语言学教程Chapter3
《语言学教程》chapter 3 Morphology 的word文档
Chapter 3 LexiconTime periods: two classesTeaching contents:definition of a wordThe formation of wordsTeaching aims and requirementsLearn by heart:1. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.2. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Know:1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. Two different fields of morphology, including inflectional morphology and derivational morphology.Understand:1. Definition of a word2. The classifications of word according to different aspects3. The formation of wordsTeaching focus and difficulties:Focus：1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.3. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Difficulty:1. Classification of morphemes2. Inflection and derivations.1. Review what we have learned in last chapter, and ask some students to answer the following questions: (5m)1) How are English consonants classified2) How are English Vowels classified3) What are phonemes and allophones2. Study Definition of a wordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.Zhang Weiyou (1999)a minimum free formStability --internal structure (can’t rearrange)relative uninterruptibility --internal structure (can’t insert) Classification of words(1)Basic word stock & non-basic vocabularyContent words & functional wordsNative words & borrowed wordsVariable words & invariable wordsOpen-class words & closed-class wordsTraditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesClassification of words (2)Variable words & invariable words (variability)—variable words: the words whose form is changeable, words which might appear in different inflective and derivative forms, v. n.—invariable words: the words whose form is unchangeable, words which usually occur in the same form such as: since, in, for, of, at, on Classification of words (3)Open-class words & closed-class words (membership)--open-class words: membership is unlimited, n. v. (economic words, scientific words.)--closed-class words: membership is comparatively limited. Pronouns, conj, prep. Articles.Classification of words (4)Traditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesTraditional parts of speech:N. v. adj. Adv. Prep. Conj.Additional four categoriesParticles : 小品词infinite maker ‘to’, negative maker ‘not’, subor dinate units in verbal phrases.Auxiliaries: 助词(助动词、情态动词)Pro-form 代词形式 pro-v. pro-adj.. He likes the animal, so do i.. The desk is white, so is the chair.Determiners 限定词‘the’, ‘a’, ‘some’, ‘all’. ‘all the beautiful Chinese girls’,3. Study The formation of word1) Ask the students to skip over this section and find out the answers to the following questions:a. What is morphologyb. What is morpheme What is the biggest difference between morpheme and phonemec. How can we classify morphemes2) 3.2.1 MorphologyDefinition: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components: morphemes.For example:Verbs are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective (adj.) or a noun (n.)在形容詞或名詞加-ify變成動詞*simple (adj.) simplify (v) 簡化*quality (n) qualify (v)使具有資格*identity (n) identify (v) 認出MorphemesThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful components of words..: boyish孩子氣的;男孩似的boy, -ish (two morphemes)3) 3.2.2 Types of morphemes (1)Those that may constitute words by themselves,自由形式的詞素本身就是一個詞，可以單獨使用.: boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes PK Bound morphemesThose that cannot occur alone,Bound morpheme includes two types: roots and affixes..: -s in dogs, -ed in worked, dis- in dislike, un- in unable.A certain affix here refers to an inflectional affix: grammatical endingsTypes of morphemes (2)Root: the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根Stem: the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干Affix: the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀.: friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may be:Free: those that can stand by themselves,.: black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,.: -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: normally divided into:Prefix (dis-, un-) prefixes occur at the beginning of a word.suffix (-en, -ify) at the endinfix (foot-feet) in the middlePrefix 前綴mis- 誤 mistake 誤解over- 過分 overdo 做得過分Prefixed modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Exceptions are the prefixes be-, and en(m)-.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Accordingly, there are noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, adverb-forming suffixes, and verb-forming suffixes.-er teacher, writer-ician “...(專)家,...工作者” electrician電工-bility “能力” possibility可能性-hood “時期” childhood幼年時期,童年時期-age “(人生的)某一時期” orphanage孤兒-ary (adj) elementary基本的, secondary第二位的-ful (adj) beautiful美麗的, delightful愉悅的, sorrowful悲傷的-en (V 使..) weaken使變弱 , darken, deepen-ize (v …化) modernize使現代化-ly (adj+ -ly=adv n + -ly= adj) slowly慢慢地, friendly友善的-ward (往…方向) forward(adv)往前, eastward往東Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,.: friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself..:*toler- (root) + affix –ate: tolerate忍受*quick (free morpheme) + affix –ly: quickly *careless (a derived form) + affix lessInflectional affix: Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case etc..: -ed, -s, -erHe had regular features. 他五官端正。
语言学第三章chapter3 PPT
andbutbecauseifwhenonaboveinitthethat大家应该也有点累了稍作休息大家有疑问的可以询问和交流322boundmorpheme?boundmorphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemeseitherfreeorboundtoformaword
▪ Prefixes are joined to the beginning of the root or stem. They can change the meaning or function of the word. Impossible, unbelievable, enrich
▪ Suffixes are joined to the end of the root or stem. They can also change the meaning or function of the word. hopeless, kindness
Differences between derivational morpheme and inflectional morpheme
语言学第第三章PPT
Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning
Words are composed of morphemes. Morpheme means the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function. Sometimes a word is a morpheme such as boy, girl, dog, cat, cup while sometimes a word is 2 or more morphemes such as : reader, activate
Chapter 3 Morphology
Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
I Open class word and closed class word
The difference between root, stem & base
Af
V rule
V
mean mean
Su
Su Su ing ful
er
Derivational & inflectional morpheme
Derivational morphemes(派生词素）： the morphemes which can change the category （词的范畴）or grammatical class of words （词类）, or change the meaning of the words e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool--foolish, etc. macroeconomics , multimedia, monologue
语言学教程胡壮麟(第四版) 第3章
Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第一部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词干A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第二部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最小的自由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派生Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym 首字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借用English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱口秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。
《语言学教程》chapter_3_Morphology_的word文档
Chapter 3 LexiconTime periods: two classesTeaching contents:3.1 definition of a word3.2 The formation of wordsTeaching aims and requirementsLearn by heart:1. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.2. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Know:1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. Two different fields of morphology, including inflectional morphology and derivational morphology.Understand:1. Definition of a word2. The classifications of word according to different aspects3. The formation of wordsTeaching focus and difficulties:Focus：1. The definition of morphemes, free morphemes, bound morphemes, stem, root, affix, inflection and derivation and so on.2. The classifications of morphemes, such as free morpheme and bound morpheme, stem, root, inflectional affix and derivational affix.3. Two ways of word-formation such as inflections and derivations.Difficulty:1. Classification of morphemes2. Inflection and derivations.1. Review what we have learned in last chapter, and ask some students to answer the following questions: (5m)1) How are English consonants classified?2) How are English Vowels classified?3) What are phonemes and allophones?2. Study3.1 Definition of a wordA word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.Zhang Weiyou (1999)a minimum free formStability --internal structure (can’t rearrange)relative uninterruptibility --internal structure (can’t insert)Classification of words(1)Basic word stock & non-basic vocabularyContent words & functional wordsNative words & borrowed wordsVariable words & invariable wordsOpen-class words & closed-class wordsTraditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesClassification of words (2)Variable words & invariable words (variability)—variable words: the words whose form is changeable, words which might appear in different inflective and derivative forms, v. n.—invariable words: the words whose form is unchangeable, words which usually occur in the same form such as: since, in, for, of, at, on Classification of words (3)Open-class words & closed-class words (membership)--open-class words: membership is unlimited, n. v. (economic words, scientific words.)--closed-class words: membership is comparatively limited. Pronouns, conj, prep. Articles.Classification of words (4)Traditional parts of speech & additional four categoriesTraditional parts of speech:N. v. adj. Adv. Prep. Conj. Interj.ArticleAdditional four categoriesParticles : 小品词infinite maker ‘to’, negative maker ‘not’, subor dinate units in verbal phrases.Auxiliaries: 助词(助动词、情态动词)Pro-form 代词形式pro-v. pro-adj.e.g. He likes the animal, so do i.e.g. The desk is white, so is the chair.Determiners 限定词‘the’, ‘a’, ‘some’, ‘all’e.g. ‘all the beautiful Chinese girls’,3. Study 3.2 The formation of word1) Ask the students to skip over this section and find out the answers to the following questions:a. What is morphology?b. What is morpheme? What is the biggest difference between morpheme and phoneme?c. How can we classify morphemes?2) 3.2.1 MorphologyDefinition: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components:morphemes.For example:Verbs are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective (adj.) or a noun (n.) 在形容詞或名詞加-ify變成動詞*simple (adj.) simplify (v) 簡化*quality (n) qualify (v)使具有資格*identity (n) identify (v) 認出MorphemesThe most basic element of meaning is traditionally called morpheme.The smallest meaningful components of words.E.g.: boyish孩子氣的;男孩似的boy, -ish (two morphemes)3) 3.2.2 Types of morphemes (1)Those that may constitute words by themselves,自由形式的詞素本身就是一個詞，可以單獨使用e.g.: boy, girl, table, nation.Free morphemes PK Bound morphemesThose that cannot occur alone,Bound morpheme includes two types: roots and affixes.e.g.: -s in dogs, -ed in worked, dis- in dislike, un- in unable.A certain affix here refers to an inflectional affix: grammatical endingsTypes of morphemes (2)Root: the part left when all the affixes are removed 词根Stem: the part left when a certain affix is removed 词干Affix: the part which is attached to other words; usually bound morphemes 词缀E.g.: friend as in unfriendliness.Roots may be:Free: those that can stand by themselves,E.g.: black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,E.g.: -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: normally divided into:Prefix (dis-, un-) prefixes occur at the beginning of a word.suffix (-en, -ify) at the endinfix (foot-feet) in the middlePrefix 前綴mis- 誤mistake 誤解over- 過分overdo 做得過分Prefixed modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.Exceptions are the prefixes be-, and en(m)-.Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.Suffixes modify the meaning of the original word and in many caseschange its part of speech.Accordingly, there are noun-forming suffixes, adjective-forming suffixes, adverb-forming suffixes, and verb-forming suffixes.-er teacher, writer-ician “...(專)家,...工作者”electrician電工-bility “能力”possibility可能性-hood “時期”childhood幼年時期,童年時期-age “(人生的)某一時期”orphanage孤兒-ary (adj) elementary基本的, secondary第二位的-ful (adj) beautiful美麗的, delightful愉悅的, sorrowful悲傷的-en (V 使..) weaken使變弱, darken, deepen-ize (v …化) modernize使現代化-ly (adj+ -ly=adv n + -ly= adj) slowly慢慢地, friendly友善的-ward (往…方向) forward(adv)往前, eastward往東Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g.: friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es.A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.e.g.:*toler- (root) + affix –ate: tolerate忍受*quick (free morpheme) + affix –ly: quickly *careless (a derived form) + affix lessInflectional affix: Bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case etc.e.g.: -ed, -s, -erHe had regular features. 他五官端正。
语言学教程第三版03Chapter_3_lexicon(2)
– burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, scavenge, sculpt, swindle
– air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, househunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-record
– Morphemes that have no specific sememe en- has no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. joy (adj, quality) enjoy (verb, event) cran-: cranberry --- blueberry, blackberry, cloudberry – Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change run: run a company (verb, event) in a short run (noun, thing) No morpheme change, but the sememe is changed: progress, fish, fat (verb, event / noun, thing / adj, quality)
3. Lexical change
• • • • • Formation of new words Phonological change Morphosyntactic change Semantic change Orthographic change
胡壮麟版《语言学教程》 第三章Chapter3 Lexicon 总结
(2) Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性
By uninterru ptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.
Lexicon Change 词的变化
Phonological Change 音位 Orthographic Change 拼写变化
3.1 What is word?
WORD is a unit of expression that
native spears may recognize by intuition, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A WORD is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.
(2)Word both as a general term and as a specific term 作为一般用语和具体用语的词 作为一般用语和具体用语的词(The common factor underlying a set of forms)
语言学教程03Chapter 3_lexicon
Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:
Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.
As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.
Pre Central all her
her all her
Post many many
many
all
what a
the
one
a few
both my father’s
Modifier Noun good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good ideas good idea good idea
ideas parents
Problem: blackboard
1.2 Identification of words
Stability: stable linguistic units.
chairman, but not *manchair
Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word
Chapter Three Lexicon
1. What is word?
A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
语言学chapter3课后答案
语⾔学chapter3课后答案Chapter 3Revision exercises reference1.Divide the following words into their separate morphemes by placing a “+”between each morpheme and the next:a. micro + film e. tele + com + muni + cat + ionb. be + draggle + d f. fore + fatherc. announce + ment g. psycho + physicsd. pre + digest + ion h. mechan + ist2.Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the typesof stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.suffix: -mentmeaning: added to some verbs to form nouns that refer to actions, processes, or statesstem type: added to verbsexample: statement, “something you say or write, especially publicly or officially, to let people know your intentions or opinions, or to record facts” enjoyment, “the feeling of pleasure you get from having or doing something, or something you enjoy doing”suffix: -nessmeaning: added to adjectives to form nouns which often refer to a state or quality stem type: added to adjective example: happiness, “the state of being happy”Kindness, “kind behavior towards someone”suffix: -shipmeaning: added to some nouns to form nouns which often denote a state, status, or skillsstem type: added to nounsexample: friendship, “a relationship between friends”readership, “all the people who read a particular newspaper ormagazine regularly”3.Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, and specify thetypes of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least two examples of each.in-: when added to adjectives, it means not; when added to nouns, it means without, lack of; it can also be spelt as il- before l, im- before b, m, p, and ir- before r. e.g.inability inaccuracy inaction inconsistencyinconvenience indeterminacy indiscretion inequityinhuman inapt infrequent infiniteingenuous infiltrate inhospitable immuneimmortal imperceptible imperfectde-: This prefix can form verbs and their derivatives meaning down, away; when added to the verb and their derivatives, it denotes removal or reversal. e.g.decaf decipher decolour descenddebase deform defrost defocusdegrade debrief debug deactivatedehydrate defoliate delimit dematerialize re-: This prefix means 1) once more, afresh, anew as in the world reaccustom; 2) returning to a previous state as in restore; or 3) in return, mutually as in react etc.E.g.recap reanimate rearm reassemblereassessing reattach reapply reappear Note: There is an exception to the rule when the word to which re- attaches begins with e. In this case a hyphen is often inserted for clarity, e.g. re-examine, re-enter, re-enact. A hyphen is sometimes also used where the world formed with the prefix would be identical to an already existing words, e.g. re-cover (meaning cover again), nor recover (meaning getting better in health).4.The Italicized part in each of the following sentences is an inflectionalmorpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefully and point out its grammatical meaning.●Sue moves in high-society circles in London.-s, third person singular, present simple tense● A traffic warden asked John to move his car.-ed, past tense●The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.has -ed, present perfect●The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.are + v-ing, present continuous (plural).5.Determine whether the words in each of the following groups are related toone another by processes of inflection or derivation.a)go, goes, going, gone (inflection)●go, the root form●go + -es, present participle●go + -ing, present participle●gone, past participleb)discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)●dis-, prefix ( added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal●-y, suffix (added after the verbs form nouns) denoting a state or an actionor its result●-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing thatperforms a specified action or activity●-able, an adjective suffix added to the verbs meaning able to be●-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of -able. It can also spell as-ibility, meaning having the quality as in manageability (可处理性) and suitability (适合性).c)inventor, inventor`s, inventors, inventors` (a mixture of inflection or derivation)●derivation: invent + -or●inflection: inventor`s, inventors`, `s indicating possessive cased)democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)●-cy, added to the nouns ending with t to form another noun denoting astate governed in such a way●-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaningrelated to or in resemblance with...●-ize, a suffix added to the nouns to form verbs denoting the conversion,or transforming.6.The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectional affixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle the inflectional affixes.a)b)c)d)e)The strongest rower continued.f)g)h)Supplementary ExercisesI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.2.Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.3.Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.4.Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.5.Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.6.Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while thesecond element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:7.M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.8.The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.9.D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.10.C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words tocreate new words.11.The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form anew word are called m___________ rules.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:12.The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme13.The compound word “bookstore” is the place wh ere books are sold. Thisindicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.14.The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part ofspeech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.15._______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words16.The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semanticIV. Answer the following question(s):17.Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.。
语言学教程(第四版) 教材及习题 配套PPT Chapter 3
P.F. Productions
143
Similarity
both regarding affixes
Differences
Productivity Meaning change Condition Position
P.F. Productions
144
Sememe: the smallest component of meaning. e.g. The morpheme -s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one. Phoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of sound Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammar (第三版) the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning (第四版)
P.F. Productions 142
In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, e.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. Derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both, e.g. suburban, depart, online, slaver, teacher, workP.F. Productions 135
语言学教程Chapter 3. Lexicon
2) grammatical words and lexical words
• grammatical words : words mainly working for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. • lexical words: words mainly working for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. • Lexical words carry the main content of a language while grammatical ones serve to link together different content parts. • Lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones as function words.
3.2.1 morpheme and morphology
• Definition of morpheme • Definition or morphology
3.2.2 types of morphemes
• (1) free morpheme and bound morpheme • Free morphemes: they can make up words by themselves. All mono-morphemic words ( words consisting of only one morpheme) are free morphemes. • Some poly-morphemic words are made up of two free morphemes, so they are free morphemes, too. Such poly-morphemic words are called compounds. • Morphemes which must appear with at least another morpheme are named as bound morphemes.
Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology
the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
B. bound morpheme粘着语素 Morphemes which cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme.
Free morpheme & bound morpheme
Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.
Open class word & closed class word
Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese. Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.
戴炜栋主编英语语言学教程第三章课件 Morphology
3.6 Morphological rules of word formaion
--- the rules that govern the formation of words, e.g
un+ADJECTIVE = not ---ADJECTIVE unfair unthinkable unacceptable…
3.2 Open class and closed class
Open class words---content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs,
In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme. e.g
friendship=friend(stem)+ship
friendships=friendship(stem)+s
3.5 Derivational and Inflectional morphemes
Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g
a building an orange;
Each of the variants is called an allomorph of a morpheme.
语言学教程Chapter Three
Word class: Any class of word established by similarities in syntax or in grammar generally, known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. The classification first was based on classical Latin and Greek analysis, but only two classes: something like today‟s subject and predicate.
Later, nine word classes were established: Noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article. Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammar. i. Particle (小品词) – Used by C.F. Hockett in the 1950s of all forms that do not take inflection. Also by Jespersen of all the elements, e.g. in English, traditionally called adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. – For example, infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc. ii. Auxiliary (助动词) – A verb belonging to a small class which syntactically accompanies other verbs (opp. Lexical verb, full verb): do, have
语言学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章
语⾔学教程胡壮麟（第四版）第3章Chapter 3 From Morpheme to Phrase第⼀部分The formation of word——Morpheme词的构成1. Morpheme 词素的定义Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language in regard to the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, such as boy and –s in boys, check and –ing in checking. And the systematic study of morpheme is a branch of linguistics called morphology2. Types of morphemes 词素的种类①Free morpheme and bound morpheme ⾃由词素和黏着词素Free morphemes: Those that may occur alone, that is, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes, such as Dog, nation.Bound morphemes: Those that cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least one different morpheme, are called bound morphemes, for example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, dis-, temper, and –ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and –ed are two bound morphemes.②Root, affix and stem 词根、词缀和词⼲A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed. For example, in the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. Therefore, all words contain a root morpheme.A root may be free or bound. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive and conceive: -mit in remit, permit, commit and submit: -tain in retain, contain and maintain, among many othersA few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tense form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound.An affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme. They are classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, infix, and suffix. Prefix such as para-, mini- in paragraph and miniskirt; Infix such as –ize, -tion in colonize and revolution; Suffix such as –ee- in feet (vs. foot).A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, so both friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems. The former shows that a stem may be the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix.③Inflectional affix and derivational affix 屈折词缀和派⽣词缀Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:1)First, inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes. They often add a minute or delicate grammatical function to the stem, such as toys, walks, John’s. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single lexical item. However, derivational affixes are very productive in making new words. For example, cite, citation, cital. So derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning.2)Second, inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.3)Third, that whether one should add inflectional affixes or not depends very often on other factors within the phrase or sentence at stake. For example, the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the Internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence. However, derivational affixes are more often based onsimple meaning distinctions. For example, the choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever”.4)Fourth, in English, most inflectional affixes are suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, Mary’s. But derivational affixes can be either prefixes, suffixes, or both at the same time. E.g. depart, teacher, international.3. Allomorph and morphological change 变体①allomorph 词素变体An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. Words such as illogical, imbalance, irregular and inactive share a common morpheme in-. In other words, il-, im-, and ir- are exceptionally the variation forms of one morpheme in-. These variation forms are called Allomorphs, i.e. allomorphs of the same morpheme owing to the influence of the sounds to which it attaches.②morphological change 形态变化Morphological change takes the form of inflectional changes in affixes.第⼆部分Word 词1. word 词和词项的定义Word is a typical grammatical unit between Morpheme and Word Group, such as boy, check, write, and fat. Lexical items refer to the cases when a word appears in different forms, such as boy and boys, or check, checks, checked, and checking. So Word is a general, covering term (boy and boys are one word) and Lexical Item a specific term (boy and boys are two lexical items).2. Three characteristics of word 词的三个特性①Stability 稳定性Words, concerning their internal structures, are the most stable of all linguistic units, Generally speaking, it is hard for one to re-arrange the internal structure of a complex word into a different order. For example, the word chairman cannot be re-arranged as * manchair, the latter being an unacceptable word in English.②Relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性Uninterruptibility means that new elements should not be inserted into a word, even when there are several parts in it. For example, nothing should be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment.③ A minimum free form 最⼩的⾃由形式Leonard Bloomfield advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” while word as “the minimum free form”. Word is the smallest unit that can be used, by itself, as a complete utterance. For example, Is Jane coming tomorrow? Possibly.3. Classification of words 词的种类①Variable and invariable words 可变词与不变词V ariable words have inflective changes. That is, the same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows – following – followed.Invariable words refer to those such as since, when, seldom, hello. They don’t have inflective endings.②Grammatical words and lexical words 语法词（功能词）和词汇词（实义词）Grammatical words（function words）:Those that mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, clause complex, or even text are grammatical words, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Lexical words（content words）:Those that mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, are lexical words.③Closed-class words and open-class words 封闭类词和开放类词Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the Closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others.Open-class word: the Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventionsor discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly added to the lexical system of a language.④Word class（part of speech）词类This is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar.Nine word classes were established: they were noun, verb, adjective, adverb, conjunction, preposition, article, pronoun, and interjection.Today, a few more word classes have been introduced into grammer.i. Particles助词Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to” , the negative marker “not”, and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.ii. Auxiliaries助动词Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.iii. Pro-form代词形式The items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions are called Pro-forms. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.iv. Determiners限定词Determiners refer to those words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun group, and that determine the kind of reference the nominal group has.第三部分Word formation 词汇构成1. Word formation（1）：From Morpheme to Word 从词素到词(1) The inflectional way of formationInflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which don’t change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, Table/tables.(2) The derivational way of formationDerivation, in its restricted sense, refers to the process of how new words are formed. It can be further divided into two sub-types: the derivational type (derivation) and the compositional type (compound).①Derivation派⽣Derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes. In contrast to inflections, derivations can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.E.g. Changed: delight+ful=delightful; unchanged: non+smoker= nonsmoker②Compound合成Compounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, cloakroom, railway. It can be divided into two types:(1) Invention 发明法Technological and economic activities are the most important and dynamic in modern human life, many new lexical items come directly from them, such as Coke, nylon.(2) Blending 混成法Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, smoke+ fog →smog; breakfast + lunch →brunch.(3) Abbreviation / Clipping 缩写法/截断法A new word is created by cutting the initial part or the final part or cutting both the initial and the final parts of the original words. E. g. telephone→phone; fanatic→fan; influenza→flu.(4) Acronym ⾸字母缩略词Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. E. g. WTO→World Trade Organization(5) Back-formation 逆构词法Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. E. g. editor→edit(6) Analogical creation 类推构词法The principle of analogical creation can account for the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs. E. g. work →wrought →worked.(7) Class shift 词性变换By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a word from a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. This process of word formation is also known as zero-derivation, or conversion. E. g. Engineer(v/n)(8) Borrowing 借⽤English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages, such as Greek, French, Spanish and other languages have all played an active role in this process. There are four types of borrowing:①Loanwords（全部借词）：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change.E. g. coup d’ état , tea , 秀，脱⼝秀②Loanblend（混合借词）：a process in which part of the form is native and the rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. E. g. Chinatown 吉普车③Loanshift（转移借词）：a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native. E. g. artificial satellite from the Russian S putnik.④Loan translation（翻译借词）：a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language, also called Calque. E. g. black humor (humour noir), found object (objet trouve).第四部分Word group and phrase 词组和短语Word group is a group of words, it is an expansion of a word.Phrase is a contraction of a clause nominal group, such as Verbal group, Adverbial group, preposition group.。
新编英语语言学教程课件chapter 3 morphology
Chapter 3 Lexicon
范雪菲
3.1 What is word?
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
＊A physically definable unit (自然的有界限的单位）
• 3.1.3 classification of words
• Variable and invariable words
variable words----one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. “ follow-followsfollowing”
※some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic
analysis: particles, auxiliaries, pro-form(代词形式“So
do I “), determiners
Determiners
• It refers to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has: definite (the) or indefinite( an ), partitive ( some ), or universal (all).
语言学--Chapter-3
Chapter 3: Tables and ExercisesTable 3.2 Some of the features required for classifying English sounds.Feature name ClassificatorypossibilitiesEnglish segmentsV oice [+voice] b, d, g, m, n, v, 3 ,dз , ŋ , ð , z, w, r, l, j (and all vowels) [-voice] p, t, k, f, s, θ, ʃPlace [labial] p, b, m, f, v[denti-alveolar] θ, ð , t, d, n, s, z, l, r[palatal] ʃ, 3, j (and front vowels)[velar] k, g, w ( and back vowels)Stop [stop] p, t, k, b, d, g, m, n[fricative] f, s, v, z, ʃ, 3, θ, ð[Approximant] w, r, l, j (and all vowels)Nasal [+nasal] m, n, ŋ[-nasal] ( all other speech sounds)Lateral [+lateral] l[-lateral] ( all other speech sounds)Sibilant [+sibilant] s, z, ʃ, 3 , tʃ, dз[-sibilant] ( all other speech sounds)Height [maximum] ( all consonants except w, j )[4 height] i: , u:, w, j[3 height] ei, i, əu, u[2 height] e, ɔ[1 height] æ, ɑ:Back [+back] u: , u, ɔ:, ɔ, əu, ɑ:, w, k, g[-back] i, i:, ei, e, æ ( and all other consonants) Syllabic [+syllabic] all vowels and some consonants as m, n, ŋ , l, r [-syllabic] all other consonants, including w, j .(Taken from Ladefoged, P. 1982: 39 with some minute revision)音节◌ɹn̩成音节◌e̯ʊ不成音节除阻◌ʰtʰ送气[a]◌d̚无声除阻◌ʱdʱ◌ⁿdⁿ鼻音除阻◌ˡdˡ边音除阻发音◌n̥d̥浊音清化◌s̬t̬浊化◌b̤a̤漏气音[b]◌b̰a̰吱嘎音发音部位◌t̪d̪齿化◌t̼d̼舌唇化◌t̺d̺舌尖化◌t̻d̻舌叶化◌u̟t̟较前◌i̠t̠较后◌ëä较央◌e̽ɯ中央化◌e̝ɹ较高（抬）(ɹ = 有声齿龈嘶音擦音)◌˔˔◌e̞β̞较低（降）(β̞= 双唇近音)◌˕˕协同发音◌ɔx̹更圆唇◌ɔx̜ʷ更展唇◌ʷtʷ dʷ唇化或唇-软颚化◌ʲtʲ dʲ颚化◌ˠtˠ dˠ软腭化◌ˤtˤ aˤ喉壁化◌ᶣtᶣ dᶣ唇-卷舌化◌̴ɫz̴软腭化或喉壁化◌e̘o̘舌根前移◌e̙o̙舌根后移◌ẽz̃鼻音化◌˞ɚɝ卷舌化( 2 ) V(owel) [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $This rule can be explained in the following way piece by piece:V [ +nasal ] / ___ [ + nasal] $Vowels become nasalized in the before nasal within aenvironment segments syllable(8)The syllable structure for the words with one syllable:σOnset RhymeNucleus Codas p l i n t s →[splints] (10). The syllable structure for words with more than one syllableσσOnset Rhyme Onset RhymeNucleus Coda Nucleus Codas e n t r əl [sentrəl] central(11) Some examples for the words with one syllable.Front onset onset back onset vowel front coda coda back coda back coda back coda（1）（2）（3）Nucleusonset (peak)codae.g.: eye ai [ai]it i t [it]me m i: [mi:]bit b i t [bit] scrimps s k r i m p s [skrimps] screen s k r i: n [skri:n] twelfths t w e l f θs [twelfθs](12) Different intonations representing different attitudes of the speaker(Radford 2000:48).a. b. c. d. e.me me ? me! me me ?!eat peas eat peas ? eat peas ! eat peas eat peas ?!↓↗￣↘／￣↘↗A simple statement, a question, a strong assertion, a matter of fact assertion, disbeliefEXERCISES(Exercise I, II, III are adapted from the exercises 299-310 in Fromkin,et al.(2007), Exercises IV, V are revised according to those provided in Radford (2000): 101-102. )Exercises IMinimal pairs can be used to find the phonemes of the particular language; find the sets of minimal pairs for each pair of English consonants given below:/k/ ---/g/, /b/---/m/, /l/---/r/, /p/---/f/, /s/---/ʃ/,/tʃ/--- /dз/, /e/---/æ/, /n/---/ŋ/, /θ/--- /ð/, /i/---/i:/,Exercises IIIn some dialects of English, the following words have different vowels, as is shown by the phonetic transcriptions (in American transcription [ai] is transcribed as [aj]):A. B. C.bite [bʌjt] bide [ bajd] die [daj]rice [rʌjs] rise [rajz] by [baj]ripe [rʌjp] bribe [brajb] sigh [saj]wife [wʌjf] wives [wajvz] rye [raj]dike [dʌjk] dime [dajm] guy [gaj]a.How may the classes of sounds that end the words in columns A and B becharacterized? that is, what feature specifies all the final segments in Aand all the final segments in B ?b.How do the words in column C differ from those in columns A and B ?c.Are [ʌj] and [aj] in complementary distribution? Give your reasons.d.Give the phonetic representations of the following words as they would bespoken in the dialect described here:Life [ ], lives [ ], lie [ ], file [ ], bike [ ], lice [ ]e.Formulate a rule that will relate the phonemic representations to thephonetic representations of the words given above.Exercises IIIConsider the following English verbs. Those in column A have stress on next-to-last syllable, whereas the verbs in column B and C have their last syllable stressed.A. B. C.astonish collapse amazeexit exist improveimagine resent surprisecancel revolt combineelicit adopt believepractice insist atonea.Transcribe the words under columns A, B, and C phonemically.( Use aschwa for the unstressed vowels.)b.Consider the phonemic structure of the stressed syllables in these verbs.What is the difference between the final syllables of the verbs in columns Aand B? Formulate a rule that predicts where stress occurs in the verbs incolumns A and B.c.In the verbs in column C, stress also occurs on the final syllable. Whatmust you add to the rule to account for this fact ? ( Hint: for the forms incolumns A and B, the final consonants had to be considered; for the formsin column C, consider the vowels.)Exercises IVRecall that the symbol = means an unaspirated consonant and the symbol h means aspiration. Show how the pattern of data below can be explained by the Maximal Onset Principle. Assume that separate words are syllablified separately.1a. stub [st =ʌb] 2a. spare [sp= eə] 3a. scar [sk=ɑ: ]b. this tub [ðis t hʌb] b. this pear [ðis p h ea] b. this car [ðis k h ɑ:]c. disturb [dist=ə:b] c. despair [disp= eə] c. discard [disk=ɑ:d]Exercises VBreak the following words into syllables, and applying the Maximal Onset Principle, identify the onsets, nuclei and codas by providing a diagram such as that in (10).a, comfortable, b, secretary, c, cooperation, d, confessional.Exercises VIIn the discussion of the phonological rules, we have a deletion rule stated as Delete a /g/ when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. Thus, in the pairs like sign / signature, design / designation, paradigm / paradigmatic,there is not a phonetic [g] in the first word; but in the pairs like gnosis / agnostic, the pronunciation of the first word is also lack a phonetic [g]. Can you give a more general rule describing these data ?Exercises VIISuppose / d / is the basic form of the pronunciation of the past-tense morpheme–ed; given the following data, please form some rules to explain the past-tense formation of regular verbs as those in section 3.Set A: grab [græb], grabbed [græbd], hug [hʌg], hugged [hʌgd]; faze[ feiz], fazed [feizd]; roam [rəum], roamed [rəumd].Set B: reap[ri:p], reaped [ri:pt]; poke [pəuk], poked [pəukt]; kiss [kis], kissed [kist]; patch [pætʃ], patched [pætʃt]Set C. fight [fait], fighted [faitəd], load [ləud], loaded [ləudəd]Exercises VIIIIn the pronunciation of the word speak [sp=i:k], bean [bi:n], the phonemes /p/, /i:/ may be described according to its phonetic features as the following:/p/: [voiceless, labial, stop, unaspirated], /i:/: [voiced, high, front, spread, nasalized]. Among these features, which features may be distinctive, which are nondistinctive features? Give the reasons to support your argument.[文档可能无法思考全面，请浏览后下载，另外祝您生活愉快，工作顺利，万事如意!]。
《语言学教程》第-3-章---形态学PPT
语素是比词更小的语法单位。
1.语素是比词更小的单位，有语法意义和词汇意 义。
2.语素是在词的范围内，表现为由若干个音位构 成的组合，具有语法意义或词汇意义。
3.语素是一种词汇或语法单位，具有稳定性，体 现为由一个或多个音位构成的组合。
关于语素定义的汇总
1. 就语音与语义的关系而言，语素是语言中最小的单位；
words
（多语素词）
[根据语素间的地 位是否完全平等]
compound [复合词] inflectional words [屈折词] derivative words [派生词]
derivative inflectional words
[派生屈折词]
F+F
F+BI
F+BD, BD+F+BD
BD+B F+BD+BI BD+F+BI
7. 是一种词汇或语法单位，具有稳定性，体现为一个或多
个由若干个音位构成的组合。
关于语素定义的要点概括
1. 语素是在词的范围内。[所在地] 2. 语素是最小的词汇语法单位，也是最小的意义
单位，具有词汇意义和语法意义。[兼为形式单位 和意义单位] 3. 语素本身具有稳定性，不可再分割，除非丧失 意义。[具有稳定性] 4. 语素体现为若干个音位构成的组合。 [物质表 现形式]
irMeaning: not Form: Allomorph
irregular │ /ir/
Sound: phoneme
（2）形态变化
-eth
主语是 do(e)th goeth hath findeth hopeth
第三人 称单数
现在 does goes has finds hopes
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes: Phonological: Orthographic: It’s wonderful. Are they two words or three?
A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked How many words are there?
Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into prefix (dis-, un-) and suffix (-en, -ify).
2.1 Morphemes
The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little Postdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen
I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven. How many times did the word “have” occur?
A lexical item or a lexeme
A lexical item is an entry in a dictionary. A lexeme WRITE includes all of its grammatical forms:
Pre all all
Central her her her
Post many many
Modifier Noun
many all what a the one a few both my father’s
good good good good good good good good
ideas ideas ideas ideas ideas ideas idea idea ideas parents
பைடு நூலகம்
Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.
write, writes, writing, wrote, written
A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme Problem: blackboard
1.2 Identification of words
Stability: stable linguistic units. chairman, but not *manchair Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment. But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary ...
A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg
--Is Jane coming tonight? --Possibly. Hi. Wonderful.
Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms. Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his. Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too. Pro-locative: He went there.
Closed-class vs. Open-class Words: Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added, eg friend root>base friendly root/base+suffix>base unfriendly prefix+base>base unfriendliness base+suffix>base?
Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.
Chapter Three Lexicon
1. What is word?
A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. A vague definition. Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.
2.2 Types of morphemes
Free vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table,
nation.
Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.
*their all trouble *five the all boys *all this boy *all both girls
2. Morphology
Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components -- morphemes.
Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, what (exclamative) Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another,
1.1 Three senses of “word”
A physical unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, eg Phonological: Orthographic: It is wonderful. Three words are recognized.