Chapter3 Morphology
Chapter 3. Morphology 简明英语语言学 戴炜栋
Roots(词根) A root is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. That means it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. E.g international disheartened
2.2 Types of morphemes Free morpheme(自由词素) A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word by itself. E.g bed, tree, sing, dance Bound morpheme(粘附词素) A bound morpheme is one that cannot appear alone. It may appear with at least one other morpheme. E.g “-s” in “dogs” “-al” in “national”
Words have Structure The simplest way to form new words out of old elements is by compounding V N V baby sit N N N church yard
英语专业词汇学第三章课本及答案
Chapter 3 Morphological Structure of English Words We have discussed the historical, cultural and social factors that facilitate (使……容易；推动) the development of the English vocabulary. Borrowing, as we see, has been playing an active role in the expansion of vocabulary. In modern times, however, vocabulary is mainly enlarged on an internal basis. That is, we use word-building material available in English to create new words. But before we discuss the actual ways and means to make new words, we need to have a clear picture of the structure of English words and their components (成分) —word-forming elements. This chapter will discuss morphemes(语素；词素), their classification(分类) and identification(辨别), the relationship between morphemes and word-formation(构词法).3.1 MorphemesTraditionally, words are usually treated as the basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules(句法规则). Structurally, however, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units. Take decontextualization for example. This is one word, but can be broken down into de-, con-, text, -a/ , -iz(e), -ation , each having meaning of its own. These segments (部分) cannot be furtherdivided; otherwise, none of them would make any sense. Though -ation has a number of variants (变体) such as -tion, -sion, -ion, they belong to the same suffix as they have the same meaning and grammatical function and occur owing to (因为；根据) different sound environment. These minimal meaningful units are known as morphemes (morphe is the Greek word for 'form'; -eme as in 'phoneme' (音素) means 'class of' ). In view of word-formation, the morpheme is seen as 'the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words' (Crystal 1985). Syntactically(从句法上看), however, a morpheme is the minimal form of grammatical analysis (语法分析). For instance, each of the word-forms studies, studying, studied, consists of the morpheme study + ; the forms -es in studies, -ing in studying, -ed in studied are morphemes, which express grammatical concepts (语法概念) instead of deriving new words (See Classifying Morphemes).3.2 Morphs and Allomorphs(词素变体)Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units (具体单位) known as morphs(形素). 'They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning' (Bolinger and Sears 1981:43). In other words the phonetic or orthographic strings(语音串或拼写字串)or segments (切分成分；节) which realize morphemes are termed 'morphs' (Bauer 1983:15). The morpheme isto the morph what a phoneme (音位) is to a phone (音素). Most morphemes are realized by single morphs like bird, tree, green , sad, want, desire, etc. . These morphemes coincide (巧合) with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence. Words of this kind are called mono-morphemic words. Some morphemes, however, are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. For instance, the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a set of morphs in different sound context, e. g. in cats /s/, in bags /z/, in matches /iz/. The alternates (作为替换的事物) /s/, /z/ and /iz/ are three different morphs. The same is true of the link verb morpheme {be}. Its past tense is realized by two distinct orthographic forms was , were, each of which happens to be a word-form, realizing {preterit} and {singular}, and {preterit} and {plural} respectively and each has its own phonetic form /woz/ or /wə:/. Therefore, both was, were and their phonetic forms /woz/ and /wə: / are morphs (See discussion in Bauer, p15).An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme. Just as we class phones(音素) together as allophones (音位变体) of a single phoneme(音位), so we class morphs together as allomorphs of a single morpheme. Take the plural morpheme {-s} again. Phonetically, it is realized by /s/, /z/, /iz/, all of which are allomorphs. In English, many morphemes canhave more than one allomorph, particularly those freestanding morphemes which are functional words in their own right. Once they occur in connected speech, they may be realized by different forms, depending on whether they are accented or weakened (Look at the data in the table).Morphem e AllomorphStrong Weak{am} /aem/ /əm/, /m/{ was} /woz/ /WəZ/{have } /haev/ /həv/, /v/{would } /wud/ /wəd/, /əd/,/d/{he} /hi:/ /i:/, /i/{his} /hiz/ /iz/{for} /fo:/ /fə/{to} /tu:/ /tu/, /tə/Then what is the difference between morphs and allomorphs? The relationship can be illustrated by the diagram below.Morpheme{would}morph morph morph morph →allomorph/wud/ /wəd/ /əd/ /d/3.3 Classifying MorphemesMorphemes vary in function. Accordingly, we can classify morphemes into several general categories: free versus bound, derivational versus inflectional, and lexical versus grammatical. However, their boundaries are not as clear-cut as they appear to be due to some overlapping(重叠). For the sake of discussion, we shall define each type in terms of its characteristics.1. Free versus Bound Morphemes(自由词素与粘着词素)This is the easiest and most preferred classification in morphological studies, discussed in Hatch and Brown (1995), Crystal (1985), Fromkin and Rodman (1983), Bauer (1983), Bolinger and Sears (1981) and Matthews (2000). Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are free. These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. They are identical with(与……完全相同) words, for example, man, earth, wind, car and anger.Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound. They are so named because they are bound to other morphemes to form words or to perform a particulargrammatical function.Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words (派生词). Let us take recollection, idealistic and ex-prisoner for example. Each of the three words comprises three morphemes: recollection (re- collect-ion) , idealistic (ideal-ist-ic) , ex-prisoner (ex- prison -er). Of the nine morphemes, collect, ideal and prison can stand by themselves and thus are free morphemes. All the rest re-, -ion , -ist, -ic, ex-and -er are bound as none of them are freestanding units.Free morphemes are all roots, which are capable of being used as words or as word-building elements to form new words like collect, ideal, prison , whereas bound morphemes consist of either roots or affixes, most of which can be used to create new words like -dict- , -ced- (接近；去), re-, -ion, -ist, -ic and ex-(前). But there are a few affixes which can only indicate such grammatical concepts as tense, aspect, number and case, for example, the -ing in watching, -er in easier, -s in books, and -ed in worked.The English language possesses a multitude of (大量的) words made up of merely bound morphemes, e. g. antecedent, which can be broken down into ante-, -ced- and -ent. Among them, -ced- is a root meaning 'approach, go to', ante-, a prefix meaning 'before' and -ent, a noun suffix meaning 'a person, a thing', thus the whole word antecedent meaning 'something that goes before'(前例；前事；先行词；祖先). These examples show clearly that bound morphemes include two types: bound root (See Root, Stem, Base) and affix.2. Derivational versus Inflectional MorphemesMorphemes which are used to derive new words are known as derivational morphemes (派生词素) because when these morphemes are conjoined, new words are derived.In English, derivatives and compounds are all formed by such morphemes. For example, a + mor + ai, clear + ance, Life + Like and homo + gen + eous are results of such morphological processes.Inflectional morphemes(屈折词素), in contrast, indicate the syntactic relationships between words and function as grammatical markers. Inflectional morphemes are confined to suffixes. There is the regular plural suffix -s (-es) which is added to nouns such as machines, fridges, desks, radios and potatoes; the same forms can be added to verbs to indicate the simple present for the third person singular such as likes, works and goes; the form -'s is used to denote the possessive case of nouns such as the children ' s library, the man ' s role and the mother-in-law' s complaints; the suffixes -er, -est are usually attached to simple adjectives or adverbs to show their comparative or superlative degrees like happier—happiest,harder—hardest. Apart from these, there is the past tense marker -ed and progressive marker -ing added to verbs. The differences between inflectional and derivational morphemes can be summarized as follows (See Hatch and Brown, p266): Inflectional Derivational(1) Does not change meaning or part of speech of the stem (1) Changes meaning or part of speech of the stem.(2) Indicates syntactic or semantic relations between different words in a sentence.(2) Indicates semantic relations within the word.(3) Occurs with all members of some large class of morphemes.(3) Occurs with only some members of a class of morphemes.(4) Occurs at margins of words.(4) Occurs before any inflectional suffixes added.3. Content versus Grammatical MorphemesOn a semantic and syntactic basis, morphemes can fall into content and grammatical morphemes (Traugott and Pratt 1980:90; Bolinger and Sears, pp66~70; Hatch and Brown, p267). Content morphemes are lexical morphemes which are used as wesee above to derive new words, so also known as derivational morphemes. These morphemes, whether free or bound, have a lexical content, hence the name. Grammatical morphemes, on the other hand, function primarily as grammatical markers. They encompass both inflectional affixes and free morphemes such as in, and, do, have, they, -while, -where, but and that, which are traditionally called functional words.3.4 Identifying Morphemes(词素的区分)Since morphemes are the minimal distinct units, they should be identifiable by their forms, meaning and distribution. Generally speaking, lexical morphemes are easy to define:Mono-morphemic: land, skyDouble-morphemic: chill + y, mis + takeTriple-morphemic: anti + govern + ment, sports + man + shipFour-morphemic:un + friend + li + ness, morph + olog( i) + cal + lyOver-four-morphemic: inter + nation + al + iz(e) + ationIf the morphemes are always consistent in form and meaning, there should be no difficulty in identification(区分). However, thereis often mismatch(不一致)between form and meaning. Some morphemes are identical(相同的) in form but different in meaning, for instance, -er in teacher, clearer and eraser. -er in teacher means 'one who', but -er in clearer indicates 'the comparative degree', and -er in eraser denotes 'an object'. Therefore, -er in each case is a different morpheme.Some morphemes are not meaningful in isolation(单独)but acquire meaning by virtue of(通过)their connection in words (Fromkin and Rodman, p116). The classic examples are cranberry(越橘), huckleberry (黑果；乌饭树浆果)and boysenberry(博弈增莓), each seeming to be a kind of berry. But when cran-, huckle- and boysen- are isolated, they are meaningless and they are incapable of forming new words with other morphemes rather than with berry. There are other morphemes which occur in many words, but their meaning is difficult to define, for instance, -ceive in conceive (想象；设想), perceive(感觉，察觉；认为)and receive. Some forms are meaningful, but not morphemes, such as fl- meaning 'moving light' in flash , flame and flicker(闪烁，忽隐忽现), and gl-meaning 'static light' in glow(发光，燃烧)，glisten (闪耀；反光)and glitter(闪光；光彩夺目). These are only sound symbols often employed by poets in their literary creation but do not qualify as morphemes.The identification of inflectional morphemes is more problematic. In most cases, an inflectional morpheme can be segmented (切分)from the stem of a word and naturally can be added to the stem like the plural morpheme {s} in gloves, tables and classes. But what is the plural morpheme in men, sheep and feet ? The same is true of the past tense morpheme {ed} , which is explicit and segmentable in walked, loaded and danced. How can we isolate the past tense morpheme from knew, taught and cut ? To solve the problem, we have to resort to other ways.3.5 Morpheme and Word-formationWe know that words can be analyzed into morphemes, which are the minimal meaningful units in the composition of words. In word-formation, however, morphemes are conventionally labeled root, stem, base and affix.1. AffixAffixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All affixes are bound morphemes because none of them can stand as words in their own right. According to the functions of affixes, we can divide them into inflectional affixes like -s, -ed and -ing, and derivational affixeslike pre-, ex-, de-, -less, -dom and -ic. Derivational and inflectional affixes are identical with derivational and inflectional morphemes. In view of their distribution in the formation of words, affixes can fall into prefix and suffix. Prefixes are all derivational, i.e. they are used to form new words whereas suffixes embrace(包括) both derivational suffixes and inflectional suffixes. Accordingly, the above-mentioned affixes can be further grouped into prefixes: pre-, ex- and de-y and suffixes: -less, -dom, -zc, -5, -ed and -ing.2. Root, Stem, BaseBefore we begin our actual discussion of word-building processes, there are some basic concepts that need clarifying(澄清). The processes of derivation and compounding involve different word-forming elements: affixes and root or stem or base. Indeed, some people use root or stem undiscriminatingly (不加区别地) on all occasions. But these three terms are not the same, and they denote to a greater or lesser degree different concepts despite the semantic overlapping between them.A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity (Crystal 1985). As mentioned earlier, the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the maincomponent of meaning in a word. In the word internationalists, removing inter- , -at, -ist, -s leaves the root nation. If we further divide nation as * na/tion or * at /ion, though -tion and -ion coincide with the noun suffix, the other part is meaningless and the original lexical identity is totally lost. Therefore, nation defies(使不能；使落空)further analysis. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a 'root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed' (Bauer 1983). Take internationalists again. After the removal of the inflectional affix -s and the derivational affixes -ist, -al and inter-, nation is what is left and thus is the root.A stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a compound like handcuff. It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, understatement. To make things more clearly, we say that the stem is used only when we deal with inflectional affixes. As Bauer defines, a stem is 'that part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed' (ibid). In other words, any form to which an inflectional affix is attached is a stem. Consider the word internationalists again. Nation is a root as well as a stem as the plural -s can be added to it; national is not a root as it can be further divided, but a stem because an inflectionalaffix -s can be added to it when used as a noun; similarly, international is not a root but a stem for the same reason. This is also true of internationalist, which is a stem.A base is used in this book as an all-purpose term, referring to a form to which affixes of any kind (both derivational and inflectional) can be added. It can be a root or a stem. In the case of internationalists, nation is a base, national is a base, so are international and internationalist.nation(root, stem, base)national(stem, base)international(stem, base)internationalist (stem, base)InternationalistsIt should be noted that such an example gives the impression that a stem is just as good as a base. This is not true. In many cases, a form of word can neither be a root nor a stem, but only a base. This often happens when we deal with derivational affixes exclusively, for example impracticality(不切实际；无用；不现实). Removing the derivational affix -ity leaves only the base form impractical, and by further removing im- we have the base form practical left and by still further analysis, only practice remains.impracticalityimpractical (base)practical(base)practice(root, stem, base)Therefore, in the chapters to follow, we shall employ only the term base to refer to any basic word-building element.英语词汇学第三单元课后练习及答案Questions and Tasks1. Write the terms in the blanks according to the definitions.a. a minimal meaningful unit of a language ( )b. one of the variants that realize a morpheme ( )c. a morpheme that occurs with at least one other morpheme ( )d. a morpheme that can stand alone ( )e. a morpheme attached to a base, stem or root ( )f. an affix that indicates grammatical relationships ( )g. an affix that forms new words with a base, stem or root ( )h.what remains of a word after the removal of all affixes ( )i. that part of a word that can take inflectional affixes ( ) j. a form to which affixes of any kind can be added ( )2. What is the difference between grammatical and lexicalmorphemes, and inflectional and derivational morphemes?Give examples to illustrate their relationships.3. Analyze the words in terms of root, stem and base.individualistic undesirablesanize the following terms in a tree diagram to show their logical relationships.affix morphemederivational affix free rootbound root inflectional affixprefix free morphemebound morpheme suffix参考答案1. a. morphemeb. allomorphc. bound morphemed. free morphemee. affixf. inflectional affixg. derivational affixh. rooti. stemj. base2. Inflectional morphemes are the suffixes added to the end ofwords to denote grammatical concepts such as -s (-es) , -ed,-ing and -est (to show superlative degree of adjectives andadverbs) whereas derivational morphemes are prefixes andsuffixes added to words to form new words such as pre-, dis-, un- , -lion, -er, -ness and so on.Grammatical morphemes are those used to show grammatical concepts, including inflectional suffixes as mentioned above and functional words (prepositions, pronouns, articles,auxiliary verbs), for example, but, the, do and was; lexicalmorphemes are derivational affixes including both prefixesand suffixes.3.individualisticindividualist+ic[stem, base]individual+ist[stem, base]individu+al[stem, base]in+dividu[root, stem, base]undesirablesun+desirable[stem, base]desir+able[root, stem, base]4. morpheme free morpheme=free rootbound morpheme bound rootaffix inflectional affixderivational affix prefixsuffix。
语言学Morphology形态学课件
chairman﹡manchair
The chairman looked at the audience. The audience looked at the chairman. 2) Relative uninterruptibility: New elements cannot be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. disappointment dis + appoint + ment Paul, (Jane) and Rebecca are my classmates.
语言学Morphology形态学
1. Word
Word: a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether spoken or written
1.1 Three senses of “word”: 1) A physically definable unit:
members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Note: The distinction is not quite as clear-cut as it seems. Prepositions: regarding, throughout, out of, according to, with regard to, in spite of, be means of ; Auxiliary verbs
语言学复习重点Chapter 3
Chapter Three ——Morphology(形态学）Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed.Word is a minimal free form with a unity of sound and meaning.The classification of words ：1、variableand invariable words（可变化词和不变词）Variable words are those words which can take inflective endings;E.g write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.invariable words are those that cannot.E.g since, when, seldom, through, etc.2、grammatical and lexical words(语法词和词汇词)词汇词也即实词，又译作notional/content word ;语法词也即虚词，又称function/form word 功能词/形式词3、c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)According to their membership:c1osed- class and open-class words (封闭类词和开放类词)An close class is one whose membership is in principle fixed or limited. （封闭类：连介代冠）An open class is one whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited. (开放类：名动形副数叹)一、Morph Morpheme AllomorphMorph:The phonological and orthographic forms that represent morpheme are called morphs.[swi:t]{sweet}SweetMorpheme：The smallest unit of language.It can be represented as1-morpheme un-,-ish,-s.-ed1-morpheme word boy,desire2-morpheme wordboy+ish, desir(e)+ableAllomorphA morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs.im possible{in} in convenientir regular tax.il logical-s [-s] book books{plural} -es [-iz] box boxes-i [-ai] mouse miceConclusion:All the allomorphs should have the same meaning.All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution.The allomorphs with the same meaning should function the same in the language grammar structure.二、Classification of morpheme1、Free vs. Bound morphemesFree morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves,e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone,e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, i.e. it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed.e.g. Dislike, impolite, production,Membership, carelessnessfriend as in unfriendliness.Root may befree: those that can stand by themselves,e.g. black+board; nation+-al; orbound: those that cannot stand by themselves,e.g. -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive.Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided intoprefix (dis-, un-) andsuffix (-en, -ify).Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added,e.g.friend root > basefriendly root/base + suffix > baseunfriendly prefix + base > baseStem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added,e.g. friend+-s;friendship swrite+-ing,possibility+-es.Note:A stem can be equivalent to a root.A stem may contain a root and aderivational affix.2、Derivational vs Inflectional morphemeInflection indicates:case and number of nouns,tense and aspect of verbs,degree of adjectives or adverbs.Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, e.g. friend+-ly > friendly.三、Word-formationCompoundingAffixationOther formation1、CompoundingTwo or more free roots combine to make a new word.✧Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill✧Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit✧Adjective compounds: gray-haired, insect-eating, dutyfree✧Preposition compounds: into, throughoutEndocentric& exocentricEndocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; e.g. self-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, e.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crowbreakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compoundsSolid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguardHyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-lengthOpen: coffee table, washing machineFree variation:businessman, business-man, business manwinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottleno one, no-one, noone2、Affixation✧Nominal forms: boys, boy’s✧Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting✧Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest3、DerivationClass-changing:✧N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard✧N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless✧V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant✧V>A: acceptable, adorable✧A>N: rapidness, rapidity✧A>V: deafen, sweeten✧Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly4、Other formations:1）Blendingtransfer+resistor>transistorsmoke+fog>smog2）Acronym①AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome②ASAP: as soon as possible3）Abbreviation/InitialismAI: artificial intelligencea.s.a.p.: as soon as possibleECU: European Currency Unit4）ClippingBack-clippings: ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sFore-clippings: (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings: (de)tec(tive)5）Back-formationdiagnose < diagnosisenthuse < enthusiasmlaze < lazy6）Invention/CoinageMostly brand names:Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, LycraCoca-cola, Orlon and Dacron7)BorrowingFrench: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasySpanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate,8)Conversion 转换e.g. to butter the bread, take a look, empty a box, up the price9）Eponymsare words that originate from proper names of individuals or places.e.g. Sandwich (originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his food between two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling)ExerciseI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false.1. A morpheme must convey a lexical meaning.2. All words can be said to contain a root morpheme.3. Free morphemes can be further classified into inflectional and derivational morphemes.4. All words have morphs but not necessarily allomorphs.5. The word “modernizations”is made up of three morphemes.6. Derivational morphemes never change the class of the words to which they are attached.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with a proper word.Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the ___ ___ of words and the____ by which words are formed.[-t], [-d], and [-id] are ___of the morpheme –ed.“Careless”is the __ of the word “carelessness”.__ affixes,__affixes, and __roots are all bound morphemes.III. Questions1. Analyze and then tell how many morphemes each of the following words contain. unselfishness, justifiable, sporting2. What constitutes the internal structure of words?3. List the allomorphs of the morpheme plural.。
Chapter 3 Morphology 要点总结
Chapter 3 Morphology(形态学)1.What is morphology（形态学）?Morphology, as a branch of linguistics , is the study of the internal structure, forms and classes of words.eg. Unfriendly → un + friend + ly2.Morphemes(词素、语素)A morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.eg. Maps→(2 units)→map + s3.Types of morphemes:free morphemes(自由语素) and bound morphemes(黏着语素)1>Free morphemes(自由语素)A.Some morphemes can stand alone as words, such morphemes are called freemorphemes.B．Rooot(词根) & Stem(词干)❶Root：a root is the based form of a word which cannot be further analyzed . It may be a free morpheme(as black in blackbird, blackboard, blacksmith) as well as a bound morpheme( -ceive in perceive认识，deceive欺骗，receive).❷Stem: a stem is any morpheme or combination of morpheme to which an inflectional affix can be added (friend in friends, friendship in friendships are both stem).C . Free Morphemes can be divided into two categories. They are:Closed Class & Opened Class(封闭词类和开放性词类)❶Closed Class（functional morphemes）: a closed class is one whose membership is principle fixed or limited. (封闭类：连介代冠conjunctions, preposition, pronouns, articles)❷Open Class( lexical morphemes): an open class is one whose membership is principle indefinite or unlimited. (包括：名动形副数叹noun, verbs, adjectives)2>Bound Morphemes(黏着语素)A.Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as parts of words.Such morphemes are called bound morphemes.Bound morphemes are actually affixes(词缀)—>prefix(前缀), suffix(后缀), infix(中缀).eg. dis- , un- , -ity, -al, -sB. Two Categories of Bound Morphemes:Derivational Morphemes(派生语素) & Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素)❶Derivational Morphemes(派生语素): ~~ are used to make new words in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.eg. nouns→ verbs/ adj. verbs→ nouns/ adj.friend→ unfriend解除朋友关系( noun→ verb)❷Inflectional Morphemes(屈折语素):~~ are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word.①plurality(复数): - s, - es, - ies……②tense(时态): - s, - ing, - en, - ed……③possessive case(所有格): ’s④comparative/ superlative degree(比较级/最高级): -er, - esteg. dislikes → dis + +3> free morphemes(自由语素) & bound morphemes(黏着语素)❶All monomorphemic(单词素/单语素) words are free morphemes;❷These polymorphemic words are either compounds( combination of two or more free morphemes) or derivatives(words derived from free morphemes).4.Morphs(形素) and Allomorphs（语素变体）Morphs: the phonological and orthographic forms which realize morphemes are termed ― morphs‖.(语素的语音及对应拼写法的体现叫形素)Most morphemesSome morphemesAllomorphs: an allomorph is any of the different form of the same morpheme( 语素变体是同一个语素的不同形式).eg. plurality ―- s‖: map→ maps; dog→ dogs; class→ classed; mouse→ mice; sheep→ sheep Complementary distribution(互补分布)：allomorph is a member of a set of morph;allomorph can’ t occur in the same environment .5> Types of Word Formation(构词法)❶Compounding(合成法)Words are formed by putting two words together, this way of building new words is called compounding.❷Derivation(派生法)Derivation is done by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.❸Conversion(转换法)Many words have more than one part of speech. A noun can become a verb easily and a verb can be used as a noun.❹Backformation(逆向构词法)As we have editor, we get edit by dropping – or . This process is called ~~❺Clipping(截短法)This process by cutting off part of word is called ~~❻Blending(混合法)A single new word can also be formed by combining two separate forms, this process iscalled ~~~❼Acronymization(缩略法)。
语言学导论-第3章Morphology
Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
Definition: must be attached to another morpheme
Boy Boys Boy Boy’s Beauty Beautiful Expensive Inexpensive
New word???
Bound Morpheme 黏着词素
so-so
zigzag
bye-bye
dilly-dally
hotchpotch mishmash
…
人人, 天天, 一点点, 冷冰冰,
来来往往, 点点滴滴, ……
4.Blending 拼缀法
similar to compounding,
but some parts of the free morphemes involved
Morpheme: ‘minimal unit of sound and meaning’
A further division: whether they can occur on their own or not:
No:
Bound morpheme 黏着词素
-s in dog-s; -ed in kick-ed; cran- in cran-berry
no new word added not change syntactic class to indicate the grammatical function
E.g.: Only 8 kinds in English: N.: -’s, -s (plural nouns), V.: -ing, -ed/-en, -s (S-V agreement) Adj./Adv.: -est, -er.
语用学chapter3 Morphology
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1)A word can consist of one or more than one morphemes, eg, “a barking dog” 2)A morpheme is different from a phoneme(语素是语言中最小意义单位的载体， 本身有意义；音位是能区别意义的最小单位，本 身没有意义)eg, pan—ban; barks(-s 在这有表 示复数的语法意义，故它是语素，而“p ，b”在 这本身没有意义，但有区别两词意义的作用，所 以它们是不同的音位。
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Stem（词干）is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.eg, desks→desk(词干)→即一个词去掉屈 折词缀就是词干。 A) stem may be one morpheme ,that is stem=root=word= morpheme, eg, “work” B) stem may be “root+ derivational affix”:eg, teacher→teach+er; stem>root C) stem may be “root+root”; eg. housework→house+work 下词中哪个是词干：works/workers/workshops
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What is a word?
We
have three approaches to the definition of “word”.
英语语言学Linguisticschapter3练习答案
Chapter 3 Morphology1. Divide the following words into their separate morphemes byplacing a “+” between each morpheme and the next:a. microfilm e. telecommunicationb. bedraggled f. forefatherc. announcement g. psychophysicsd. predigestion h. mechanist答：a. micro + film b. be + draggle + edc. announce + mentd. pre + digest + ione. tele + communicate + ionf. fore + fatherg. psycho + physics h. mechan + ist2. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning, and specifythe types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least twoexamples of each.Model: -orsuffix: -ormeaning: the person or thing performing the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: actor, “one who acts in stage plays, motion pictures, etc.” translator, “one who translates”答：(1) suffix: -ablemeaning: something can be done or is possiblestem type: added to verbsexamples: acceptable, “can be accepted”respectable, “can be respected”(2) suffix: -lymeaning: functionalstem type: added to adjectivesexamples: freely. “adverbial form of ‘free’”quickly, “adverbial form of 'quick' ”．(3) suffix: -eemeaning: the person receiving the actionstem type: added to verbsexamples: employee, “one who works in a company”interviewee, “one who is interviewed”3. Think of three morpheme prefixes, give their meaning, andspecify the types of stem they may be prefixed to. Give at least twoexamples of each.Model: a-prefix: a-meaning: “without; not”stem type: added to adjectivesexamples: asymmetric, “lacking symmetry” asexual, “without sex or sex organs”答：(1) prefix: dis-meaning: showing an oppositestem type: added to verbs or nounsexamples : disapprove, “do not approve”dishonesty, “lack of honesty”．(2) prefix: anti-meaning: against, opposed tostem type: added to nouns or adjectivesexamples : antinuclear, “opposing the use of atomic weapons and power”antisocial, “opposed or harmful to the laws and customs of an organized community. ”(3) prefix: counter-meaning: the opposite ofstem type: added to nouns or adjectives.examples: counterproductive, “producing results opposite to those intended”counteract, “act against and reduce the force or effect of (sth.) ”4. The italicized part in each of the following sentences is aninflectional morpheme. Study each inflectional morpheme carefullyand point out its grammatical meaning.Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.The club has moved to Friday, February 22nd.The branches of the trees are moving back and forth.答：(1)-s, the third person singular, present simple tense(2)-ed, the past tense(3) has –ed, the present perfect(4) are+v-ing, the plural form; the present progressive5. Determine whether the words in each of the following groups arerelated to one another by processes of inflection or derivation.a) go, goes, going, goneb) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverabilityc) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’d) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize答：(1) go, goes, going, gone (inflection)go- the root formgo+es, simple present, 3rd person singulargo+ing, present participlegone, past participle(2) discover, discovery, discoverer, discoverable, discoverability (derivation)—dis-, prefix (added to the nouns to form verbs) meaning reversal-y, suffix (added after the verbs to form nouns) denoting a state or an actionor its result-er, a noun suffix added to the verbs, meaning a person or thing that performa specified action or activity-able, an adjective suffix added to verbs meaning able to be-ability, a noun suffix, or a derivative suffix of –able, meaning having the quality as in manageability（可处理性）and suitability（合适性）.(3) inventor, inventor’s, inventors, inventors’ (a mixture of inflection or derivation)Derivation: invent+-orInflection: inventor’s, inventors’ indicating possessive case(4) democracy, democrat, democratic, democratize (derivation)-cy, added to the nouns ending with “t” to form another noun denoting astate governed in such a way.-ic, an adjective suffix, added to the nouns to form adjectives meaningrelated to or in resemblance with…-ize, a suffix added to the noun to form verbs denoting the conversion, transforming.6. The following sentences contain both derivational and inflectionalaffixes. Underline all of the derivational affixes and circle theinflectional affixes.a) The farmer’s cows escaped.b) It was raining.c) Those socks are inexpensive.d) Jim needs the newer copy.e) The strongest rower continued.f) She quickly closed the book.g) The alphabetization went well.答：(略)。
(完整word版)Chapter-3-Morphology--形态学(现代语言学)
Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学1.Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法学的一个分支，它研究的是单词的内在结构及单词的构成规则。
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules。
形态学的任务就是要找出这些规则（单词构成的规则）。
Morphology is divided into two sub-branches：inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.形态学可以划分两个分支：屈折形态学和词汇形态学（也叫派生形态学).前者研究的是单词的屈折变化，后者研究的是构词法。
2.Morpheme 词素2.1Morpheme： the smallest meaningful unit of language词素:语言中最小的意义单位Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology。
正如音位是音系学研究中的基本单位一样,词素是形态学研究中的基本单位。
Monomorphemic words 单词素单词2.2Types of morphemes 词素的类型2.2.1Free morphemes 自由词素The morphemes that are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves are called free morphemes。
第三章Morphology
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Ⅱ What’s morpheme?
Morpheme is the minimal distinctive unit of sound and meaning. It is the most elemental unit of grammatical form, and the central concern of morphology. It is also considered as ‘the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words. It is the minimal linguistic signs in all language.
P.79
Affix
An AFFIX is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language and are generally classified into three subtypes.depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
For example: Unusable contains three pieces: un-, use, -able
P.81
Root, base, stem
Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes(inflectional & derivational) are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and-ism, what is left is the root -nation.
Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology: The Word Structure of Language3.1 IntroductionMorphology, which literally means “the study of forms”, is about the structure of words. More specifically, it refers to the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Morphology is the area of grammar that attempts to answer the following questions: How is a word structured? What is the basic component part of a word? How are the component parts put together to form words? What are the word-formation processes in a language? How is the form of a word affected when it is used with other words or in a sentence?3.2 The words of languageIt is difficult to define the term “word”. For some people, words are physically definable units, whose boundaries are usually recognized by spaces in writing or slight pauses in speech. For others, a word is a unit of meaning and a unit of sound. There are still others who regard words as grammatical units that can function in a sentence. Stockwell & Minkova (2001: 56) characterize a word as the smallest unit that one thinks of as being basic to saying anything. It is the smallest unit of sentence composition and the smallest unit that we are aware of when we consciously try to create sentences. To put things together, we can define a word as the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech and writing (Richards et al., 1985: 311). For example, care, careless and careful are smallest linguistic units in speech and writing, so they are all words. Some people may argue that careless and careful are not smallest, because careless is made up of care and -less, and careful is made up of care and -ful. However, in speech and writing we do not use care and -less, or care and -ful separately. Some people may also argue that many words like the, so, of can hardly occur on their own, because they are almost always used with other words in speech and writing. This is true, but in this definition, “stand on its own” means that distinct from units like -less and -ful, a word is an individual unit of meaning that is not bound to any other units. This definition may not be perfect, but it captures the basic characteristics of a word. That is, a word is a sound-meaning unit and a fundamental unit of speech and writing.In discussing words, the following terms are also frequently used, and sometimes distinctionsare made as follows:●Lexis: the vocabulary of a language, in contrast to its grammar or syntax.●Lexicon: the set of all the words and idioms of any language, often used interchangeablywith vocabulary.●Lexeme: the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language, an abstract unit that remainsconstant. For example, give is the lexeme of its variants gave, given, giving.●Vocabulary: A complete inventory of the words in a language.Words can be classified into content words and function words. Content words are words which refer to a thing, quality, state, or action and which have stable lexical meaning or semantic content. They mainly include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Content words are also called lexical words or full words. Content words are also“open-class” words, because new words can be added to theses classes.Function words are words whose role is primarily to express grammatical relationships and such words have little meaning on their own except their grammatical meaning. They mainly include conjunctions, prepositions, auxiliaries and articles. Function words are also called form words, empty words, grammatical words, structural words or structure words. Function words are “closed-class”words because new words are not usually added to these classes.3.3 The structure of wordsAlthough words are the smallest of the linguistic units in speech and writing, they have an internal structure. That is, they are said to be made up of meaningful units of their own, as exemplified in the following:careful → care + fulsadness → sad + nessrealize → real + izedisobey → dis + obeyunthinkable → un + think +ableThese examples show that a word can be analyzed into minimal units of meaning. In disobey, there are two minimal units of meaning, one being dis- (meaning “not”), the other being obey.When words are used in sentences, the word-forms such as works, worked, working can alsobe analyzed into minimal units of meaning. In this case, the word-forms consist of one element work, and a number of other elements such as -s, -ed, -ing, which indicate various grammatical meanings.Thus, a word can be analyzed into the most elemental units of meaning. Some words are composed of one unit of meaning, like help, the, happy, apple. Some words consist of two or more than two units of meaning. For example, happily contains two minimal units of meaning, and ungentlemanliness contains five minimal units of meaning. The minimal unit of meaning is traditionally called morpheme. Thus, it can be said that a word is composed of at least one morpheme and it may be composed of more than one. Words that are formed by one morpheme only and cannot be analyzed into parts are called opaque words. Words that consist of more than one morpheme and can be segmented into parts are called transparent words.3.4 Morpheme, morph and allomorphA morpheme is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that cannot be further segmented. For example, the word morpheme itself contains two morphemes, morph-, meaning “form”, and -eme, meaning “unit”. We sometimes can predict the meanings of a word by identifying its morphemes.A morpheme is an abstract concept. The concrete form of a morpheme is called morph. That is to say, morphs are the actual forms used to realize morphemes. A morpheme may take different shapes or forms, which are called allomorphs. Thus, an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme.Why is there an abstract-concrete distinction here? One possible answer is that such a distinction is necessitated by morphological description. For example, the following group of words have one grammatical meaning in common: dogs, buses, sheep, men, geese, children, phenomena. They are all plural forms expressing the grammatical meaning of “more than one …”The plural meaning is expressed by -s in dogs, but by -es in buses. Things become more complicated when we look at the other words: what makes sheep the plural of sheep, or geese the plural of goose? Can we say that the plural meaning in all these words is expressed by different morphemes? Certainly not. There is only one morpheme involved here, and we may call it the morpheme “plural”. It can be attached to a number of lexical morphemes to produce structures like “dog + plural”, “sheep + plural”, “goose + plural”, and so on. The morpheme “plural” takesdifferent forms in actual realization, called morphs, and they are all allomorphs of the one morpheme. We can say that “dog + plural”, “sheep + plural”, “goose + plural”are abstract analyses at the morpheme-level, and are realized as dogs, sheep, geese at the morph-level (Yule, 2000: 79). This two-level analysis makes morphological description much easier, but very often the term “morpheme” is used for convenience when we actually refer to a morph. So many people refer to forms like -s and -ed, which are morphs, as morphemes.3.5 Classification of morpheme3.5.1 Free morphemes and bound morphemesA free morpheme is a morpheme which can stand by itself as an independent word, e.g. water, child, attack, and berry. A bound morpheme is a morpheme which cannot stand on its own as a word, but which is typically attached to another form, e.g. -dom in freedom, -hood in childhood, -ship in friendship and un- in undo. One the morphemic level, words can be classified into simple words, compound words and complex words according to the number and type of morphemes words contain:● A simple word consists of a single morpheme (which is certainly a free morpheme), e.g. hill,walk, great, element.● A compound word is composed of two or more free morphemes, e.g. blackboard, sunset,headstrong, forget-me-not.● A complex word consists either of a free morpheme together with one or more than onebound morpheme, or of two bound morphemes, e.g. cats, careful, unfriendly, contain, conceive, prelude.3.5.2 Roots and affixesA root is the basic unchangeable part of a word, and it conveys the main lexical meaning of the word. It is the part of a word remaining when all affixes have been removed. A root can be a free morpheme, e.g. work in worker, think in unthinkable, or a bound morpheme, e.g. ceive in perceive, tain in retain, vit in vital.An affix is a bound morpheme that is used only when added to another word or morpheme. It is used to mark the grammatical function of a word or create a new word. Affixes can be furtherclassified into inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes.3.5.3 Inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemesWhen a word appears in a variety of forms depending on its grammatical role in the sentence we say that it inflects or undergoes inflection (Radford et al., 2000: 154). Thus, an inflectional morpheme is an affix that indicates aspects of the grammatical function of a word, such as -s for plurality of countable nouns, -ed for past tense of verbs, -er and -est for the comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives or adverbs. An inflectional morpheme does not form a new word when it is added to another word, nor does it change the part of speech of the word to which it is affixed (with a few exceptions like -ing and -ed , as in the learning of a language , and the golden-haired woman ). The part of a word to which an inflectional affix is added is called a stem, e.g. talk in talked , farmer in farmers , classmate in classmates .A derivational morpheme is one that is used to form a new word. For example, -ment is added to move and the new word movement is derived. English is a language rich in derivational morphemes. Some derivational morphemes appear before another form, while others after another form. Thus, derivational morphemes can be classified into prefixes and suffixes according to their positions in the derived words. Besides, some derivational morphemes produce words of a different class from the word to which they are affixed, while others do not. All these properties of the derivational morpheme will be illustrated in the discussion of word formation.On the basis of what has been discussed above, we can make a classification of morphemes as shown in the following diagram:free root morpheme bound rootinflectionalaffix prefixderivationalsuffix3.6 Word formation processesWith the development of society, science and technology, new words constantly emerge andmany new words gain popularity and find their way into the English language. A new word or expression is often referred to as a neologism, which can be a coinage, i.e. a word or phrase that has been recently invented, or a word used with a new meaning. For example, glass ceiling and laptop are recent coinages, while mouse and memory in computer science are words with new meanings.Word formation is an area of derivational morphology which studies the processes of word building and the rules governing the formation of new words. New words are formed according to morphological rules which determine how morphemes combine to form new words. In English, there are major word formation processes which are productive, such as derivation, compounding and conversion, and minor word formation processes which are less productive, such as blending, clipping, back-formation and acronymy.3.6.1 DerivationDerivation is a process of word formation by which a new word is created by adding an affix to a base. Derivation is also called affixation. A base is that part of a word to which a derivational affix is added. Some people regard the term base as an alternative to root or stem. For example, in modernize, the base form is modern, and in modernization, the base form is modernize.Derivational morphemes can be classified into prefixes and suffixes according to their positions in the derived words. A morpheme added to the left of a base is a prefix, e.g. re- in reopen, en- in enable. Thus, the formation of a new word by adding a prefix to the base is called prefixation. A morpheme added to the right of a base is a suffix, e.g. -ize in civilize, -ness in illness. Thus, the formation of a new word by adding a suffix to the base is called suffixation.Prefixation usually produces words of the same class as the base, while suffixation very often produce words of a different class from the base, as can be seen in the examples below.From these examples, we can see that derivation has several properties. First, most words derived through suffixation have a different part of speech from the base, while most words derived through prefixation have the same part of speech as the base. Second, phonological factors sometimes work simultaneously with the derivational process. One example is that the suffix -en often goes with the monosyllabic adjectives which only have an obstruent at the end to derive words like darken, widen, deepen, and broaden. Another example is that the word stress is changed with some English suffixes like -itarian“human→humanitarian”, -ation“condense→condensation”, -cal“psychology →psychological”. Third, some derivational processes may involve a change in the lexical meaning. For example, negative affixes like dis-, un-, in-, non- and -less can be used to form words with a negative meaning.3.6.2 CompoundingCompounding is a word formation process by means of joining two or more words to form a new word. Words formed in this way are called compounds or compound words, e.g. greenhouse, daybreak, moonlight, round-the-clock. Words can be combined in various ways to form compounds, as shown in the following examples:There are primarily three types of compound words, noun compounds, verb compounds, and adjective compounds. The word class of a compound can be (but not always) predicted according to the following principles: (a) When the two words belong to the same class, the compound will belong to this class: noun + noun –masterpiece, paper clip, end product; adjective + adjective –icy-cold, gray-brown, red-hot. (b) When the two words fall into different classes, the class of the compound is generally determined by the class of the second or final word: verb + noun –driveway, pick-pocket; noun + adjectives – snow-white, life-long.Compounds differ from phrases in terms of stress patterns. The primary stress usually falls on the first part of a compound. Thus, a hot-line with a stress on hot refers to a frequent communication by phones, while a hot line with a stress on line can refer to a line, metal, plastic, or cotton that is hot, rather than cold. Pinker (1994: 133) provides us with a simple way to tell whether something is a compound word or a phrase: compounds generally have stress on the first word, phrases on the second. A dark ´room (phrase) is any room that is dark, but a ´dark room (compound word) is where photographers work.A compound is structurally stable and is used as a single unit. For example, greenhouse cannot be modified by adverbs. Although a very green house can be regarded as a phrase, * a very greenhouse is unacceptable as greenhouse is a compound noun. Nor can we use the comparative and superlative forms of green in the compound. Thus, * a greenerhouse does not exist as a compound, and a greener/greenest house becomes a phrase. This is also the case with other compounds like fine art and loud speaker.As a chunk expressing a single idea, the meaning of a compound cannot be inferred from theindividual component of the compound. A no-nonsense teacher does not refer to a teacher who does not talk nonsense, but one who is reliable, dependable, and strict with students. And a songbird may refer to a woman singer, not a bird that sings. Again, a sandpiper is a small wading bird having a slender bill and piping call, with a sense that has little to do with sand beach and a musical instrument. Similar analysis can be made of compounds like dog days and blue blood.3.6.3 ConversionConversion is word formation by means of converting words of one class into another. As conversion involves the shift of word class without the addition of an affix, it is also variously called zero derivation, root formation, functional shift, or derivation by zero suffix. This process often occurs between a number of word classes.a. noun to verb conversioncan: to can applesshelter: to shelter an orphanbutter: to butter breadweed: to weed the gardenelbow: to elbow the door openmother: to mother a childb. verb to noun conversiondoubt: to have no doubtwalk: to take a walkbet: to lay a betcover: to find a coverdivide: a divide between two riversc. adjective to noun conversionpoor: the poorwounded: the woundednative: a returned natived. adjective to verb conversionidle: to idle awaydim: to dim outfree: to free the slaveswarm: to warm the houseThere are also other types of conversion as shown in the following examples: to up a hill, to face the ups and downs of life, the then president. One thing worthy of note is that conversion may bring about shift of word stress, as shown in the following examples: per`mit(verb) –`permit (noun), re`cord (verb) –`record (noun), ex`port (verb) –`export (noun).3.6.4 BlendingBlending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are called blends. Blending involves parts of two words called “head” and “tail”. Head is the first part of a word, and tail is the final part of a word. Thus, blending can have the following types according to different kinds of combination.a. head + tail: motor + hotel = motelsmoke + fog = smogbreakfast + lunch = brunchb head + head: situation + comedy = sitcomcommunications + satellite = comsatformula + translator = Fortranc. word+ tail: lunar + astronaut = lunarnautwork + welfare = workfaretour + automobile = tourmobiled. head + word: medical + care = medicareEurope + Asia = Euroasiaautomobile + camp = autocampe. word + head: sky + laboratory = skylabmass + culture = masscultlaser + computer = lasercomp3.6.5 BackformationBackformation is a process of word formation by the deletion of a supposed affix. It reverses the process of derivation in the sense that it forms new words by removing rather than adding an affix. For example, edit is from editor, burgle from burglar, peddle from peddler, emote from emotion, free-associate from free-association, reminisce from reminiscence, grue from gruesome, gangle from gangling, and attrit from attrition.3.6.6 Abbreviation or ShorteningAbbreviation or shortening is a word formation process by making a word shorter. It reflects the tendency of simplification in language use, as can be exemplified by clipping and acronymyClipping is a process of maintaining a single syllable, while removing the rest in a polysyllabic word. For example, fax is created from facsimile, ad or advert is from advertisement, vet is from veterinarian.Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of words. Words formed in this way are called initialisms or acronyms, depending on the pronunciation of the newly formed words. Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. For example, BBC is from British Broadcasting Corporation, POW from prisoner of war, CEO from chief executive officer. Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as words. For example, NATO is from North Atlantic Treaty Organization, OPEC from Organization of Petroleum Export Countries, WTO from World Trade Organization, laser from light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.3.7 SummaryMorphology studies the structure of words in language and it can be broadly classified into derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. Derivational morphology is concerned with how a word is formed and the word-formation processes. Inflectional morphology is concerned with how the form of a word may be affected when it is used with other words or in a sentence. That is to say, words vary (inflect) with their grammatical roles in sentence formation. As Crystal (1997: 90) puts it, inflectional morphology studies the way in which words vary (or “inflect”) in order to express grammatical contrasts in sentences. A word inflects or undergoesinflection when it appears in a variety of forms depending on its grammatical role in the sentence. Carstairs-McCarthy (2002: 30) takes inflection as a process of dealing with the inflected forms of words, that is, the kind of variation that words exhibit on the basis of their grammatical context. In some languages like Greek, Latin and French, inflection plays a major role in sentence formation, because such languages rely on overt inflectional forms as markers of syntactic relations. Modern English is not an inflected language, but there are still inflectional morphemes indicating the grammatical function of a word. According to Yule (2000: 77), English has eight inflectional morphemes, illustrated in the following:Let me tell you about Jim’s two sister s.One like s to have fun and is always laugh ing.The other lik ed to study and has always tak en things seriously.One is the loud est person in the house and the other is quiet er than a mouse.It can be noticed that inflection in English takes place in nouns, verbs and adjectives. Nouns inflect for possessive (-’s) and plural (-s). Verbs inflect for third person present singular (-s), present participle (-ing), past tense (-ed) and past participle (-en). Adjectives inflect for comparative (-er) and superlative (-est) degrees. Thus, word forms like Jim’s, sisters, likes, laughing, liked, taken, loudest and quieter are grammatically conditioned variants of the basic word forms, that is, the stems.Further ReadingAdams, V. 1973. An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation. London: Longman. Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 1992. Current Morphology. London: Routledge.Carstairs-McCarthy, A. 2002. An Introduction to English Morphology: Words and their structure.Edinburgh University Press.Matthews, P. H. 2000. Morphology (2nd edition). 北京：外语教学与研究出版社.Radford, A. et al. 2000. Linguistics: An introduction. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社.。
语言学第三章笔记和习题
Chapter 3 Morphology⏹Lexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysis and creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.⏹Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.⏹The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.⏹Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class word⏹Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.⏹Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns. Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.⏹1-morpheme boy, desire⏹2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble⏹3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity⏹4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity⏹5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness⏹7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism⏹Morph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may suedthe term.It is the phonetic realization of a morpheme⏹Allomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phoneticvariant of a morpheme.⏹Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instances, there may be some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:⏹map----maps [s]⏹dog----dogs [z]⏹watch----watches [iz]⏹mouse----mice [ai]⏹ox----oxen [n]⏹tooth----teeth⏹sheep----sheep⏹Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.⏹Affix⏹Prefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.⏹Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.-ful, -er, -ish, -ness, -able, -tive, tion, etc.Root: The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morpheme⏹Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.⏹Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.⏹Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.⏹Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached tofree morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.⏹The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be usedindependently in speech or writing.⏹Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes andsuffixes).Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem e⏹Derivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.⏹Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) c ase: John/John’s⏹Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect ofverbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.⏹Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.◆English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.◆Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.●Conclusion: classification of morphemes⏹Morphemes◆Free morphemes◆Bound morphemes●Inflexional●Derivational: affixes⏹Prefixes⏹SuffixesMorphological rules⏹The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “un- + ----” rule.unfair unthinkable unacceptable…⏹Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…◆The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.Compounds⏹Noun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)⏹Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)⏹Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)⏹Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compounds⏹When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…⏹When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…⏹Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house…⏹The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.●Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. Derivation◆Derivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.◆Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a numberof affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly,unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.◆Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.◆Some English suffixes also change the word stress.pounding◆Compounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.◆The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns,verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.◆In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.◆The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)◆Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.◆Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and back◆Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.◆Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.◆Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. Forexample, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.Blending◆Blending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existingwords. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook forjunior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formation◆Back-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. Forexample, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formedby putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.Acronyms◆Acronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.◆Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letterby letter.◆This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.Eponyms◆Eponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, theword sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.Coinage◆Coinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.◆This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for anew product. For example, Kodak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing wordsfrom other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active rolein this process, such as “atom, electricity” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.12. The affix “-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are called m___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morpheme22. The compound word “bookstore” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences30. “-s” in the word “books” is_______.A. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless。
chapter 3 Morphology 英语专业语言学PPT
Derivational and inflectional morphemes (p.55)
Some derivational morphemes change the grammatical category of words (or grammatical class of words) and others
➢ the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content,
➢ a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
When the root of the word is a free morpheme, we say the word has a free root, such as e.g. hopeful, interpersonal
When it is a bound morpheme, we say the word has a bound root, such as e.g. precede, receive, submit, retain, recur
The identification of words
(2) Relative uninterruptibility(相对的不可 隔 断 性 ): new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in the word. (i.e. outlaws, touch-me-not)
Chapter 3新编语言学教程 Morphology
the classification of morphemes 1
A. free morpheme自由语素 Morphemes may occur alone or constitute words by themselves. All monomorphemeic单语素词 words are free morphemes.
B. bound morpheme粘着语素 Morphemes which cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme.
Free morpheme & bound morpheme
Free morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc. Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves, such as “-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dis-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.
Open class word & closed class word
Open class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, “做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese. Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.
语言学_Chapter 3_Morphology
Are there other categories of words which are not included?
Other categories
• Two lesser categories: • Numerals: words that denote numbers or the order. Cardinal numerals: those denoting the numbers, e.g. one, two, one hundred, etc. Ordinal numerals: those denoting the order, e.g. first, second, eighth, etc. • Interjection: a word or phrase used as a sudden remark usually expressing feelings, such as exclamation, sorrow, surprise, regret, etc. e.g. alas, oh, My God!, Dear me
Question Time!
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• Afraid, biology • /v_show/id_XMTAzNzgwNTY=.html?fro m=s1.8-1-1.2拆单词 • /programs/view/ciNnLLrr9tk/ • /v_show/id_XNTA4OTE0NzY=.html?fro m=s1.8-1-1.2 长视频 • 柯南 /v_show/id_XODgxNjI4Njky.html?from =s1.8-1-1.2 • 手机记单词App /article/86112f13535b4f2736978 76c.html • /v38286803.htm
新编英语语言学教程课件chapter 3 morphology
Chapter 3 Lexicon
范雪菲
3.1 What is word?
3.1.1 Three senses of “word”
＊A physically definable unit (自然的有界限的单位）
• 3.1.3 classification of words
• Variable and invariable words
variable words----one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. “ follow-followsfollowing”
※some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic
analysis: particles, auxiliaries, pro-form(代词形式“So
do I “), determiners
Determiners
• It refers to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has: definite (the) or indefinite( an ), partitive ( some ), or universal (all).
自考英语语言学Chapter 3 Morphology
Chapter 3 Morphology形态学一、本章纲要二、本章重点1.DefinitionsIt is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Two sub-branches: inflectional morphology / lexical or derivational morphology. The former studies inflection and the latter word-formation. 形态学研究单词的内部结构和构词规则，有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支，前者研究语法屈折和语法意义的表达，后者研究单词的构成和同义的表达。
2.Morpheme语素2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language语素：语言最小的意义单位。
（2004填空）The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning. 单词不是语义的最小单位，因为单词可以解析为在意义上更小的意义成分。
语义的最小单位是语素。
语素表达的意义有两种：语法意义和词汇意义。
2.2 Types of morphemes语素的类型2.2.1 Free morphemes自由语素（2005，选择；2006，填空；2007选择）Morphemes, which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素有着完整的语义，它们被称为自由语素是因为它们可以作为单词独立使用，如helpful中的help就是自由词素，因为help可以作为独立的单词来使用。
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e.g. “desire” in “desirable”, “care” in “carefully”, “believe” in “unbeliev(e)able”…
All
words contain a root morpheme. Free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves such as black in black, blackboard, blackbird. Morphemes of this type are potentially unlimited in number in a language. However, there are relatively few bound root morphemes in English, such as，–ceive in receive, perceive, conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, submit; -tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in incur, recur, occur, etc.
Root, base, stem Derivational Morpheme & Inflectional Morpheme The Hierarchical Structure of Words
4.Word Coinage 5.Summary
How many words do you know?
able
Ⅲ Rules of Word Formation
All
Hale Waihona Puke words contain a root morpheme A word is not a simple sequence of morphemes. It has an internal structure which reflects the Hierarchical Structure of Words .
Chapter 3 Morphology The Words of Language
Outline
1.What’s a word?
Content
Word Function Word
2.What’s morpheme?
Bound
morpheme & Free morpheme
3.Rules of Word Formation
Webster’s 3rd International Dictionary has over 450,000 entries. A 6-year-old child knows 13,000 words The average high school graduate knows about 60,000 A college graduate presumably knows many more than 70,000
Base
Base:some linguists regard it to be equivalent to root, that is ,the remaining part when all affixes have been removed, while other linguists hold that it means any root or stem to which an affix is attatched.
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Affix
An AFFIX is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem). Affixes are limited in number in a language and are generally classified into three subtypes.depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
Thinking
what is word?
Ⅰ What’s a word?
A word is a arbitrary combination of sounds associated with a certain meaning. A word is a complex combination which covers at least one morpheme, and can be used along syntactically. A word is the smallest significant units of speech.that is to say, the smallest form that may appear in isolation.
What’s Morphology?
Morphology
is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed. It is part of our grammatical knowledge of a language, like most linguistic knowledge,this is generally unconscious knowledge.
Thinking
What’s
the difference between the two morphemes ―able‖ and ―-able‖?
• able (adj. in ―I’m able to do it‖) • -able (e.g., ―enjoyable‖)
lexical (free) morpheme -able derivational (bound)morpheme
For example: Unusable contains three pieces: un-, use, -able
P.81
Root, base, stem
Root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes(inflectional & derivational) are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and-ism, what is left is the root -nation.
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Content Word & Function Words
Content word:
These are called open-class because speakers
can add new words to this class . These words denote concepts such as objects,action and attribute.
Bound Morpheme
I. Definition: must be attached to another morpheme. II. Derivational morpheme A. may change syntactic class B. to form new (different) words C. examples: -able, -ex, un-, re-, -ness, etc. III. Inflectional morpheme A. Different forms of the same word (no new word added) B. Not change syntactic class (nor adding lexical meaning) C. To indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word D. Only 8 kinds in English: -’s, -s (plural nouns), -ing, -ed/en, -est, -er, -s (S-V agreement)
Function word:
These are called closed-class because it is
membership is fixed or limited. These words specify grammatical relations and have little or no semantic content.
Root
Stem
A stem(词干) is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed, e.g. “undesiralbe” in undesirables A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix. In some cases, linguists will use root and stem in slightly different ways.