraphs aren’t really presented in a logical order. The direction of your argument isn’t crystal clear. And there’s some unnecessary material getting in the way. Student: OK. Sounds like I have a lot to do. Professor: And one more thing, do you have a copy of the department’s document on the correct format for index, citations and references? Student: No. I mean, I look at it online when I was working on thisassignment.Professor: You really should print it out. You are going to need it for every paper you write in the political science department. It looks like you are getting it mix up with another referencing system. Student: Oh. Yeah. I used something different in high school. It’s so confusing switching to a new system. Professor: I know. But remember, everything needs to be consistent when it comes to referencing. It is a very important academic convention. Oh, also, I wanted to ask you… Will you be at the political science club meeting Saturday? Student: Definitely. The topic is John Dewey. Professor: Yes. Are you interested in leading part of the discussion? Tom Hayward is looking for someone to help out. I think you’ll have a lot to contribute. Student: That’ll be fun. I will give him a call. 托福TPO28听力Conversation1题目 1.What is the conversation mainly about? A. Criticisms of Dewey's political philosophy. B. Methods for leading a discussion group. C. Recent changes made to a reference document. D. Problems with the organization of a paper. 2.Why is the student late for his meeting? A. Seeing the doctor took longer than expected. B. No nearby parking spaces where available. C. His soccer practice last longer than usual. D. He had problems printing his paper. 3.What revisions does the student need to make to his paper? Click on 3 answers. A. Describe the influences on Dewey in more detail.。
托福备考托福阅读34套TPO样题+解析+译文TPO 28—3 Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes
托福考试 复习TPO 28—3 Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes原文：【1】A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is a buck rub. A male deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark (outer layer) of a small tree with its antlers. When completed, the buck rub is an obvious visual signal to us and presumable to other deer in the area. A rub is usually located at the shoulder height of a deer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25 millimeters) tree. The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal for buck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States. 【2】Adult male deer usually produce rubs in late summer or early autumn when the outer velvet layer is being shed from their antlers. Rubs are created about one to two months before the breeding season (the rut). Hence for a long time biologists believed that male deer used buck rubs not only to clean and polish antlers but also to provide practice for the ensuing male-to-male combat during the rut. However, biologists also noted deer sniff and lick an unfamiliar rub, which suggests that this visual mark on a small tree plays an important communication purpose in the social life of deer.【3】Buck rubs also have a scent produced by glands in the foreheads of deer that is transferred to the tree when the rub is made. These odors make buck rubs an important means of olfactory communication between deer. The importance of olfactory communication (using odors to communicate) in the way of life of deer was documented by a study of captive adult male deer a few decades ago, whichnoted that males rubbed their foreheads on branches and twigs, especially as autumn approached. A decade later another study reported that adult male white-tailed deer exhibited forehead rubbing just before and during the rut. It was found that when a white-tailed buck makes a rub, it moves both antlers and forehead glands along the small tree in a vertical direction. This forehead rubbing behavior coincides with a high level of glandular activity in the modified scent glands found on the foreheads of male deer; the glandular activity causes the forehead pelage (hairy covering) of adult males to be distinctly darker than in females or younger males.【4】Forehead rubbing by male deer on buck rubs presumably sends a great deal of information to other members of the same species. First, the chemicals deposited on the rub provide information on the individual identity of an animal; no two mammals produce the same scent. For instance, as we all know, dogs recognize each other via smell. Second, because only male deer rub, the buck rub and its associated chemicals indicate the sex of the deer producing the rub. Third, older, more dominant bucks produce more buck rubs and probably deposit more glandular secretions on a given rub. Thus the presence of many well-marked rubs is indicative of older, higher-status males being in the general vicinity rather than simply being a crude measure of relative deer abundance in a given area. The information conveyed by the olfactory signals on a buck rub make it the social equivalent of some auditory signals in other deer species, such as trumpeting by bull elk.【5】Because both sexes of white-tailed respond to buck rubs by smelling and licking them, rubs may serve a very important additional function. Fresher buck rubs (less than two days old), in particular, are visited more frequently by adult females than older rubs. In view of this behavior it has been suggested that chemicals present in fresh buck rubs may help physiologically induce and synchronize fertility in females that visit these rubs. This would be an obvious advantage to wide-ranging deer, especially to a socially dominant buck when courting several adult females during the autumn rut. Another visual signal produced by while-tailed deer is termed a buck scrape. Scrapes consist of a clearing (about 0.5 meter in diameter) and shallow depression made by pushing aside the leaves covering the ground; after making the scrape, the deer typically urinates in the depression. Thus, like a buck rub, a scrape is both a visual and an olfactory signal. Buck scrapes are generally created after leaf-fall in autumn, which is just before or during the rut. Scrapes are usually placed in open or conspicuous places, such as along a deer trail. Most are made by older males, although females and younger males (2.5 years old or less) occasionally make scrapes题目：1.The word "conspicuous" in the passage（paragraph 1）is closest in meaning toA.noticeable.mon.C.strange.D.particular.2.According to paragraph 1, why are small red maple trees ideal for buckrubs?A.They have smooth bark.B.They are found in the mid-eastern United States.C.They grow very slowly.D.They tend to grow in open spaces.3.The studies of forehead rubbing by deer described in paragraph 3 showed thatA.forehead rubbing encourages the growth of antlers.B.mule deer and white-tailed deer behave differently during the rut.C.the rut can occur at different times of the year.D.deer convey important information through scent.4.The word "exhibited" in the passage（paragraph 3）is closest in meaning toA.relied on.B.increased.C.displayed.D.preferred.5.Why does the author mention that "dogs recognize each other via smell"?A.T o point out the similarities between dogs and deer.B.To argue that animals communicate through scent rather than through vision.C.To support the claim that the scent of a buck rub serves to identify its maker to other deer.D.T o suggest that buck rubs can be detected by other species.6.The word "crude" in the passage（paragraph 4）is closest in meaning toA.rough.eful.C.necessary.D.obvious.7.What can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the trumpeting of bull elk?A.Trumpeting by higher-status bull elk signals their presence to other members of their species.B.Bull elk need to combine trumpeting with olfactory signals to convey information about their identity.C.Trumpeting alerts white-tailed deer to the presence of bull elk in their vicinity.D.Trumpeting provides a better measure of deer presence in a given area than buck rubs do.8.According to paragraph 4, the buck rubs occurring in a given area revealall of the following information about deer EXCEPTA.the individual identity of the deer.B.the gender of the deer.C.the likely social status of the deer.D.the number of deer in the vicinity.9.The word "induce" in the passage（paragraph 5）is closest in meaning toA.increase.B.extend.C.delay.D.stimulate.10.According to paragraph 5, which of the following is true about chemicals in buck rubs?A.They have to be at least two days old for females to be able to detect them.B.They are more effective in older buck rubs than in fresher ones.C.They may affect fertility in female deer.D.They can be more easily detected by young males than adult females.11.The word "termed" in the passage（paragraph 5）is closest in meaning toA.associated with.B.visible as.C.known as.D.provided by.12.According to the passage, in what way do buck scrapes differ from buckrubs?A.Buck scrapes are made by both male and female deer.B.Buck scrapes are purely visual signals.C.Buck scrapes are made closer to the breeding season than buck rubs.D.Buck scrapes can be smelled only by deer.13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit? This process can take a few hours to several days.A conspicuous sign indicating the presence of white-tailed deer in a woodlot is abuck rub. ■【A】A make deer makes a buck rub by striping the bark(outer layer) of a small tree with its antlers. ■【B】When completed, the buck rubis an obvious visual signal to us and presumable to other deer in the area. ■【C】Arub is usually located at the shoulder height of a deer (one meter or less above the ground) on a smooth-barked, small-diameter (16-25 millimeters) tree.■【D】The smooth bark of small red maples makes this species ideal for buck rubs in the forests of the mid-eastern United States.14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Buck rubs and buck scrapes are two types of markings made by white-tailed deer.A.The observation that deer sniff and lick buck rubs first led scientists to connect buck rubs with combat between adult males during the breeding season.B.Buck rubs and buck scrapes are visual signals and smells that deer use to communicate a variety of information to other deer.C.The number of buck rubs and buck scrapes in a given area changes as the density of the population of male deer in the area changes.D.As they rub the bark from trees, male deer leave behind chemicals produced by the glands in their foreheads, creating a scent that other deer can detect.E.The height of a buck rub, the type of tree used, and the direction in which the deerapplies the rub can give different kinds of information to other deer.F.Buck rubs are created close to the breeding season of deer and may affect the timing of fertility in the female deer that visit the rubs.答案：1.这里说一个XX的标志可以说明白尾鹿的存在。
TPO28 听力解析
TPO28听力解析Section1Conversation11.What is the conversation mainly about?A.Criticisms of Dewey’s political philosophyB.Methods for leading a discussion groupC.Recent changes made to a reference documentD.Problems with the organization of a paper答案：D解析：（0.26-0.48）Professor:So let’s get started.Your paper on John Dewey’s political philosophy has a few issues I like to cover.You get great biographical sketches in the beginning.OK,but then you get to his political philosophy.I don’t think you have done enough to situate his philosophy within the time period.In other words,you haven’t connected his philosophy to the thinking of other intellectuals of the time.教授说学生的paper并没有很好的将J.D的政治哲学与同时代其他知识分子的哲学所联系起来，也就是paper的organization有问题2.Why is the student late for his meeting?A.Seeing the doctor longer than expectedB.No nearby parking spaces where availableC.His soccer practice lasted longer than usualD.He had problems printing his paper答案：A解析：(0.12-0.22)Student:I’m so sorry I’m late Professor Mills.I have just been to students’medical center.I pushed my ankle playing soccer this morning.It takes longer than I expected to see the doctor.同义转换3.What revision does the student need to make to his paper?(click on3answers)A.Describe the influences on Dewey in more detailB.Expand the introductory biographical sketchC.Remove unnecessary content throughout the papere consistent references throughout the paperE.Add an explanation of Dewey’s view on individuality答案：A，C，D解析：(0.48-0.56)Student:So I haven’t catch the most critical influences,the influences that were most significant to his political thinking?Professor:Exactly.(1.30-1.50)Professor:Yes,revised.Let me ask,when you finished writing,did you go back and ask yourself if all the material was relevant?Student:Well.no.Professor:I do think there are areas that can be cut.I guess what I am saying is your paragraphs are really presenting in logical order.The direction of your argument is not crystal-clear,and there is some unnecessary material getting in the way.(2.13-2.30）Professor:It looks like you get have mixed up with another reference system. Student:Oh,yeah.I used something different in high school.It’s so confusing when switching to a new system.I know.But remember,everything needs to be consistent when comes to referencing.It’s a very important academic convention.教授认为学生的paper没有描述对Dewey政治思考最重要的影响，应该添加，对应A选项。
TPO-28 Reading 1解析
Q1正确答案：D解析：该段的最后一句therefore引导的句子表示结果“大部分的水储都在接近表面的地方”，包含the pressure of the overlying rock的句子是表述原因, “在地球较深处，重叠的岩石让孔和裂缝闭合，无法存水”，也就是文章提到它的目的。
所以提到the pressure of the overlying rock的目的就是要解释为什么地下水都位于接近地表的地方，因此选D。
Q2正确答案: C解析：对应该段第2句话，“地下水的量比江河湖泊水的量多50多倍（more than 50 times）”，对应abundance，地下水更为丰富。
potability是可饮用性，原文并没有说江水不能喝，排除A。
在usefulness和cost两方面，原文也没有对二者进行比较，排除B和D。
Q3正确答案：C解析：extract，汲取，提取，取出；近义词是remove, 移开，拿掉，去掉；从词汇所在句的下一句话“含水土层可以看作是一笔水存款”，可以推断前面应该是说“可以取出水的地下水库叫作含水层”。
另外这个词的词缀ex-本身就有“出”的意思。
Q4正确答案：B解析：term作名词的意思是“术语”，较常用。
此处使用的是该词的动词形式，意思是“把…称为，把…叫做”，近义词是call。
term所在句的意思是“水或其它液体流过岩石之间孔隙的能力，被称为渗透性”。
Q5正确答案：B解析：根据关键词porosity（孔隙度）定位到该段第7句，porosity is important for water-storage capacity，B项的The amount of water that the aquifer can hold是对water-storage capacity的同义改写。
根据该段最后一句话，A项的内容由permeability of rock决定，排除A；fractures and joints have very high permeability，和porosity没有直接关系，排除C；含水层深度与porosity的关系在文中没有提及，排除D。
托福TPO28综合写作阅读原文+听力原文+满分范文
¡¡¡¡ÎªÁË°ïÖú´ó¼Ò¸ßЧ±¸¿¼Íи££¬Îª´ó¼Ò´øÀ´Íи£TPO28×ÛºÏд×÷ÔĶÁÔ-ÎÄ+ÌýÁ¦Ô-ÎÄ+Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ£¬Ï£Íû¶Ô´ó¼Ò±¸¿¼ÓÐËù°ïÖú¡£¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO28×ÛºÏд×÷ÔĶÁÔ-ÎÄÎı¾£º¡¡¡¡Robert E. Peary was a well-known adventurer and arctic explorer who in 1909 set out to reach the North Pole. When he returned from the expedition, he claimed to have reached the pole on April 7, 1909. This report made him into an international celebrity. Though some historians have expressed doubts that Peary did in fact reach the North Pole, three arguments provide strong support for the truth of Peary's claim. First, the National Geographic Society put together a committee that was instructed to conduct a thorough investigation of Peary's records and equipment. At the end of the investigation, the committee concluded that Peary's accounts were consistent and persuasive and declared that he had indeed reached the North Pole. Second, a recent expedition provides support for Peary's claim that he reached the North Pole in only 37 days after setting out from Ellesmere Island off the coast of Greenland. Skeptics used to argue that Peary could not have traveled that fast, since even modern snowmobiles take longer to cover the same distance. However, a British explorer named Tom Avery recently made the same trek in less than 37 days. In fact, Avery used the same kind of dogsled and the same number and breed of dogs as Peary had. Thus, Peary's claims are not impossible, and he very well might have been telling the truth. Third, there are photographs taken by Peary that support his claim to have reached the North Pole. Measuring the shadows in Peary's photographs makes it possible to calculate the Surf s position in the sun. The Surf s position established from the photographs corresponds exactly to the Surf s position as it should have been at the North Pole on that day. This provides strong evidence that Peary reached the North Pole and took the photographs there.¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO28×ÛºÏд×÷ÌýÁ¦Ô-ÎÄÎı¾£º¡¡¡¡Professor£ºThere's no solid evidence that Robert Peary reached the North Pole. The arguments cited in the reading selection are not convincing.First, it is true that the National Geographic Society committee declared that Peary had indeed reached the North Pole, but the committee was not completely objective. In fact, the committee was composed of Peary's close friends who had contributed large sums of money to fund Peary's trip. Moreover, the investigation lasted only two days. And according to Peary himself, the committee did not examine his records carefully. So the committee's conclusions seem biased and therefore are not trustworthy.Second, the speed issue. Tom Avery's journey was different from Peary's in important ways. For example, Avery's sled was similar to Peary's sled, but Avery carried much less weight than Peary did, because Avery did not transport his food on the sled. Avery's food was dropped along the way by airplane. Moreover, Avery encountered highly favorable weather conditions, unlike Peary who travelled in very unfavorable conditions. So Avery's speedy trip was too different from Peary's to provide support for Peary's claims.Third, thephotographs do not prove anything. The techniques scientists use to determine the Sun's position depend on measuring the shadows in the photographs very precisely. Without a precise measurement of the shadows, we cannot establish the Sun's exact position. Now, Peary's pictures were photographed a hundred years ago using a primitive camera that took fuzzy, slightly unfocused photographs. Moreover, the photos have become faded and worn over time. As a result, the shadows in Peary's photographs look blurred and faded. Those shadows cannot be used to calculate the position of the Sun with great accuracy. So we cannot be confident the photos were really taken at the North Pole.¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO28×ÛºÏд×÷Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ1£º¡¡¡¡Both the reading passage and the listening material discuss the authenticity of the story that Peary has been to the North Pole. Although the reading supports that claim, the lecturer refuses to believe it with three strong arguments. The reading passage presents the fact that the committee constituted by the National Geographic Society eventually proved the truth of Peary¡¯s claim through an investigation of the record as well as the facilities of that trip. However, the speaker casts doubt on the objectivity of that conclusion with the arguments that several friends of Peary who financed his trip to the North Pole were included in that committee and the investigation was only two-day period with the careless examination of his records. Moreover, the reading material displays the evidence that anther explorer, Tom Avery, succeeded to reach the North Pole with less time under the similar conditions experienced by Peary, which indicates the possibility of Peary¡¯s successful exploration. In contrast, the lecturer in the listening argues that the experience of Avery could not soundly support the probability of Peary¡¯s success due to the significant differences between the two journey that include the varied weather condition as well as the methods of food supply. Furthermore, the author of the reading states that the photographs taken by Peary at the North Pole could verify his story, since the position of the Sun estimated through evaluating the shadows in the pictures was in accordance with the natural rule. On the contrary, the listening rebuts that statement by pointing out that the quality of those pictures is in a poor condition due to the fact that they were taken by the primitive camera and seem to be unclear after nearly a hundred years, which means the measurement based on those photos could not be definitely accurate and the position of the Sun in them could not be determined without doubts.¡¡¡¡Íи£TPO28×ÛºÏд×÷Âú·Ö·¶ÎÄ2£º¡¡¡¡The reading passage proposes three arguments that provide strong support for the truth of Peary¡¯s claim¡ªhe had reached the pole. However, in the lecture, the professor shows strong doubt over all these arguments. The reading passage presents the fact that the committee constituted by the National Geographic Society eventually proved the truth of Peary¡¯s claim through an investigation of the record。
托福阅读真题第28套
第28 套Consolidated Industry in the United StatesLaws of incorporation passed in the United States in the1830s and1840s made it easier for business organizations to raise money by selling stock to members of the public.The ability to sell stock to a broader public made it possible for entrepreneurs to gather vast sums of capital and undertake large projects.This led to the emergence of modern corporations as a major force in the United States after1865.These large, national business enterprises needed more systematic administrative structures.As a result,corporate leaders introduced a set of managerial techniques that relied on systematic division of responsibilities,a carefully designed hierarchy of control, careful cost-accounting procedures,and perhaps above all a new breed of business executive:the middle manager,who formed a layer of command between workers and owners.Efficient administrative capabilities helped make possible another major feature of the modern corporation:consolidation(combining many things into one).1.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Corporate leaders expanded the role of middle managers,who now had theresponsibility to introduce systematic techniques of cost-accounting and a carefully designed hierarchy of controlB.Corporate leaders replaced the former hierarchy of control with a new system,themain advantage of which was that it divided responsibilities among middle managers.C.Corporate leaders were transformed into middle managers as a result ofinnovations such as the systematic division of responsibilities and the introduction of careful cost-accounting procedures.D.Corporate leaders introduced a variety of innovative managerial techniques,themost important probably being the middle manager,a new executive layer below owners.Businessmen created large,consolidated organizations primarily through two methods. One was horizontal integration—the combining of multiple firms engaged in the same enterprise into a single corporation.The consolidation of many different railroad lines into one company was an example.Another method,which became popular in the 1890s,was vertical integration—the taking over of all the different businesses on which a company relied for its primary function.Thus,Carnegie steel controlled mines and railroads as well as steel mills.2.Why does the author provide the information that”Carnegie Steel controlledmines and railroads as well as steel mills”?A.To challenge the idea that railroads generally integrated horizontallyB.To help explain vertical integration by providing an example of a company usingitC.To help explain how a company’s primary function influenced the method ofintegration it usedD.To show that vertical integration was a much more effective technique forconsolidation than horizontal integration wasThe most celebrated corporate empire of the late nineteenth century was John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil.Shortly after1865,Rockefeller launched a refining company in Cleveland,Ohio,and immediately began trying to eliminate his competition.Allying himself with other wealthy capitalists,he proceeded methodically to buy out competing refineries.In1870,he formed the Standard Oil Company of Ohio,which in a few years had acquired twenty of the twenty-five refineries in Cleveland,as well as plants in Pittsburgh,Philadelphia,New York,and Baltimore.He built his own barrel factories,warehouses,and pipelines.Standard Oil owned its own railroad freight cars and developed its own marketing organization.By the1880s,Rockefeller had established such dominance within the petroleum industry that to much of the nation he served as a leading symbol of monopoly.3.The word“launched”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.boughtB.expandedC.inheritedD.Started4.The word“methodically”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.aggressivelyB.rapidlyC.secretlyD.Systematically5.According to paragraph3,which of the following was true of John D.Rockefeller?A.He acquired most of the oil refineries in Cleveland,Ohio.B.He bought some companies solely because they made supplies for competing oilrefineries.C.He limited sales of Standard Oil petroleum to companies associated withcompeting refineries.D.He built many more new oil refineries than he bought.6.According to paragraph3,the Standard Oil Company of Ohio owned all of thefollowing EXCEPT:A.a marketing organizationB.railroad freight carsC.railroad linesD.barrel factoriesRockefeller and other industrialists saw consolidation as a way to cope with what they believed was the greatest curse of the modern economy.“cutthroat competition.”Most businessmen claimed to believe in free enterprise and a competitive marketplace, but in fact they feared that substantial competition could result in instability and ruin for all.As the movement toward consolidation accelerated,new vehicles emerged to facilitate it.The railroads began with so-called pool arrangements—informal agreements among various companies to stabilize rates and divide markets.But if even a few firms in an industry were unwilling to cooperate(as was almost always the case),the pool arrangements collapsed.The failure of the pools led to new techniques of consolidation.At first,the most successful such technique was the creation of the “trust”—pioneered by Standard Oil in the early1880s and perfected by the banker J.P. Morgan.Under a trust agreement,stockholders in individual corporations transferred their stocks to a small group of trustees in exchange for shares in the trust itself. Owners of trust certificates often had no direct control over the decisions of the trustees,they simply received a share of the profits of the combination.The trustees themselves,on the other hand,might literally own only a few companies but could exercise effective control over many.7.The word“accelerated”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.became commonB.gained acceptanceC.speeded upD.Began8.The word“perfected”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.improvedB.adoptedC.made popularD.made profitable9.According to paragraph4,many industrialists in the1880s worried thatA.pool arrangements would divide marketsB.new vehicles for pool arrangements would failC.too much competition would destroy the modern economyD.trusts would be unable to exert adequate control over companies10.According to paragraph4,which of the following was a problem with poolarrangements?A.They were effective only with railroads.B.They could succeed only if all the firms in an industry cooperated.C.They were effective only in situations where rates had already been stabilized.D.They could be implemented only in industries with a large number of firms11.It can be inferred from paragraph4that trusts were more successful than poolarrangements atA.exercising effective control over the participating companiesB.excluding less profitable companiesC.allowing small stockholders to participate in decision makingD.limiting the amount of money paid to the owners of individual corporationsIn1889,the state of New Jersey helped produce a third form of consolidation by changing its laws of incorporation to permit companies to buy up the stock of other companies.Other states soon followed.These changes made the trust unnecessary and permitted actual corporate mergers.Rockefeller,for example,quickly relocated Standard Oil to New Jersey and created there what became known as a holding company—a central corporate body that would buy up the stock of various members of the Standard Oil trust and establish direct,formal ownership of the corporations in the trust.12.According to paragraph5,why did Rockefeller move Standard Oil to New Jersey?A.To be in a better position to pressure the state to change its laws of incorporationB.To increase the number of corporations under his control in the Standard Oil trustC.To raise the needed amounts of money for the establishment of his new holdingcompanyD.To acquire direct,legal ownership of the corporations in the Standard Oil trust13.Look at the four squares[⏹]that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.In addition to expanding horizontally,Rockefeller’s company expanded vertically as well.Where would the sentence best fit?The most celebrated corporate empire of the late nineteenth century was John D.Rockefeller’s Standard Oil.Shortly after1865,Rockefeller launched a refining company in Cleveland,Ohio,and immediately began trying to eliminate his competition.Allying himself with other wealthy capitalists,he proceeded methodically to buy out competing refineries.⏹In1870,he formed the Standard Oil Company of Ohio,which in a few years had acquired twenty of the twenty-five refineries in Cleveland,as well as plants in Pittsburgh,Philadelphia, New York,and Baltimore.⏹He built his own barrel factories,warehouses,and pipelines.⏹Standard Oil owned its own railroad freight cars and developed its own marketing organization.⏹By the1880s,Rockefeller had established such dominance within the petroleum industry that to much of the nation he served as a leading symbol of monopoly.14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choicesthat express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do not belong in the summary because the express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points.Businesses’increased ability to raise capital by selling stock led to the emergence of large corporations as a major force in the United States after 1865.rge businesses developed more efficient administrative structures,whichallowed them to consolidate through horizontal integration,vertical integration, or both.B.Even though consolidation initially developed in manufacturing,it was J.P.Morgan in the banking industry who came up with the most successful consolidation technique.C.The most famous corporation was Rockefeller’s Standard Oil,which acquiredmany competing businesses and controlled its supply sources,eventually establishing itself as a holding company.D.In order to limit competition as effectively as they could,industrialists createdpool arrangements and then later trusts and holding companies.E.The rise of corporations as the dominant force in the American economy forcedcertain states to pass new laws that resulted in direct state control over consolidation.F.Corporate consolidation was an extremely complex process,and requiredenormous amounts of capital for carrying out various integration procedures.The Brain Size of Bottlenose DolphinsLarge brain size does not always mean that an animal is highly intelligent.Brain size is necessarily associated with overall body size,with large animals having large brains and small animals having small brains.However,it is still necessary for there to be some minimum amount of circuitry(brain cells and processes)present for a species to have the potential to be highly intelligent,whatever way the term intelligence is defined.A measure of relative brain size that has been applied to a variety of species is the encephalization quotient(EQ),the radio of brain mass to body size.The EQ is calculated by measuring the relative size of different body parts over a wide range of species.An EQ of1.0means that the brain is exactly the size one would expect for an animal of a particular size,an EQ higher than1.0means that a species is relatively brainy.1.According to paragraph1,what does it mean for an animal to have an EQ higherthan1.0?A.Its brain has more mass than similarly sized brains of other animals.B.Its brain is larger than expected for the animal’s overall body size.C.Its brain is larger than that of most other animals.D.Its brain is larger than that of any animal with an EQ of less than1.0. Bottlenose dolphins have a very high EQ,about2.8or higher.Thus,dolphin brainsare not simply absolutely large:they are relatively very large as well.Humans,by the way,have extremely high EQ values,estimated to be in the neighborhood7.5,making our species the brainiest in existence.Nonetheless,it is worth noting that EQ levels in several species of odontocetes(toothed whales,dolphins,and porpoises)are significantly higher than is the case for any primate except our own species.The EQ value for a species relates to a number of general measures of cognitive processing ability in different mammals,as well as to a number of life history patterns in mammals.EQ may be correlated with life span,home-range size,and social systems that characterize a particular species.Oddly enough,the relationships found between EQ and other factors in primates and some other mammals do not appear to apply as well to cetaceans(whales,dolphins,and porpoises),including the bottlenose dolphin.2.Paragraph2supports which of the following statements about the EQ levels ofvarious animals?A.Bottlenose dolphins have higher EQ levels than other odoncetes doB.The EQ levels of bottlenose dolphins are more closely associated with their lifehistory patterns than the EQ levels of primates are.C.Bottlenose dolphins belong to a group of animals whose EQ levels are higherthan those of any primate except humans.D.The brains of bottlenose dolphins are larger for these dolphins’size than brains ofhumans are for humans’size.3.Which of the following is NOT identified in paragraph2as a factor that may becorrelated with EQ?A.The species’social organizationB.The species’ecological role in the environmentC.The extent of the range that species members need for daily activitiesD.The number of years that species members live on average4.Paragraph2answers which of the following questions about EQ?A.Which life history patterns correlate best with EQ values in whales,dolphins,andporpoises?B.Is the EQ of bottlenose dolphins significantly higher than that of other dolphins?C.What are the differences in EQ levels among different species of odontocetes?D.Do the same factors that correlate with EQ in primates correlate well with EQ inbottlenose dolphins?The reasons for the larger-than-normal brain of the bottlenose dolphin(and indeed of small odontocetes in general)are not clearly understood.To navigate and detect prey, dolphins emit calls into the environment and then listen to the echoes of the calls that return from nearby objects,a process known as echolocation.Among the more plausible suggestions for large brain size are that the complexity of processing high-frequency echolocation information requires the development of large centers in the cerebral hemispheres,and/or that the degree of sociality exhibited by manyspecies,in which individual animals recognize and have particular long-and short-term relationships with a number of other individuals,has favored the evolutionary development of a large,complex brain.Some authors develop a strong case that extreme development of the auditory(hearing)system may be the primary reason for the dolphin’s large brain.This opinion is supported by observations that the auditory regions of the dolphin brain are7to250times larger than the equivalent regions of the human brain and by observations of very fasts auditory brain stem responses to sounds.It should be noted,however,that sperm whales are very social and good echolocators(that is,good at locating objects by emitting sounds and detecting the reflections given back),yet their EQ values are low—only about0.3. Even some small,less social odontocetes such as Indus river dolphins echolocate well but do not possess the exceptionally large brains that bottlenose dolphins do.5.The word“detect”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.followB.captureC.senseD.Surprise6.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.It is plausible that the development of high-frequency echolocation,large centersin the cerebral hemispheres,and/or a high degree of sociality may have contributed to the development of large brains.B.For an animal to recognize and have long-and short-term relationships with anumber of other individuals,the animals must develop large centers in the cerebral hemispheres.C.Processing high-frequency echolocation information may have required a large,complex brain that already had the capacity to develop and recognize long-and short-term social relationships with multiple other individuals.D.The demands of processing high frequency echolocation information and/or ahigh degree of sociality may have favored the evolutionary development of a large,complex brain.7.According to paragraph3,what evidence suggests that extreme development ofthe auditory system may be the primary reason for the dolphin’s large brain?A.Other odontocetes with highly developed auditory systems also have large brainsB.Social animals,such as dolphins,require highly developed auditory systems,which tend to be associated with large brainsC.The echolocation system used by dolphins is possible only with a highlydeveloped auditory system and a correspondingly large brainD.The auditory regions of dolphins’brains are much larger than those of humanbrains8.Why does the author include the information that“some small,less socialodontocetes such as Indus river dolphins echolocate well but do not possess the exceptionally large brains that bottlenose dolphins do”?A.To argue that in odontocetes,sociality determines whether an animal has a largebrainB.To argue that echolocation does not necessarily involve exceptionally fastauditory brain stem responses to soundsC.To help explain why effective echolocation does not necessarily require extremedevelopment of the auditory systemD.To provide evidence that weakens the theory that the large brains of bottlenosedolphins are explained by their need to echolocate.Noted biologist Peter Tyack has studies dolphin brains and argues persuasively that large brains evolved in dolphins to permit complex social functions.As is the case with certain primates,bottlenose dolphins and certain other large-brained odontocetes have developed societies in which there exists a balance between cooperation and competition among particular individuals.The social politics of chimpanzees and dolphins show some remarkable similarities,especially in terms of the importance of social relations extending far beyond the mother-offspring relationship to include individuals of both sexes across the age range.The development of such complex societies may have favored the evolution of large brain size.9.The word“persuasively”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.consistentlyB.convincinglyC.repeatedlyD.Intelligently10.According to paragraph4,what is true about bottlenose dolphin societies?A.There is far more cooperation than competition among individualsB.Long-term social relationships tend to exist primarily between individuals of thesame sex and similar ages.C.They are similar to chimpanzee societies in terms of the types of socialrelationships that exist.D.They are far more complex than the societies of any other species of odontocetes The reason that dolphins have a large brain continues to be somewhat elusive but there must be a reason,since maintenance of brain tissue is metabolically expensive. The adult human brain,for example,may only represent2percent of the body weight, but it can account for nearly20percent of the metabolic rate(the energy used)11.The word“elusive”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.hard to proveB.hard to identifyC.misunderstoodD.Controversial12.The phrase“maintenance of”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.developingB.supportingC.connectingD.Stimulating13.Look at the four squares[ ]that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage.This requirement suggests that having a brain that is large relative to an animal’s size might be a clue to greater intelligence.Where would the sentence best fit?Large brain size does not always mean that an animal is highly intelligent.Brain size isnecessarily associated with overall body size,with large animals having large brains and small animals having small brains. ⏹However,it is still necessary for there to be some minimum amount of circuitry(brain cells and processes)present for a species to have the potential to be highly intelligent,whatever way the term intelligence is defined.⏹A measure of relative brain size that has been applied to a variety of species is theencephalization quotient(EQ),the radio of brain mass to body size.⏹The EQ is calculated by measuring the relative size of different body parts over a wide range of species.⏹An EQ of1.0means that the brain is exactly the size one would expect for an animal of a particularsize,an EQ higher than1.0means that a species is relatively brainy.14.Directions:An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage isprovided plete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choicesthat express the most important ideas in the passage.Some sentences do notbelong in the summary because the express ideas that are not presented in thepassage or are minor ideas in the passage.This question is worth2points.Large brain size does not necessarily mean that an animal is especiallyintelligent.A.Bottlenose dolphins have a high EQ,a measure of the ratio of brain mass to bodymass that correlates with various cognitive abilities and possibly with life-historypatterns in animals.B.The need to process high-frequency sounds for echolocation has been offered asan explanation for bottlenose dolphins’unusually large brains,but not all goodecholocators have high EQs.C.The brain size of bottlenose dolphins is strongly correlated with the smount ofcooperation and competition in relationships outside the mother-offspringrelationship.D.Scientists are now using findings from their studies of bottlenose dolphins todetermine the connection between the presence of a large brain and the potential for intelligence in other species.E.Bottlenose dolphins,like certain other large-brained animals,have complex socialrelationships,so their large,metabolically expensive brains may have evolved partly to permit complex social functioning.F.Biologists disagree about whether the larger-than-usual brain of the bottlenosedolphin makes it more intelligent or more metabolically efficient than other mammals with less brain mass.DomesticationAbout10,000years ago,after nearly4million years of human evolution and over 100,000years of successful foraging for food,human beings,although isolated, nearly simultaneously developed a subsistence strategy that involved domesticated plants and animals.Why?Some scholars seek a single,universal explanation that would be valid for all cases of domestication.Thus,it has been argued that domestication is the outcome of population pressure,as the increasing hunting-and-gathering human population overwhelmed the existing food resources. Others point to climate change or famine,as the post-glacial climate got drier. Increasing archaeological research has made it clear,however,that the evidence in favor of any single-cause,universally applicable explanation is not strong.1.The word“isolated”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.highly productiveB.separated from one anotherC.cooperative with each otherD.self-sufficient2.The word“overwhelmed”in the passage is closest in meaning toA.was too large forB.consumedC.added toD.Replaced3.According to paragraph1,all of the following have been proposed as the primarycause of the development of subsistence strategies that involved domestication EXCEPT:A.growing population pressure on existing food sourcesB.the drying of the climateC.the movement of human populations to new parts of the worldD.FamineSome scholars have proposed universally applicable explanations that take several different phenomena into account.One such explanation,called the broad-spectrum foraging argument(the argument that humans employed a subsistence strategy basedon obtaining a wide range of plants and animals),is based on a reconstruction of the environmental situation that followed the retreat of the most recent glaciers.The very large animals of the Ice Age began to die out and were replaced by increased numbers of smaller animals.As sea levels rose to cover the continental shelves,fish and shellfish became more plentiful in the warmer,shallower waters.The effects on plants were equally dramatic,as forests and woodlands expanded into new areas. Consequently,scholars argue,people had to change their diets from big-game hunting to broad-spectrum foraging for plants and animals by hunting,fishing,and gathering. This broadening of the economy is said to have led to a more secure subsistence base, the emergence of sedentary communities,and a growth in population.In turn, population growth pressured the resource base of the area,and people were forced to eat so-called third-choice,foods,particularly wild grain,which was difficult to harvest and process but which responded to human efforts to increase yields.4.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage?Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Human efforts to increase yields of wild grains relieved the pressure populationgrowth put on the resource base of the area.B.The resource base of the area was pressured by population growth becausethird-choice foods were difficult to harvest and process.C.Although wild grains responded to human efforts to increase yields,they werethird-choice foods because they were difficult to harvest and process.D.Population growth put pressure on available food resources,forcing people to eatfoods that were less preferred but that responded to human efforts to increase yields.5.According to paragraph2,the broad-spectrum foraging argument holds thathumans shifted from big-game hunting to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle primarily becauseA.they had begun developing more sedentary communitiesB.populations required a broader range of food sourcesC.it was easier and more effective to hunt smaller animalsD.the very large Ice Age animals had begun to die outAlthough the broad-spectrum foraging argument seems to describe plant domestication in the New World,the most recent evidence from ancient southwestern Asia does not support it.There is also evidence for the development of broad-spectrum foraging in Europe,but domestication did not follow.Rather, domesticated crops were brought into Europe by people from southwestern Asia—where the broad-spectrum revolution had not occurred.6.According to paragraph3,there is evidence that broad-spectrum foragingA.was introduced into Europe by people coming from southwestern Asia。
托福阅读TPO28-R-1 题目
dTPO 28-R-1Q1 In paragraph1, why does the author mention “the pressure of the overlying rock”?mA.To show how water can be forced deepunder Earth’s surfaceB.To show why groundwater is moreplentiful than surface freshwaterC.To correct a commonly made error aboutthe location of groundwaterD.To explain why most groundwater liesnear Earth’s surfaceParagraph 1 is marked with >Q2 According to paragraph 1, groundwater differs from the water in rivers and lakes in terms of itsA.potabilityefulnessC.abundanceD.costParagraph 1 is marked with an arrow>Q3 The word "extracted" in the passage is closest in meaning toedB.pouredC.removedD.kept outParagraph 2 is marked with an arrow>Q4 The word "termed" in the passage is closest in meaning toA.consideredB.calledC.limited toGroundwater>Most of the world’s potable water —freshwater suitable for drinking —is accounted for by groundwater, which is stored in the pores and fractures in rocks. There is more than 50 times as much freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes of Earth. At greater depths within Earth, the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close, reducing the space that pore water can occupy, and almost complete closure occurs at a depth of about 10 kilometers. The greatest water storage, therefore, lies near the surface.Aquifers, Porosity, and Permeability >Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types. A groundwater reservoir from which water can be extracted is called an aquifer. We can effectively think of an aquifer as a deposit of water. Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer: porosity and permeability. Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water. This pore space isD.caused byParagraph 2 is marked with an arrow>Q5 According to paragraph 2, what does porosity determine?A.The rate at which the aquifer’s waterovercomes resistance to flowB.The amount of water that the aquifer canholdC.The likelihood that fractures and jointswill occur in the aquiferD.The depth underground at which theaquifer liesParagraph 2 is marked with an arrow>Q6 The word "compact" in the passage is closest in meaning to?A.hardpressedC.heavyD.deeply buriedParagraph 3 is marked with an arrow>Q7 According to paragraph 3, when can igneous rock serve as an aquifer?A.When it has many connected fracturesB.When it lies next to metamorphic rockC.When it lies relatively near the surfaceD.When it is crystallineParagraph 3 is marked with an arrow>Q8 According to paragraph 3, what is the relationship between permeability and porosity?A.The more pores a rock has, the higher itsporosity but the lower its permeability B.Rocks with many internal spaces that arenot connected with each other will have known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume. Porosity is important for water-storage capacity, but for water to flow through rocks, the pore spaces must be connected. The ability of water, or other fluids, to flow through the interconnected pore spaces in rocks is termed permeability. Fractures and joints have very high permeability. In the intergranular spaces of rocks, however, fluid must flow around and between grains in a tortuous path; this winding path causes a resistance to flow. The rate which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is related to the permeability of rock.>Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity. The more poorly sorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is, the lower its porosity and permeability. Sedimentary rocks—the mostcommon rock type near the surface —are also the most common reservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water. Sandstones generally make good aquifers, while finer-grained mudstones are typically impermeable. Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are more compact, commonly crystalline, and rarely contain spaces between grains. However, even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act ashigh porosity but low permeability.C.If water flows through a rock easily, it hashigh permeability but low porosity.D.Rocks that have high permeability havehigh porosity and vice versa. Paragraph 3 is marked with an arrowQ9 The word “coating”in the passage is closest in meaning to?A.streamB.barrierC.amountyerParagraph 4 is marked with an arrow>Q10 Paragraph 4 implies which of the following about the roots of plants?A.They prevent water from reaching thevadose zone.B.They mark the boundary between thevadose zone and the water table.C.They do not typically get their waterfrom the water table.D.They help keep the water table fromdropping farther.Paragraph 4 is marked with an arrow>Q11 Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.A.Groundwater only flows out of theground if the water table intersects the land surface.B.If the land surface and the water table groundwater reservoirs if extensive fracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected.The Water Table>The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores are filled with water. In some cases, the water table reaches Earth’s surface, where it is expressed as rivers, lakes, and marshes. ■Typically, though, the water table may be tens or hundreds of meters below the surface. ■The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of the topography. ■Above the water table is the vadose zone, through which rainwater percolates. ■Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table, leaving behind a thin coating of water on mineral grains. The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water.>Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls with topography, groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water. Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows. If the water table intersects the land surface, groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs, either to be collected there or to subsequently flow father along a drainage. Groundwater commonly collects in stream drainages but may remainintersect, groundwater can flow underground.C.Groundwater may be drained if springsoccur where the water table intersects the land surface.D.Where the water table meets the landsurface, groundwater flows out through surface springs.Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow>Q12 Paragraph 5 implies which of the following about the level of the water table?A.It may rise of fall from year to year,depending on annual rainfall.B.In does not vary in arid regions.C.It rarely intersects the land surface ofmost regions.D.It is unrelated to the rate at whichgroundwater flows.Paragraph 5 is marked with an arrow>Q13 Look at the four squares【■】that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.This is a consequence of the slow rate of movement of the groundwater, which often prevents the water table from attaining a flat (horizontal) level.Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square to add the sentence to the passage.Q14 Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions. In particularly wet years, short stretches of an otherwise dry stream-bed may have flowing water because the water table rises to intersect the land surface. [Glossary]Sediments: materials (such as sand or small rocks) that are deposited by water, wind, or glacial ice Topography: the shape of a surface such as Earth’s, including the rise and fall of such features as mountains and valleysbecause they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong. To remove an answer choice, click on it. To review the passage, click VIEW NEXT.Most of the world’s potable water is stored as groundwater in the pores and fractures of underground rock, much of it at depths of less than 1,000 meters.A.Sedimentary rock may make poor aquifersbecause of tightly compacted sediment, which reduces porosity and permeability.B.Groundwater reservoirs are characterizedby the porosity and permeability of the rock in which they lie, and these factors vary according to the type of rock.C.Porosity is a measure of the empty spacewithin rock, while permeability measures the degree to which water can flow freely through rock.D.The vadose zone is typically dry becausewater does not stay in it, but instead percolates down to aquifers below or drains out through springs and streams.E.In arid regions, the water tables remain ata constant level far below the surface,preventing stream-beds from filling up even during wet years.F.Although the water table usually followsthe contours of the land surface, its level may vary from year to year and may intersect the surface in places.。
托福TPO1阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析
为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO1阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
▉托福TPO1阅读Passage1原文文本： Timberline Vegetation on Mountains The transition from forest to treeless tundra on a mountain slope is often a dramatic one. Within a vertical distance of just a few tens of meters, trees disappear as a life-form and are replaced by low shrubs, herbs, and grasses. This rapid zone of transition is called the upper timberline or tree line. In many semiarid areas there is also a lower timberline where the forest passes into steppe or desert at its lower edge, usually because of a lack of moisture. The upper timberline, like the snow line, is highest in the tropics and lowest in the Polar Regions. It ranges from sea level in the Polar Regions to 4,500 meters in the dry subtropics and 3,500-4,500 meters in the moist tropics. Timberline trees are normally evergreens, suggesting that these have some advantage over deciduous trees (those that lose their leaves) in the extreme environments of the upper timberline. There are some areas, however, where broadleaf deciduous trees form the timberline. Species of birch, for example, may occur at the timberline in parts of the Himalayas. At the upper timberline the trees begin to become twisted and deformed. This is particularly true for trees in the middle and upper latitudes, which tend to attain greater heights on ridges, whereas in the tropics the trees reach their greater heights in the valleys. This is because middle- and upper- latitude timberlines are strongly influenced by the duration and depth of the snow cover. As the snow is deeper and lasts longer in the valleys, trees tend to attain greater heights on the ridges, even though they are more exposed to high-velocity winds and poor, thin soils there. In the tropics, the valleys appear to be more favorable because they are less prone to dry out, they have less frost, and they have deeper soils. There is still no universally agreed-on explanation for why there should be such a dramatic cessation of tree growth at the upper timberline. Various environmental factors may play a role. Too much snow, for example, can smother trees, and avalanches and snow creep can damage or destroy them. Late-lying snow reduces the effective growing season to the point where seedlings cannot establish themselves. Wind velocity also increases with altitude and may cause serious stress for trees, as is made evident by the deformed shapes at high altitudes. Some scientists have proposed that the presence of increasing levels of ultraviolet light with elevation may play a role, while browsing and grazing animals like the ibex may be another contributing factor. Probably the most important environmental factor is temperature, for if the growing season is too short and temperatures are too low, tree shoots and buds cannotmature sufficiently to survive the winter months. Above the tree line there is a zone that is generally called alpine tundra. Immediately adjacent to the timberline, the tundra consists of a fairly complete cover of low-lying shrubs, herbs, and grasses, while higher up the number and diversity of species decrease until there is much bare ground with occasional mosses and lichens and some prostrate cushion plants. Some plants can even survive in favorable microhabitats above the snow line. The highest plants in the world occur at around 6,100 meters on Makalu in the Himalayas. At this great height, rocks, warmed by the sun, melt small snowdrifts. The most striking characteristic of the plants of the alpine zone is their low growth form. This enables them to avoid the worst rigors of high winds and permits them to make use of the higher temperatures immediately adjacent to the ground surface. In an area where low temperatures are limiting to life, the importance of the additional heat near the surface is crucial. The low growth form can also permit the plants to take advantage of the insulation provided by a winter snow cover. In the equatorial mountains the low growth form is less prevalent. ▉托福TPO1阅读Passage1题目： 第1题：The word"dramatic"in the passage is closest in meaning to A.Gradual plex C.Visible D.Striking Paragraph 1 is marked with 第2题：Where is the lower timberline mentioned in paragraph 1 likely to be found? A. In an area that has little water B. In an area that has little sunlight C. Above a transition area D. On a mountain that has on upper timberline. Paragraph 1 is marked with。
托福TPO28综合写作阅读+听力原文+满分范文【雷哥托福】
托福TPO28综合写作阅读+听力原文+满分范文【雷哥托福整理】考过的同学会发现托福综合作文分数不高，很大程度上是受我们听力实力的影响，我们很多托福考生的听力分数只有16分上下的时候，对于托福综合作文的听力妥妥的是束手无策，而且很多托福考生还感觉自己都听懂了，那也只能说明你听懂了大意，但是听力里面要的是每一个细节！请注意，是每一个细节！雷哥托福小托君给大家分享TPO1-33综合作文部分的阅读和听力文本全集与综合作文的满分作文，以及满分作文的解析。
如果自己的托福综合作文分数如果可以很给力的话，就已经搞定了15分的分数，可以极大地缓解托福独立作文的压力。
TPO28 综合写作听力+阅读原文ReadingRobert E. Peary was a well-known adventurer and arctic explorer who in 1909 set out to reach the North Pole. When he returned from the expedition, he claimed to have reached the pole on April 7, 1909. This report made him into an international celebrity. Though some historians have expressed doubts that Peary did in fact reach the North Pole, three arguments provide strong support for the truth of Peary's claim.First, the National Geographic Society put together a committee that was instructed to conduct a thorough investigation of Peary's records and equipment. At the end of the investigation, the committee concluded that Peary's accounts were consistent and persuasive and declared that he had indeed reached the North Pole.Second, a recent expedition provides support for Peary's claim that he reached the North Pole in only 37 days after setting out from Ellesmere Island off the coast of Greenland. Skeptics used to argue that Peary could not have traveled that fast, since even modern snowmobiles take longer to cover the same distance. However, a Britishexplorer named Tom Avery recently made the same trek in less than 37 days. In fact, Avery used the same kind of dogsled and the same number and breed of dogs as Peary had. Thus, Peary's claims are not impossible, and he very well might have been telling the truth.Third, there are photographs taken by Peary that support his claim to have reached the North Pole. Measuring the shadows in Peary's photographs makes it possible to calculate the Surf s position in the sun. The Surf s position established from the photographs corresponds exactly to the Surf s position as it should have been at the North Pole on that day. This provides strong evidence that Peary reached the North Pole and took the photographs there.ListeningNow listen to part of a lecture on the topic you just read about.ProfessorThere’s no solid evidence that Robert Peary reached the North Pole. The arguments cited in the reading selection are not convincing.First, it is true that the National Geographic Society committee declared that Peary had indeed reached the North Pole, but the committee was not completely objective. In fact, the committee was composed of Peary’s close friends who h ad contributed large sums of money to fund Peary’s trip. Moreover, the investigation lasted only two days. And according to Peary himself, the committee did not examine his records carefully. So the committee’s conclusions seem biased and therefore are not trustworthy.Second, the speed issue. Tom Avery’s journey was different from Peary’s in important ways. For example, Avery’s sled was similar to Peary’s sled, but Averycarried much less weight than Peary did, because Avery did not transport his food on the sled. Avery’s food was dropped along the way by airplane. Moreover, Avery encountered highly favorable weather conditions, unlike Peary who travelled in very unfavorable conditions. So Avery’s speedy trip was too different from Peary’s to provide suppo rt for Peary’s claims.Third, the photographs do not prove anything. The techniques scientists use to determine the Sun’s position depend on measuring the shadows in the photographs very precisely. Without a precise measurement of the shadows, we cannot establish the Sun’s exact position. Now, Peary’s pictures were photographed a hundred years ago using a primitive camera that took fuzzy, slightly unfocused photographs. Moreover, the photos have become faded and worn over time. As a result, the shadows in Peary’s photographs look blurred and faded. Those shadows cannot be used to calculate the position of the Sun with great accuracy. So we cannot be confident the photos were really taken at the North Pole.由于篇幅有限，托福综合写作满分范文，在雷哥托福微信公众号获取。
TPO28 R-1原文翻译
TPO28 R-1 原文翻译Groundwater世界上大部分的饮用水（新鲜的适合饮用的）都是地下水，这种水被储存在岩石的小孔和断裂处。
地下储存的新鲜水源是地球上所有江河湖泊中的水的50倍。
在地球更深的地方，上层岩石的压力使得小孔和裂缝闭合，减少了可储存水的空间，并且几乎10千米以下的所有空间。
大部分的储存水的空间都处在浅层的岩层中。
●含水土层，多孔性和渗透性地下水储存在各种不同类型的岩石中。
能从地下储水处取出水的叫做含水土层。
我们可以形象地将含水土层比作水的“存款”。
取水取决于含水土层的两个特性：多孔性和渗透性。
在沉积物之间的空间是可以被水充满的。
这些孔状空间被称为多孔性，并且被包括于岩石的总体积。
对于储水能力来说，多孔性非常重要，但是如果要想水能在岩石间流动，这些孔状空间必须互相连接。
水或者其他的液体可以在不连接的岩石孔状空间中流动的能力被称作渗透性。
断裂处和连接处都有非常高的渗透能力。
但是在岩石的颗粒状空间中，液体必须在颗粒间扭曲的通道流动；这样弯曲的通道导致了流动阻碍。
水克服这种阻碍的比率决定于岩石的渗透性。
沉积物的排序和紧密程度影响了其渗透性和多孔性。
越是分选差的或者越是紧密压缩的沉积层，它的多孔性和渗透性就越低。
表层最常见的岩石，沉积石也是最常见的储水石，因为他们有着很多可以充水的空间。
总体来说，沙石也是很好的储水层，但是紧密的泥石基本是不能渗透的不具有渗透性的岩石被称作隔水层。
火山岩和变质岩质地更紧密，通常是透明的，并且在颗粒间很少有空间。
但是，如果大量的裂口存在于这种岩石中，并且断裂系统间联通，即使是火山岩或是变质岩也可以充当地下水库的角色，●地下水位地下水位是所有裂缝和孔洞中的水的边界。
有时候，地下水位会与地球表面平齐，这样就会出现河流，湖泊，和沼泽。
不过更典型是，地下水位可能会低于表面成十或上百米。
地下水位并不是平齐的，但是通常跟随着地势的等高线。
在地下水位置上是渗流层，通过这里雨水得以渗透进入。
托福阅读真题第281篇FeedingStrategiesintheOcean（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第281篇FeedingStrategiesintheOcean（答案文章最后）Feeding Strategies in the OceanIn the open sea, animals can often find food reliably available in particular regions or seasons (e.g., in coastal areas in springtime). In these circumstances, animals are neither constrained to get the last calorie out of their diet nor is energy conservation a high priority. In contrast, the food levels in the deeper layers of the ocean are greatly reduced, and the energy constraints on the animals are much more severe. To survive at those levels, animals must maximize their energy input, finding and eating whatever potential food source may be present.In the near-surface layers, there are many large, fast carnivores as well as an immense variety of planktonic animals, which feed on plankton (small, free-floating plants or animals) by filtering them from currents of water that pass through a specialized anatomical structure. These filter-feeders thrive in the well-illuminated surface waters because oceans have so many very small organisms, from bacteria to large algae to larval crustaceans. Even fishes can become successful filter-feeders in some circumstances. lthough the vast majority marine fishes are carnivores, in near-surface regions of high productivity the concentrations of larger phytoplankton (the plant component of plankton) are sufficient to support huge populations of filter-feeding sardines and anchovies. These small fishes use their gill filaments to strain out the algae that dominate such areas. Sardines and anchovies provide the basis for huge commercial fisheries as well as a food resource for large numbers of local carnivores, particularly seabirds. t a much larger scale, baleenwhales and whale sharks are also efficient filter-feeders in productive coastal or polar waters, although their filtered particles comprise small animals such as copepods and krill rather than phytoplankton.Filtering seawater for its particulate nutritional content can be an energetically demanding method of feeding, particularly when the current of water to be filtered has to be generated by the organism itself, as is the case for all planktonic animals. Particulate organic matter of at least 2.5 micrograms per cubic liter is required to provide a filter-feeding planktonic organism with a net energy gain. This value is easily exceeded in most coastal waters, but in the deep sea, the levels of organic matter range from next to nothing to around 7 micrograms per cubic liter. Even though mean levels may mask much higher local concentrations, it is still the case that many deep-sea animals are exposed to conditions in which a normal filter-feeder would starve.There are, therefore, fewer successful filter-feeders in deep water, and some of those that are there have larger filtering systems to cope with the scarcity of particles. nother solution for such animals is to forage in particular layers of water where the particles may be more concentrated. Many of the groups of animals that typify the filter-feeding lifestyle in shadow water have deep-sea representatives that have become predatory. Their filtering systems, which reach such a high degree of development in shallow-water species, are greatly reduced. lternative methods of active or passive prey capture have been evolved, including trapping and seizing prey, entangling prey, and sticky tentacles.In the deeper waters of the oceans, there is a much greatertendency for animals to await thearrival of food particles or prey rather than to search them out actively (thus minimizing energy expenditure). This has resulted in a more stealthy style of feeding, with the consequent emphasis on lures and/or the evolution of elongated appendages that increase the active volume of water controlled or monitored by the animal. nother consequence of the limited availability of prey is that many animals have developed ways of coping with much larger food particles, relative to their own body size, than the equivalent shallower species can process. mong the fishes there is a tendency for the teeth and jaws to become appreciably enlarged. In such creatures, not only are the teeth hugely enlarged and/or the jaws elongated but the size of the mouth opening may be greatly increased by making the jaw articulations so flexible that they can be effectively dislocated. Very large or long teeth provide almost no room for cutting the prey into a convenient size for swallowing; the fish must gulp the prey down whole.1►In the open sea, animals can often find food reliably available in particular regions or seasons (e.g., in coastal areas in springtime). In these circumstances, animals are neither constrained to get the last calorie out of their diet nor is energy conservation a high priority. In contrast, the food levels in the deeper layers of the ocean are greatly reduced, and the energy constraints on the animals are much more severe. To survive at those levels, animals must maximize their energy input, finding and eating whatever potential food source may be present.2►In the near-surface layers, there are many large, fast carnivores as well as an immense variety of planktonic animals,which feed on plankton (small, free-floating plants or animals) by filtering them from currents of water that pass through a specialized anatomical structure. These filter-feeders thrive in the well-illuminated surface waters because oceans have so many very small organisms, from bacteria to large algae to larval crustaceans. Even fishes can become successful filter-feeders in some circumstances. lthough the vast majority marine fishes are carnivores, in near-surface regions of high productivity the concentrations of larger phytoplankton (the plant component of plankton) are sufficient to support huge populations of filter-feeding sardines and anchovies. These small fishes use their gill filaments to strain out the algae that dominate such areas. Sardines and anchovies provide the basis for huge commercial fisheries as well as a food resource for large numbers of local carnivores, particularly seabirds. t a much larger scale, baleen whales and whale sharks are also efficient filter-feeders in productive coastal or polar waters, although their filtered particles comprise small animals such as copepods and krill rather than phytoplankton.3►In the near-surface layers, there are many large, fast carnivores as well as an immense variety of planktonic animals, which feed on plankton (small, free-floating plants or animals) by filtering them from currents of water that pass through a specialized anatomical structure. These filter-feeders thrive in the well-illuminated surface waters because oceans have so many very small organisms, from bacteria to large algae to larval crustaceans. Even fishes can become successful filter-feeders in some circumstances. lthough the vast majority marine fishes are carnivores, in near-surface regions of high productivity theconcentrations of larger phytoplankton (the plant component of plankton) are sufficient to support huge populations of filter-feeding sardines and anchovies. These small fishes use their gill filaments to strain out the algae that dominate such areas. Sardines and anchovies provide the basis for huge commercial fisheries as well as a food resource for large numbers of local carnivores, particularly seabirds. t a much larger scale, baleen whales and whale sharks are also efficient filter-feeders in productive coastal or polar waters, although their filtered particles comprise small animals such as copepods and krill rather than phytoplankton.4►In the near-surface layers, there are many large, fast carnivores as well as an immense variety of planktonic animals, which feed on plankton (small, free-floating plants or animals) by filtering them from currents of water that pass through a specialized anatomical structure. These filter-feeders thrive in the well-illuminated surface waters because oceans have so many very small organisms, from bacteria to large algae to larval crustaceans. Even fishes can become successful filter-feeders in some circumstances. lthough the vast majority marine fishes are carnivores, in near-surface regions of high productivity the concentrations of larger phytoplankton (the plant component of plankton) are sufficient to support huge populations of filter-feeding sardines and anchovies. These small fishes use their gill filaments to strain out the algae that dominate such areas. Sardines and anchovies provide the basis for huge commercial fisheries as well as a food resource for large numbers of local carnivores, particularly seabirds. t a much larger scale, baleen whales and whale sharks are also efficient filter-feeders inproductive coastal or polar waters, although their filtered particles comprise small animals such as copepods and krill rather than phytoplankton.5►Filtering seawater for its particulate nutritional content can be an energetically demanding method of feeding, particularly when the current of water to be filtered has to be generated by the organism itself, as is the case for all planktonic animals. Particulate organic matter of at least 2.5 micrograms per cubic liter is required to provide a filter-feeding planktonic organism with a net energy gain. This value is easily exceeded in most coastal waters, but in the deep sea, the levels of organic matter range from next to nothing to around 7 micrograms per cubic liter. Even though mean levels may mask much higher local concentrations, it is still the case that many deep-sea animals are exposed to conditions in which a normal filter-feeder would starve.6►There are, therefore, fewer successful filter-feeders in deep water, and some of those that are there have larger filtering systems to cope with the scarcity of particles. nother solution for such animals is to forage in particular layers of water where the particles may be more concentrated. Many of the groups of animals that typify the filter-feeding lifestyle in shadow water have deep-sea representatives that have become predatory. Their filtering systems, which reach such a high degree of development in shallow-water species, are greatly reduced. lternative methods of active or passive prey capture have been evolved, including trapping and seizing prey, entangling prey, and sticky tentacles.7►In the deeper waters of the oceans, there is a much greater tendency for animals to await thearrival of food particles or prey rather than to search them out actively (thus minimizing energy expenditure). This has resulted in a more stealthy style of feeding, with the consequent emphasis on lures and/or the evolution of elongated appendages that increase the active volume of water controlled or monitored by the animal. nother consequence of the limited availability of prey is that many animals have developed ways of coping with much larger food particles, relative to their own body size, than the equivalent shallower species can process. mong the fishes there is a tendency for the teeth and jaws to become appreciably enlarged. In such creatures, not only are the teeth hugely enlarged and/or the jaws elongated but the size of the mouth opening may be greatly increased by making the jaw articulations so flexible that they can be effectively dislocated. Very large or long teeth provide almost no room for cutting the prey into a convenient size for swallowing; the fish must gulp the prey down whole.8►In the deeper waters of the oceans, there is a much greater tendency for animals to await thearrival of food particles or prey rather than to search them out actively (thus minimizing energy expenditure). This has resulted in a more stealthy style of feeding, with the consequent emphasis on lures and/or the evolution of elongated appendages that increase the active volume of water controlled or monitored by the animal. nother consequence of the limited availability of prey is that many animals have developed ways of coping with much larger food particles, relative to their own body size, than the equivalent shallowerspecies can process. mong the fishes there is a tendency for the teeth and jaws to become appreciably enlarged. In such creatures, not only are the teeth hugely enlarged and/or the jaws elongated but the size of the mouth opening may be greatly increased by making the jaw articulations so flexible that they can be effectively dislocated. Very large or long teeth provide almost no room for cutting the prey into a convenient size for swallowing; the fish must gulp the prey down whole.9⬛In the deeper waters of the oceans, there is a much greater tendency for animals to await thearrival of food particles or prey rather than to search them out actively (thus minimizing energy expenditure). ⬛This has resulted in a more stealthy style of feeding, with the consequent emphasis on lures and/or the evolution of elongated appendages that increase the active volume of water controlled or monitored by the animal. ⬛nother consequence of the limited availability of prey is that many animals have developed ways of coping with much larger food particles, relative to their own body size, than the equivalent shallower species can process. ⬛mong the fishes there is a tendency for the teeth and jaws to become appreciably enlarged. In such creatures, not only are the teeth hugely enlarged and/or the jaws elongated but the size of the mouth opening may be greatly increased by making the jaw articulations so flexible that they can be effectively dislocated. Very large or long teeth provide almost no room for cutting the prey into a convenient size for swallowing; the fish must gulp the prey down whole.10。
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为了帮助大家高效备考托福，为大家带来托福TPO28阅读Passage1原文文本+题目+答案解析，希望对大家备考有所帮助。
Groundwater Most of the world’s potable water-freshwater suitable for drinking is accounted for bygroundwater,which is stored in the pores andfractures in rocks.There is more than 50 times asmuch freshwater stored underground than in all the freshwater rivers and lakes at the surface.Nearly 50 percent of all groundwater is stored in the upper 1,000 meters of Earth.At greaterdepths within Earth,the pressure of the overlying rock causes pores and cracks to close,reducing the space that pore water can occupy,and almost complete closure occurs at a depthof about 10 kilometers.The greatest water storage,therefore,lies near the surface. 世界上绝大部分饮用水----可以饮用的淡水----都是地下水，它们储藏在岩石孔隙和裂缝中。
储藏于地下的淡水是地表淡水河流和湖泊中总水量的50倍。
大约50%的地下水存在于地下深1000m以内的地层中。
随深度增加，上覆岩层压力使岩石孔隙和裂缝闭合，减少了水的储存空间，而超过10公里深的地下孔隙几乎全部闭合。
因此绝大部分水储存于接近地表的地层中。
Aquifers,Porosity and Permeability 水层，孔隙度和渗透率 【2】Groundwater is stored in a variety of rock types.A groundwater reservoir from whichwater can be extracted is called an aquifer.We can effectively think of an aquifer as a depositof water.Extraction of water depends on two properties of the aquifer:porosity andpermeability.Between sediment grains are spaces that can be filled with water.This porespace is known as porosity and is expressed as a percentage of the total rock volume.Porosityis important for water—storage capacity,but for water to flow through rocks,the pore spacesmust be connected.The ability of water,or other fluids,to flow through the interconnected porespaces in rocks is termed permeability.In the intergranular spaces of rocks,however,fluidmust flow around and between grains in a tortuous path;this winding path causes aresistance to flow.The rate at which the flowing water overcomes this resistance is relatedto the permeability of rock. 地层水储存在多种岩石中。
可以取出的地下水的聚集层叫做水层。
我们可以认为水层即水的聚集地层。
从地层中取水取决于水层的两个因素：孔隙度和渗透率。
沉积颗粒之间的空间可以储存水，这种孔隙空间由孔隙度表征。
孔隙度是岩石孔隙体积与总体积的百分比。
孔隙度对地层储水能力尤为重要，但欲使水从岩石中流出，孔隙之间必须相互连通。
水或其它流体从相互连通的孔隙中流动的能力即为渗透率。
在粒间孔发育的岩石中，流体必须在颗粒周围的曲折通道中流动;这种曲折通道会对流动产生阻力。
水克服阻力流动的速率与岩石渗透率相关。
【3】Sediment sorting and compaction influence permeability and porosity.The more poorlysorted or the more tightly compacted a sediment is,the lower its porosity and permeability.Sedimentary rocks—the most common rock type near the surface—are also the most commonreservoirs for water because they contain the most space that can be filled with water.Sandstones generally make good aquifers,while finer-grained mudstones are typicallyimpermeable.Impermeable rocks are referred to as aquicludes.Igneous and metamorphicrocks are more compact,commonly crystalline,and rarely contain spaces between grains.However,even igneous and metamorphic rocks may act as groundwater reservoirs if extensivefracturing occurs in such rocks and if the fracture system is interconnected. 沉积物的分选性和压实程度影响其渗透率和孔隙度。
岩石分选越差或压实越紧则其孔隙度和渗透率越低。
沉积岩----地表最常见的岩石----也是最常见的水储集层，因为它们常带有最多的可以储水的孔隙空间。
砂岩一般是最好的储水层，但小颗粒的泥岩则通常不可渗透。
不渗透岩层都称为隔水层。
火成岩和变质岩压实更紧，通常有结晶，并几乎没有粒间孔隙。
但是即便是火成岩和变质岩也可因裂缝大量发育并相互连接而成为储水层。
The Water Table 地下水位 【4】The water table is the underground boundary below which all the cracks and pores arefilled with water.In some cases,the water table reaches Earth’s surface,where it is expressedas rivers,lakes and marshes.Typically,though,the water table may be tens or hundreds ofmeters below the surface.The water table is not flat but usually follows the contours of thetopography.Above the water table is the vadose zone,through which rainwater percolates.Water in the vadose zone drains down to the water table,leaving behind a thin coating of wateron mineral grains.The vadose zone supplies plant roots near the surface with water. 地下水位指地层岩石裂缝和孔隙充满水的边界。
某些情况下，地下水位可能到达地表，在那里它以河流、湖泊或沼泽地的形式存在。
但通常情况下地下水位位于地面数十或数百米以下。
地下水位不是水平的，而是通常沿着地势起伏。
地下水位以上称为包气带，在这里降水得以过滤。
包气带中的水会沉降到地下水位，只在矿物颗粒表面留下一层水膜。
包气带为地表附近植物根部提供水分。
【5】Because the surface of the water table is not flat but instead rises and falls withtopography,groundwater is affected by gravity in the same fashion as surface water.Groundwater flows downhill to topographic lows.If the water table intersects the land surface,groundwater will flow out onto the surface at springs,weather to be collected there or tosubsequently flow farther along a drainage.Groundwater commonly collects in streamdrainages but may remain entirely beneath the surface of dry stream-beds in arid regions.Inparticularly wet years,short。