英语语言学名词解释总结
语言学名词解释
语言学名词解释语言学是研究语言的一门学科，涉及语言的结构、功能、变化和发展等方面的研究。
下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释。
1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语言中各种语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的学科。
2. 语音语言学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的音位（音素）和音位组合规则的学科。
3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构、词法结构和语义结构等方面的学科。
4. 句法学（Syntax）：研究语言中句子的结构和组织方式的学科。
5. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系的学科。
6. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的组成、形态、构词规则等方面的学科。
7. 词义学（Semantics）：研究词汇中词义的构成、关系和词义的变化等方面的学科。
8. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在具体语境中的使用方式以及语言的上下文相关性等方面的学科。
9. 文法学（Stylistics）：研究语言使用中的文体、修辞手法、语言风格等方面的学科。
10. 母语（Mother tongue）：一个人从小学会并用于日常交际的语言。
11. 第二语言（Second language）：在学习者的母语之外学习的语言。
12. 语言接触（Language contact）：不同语言之间在社会、文化接触中产生的相互影响和借用的现象。
13. 语言变异（Language variation）：指同一个语言在不同社会、地理和使用者间发生的音、词、句法等方面的变化。
14. 语言变化（Language change）：指语言在漫长的时间内逐渐变化和发展的过程。
15. 语言规范（Language standardization）：制定和规范一个语言的正确用法、标准词汇和语法规则的过程。
16. 语言习得（Language acquisition）：指儿童在自然环境中学习母语的过程。
英语 语言学 名词解释
名词解释nguage: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.Design features of language(语言的区别性特征) :i.Arbitrariness:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning=language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a word(e.g.pen) and the object it refers to .ii.Duality:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level. By duality we mean that language system has two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meanings.指拥有两层结构的这种特性，底层结构是上层结构的组成成分。
指语言是声音和意义双重结构组成的系统。
举例：Sounds > syllables > words > phrases > clauses > sentences> texts/discoursesiii.Productivity： Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality .语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子，是由双层结构造成的结果（Understand and create unlimited number with sentences）iv.Displacement：Human languages enable their users to symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication.v.Cultural transmission: language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.3.Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It is a scientific study because it is based on thesystematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4.Psycholinguistics: It is the study of how language is acquired, understood and produced.ngue:F. de Saussure. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.语言指语言系统的整体，这个整体相对是比较稳定的。
语言学名词解释
一、名词解释1.Diachronic历时的It refers to say of the study of developing of language and languages over time.研究语言随时间发展变化的方法。
2.Arbitrariness任意性Saussure first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表达的意义之间没有天然或逻辑的联系。
It is refers to absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.任意性是指语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。
3.Parole言语It refers to the concrete utterances of a speaker.指语言在实际使用中的实现。
4.Creativity创造性By creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness, which enables human beings to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences including the sentences that were never heard before.创造性是指语言具有能产型，因为语言有双重性和递归性,也就是说话者能够结合各个语言单位形成无尽的句子，其中很多句子是以前没有的或者没有听说过的。
英语专业英语语言学期末复习总结归纳
英语语言学一、名词解释第一课1.Synchronic共时性: S aid of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time.\ A kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.ngue语言: The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for human communication.4.Arbitrariness任意性:One design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.第二课1.Phoneme音位:2.Allophone音位变体:3.Minimal pair最小对立体:第三课1.Morphology形态学:which words are formed.2.Derivational morphemes class of words are called…3.Inflectional morphemes第四课1.Syntax语法句法:classes,4.Surface to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from第五课1.Reference指称: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.2.Homonymy同音异义: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.3.Hyponymy 上下义关系: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.第六课1.Pragmatics语用学: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2.Utterance话语: a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication.3.Utterance meaning话语意义: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstractmeaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4.Illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.二、简答题第一课1．What are the major branches of linguistics? What does each of them study?Phonetics: The study of sounds used in linguistic communication. It describes individual speech sounds and indicates their physical or phonetic properties.Phonology:It studies the ways in which these sounds form patterns and systems and how they work to convey meaning in the system of language.Morphology: A field of linguistics focused on the study of the forms and formation of words in a language Syntax: A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form phrases and sentences.Pragmatics: the study of the use of language in a social context.2．language?The important characteristicssystematic, arbitrary and vocalFirst of all,language in a wrong way.3．1) Arbitrariness:2)Productivity:provides and forunderstanding novel messages.3) Duality:4)5)第二课1.语音学和音位学的研究中心有何不同?语音学家和音位学家哪一个更关心清晰音的区别?为什么?Phonetics — description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology — description of sound systems of particular languages and how sounds function to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences will not cos differences inmeaning.2. What is phone? How is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?Phone is a phonetic unit, it has no meaning.Phoneme is a phonological unit with distinctive value .The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.第三课1. Think of three morpheme suffixes, give their meaning and specify the types of stem they may be suffixed to. Give at least two examples of each.Suffix: -ingMeaning: denoting a verbal action, an instance of this, or its resultStem type: added to verbsExamples: fighting: denote the action of battlebuilding: denote the action of constructionSuffix: -ableMeaning: able to beStem type: added to verbsExamples: avoidable: able to be prevented fromSuffix: -ist2. Think of three morpheme be1)prefix: un-meaning:once more; afresh; anewstem type: added to verbsexamples: restart: start once morereaccustom: accustom (someone) to something again第五课1. What are the major types of synonyms in English?并举例1)dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional2)Stylistic synonyms: synonyms differing in style3)Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning4)Collocational synonyms: what words they go together with5)Semantically different synonyms: differ from the words themselves2. Explain with examples “homonymy”, “polysemy”, and “hyponymy”.Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones. When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. When tow words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms. The examples are as followed:Homophones: rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceHomographs: bow v./bow n. tear v./tear n.Complete homonyms: fast adj./fast v.Polysemy: while different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The1.2.3.4.5.6.Hyponymyare called its hyponyms. For example,第六课答：way to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development andand 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics.traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in thattakes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is the illocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, tothe truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type答：Make your conversational(1) The maxim of quantity①②(2) The maxim of quality①②(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.①②③④(】。
英语语言学名词解释总结
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
英语语言学常见名词解释
英语语言学常见名词解释1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like ―book‖) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different ―books‖: ―book‖ in English, ―livre‖ in French, ―shu‖ in Chinese. It is symbolic, because word s are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term ―human‖ in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features‖ here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability3. What is arbitrariness?By ―arbitrariness‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like ―bang‖, ―crash‖, ―roar‖, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. ―Type‖ and ―write‖ are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type-writer‖ is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So w e can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‘s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard ―A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes out side the language, thus also called ―rule-bound creativity‖ (by N.Chomsky).6.What is displacement?“Displacement‖, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‘t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be l ost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a small share of ―displacement‖, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‘s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‘s roaring ―tongue‖ when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) ―speaking‖ and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human la nguage has six ―design features‖ which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign Language‖, and learned a little that made the teachers happy butdid mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three ―Macro-Functions‖: ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The ―phatic function‖ refers to language being used fo r setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. ―How are you?‖ ―Fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say ―Hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―Hi‖, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The ―directive function‖ means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. S earle‘s ―Indirect speech act theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!‖13. What is the informative function?Language serves an ―informational function‖ when used to tell so mething, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice‘s ―Cooperative Principle‖, one ought not to violate the ―Maxim of Quality‖, when he is informi ng at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an ―interrogative function‖. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the ―indirect speech act the ory‖, may have this function as well, e.g., ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader‘s/listener‘s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like ―Good heavens!‖ ―My God!‖ Sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as good examples too,though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or a sserts the speaker‘s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means peopl e speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‘s imprisonment sentence, the president‘s war or independence declaratio n, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics‖ is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic ―stone‖ unturned. Consistency means there should be no contra diction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled ―On the Use of THE‖, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese. In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional, while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.23. What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic study is ―descriptive‖ if it only describes and analyses the f acts of language, and ―prescriptive‖ if it tries to lay down rules for ―correct‖ language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were base d on ―high‖ (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.24. What is the difference between langue and parole?F. de Saussure refers ―langue‖ to the abstract linguist ic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers ―parole‖ to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.25. What is the difference between competence and performance?According to N. Chomsky, ―competence‖ is the ideal language user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language, and ―performance‖ is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‘s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language. Chomsky‘s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‘s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.26. What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his ―actual linguistic behavior‖) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).27. In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker‘s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is in visible but reliable abstract system. Competence means ―knowing‖, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for ―doing‖ or ―performing actions‖. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.28. What is phonetics?“Phonetics‖ is the science which studi es the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research fro m the hearer‘s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by theear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear. Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulatory phonetics.29. How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.30. What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved, e.g. lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) ]; (4) alveolar:[t, d, l, n, s, z]; (5)T, Plabiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental:[ retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar:[ ]; (7) palatal:[j]; (8) velar[ k, g]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal:[h]. Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and that two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed ―labial-velar‖.31. What is the manner of articulation?The ―manner of articulation‖ literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstream may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive:[p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal:[m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap;(5) lateral:[l]; (6) fricative:[f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant:[w, j]; (8) affricate:[ ].32. What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of ―International Phonetic Alphabet‖, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.33. What is narrow transcription and what is broad transcription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet made a distinct ion between ―narrow‖ and ―broad‖ transcriptions, which he called ―Narrow Romic‖. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or transcription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.34. What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?“Phonology‖ is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist. Phonetics is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they areconceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign ―accent‖, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‘s language.35. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?A ―phone‖ is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced: [pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different [p]s, readily making pos sible the ―narrow transcription or diacritics‖. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A ―phoneme‖ is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit]. The phones representing a phoneme are called its ―allophones‖, i.e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different [p] s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme [p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.36. What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two forms (i. e., word) are supposed to form a ―minimal pair‖, e.g., ―pill‖ and ―bill‖, ―pill‖ and ―till‖, ―till‖ and ―dill‖, ―till‖ and ―kill‖, etc. All the se words together constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language.37. What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in ―free variation”. The plosives, for example, may not be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.38. What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never oc cur in the same environment, they are in ―complementary distribution‖. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after [s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of [l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear [l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of [l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words ―please‖, ―butler‖, ―clear‖, etc., and t he dark [l] occurs only after a vowel or as asyllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words ―feel‖, ―help‖, ―middle‖, etc.39. What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?The ―assimilation rule‖ assimilates one segment to another by―copying‖ a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal [n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix ―in-― serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], [i] or [im] when occurring in different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ] (alveolar) inconceivable-[ ](velar) input-[‗imput] (bilabial)The ―deletion rule‖ tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter ―g‖ is mute in ―sign‖, ―design‖ and ―paradigm‖, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: ―signature‖, ―designation‖ and ―paradigmatic‖. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling.40. What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features?“Suprasegmental phonology‖ refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, length and pitch, stress, intonation.41. What is morphology?“Morphology‖ is the br anch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology and lexical/derivational morphology.42. What is inflection/inflexion?“Inflection‖ is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of the items to which they are attached.43. What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?The ―morpheme‖ is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. The word ―boxes‖, for example, has two morphemes: ―box‖ and ―-es‖, neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don‘t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are the alternate shapes (and thus phonetic forms) of the same morphemes. Some morphemes, though, have no more than one invariable form in all contexts, such as ―dog‖, ―cat‖, etc. The variants of the plurality ―-s‖ make the allomorphs thereof in the following exa mples: map-maps, mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.44. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?A ―free morpheme‖ is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ‗bed‖, ―tree‖, etc. A ―bound morpheme‖ is one that appears with at least another morpheme, such as ―-s‖ in ―beds‖,。
英语语言学名词解释
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六 语用学
1 pragmatics（语用学）: Pragmatics can be defined as the studyห้องสมุดไป่ตู้of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.
现代语言学
一 绪论
1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language
2 Phonetics（语音） : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants
8 hyponymy（上下义） : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.
9 componential analysis（成分分析） : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。
以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。
它包括语音学和音系学。
2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。
4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。
7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。
8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。
9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。
10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。
以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。
语言学必考名词解释
of a speech community2.arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission, etc.not necessarily, the present), as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kindface that the forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationshiptotheir meaning.property of havingtwolevels of are composedof elements of the secondary. Level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules.history.ought to be, . laying down rules for language use.in a particular language.adjacent sound, which is more specifically called.”contact”or”contiguous”assimilation.properties of the entity a word denotes.properties of the entity a word denotes.in context.situational context.hypothesis, . language determines thought.1the type of language constructed by second or foreignlanguage learners who are still in the process of learning a language,language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.When structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer of facilitation; when the twolanguages are different in structures, negative transfer ofinference occurs and results in errors.something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.20.word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)allophone of /t/in English. When /t/occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated<t>.Both<Th>and <t>are allophones of the phoneme/t/.and consequence of unsuccessful languageor expressing something aloud the simple utterance of a few platitudes uninterrupted chain of spoken or written languagewhich occurs when an L 1 patter is different from the counterpart pattern of thetarget language.sentence, composedof a subject andpredicate, is a basic unit for meaninganalysisis called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence“hang together”; to theresources within language that help relate ideas and information and make linksbetween different parts of a textunits.to be more specific,the meaning with which linguistists are concerned is defined as linguistic semantics语言学考试范围1. Does the traffic light have duality Explain the reasons.2. IC analyzes the sentence structure with brackets or a tree diagram.Lovely Jane ran away.3. What are Leech’s seven types of meaningConceptual meaning. Connotative meaning. Social meaning.Affective meaning. Reflected meaning. Collocative meaning.Thematic meaning4. What are the differences between modern linguistics and traditional grammar5. Explain surface structure and deep structure.6. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning7. What are the four maxims of the CP8. Analyze the structure of a syllable. Give one example to illustrate.9. Explain the two terms s“ense” and “reference” and what is their relationship10. What are the differences between errors and mistakesWhat are the major views concerning the study of meaningWhat are the major views concerning the study of meaning(1) The naming theory 命名论----One of the oldest notions converningmeanings, andalsoa very primitive one,was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in alanguage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words arejustnames or label for things. 命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名称。
英语语言学名词解释大全
英语语言学名词解释2009-09-30 13:54Synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” in time. Diachronic: said of the study of development of language and languages over time. Arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.Duality: the structural organization of language into two abstract levels; meaningful units and meaningless segments .Competence: unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.Langue: the language system shared by a “speech community”.Parole: the concrete utterances of speaker.Morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to which they are attached.Root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. Stem:is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.Acronym:is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily modified headword.Syntax: the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structure. Subordination: the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other. Denotation: denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the non-linguistic entities to which it refers.Connotation: properties of the entity a word denote.Synonymy: synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguistic units, namely the sameness relation.Hyponymy: the technical name for inclusiveness sense relation, is a matter of class membership. Entailment: This a logic relationship between two sentences in which the truth of the second necessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the second.Traffic light does not have duality. Obviously, it is not a double-level system. There is onlyone-to-one relationship between signs and meaning but the meaning units cannot be divided into smaller meaningless elements further. So the traffic light only has the primary level and lacks the secondary level like animals’ call.Critical Period HypothesisThe critical period for language acquisition语言获得的关键期 Eric Lenneberg was a major proponent.The critical period hypothesis关键期假设It refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction. It coincides with the process of brain lateralization. Prior to this period, both hemispheres are involved to some extent in language and one can take over if the other is damaged.「语言学习关键期」（the critical period）的争议。
(完整word版)英语语言学名词解释
现代语言学一绪论1 Linguisitics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be f ound.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language.9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others.9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme;therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature.10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest}三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to forma word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. {$isbest}四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.5 Move а : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is cal led Move а{$isbest}五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy : Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy : Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy :Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a4 locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act expressing t he speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act:A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.{$isbest}七历史语言学1 historical linguistics: Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.2 apocope: Another well-documented sound loss is the deletion of a word-final vowel segement, a phenomenon called apocope.3 epenthesis: A change that involves the insertion of a consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word is known as epenthesis.4 metathesis: Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as metathesis.5 compounding: Compounding is a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.6 derivation: Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots.7 blending: Blending is a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.8 back-formation: Back-formation is a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.9 semantic broadening: Semantic broadening refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation..10 semantic narrowing: Semantic narrowing is a process in which the meaning ofa word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning.11 semantic shift: Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquire a new, sometimes related, meaning.12 protolanguage: It refers to a family of a language.A protolanguage is the original form of a language family that has ceased to exist.The proto form can be reconstructed by identifying and comparing similar linguistic forms with similar meanings across related languages.13 sound shift: It refers to the systematic modification of a series of phonemes. {$isbest}八社会语言学1 sociolinguistics: Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social context.2 speech community: A speech community is thus defined as a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.3 speech variety: Speech variety, also known as language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers.4 language planning: One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning. This means that certain authorities, such as the government or government agency of a country, choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it, including its pronunciation and spelling system, across regional boundaries.5 idiolect: Such a personal dialect is refered to as idiolect.6 standard language: The standard language is a superposed, socially prestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system,used by the mass media.7 nonstandard language: Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.8 lingua franca: A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a medium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.9 pidgin: A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by native speakers of other languages as a medium of communication.10 Creole: A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become established asa native language in some speech communication.11 diglossia: Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech communication, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.12 bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.13 ethic dialect: An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language ,often cutting across regional differences.14 sociolect: Social dialect, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belonging to particular social classes.15 register: Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.16 slang: Slang is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinage and figure of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.17 tabo A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the “polite” society from general use.18 euphemism: Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words”. A euphemism, then ,is mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substitute when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.{$isbest}九心理语言学1 psycholinguistics:Psycholinguistics is the study of language in relation to the mind. As the suggests, psycholinguistics is viewed as the intersection of psychology and linguistics, drawing equally upon the language we acquire, produce and comprehend.2 cerebral cortex: The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.3 brain lateralization: The localization of cognitive of cognitive and percpetual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.4 linguistic lateralization: In their research of brain lateralization, psycholinguistics are particulary interested in linguistic lateralization, which is the brain’s neurological specialization for language.5 dichotic listening: Evidence in support of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks6 right ear advantage: Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right car. This phenomenon is knowas the right ear advantage.7 critical period hypothesis: The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty during which the humanbrain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly and without explicit instruction.8 linguistic determinism: Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language. That is, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.9 linguistic relativism: Whorf also believed that speakers of different language perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion10 subvocal speech: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech”.of linguistic relativism.{$isbest}十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, that is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.2 telegraphic speech: The early multiword utterance of children have a special characteristic. They typically lack inflectional morphemes and most minor lexical categories. Because of their resemblance to the styly of language found in telegrams, utterance at this acquisition stage are often called telegraphic speech.3 holophrastic sentence: Children’s one-word utterance are also calledholophrastic sentences.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.5 learning: Learning, however, is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.6 language transfer: Learners will subconsciously use their L1 knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language transfer.7 positive transfer: Presumably, positive transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is identical with, or similar to, a target-language pattern.8 negative transfer: Conversely, negative transfer occurs when an L1 pattern is different from the counterpart pattern of the target language.9 contrastive analysis: The Contrastive Analysis approach was founded on the belief that, by establishing the linguistic differences between the native and target language system, it was possible to predict what problems learners of a particular second language would face and the types of errors they would make.10 interlanguage: SLA is viewed as a process of creative construction, in which a learner constructs a series of internal representations that comprises the learner’s interim knowledge of the target language, known as interlanguage.11 formal instruction: Formal instruction occurs in classrooms when attempts are made to raise learner’s consciousnes s about the nature of target language rules in order to aid learning.12 instrumental motivation: Thus, instrumental motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is functional.13 integrative motivation: Integrative motivation occurs when the learner’s goal is social.14 acculturation: A related issue with integrative motivation has been the extent to which learners differ in the process of adapting to the new culture of the 12community. This adaptation process is called acculturation.。
英语语言学概论名词解释汇总
英语语言学概论名词解释汇总英语语言学概论是研究英语语言的基本原理和结构的学科。
在这门学科中，有许多重要的名词需要解释，以便更好地理解英语语言的各个方面。
下面是一些常见的英语语言学术语和其解释：1. 语言：人类使用的一种符号系统，用于交流和表达意思。
2. 语音：语言中的声音单元，用于区分不同的词汇和语法形式。
3. 语法：语言中词汇和句法结构的规则系统，用于构建和理解句子。
4. 词汇：语言中的词汇单位，用于表示特定的意思。
5. 句法：句子的结构和组织方式，包括短语和句子之间的关系。
6. 语义：词汇和句子的意义和解释。
7. 语用学：语言使用的实际情境和交际目的的研究。
8. 语篇分析：研究句子和段落如何组成连贯的文本的过程。
9. 语音学：语音的科学研究，包括语音的产生、传播和感知。
10. 语音变体学：研究语音变化和发音差异的学科。
11. 语音库：包含语音录音和相关信息的数据库。
12. 语音识别：使用计算机技术将语音转换为文字的过程。
13. 语音合成：使用计算机技术将文字转换为语音的过程。
14. 语言变体：同一语言在不同地区或社会群体中的变化形式。
15. 方言：某个特定地区或社会群体使用的语言变体。
16. 标准语：在教育和媒体等公共场合使用的规范语言形式。
17. 语言接触：不同语言之间的互动和影响。
18. 二语习得：学习者将自己的母语转换为第二语言的过程。
19. 语言教学：帮助学习者学习和掌握一门语言的过程。
20. 语言规划：改变或发展一种语言的过程，包括制定规范和推广使用。
这些名词只是英语语言学概论中的一部分，通过学习和理解这些名词，可以更好地理解和分析英语语言的各个方面。
英语语言学重点名词解释汇总
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.The naming theory命名说According to it, the linguistic forms or symbols or words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stands for. So words are just names or labels for things.It is also called the referential theory （指称论）.Theory of the context of situation [ J. R. Firth (1890-1960) ]情景语境①The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.②The relevant objects.③The effects of the verbal action.The conceptualist view概念理论This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.It is also called ideational theory（观念论）Contextualism语境J. R. Firth 费斯The linguists hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill.According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.”The Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.The definition of referenceReference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.What is culture?Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis定义Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.SociolinguisticsThe sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Variationist perspective: 变异视角Variety 的定义People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.Dialect定义Varieties (变体)related to the user are normally known as dialectsRegister定义In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or ina particular social setting.1. Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.2. Social-class dialect, or sociolect 社会方言, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.3.Idiolect个人方言A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.4. Ethnic dialect种族方言A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation5. Standard dialect:Diglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functionsMonolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language. Bilingual: People develop some ability in a second language.High Context Culture:-Cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal and subtle situational cues in communication.Low Context Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. Definition of PragmaticsThe study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.Conversational Implicaturea type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims【Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)】The Cooperative Principle (CP)Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problemsIn linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.Krashen’s Input HypothesisLearners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.“i+1” principleThe language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.Communicative competence{Dell Hymes}What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communicationTypes of syllabus The structural syllabus，The situational syllabus，The communicative syllabus，The task-based syllabusContrastive AnalysisA way of comparing the first language and the second language to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. (Gass and Selinker, 2001:72)Error Analysis Many errors made by the second language learners were caused by factors other than the first language interference.Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competenceMistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence填空This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and RichardsThere are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation (相似关系), oppositeness relation (对立关系)inclusiveness relation (内含)Characteristics of implicature1) Calculability 可推导性2) Cancellability可取消性（依赖语境）3) Non-detachability不可分离性（依赖语义）4) Non-conventionality非规约性【Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures.】Leech七分法 1. 概念意义（conceptual）2. 内涵意义（connotative）3. 社会意义（social）4. 情感意义（affective）5. 反射意义（reflective）6. 搭配意义（collocative）7. 主题意义（thematic）。
语言学的名词解释汇总英语
语言学的名词解释汇总英语在语言学的研究中，有许多重要的名词和概念需要深入解释。
这些名词和概念与语言的结构、语言变化、语言习得以及语言使用等方面有关。
本文将从不同领域和角度出发，对一些常见的语言学名词进行解释。
一、语言的定义和属性语言是人类特有的交流工具，它通过声音、符号、文字等形式实现信息传递。
语言具有以下属性：1. 双重性：语言既是意义的表示，也是形式的组织。
语言通过词汇和句法规则来构建意义。
2. 系统性：语言具有系统性，词汇、语法和语音规则有明确的组织结构和关系。
3. 影响性：语言在人类思维和文化的形成中起着重要的作用。
语言不仅记录和传递信息，还反映了人类的观念、价值观和社会结构。
二、语言的结构语言的结构涉及到音系学、形态学、句法学等领域的研究。
1. 音系学：研究语言中的声音系统及其规律。
语言中的音素是组成词汇的基本单元。
2. 形态学：研究词的内部结构和词形变化。
词根、后缀和前缀等形态素构成了词的形式。
3. 句法学：研究句子的结构和组织规则。
句法关系包括主谓关系、动宾关系等。
三、语言变化与历史语言是动态的，它会随着时间的推移而不断发生变化。
语言变化研究是语言学的一个重要分支。
1. 历史语言学：研究语言随着时间演化和变化的过程。
语言的历史记录可以通过比较语言使用者的不同时期的文本来获得。
2. 语言接触：当两个或多个语言共存于同一社会时，它们之间的相互影响会导致语言变化。
这种相互影响包括借词、语法结构的改变等。
四、语言习得与发展语言习得研究探讨如何習得母語或第二语言以及习得过程中的各种因素。
1. 第一语言习得：是指儿童自然而然地掌握母语的过程。
这一过程中，儿童通过听、模仿和理解来学会使用语言。
2. 第二语言习得：是指学习第二语言或外语的过程。
成年人习得第二语言的过程与儿童习得第一语言的过程略有不同。
五、语言与语境语境是指语言使用的具体背景和环境。
语境可以影响语言的理解和使用。
1. 语用学：研究语言在交流中的使用。
语言学的名词解释
When I was preparing the postgraduate entrance examination of NNU(Nanjing Normal University),some of these following concepts had been tested,but there's no specific or clear explanation in the textbook required by the university.As in preparing the second-round examination I read them in other relevant books, I wrote down here for your reference.Hope they are useful to some of you.1. Acculturation(同化过程）is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of another group.2. Adjacency pair（相邻语对）;a sequence of two utterances by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greeting exchange.3. affix: a bound morpheme that is attached to a stem and modifies its meaning in some way.4. agreement (concord)（一致）: a grammatical phenomenon in which the form of one word in a sentence is determined by the form of another word which is grammatically linked to it. E.g. in the sentence The boy goes to school every day.There is an agreement in number between boy and goes.5.articulators（发音器官): the tongue,lips,and velum, which change the shape of the vocal tract to produce different speech sounds.6.aspect(体）: the grammatical category representing distinction in the temporal structure of an event. English has two aspect construction---the perfect and the progressive.(完成体和进行体)7.aspiration(吐气）; the puff of air that sometimes follows the pronounciation of a stop consonant.E.g. /p/ in the word pit.8.consonant（辅音）; a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction. Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation.9. converstional implicature（会话含义）:meanings that are explicable in the light of converational maxims.municative competence（交际能力）; the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.11. constituent（成分）: a syntactic unit that functions as part of a large unit within a sentence; typical constituent types are verb phrase, noun phrase, prepositional phrase and clause.12.case(格)：the grammatical category in inflectional languages by which the form of a noun or noun phrase varies for grammatical or semantic reasons. English has only one case distinction in nouns—the genitive case(所有格), but English pronouns have three forms that correspond to three of the six cases in Latin.13.clause（小句）: a grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate. It may be a sentence or part of a sentence.14.closed class（封闭词类）: a group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members.15.coinage（创新词）: the construction and addition of new words.16.distribution(分布）: the set of positions in which a given linguistic element or form can appear in a language.17.duality（双重结构）: a type of double-layer structure in which a small number of meaningless units are combined to produce a large number of meaningful units.18.entailment（包含）; the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one(the second)is inferred from the truth of the other.19.euphemism（委婉语）: a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid reference to certain acts or subjects,e.g. powder room for toilet.20.garden path sentence（花园小径句）: a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a particular meaning of a word or a phrase but later discovers that the assumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and reinterpret the sentence21.free variation;(自由变异) a relation between two speech sounds such that either one can occur in a certain position and the substitution of one for the other never makes any difference in the meaning of the word. For instance, the unexploded(失去爆破) stop /d/ in the phrase Good morning is in free varitation with the exploded(爆破)counterpart.22.inflection（屈折变化）: the morphological process by which affixes combine with words or stems to indicate such grammatical categories as tense or plurity.ernment（支配）: the grammatical phonomenon in which the presence of a particular word in a sentence requires a second word which is grammatical linked with it to appear in a particular form. E.g. a preposition or a verb requires that the pronoun following it be in the objective form,as in with me,to him.nguage universal(语言共性): any property that is shared by most,if not all, human lanugages.25.lingua franca: ( 通用语) A language variety used for communication among groups of people wo do not otherwise share a common language. For example, English is the lingua franca of the international scientific community.26.macrosociolinguistics; The study of the effect of language on society.27.microsociolinguistics: The study of the effect of any and all aspects of society,including cultural norms, expetations and contexts,on the way language is used. It is often simply called sociolinguistics.28.paradigmatic relation: (纵组合关系)The substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,that is,linguistic forms(letters,words and phrases)can be substituted for each other in the same position in a word or sentence. E.g, b,p,s,f are in paradigmatic relation in the words bit,pit,sit,fit, so are Nature,Beauty, Love, Honesty in the sentences:Nature purifies the mind.Beauty purifies the mind.Love purifies the mind.Honesty purifies the mind.29.syntagmatic relation: (横组合关系) The relation between any linguistic elements which are simultaneously present in a structure. E.g. in the word bit, b, i,t are in syntagmatic relation, so are nature, purifies, the, mind, in the sentence Nature purifies the mind.30.presupposition（预设）: implicit assumptions about the world acquired to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate,e,g, “ some tea has already been taken”is a presuppostion of “Take some more tea”.31.prototype(典型): What members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category,e.g.for some English speakers “cabbage”(rather than,say,carrot)might be the prototypical vegetable.32.root(词根): the morpheme that remains when all affixes are stripped from a complex word. E.g. system from un- + system + atic + ally.33.stem（词干）: the base to which one or more affixes are attached to create a more complex form that may be another stem or a word.34.taboo（禁忌语）:words that are offensive or embarrassing, c onsidered inappropriate for “polite society”, thus to be avoided in conversation.35.selectional restriction(选择限制): a restriction on the combining of words in a sentence resulting from their meaning.36.linguistic universal:(语言共性) The linguistic universals are principles that enable children to acquire a particular language unconsciously, without instruction in the early years of life. As a whole they are referred to as Universal Grammar.37.contrastive distribution(对比分布)：If the speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context and the substitution results a contrast in meaning, we say they are in contrastive distribution.38.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences into word groups by making successive binary cuttings until the level of single words is reached.39.endocentric construction: (向心结构或内心结构)One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.40.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构)the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.41.politeness can be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s public self-image.42.PP(politeness principle)tact maxim;generosity principle;approbation maxim;modesty maxim;agreement maxim;sympathy maxim.43.irony(反语)is the use of words to express something other than and especially the opposite of the literal meaning of the utterance.44.code-switching: (语码转换) means the alternation between two or more languages,language varieties or registers in communication.45.affective filter(情感过滤)：A screen of emotion that can block language acquisition or learning if it keeps the learners being too self-conscious or too embarrassed to take risks during communicative exchanges.46.Conversion（转类构词）is a change in the grammatical function of a word without adding or removing any part of it. A word belonging to one part of speech is extended to another part of speech. It is also called functional shift or zero derivation.47.lexical meaning VS grammatical meaning(词汇意义与语法意义)The meaning of a sentence is carried by the words proper as well as by the patterns of word order that is part of the grammatical system of a language. The part of the sentence meaning contributed by words is called the lexical meaning and the part of sentence meaning that depends upon the way the words are put together is called grammatical meaning, in which the function words and the word order play a very important role.48.paralinguistic meaning VS non-linguistic meaning (副语言意义与非语言意义)In human communication, apart from the linguistic meaning conveyed by language itself,there are numerous paralinguistic meanings and non-linguistic meanings that are perceived simultaneously by the hearer. Paralinguistic meanings are those attached to the verbal expressions by quality of voice,tempo of speech,posture,facial expression and gestures. Non-linguistic meanings are thoseindicated by non-verbal noises such as cough, sigh, tongue-clicking, various kinds of body languages and different contexts of situation.49.denotation VS connotation (外延与内涵)Denotation is a straightforward, literal meaning of the word every member of the language speaking community will agree on. Connotation is not the basic meaing of the word but some emotive or evaluative meaings associated with the word by individual language users in their mind.50.linguistic relativity VS linguistic determinism (语言相对论与语言决定论)The Sapir-Wholf Hypothesis states that there is a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it. It boils down to two principles: linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism.Linguistic relativity states that disctinctions encoded in one language are unique to that langage alone, and that there is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.Linguistic determinism refers to the idea that the language we use determines, to some extent, the way in which we view and think about the world around us. This concept has two versions; strongdeterminism and weak determinism. The strong version, which has few followers today, holds that language actually determines thought, whereas that weak version, which is widely accepted today, merely holds that language affects thought.。
英语语言学名词解释总结
Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics: it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论it is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship between linguistic forms and what they stand for is one of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theory seems applicable to nouns only. Secondly, even within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world at all or things that do not refer to physical objects, but abstract notions. Finally, some words may have different meanings in different contexts while the same reference may have different names such as “the morning star” and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory: 意念论C. K .Ogden Richard created the semantic triangle to show the indirect relationship between symbols and their supposed referents.Symbol: it refers to the linguistic elements such as word or sentence.Referent: it refers to the object in the world of experience.Context: it refers to what comes before and after a word, phrase, statement, etc. helping to fix the meaning; or refers to circumstances in which an event occurs. Contextualism :情境论、语境论John FirthSituational context: it refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs, the main components of which include, apart from the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events exists in the situation.The linguistic context: sometimes known as context, it includes a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of a word, and, also the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance. For example, the meaning of the word “paper” differs in the two collocations of “a piece of paper” and“a white paper”。
英语语言学复习资料(名词解释)
英语语言学复习资料（名词解释）1 language: language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1 interlanguage:The type of language produced by nonnative speakers in the process of learning a second language or foreign language.1 Linguistics : Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put togeth er and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone.4 Morphology 形态学:The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”---boyish,teach---teacher.5 Syntax 句型: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.”6 Semantics语义学: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.”Here the word seal means different things.7 Pragmatics语用学: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context.二音系学1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics.2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distin guish meaning; some do,some don’t.4 Phoneme音素: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value.5 allophone同位音: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme.6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in thestings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.10 intonation朗诵: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English{$isbest} 三形态学1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation.3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.4 morpheme词素: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes.6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined withanother root or an affix to form a word.8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word.10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words.12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words.四句法学1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure.五语义学1 semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.2 sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and decontextualized.3 reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4 synonymy 同义词: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonymy.5 polysemy一词多义: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.A word having more than one meaning is called a polysemic word.6 antonymy : Antonymy refers to the oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms.7 homonymy : Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that wordshaving different meanings have the same form,i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.8 hyponymy : Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.9 componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze wprd meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists.10 grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.11 semantic meaning : The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.12 predication : In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.{$isbest}六语用学1 pragmatics词的活用: Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2 context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that isshared by the speaker and the hearer.3 utterance meaning: Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.4 locutionary act:言内行为A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.5 illocutionary act言外行为: An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speaker’s intention; It is the act performed in saying something.6 perlocutionary act: 言后行为 A illocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something: it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.十语言习得1 language acquisition: Language acquisition is concerned with language development in humans. In general, language acquisition refers to children’s development of their first language, t hat is, the native language of the community in which a child has been brought up.4 acquisition: According to Krashen,acquisition refers to the gradual and subconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.。
英语语言学专业术语
英语语言学专业术语英语语言学是研究英语语言的起源、发展、结构和使用的学科。
以下是常见的英语语言学专业术语及其解释。
1. Phonetics（音系学）：研究语音的学科。
主要研究语音发音过程，包括语音的组成、发音方式和特点等。
2. Phonology（音韵学）：研究语音在语言中的功能和规律的学科。
主要研究语音在不同语境下的变化规律和相互关系，包括音素、音位和音系等。
3. Morphology（形态学）：研究语言中单词的形态和构成的学科。
主要研究单词的基本单位和构成规律，包括词根、词缀和词类等。
4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和句子组成的学科。
主要研究句子的构成和排列方式，包括短语、从句和主谓结构等。
5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科。
主要研究语言符号和意义之间的关系，包括单词、短语和句子的意义等。
6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言使用的学科。
主要研究语言与社会文化环境的关系，包括语境、语用规则和交际意图等。
7. Discourse analysis（话语分析）：研究语篇结构和语篇功能的学科。
主要研究语言在话语交际中的组织和作用，包括话语行为、话语结构和话语分析方法等。
8. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会文化因素之间的关系和影响的学科。
主要研究不同社会群体、文化背景和地理区域中语言使用的差异和变化，包括方言、语言变体和语言政策等。
9. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科。
主要研究语言理解、语言产生和语言习得等心理过程，包括语音知觉、语法处理和语言记忆等。
以上是英语语言学常见的专业术语及其解释，希望能够帮助你更好地了解英语语言学。
语言学中的名词解释总结
1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. general linguistics: The study of language as a whole.3. applied linguistics: the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.4. prescriptive:If linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in using language, ,it is said to be prescriptive.( i.e. to tell people what they should and should notIt’s a historical study of language,it studies the historical development of language over a period of time. (06C)8. langue: Lange refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.（08F/09C）linguistic competence:universally found in the grammars of all human languages,syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker. competence有什么区别？？11. performance : The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.12. language : Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.13. design features : Design features refer to the defining properties of human language thatsounds.(08C)15. productivity: Language is creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by it’s users.16. duality（double articulation）: Language consists of two sets of structure, with lower lever ofsituation of the speaker.( regardless of time or space) (04)18. cultural transmission: The capacity for language is genetically based while the details of any language system have to be taught and learned.( Language is culturally transmitted rather than by instinct).19.Sociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with society from the core of the branch.20.Psycholinguistics: the study of language processing, comprehending and production, as well as language acquisition.municative competence:the ability to use language appropriately in social situations.1. phonic medium : The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonetic medium of language.(and the individual sounds withinIt studies sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e. how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds. (03)4. auditory phonetics:The studies sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e. how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.5. acoustic phonetics: It studies the physical properties of the stream of sounds which the speaker issues.或者It studies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves,the physical means by which sounds are transimitted through the air from one person to another)6. voicing: the way that sounds are produced with the vibration of the vocal cords.7. voiceless: the way that sounds are produced with no vibration of the vocal cords.8. broad transcription: The use of letter symbols only to show the sounds or sounds sequences in written form.9. narrow transcription: The use of letter symbol, together with the diacritics to show sounds in written form.10. diacritics: The symbols used to show detailed articulatory features of sounds.11. IPA: short for International Phonetic Alphabets, a system of symbols consists of letters and diacritics, used to represent the pronunciation of words in any language.12. aspiration: A little puff of air that sometimes follows a speech sound.13. manner of articulation : The manner in which obstruction is created.14. place of articulation : The place where obstruction is created.15. consonant: a speech sound in which the air stream is obstructed in one way or another.16. vowel : a speech sound in which the air stream from the lung meets with no obstruction.moving one vowel position to another through intervening positions.(08F)19. phone: A phonetic unit,the speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticabstract phonological unit that is of distinctive value;it’s represented by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. (06F/ 04)patterns and function to distinguish and convey meaning.(06C)23. phonemic contrast : two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they form phonemic contrast.24. complementary distribution :allophones of the same phoneme and they don’t distinguish meaning but complement each other in distribution.25. minimal pair: two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same position.26. sequential rules: The rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.27. assimilation rule: The rule assimilates one sound to another by copying a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.28. deletion rule: The rule that a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographicallysegments(syllable, word, sentence),including stress tone intonation.(08F)30. tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.31. intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they’re col lectively known as intonation.32. nucleus: It refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit.32. minimal set: sound combinations which are identical in form except for the initial consonant together constitute a minimal set.1. morphology: A branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and rules forcan be added to it constantly.(08C)3. closed class: A group of words whose membership is small and does not readily accept new members,including conjunctions ,prepositions ,pronouns.etc.4. morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning of a language. It can not be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.5. affix: a letter or a group of letter, which is added to a word, and which changes the meaning or function of the word, including prefix, infix and suffix.6. suffix: The affix, which is added to the end of a word, and which usually changes the part of speech of a word.7. prefix: The affix, which is added to the beginning of a word, and which usually changes the meaning of a word to its opposite.8. bound morpheme: Morpheme that can not be used alone, and it must be combined wit others.（07F）10. derivational morpheme: Bound morpheme, which can be added to a stem to form a newcategories, such as number, tense and case.(but never change their syntactic category).(08F) 12. morphological rules: The ways words are formed. These rules determine how morphemes combine to form words.indicate such grammatical categories as numuber,tense or pluarity. (04)15.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.1. syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2. category: It refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.3. syntactic categories: Words can be grouped together into a relatively small number of classes, called syntactic categories.4. major lexical category: one type of word level categories, which often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built, including N, V, Adj, and Prep.5. minor lexical category: one type of word level categories, which helps or modifies major lexical category.6. phrase: syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase, the category of which is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.7. phrase category: the phrase that is formed by combining with words of different categories.(In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are NP, VP, PP, AP.)8. head: The word round which phrase is formed is termed head.9. specifier: The words on the left side of the heads and attached to the top levelare said to function as specifiers.10. complement: The words on the right side of the heads are complements.11. phrase structure rule:The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.12. XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P.13. X^ theory: A theoretical concept in transformational grammar which restricts the form of context-free phrases structure rules.14. coordination: Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same typeand or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination.)The information about a word’s complement is included in the head andcomplementizer.(08F/09C)17. complement clause: The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause.18. complement phrase: the elements, including a complementizer and a complement clause is called a complement phrase.19. matrix clause: the contrusction in which the complement phrase is embedded is called matrix clause.20. modifier: the element, which specifies optionally expressible properties of heads is called modifier.21. transformation : a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.22. inversion : the process of transformation that moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject, is called inversion.23. Do insertion : In the process of forming yes-no question that does not contain an overt Infl,from appropriate transformations. (05)26. Wh question : In English, the kind of questions beginning with a wh- word are called wh question.27. Wh movement :The transformation that will move wh phrase from its position in deep structure to a position at the beginning of the sentence. This transformation is called wh movement.28. moveα: a general rule for all th e movement rules, where ‘alpha‘ is a cover term foe any element that can be moved from one place to another.补充29. universal grammar: the innateness principles and properties that pertain to the grammars of all human languages.第十一章30.structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms eg.morphemesin a language.31.IC analysis: how small components in sentences go together to form larger constituents.32.paradigmatic relation: the substitutional relation between a set of linguistic items,thatis,linguistic forms can be substitued for each other in the same positon.33.syntagmatic relation: the relation between any linguisticelements which are simultaneously present in a structure.34.immidiate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法）is the technique of breaking up sentences向心结构或内心结构) One construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents. The typical English endocentric constructions are noun phrases and adjective phrases.（03）36.exocentric construction(离心结构或外心结构) the opposite of endocentric construction,refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the whole group. Most constructions are exocentric.1. semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2. Semantic triangle: It is suggested by Odgen and Richards, which says that the meaning of a word is not directly linked between a linguistic form and the object in the real world, but through the mediation of concept of the mind.3. sense : Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. It is abstract and de-contexturalized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.4. reference : Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world. It deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.5. synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are7. stylistic synonyms: synonyms that differ in style, or degree of formality.8. collocational synonyms: Synonyms that differ in their colllocation, i.e., in the words they gohave the same form. i.e., different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. (04)11. homophones: When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.12. homographs: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.13. complete homonymy: When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are complete homonyms.14. hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.15. superordinate: The word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate;and the more specific words are called its hyponyms;hyponyms of the same superordinate areco-hyponyms to each other.16. co-hyponyms: Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms.17. antonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning.18. gradable antonyms: Some antonyms are gradable because there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair.( e.g, antonyms old and young, between them there exist middle-aged, mature, elderly.)19. complementary antonyms: a pair of antonyms that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. It is a matter of either one or the other.20. relational opposites: Pairs if words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items are called relational opposites. For example, husband---wife, father---son, buy---sell, let---rent, above---below.the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead.(07F)或者Entailment is a relation of inclusion.If X entails Y,then the meaning of X is included in Y.22. presupposition: What a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the massage already knows to make an utterance meaningful or appropriate。
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Chapter 6 SemanticsSemantics:it is generally defined as the study of inherence or intrinsic meaning, the meaning in isolation from the context.The naming theory:命名论 it is One Of the oldest notiOnS COnCeming meaning proposed by Plato, which holds the view that the relationship betweenlinguistic forms and what they stand fOr is One Of naming. Its defaults: firstly, the theOry seems appliCable tO nOuns Only. SeCOndly, even within the CategOry Of nOuns, there are nOuns whiCh denOte things that dO nOt exist in the real wOrld at all Or things that dO nOt refer tO physiCal ObjeCts, but abstraCt nOtiOns. Finally, sOme wOrds may have different meanings in different COntexts wh ile the same referenCe may have different names suCh as“the mOrning star”and “the evening star”The conceptualist theory : 意念论 C. K .Ogden RiChard Created the semantic triangle tO shOw the indireCt relatiOnship between symbOls and their suppOsed referents.Symbol: it refers tO the linguistiC elements suCh as wOrd Or sentenCe. Referent: it refers tO the ObjeCt in the wOrld Of experienCe.Context: it refers tO what COmes befOre and after a wOrd, phrase, statement, etC. helping tO fix the meaning; Or refers tO CirCumstanCes in whiCh an event OCCurs. Contextualism : 情境论、语境论 JOhn FirthSituational context: it refers tO the partiCular spatiOtempOral situatiOn in whiCh an utteranCe OCCurs, the main COmpOnents Of whiCh inClude, apart frOm the plaCe and time Of the utteranCe, the speaker and the hearer, the aCtiOns they are perfOrming at the time, the variOus ObjeCts and events exists in the situatiOn.The linguistiC COntext: sOmetimes knOwn as COntext, it inCludes a wOrd's CO-OCCurrenCe Or COllOCatiOn with anOther wOrd, whiCh fOrms part Ofthe“meaning” Of a wOrd, and, alsO the part Of text that preCedes and fOllOws a partiCular utteranCe. FOr example, the meaning Of the wOrd “paper”differs in the twO COllOCatiOns Of “a pieCe of PaPer ”an d“a White paper”。
Lin guistic con text also in CIUdeS the Part of text that preCedes and fOllOws a partiCular utteranCe.Bloomfiled defined the meaning of a language form as th“e situationin which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hear”er Behaviorism :行为主义 it is a theory of animal and human learning that only focuses on objectively observable behavior and discount mental activities. Sense: 意义 it is the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.Reference: 所指 it is what a linguistic form refers to in the real physical world. DiaIeCtal SynOnymS方言同义词 they are the SynOnymS USed in different regional dialects such aslift in British English and elevator in American English .StyIiStiC SynOnyms:语体同义词they are the SynOnymS differing in style , or degree of formality , sUch as gentleman/gUy.AffeCtiVe SynOnymS 情感同义词 they are the SynOnymS that bear the Same meaning bUt expreSS different emotionS of the USer, indicating the attitUdeS or biaSof the USer toward what he iS talking aboUt ,SUchaSlike/love/admire/adore/worShip.COllOCatiOnal SynOnym S: 用于不同搭配的同义词 they are the SynonymS differingin their collocations, such asa dole to the unemployment /an offering to the church. Semantically different synonyms:they are the synonyms differingslightly in what they mean, such asescape/flee.Polysemy :多义关系 it is a term used in semantic analysis to refer to alexical item which has more than one meaning.Radiation : 辐射性 it is the semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the center and the secondary meaning radiates out of it. Concatenation :连锁型 it is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its primary meaning in successionso that the present meaning seems to have no connection to the primary meaning. Homonymy:同音、同形异义词the Phenomenon that different words may be identical in sound or spelling or in both is called homonymy.Homographs: 同形异义 they are the words which haPPen to be the same in sPelling, but differ both in sounds and meaning.HOmOPhOneS同音异义 they are the words WhiCh happen to be identical in sound, but differ both in sPelling and meaning.Complete homonyms同音、同形异义 they are the words WhiCh happen to beidentical both in sound and spelling, but differ in meaning.Hyponymy: it refers to the senserelation between a more general, moreinclusive word and a more specific word. It is concerned with semantic inclusion.SUPerOrdinate上座标词 it refers to the word WhiCh is more general inmeaning . Hyponym : 下义词 it refers to the more specific word.Co-hyponym: it refers to hyponym of the same superordinate.GradabIe antonyms:可分等级反义词 they are the antonyms WhiCh differ in termsof degree.Complementary antonyms 互补反义词 they are non-gradable antonyms WhiCh are semantiCally Complementary to eaCh other, therefore, they do not permit degrees of Contrast.COnVerSe antonyms逆反反义词 they are the antonyms WhiCh are interdependent, showing the reversal of a relationship between two entities.4 Sentence meaningSentence meaning:A sentenCe meaning is abstraCt, Context-independent inContrast to utteranCe meaning WhiCh is ConCrete and Context-dependent. Entailment（包含关系）:Entailment is basically a Semantic relation （orlogical impliCation ）. It refers to something that logiCally folloWs What is assertedin the utteranCe.Presuppositiort预设关系）：A PreSUPPOSition in Semantics refers to What is assumed by the speaker and \or assumed by him to be knoWn to the hearer before he makes the utteranCe. In a broader sense, presupposition Can be defined in ordinary language as any kind of baCkground assumption against WhiCh an aCtion, theory, expression or utteranCe makes sense or is rational.5 Analysis of MeaningComponential analysis -- a way to analyze lexical meaningThe Word man Can be analyzed in to a series of semantiC features suCh as[+MAN,+ADULT, +MAN] （+means the presence of a feature while- means the absence of a feature）. COmPOnential analysis （成分分析法）：It is a Way proposed by StruCtural semanticists to analyze word meaning, based on the belief that the meaning of a word Can be analyzed I to a series of meaning Components or semantiC features. Contrasts are usually presented in terms of +or -. These feature symbols are usually Written in Capitalized letters. PredicatiOn analysis 述（谓结构分析法） a way tO analyze sentence meaningPrediCatiO n （述谓结构）：It is the abstract ion Of the meaning Of a Senten ce.ArgUment（论元变元）:An argument is a logical PartiCiPant in a PrediCation, Iargely identical With the nominal element（ s） in a sentence.PrediCate谓词）:A PrediCate is SOmething Said about an argument or it StateS the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.ChaPter7PragmatiCS 语用学PragmatiCs studies the meaning of Words in Context, analyzing the Parts of meaning that Can be exPlained by knoWledge of the PhysiCal and soCial World, and the soCio-PsyChologiCal faCtors influenCing CommuniCation, as Well as the knoWledge of the time and PlaCe in WhiCh the Words are uttered or Written.COntextSituational COnteXt情景语境）:It is What SPeakerSknow about What they Can See around them. LinguistiC COntex:t It iS What haS been Said before in the ConverSation, the “hiStory”of thingS Said So far.Social COnteXt社会语境）:It is the gen erally kno WIedge that most people Carry With them in their mindS, about areaS of life and SPeCifiC and PoSSibility Private knoWledge about the history of the sPeakers themselves.EntailmentEntailment: An entailment is something that logiCally folloWs from What is asserted in an utteranCe.PresuPPOsitiOnPresuPPosition: PresuPPositions are imPliCations that are often felt to be in the baCkground—to be assumed by the sPeaker to be already knoWn to the addressee.1：言内行为LOCutiOnary ACtIt is the basiC and PhysiCal aCt of utteranCe, or ProduCing a meaningful linguistiC exPression. This aCt is ConCerned With the literal meaning.2： .言外行为IllOCutiOnary ACtThis aCt involves the sPeCifiC PurPose or real intension that the sPeakers have in mind. 3： .言后行为PerlOCutiOnary ACtIt is the aCt of an utteranCe on the hearer; it is the hearer reaCtion.4：.会话含义COnversatiOnal imPliCaturesACCording to P.GriCe, it refers to the extra meaning not Contained in the utteranCe,understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker ' s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the CP.5：礼貌原则Politeness principleIt is series of maxims, proposed by Geoffrey Leech as a way of explaining how politenessop aerates in conversational exchanges. Leech defines politeness as forms of behavior thatestablish and maintain comity. That is the ability of participants in a social interactionto engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony. 6:: 合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt 'psroposed and formulated by P.Grice, a pragmatic hypothesis, is about that theparticipants must first of all be willing to cooperate, otherwise, it would not bepossible for them to carry on the talk.合作原则的准则4Maxim of Cooperative Principle 数量the maxim of Quantity 你说的话应包含所需内容且不可超过内容要求Make your contribution as informative as required;Do not make your contribution more informative than is required 质量the maxim of Quality ---------- 不要说你认为是假的话或你缺乏足够证据的话Do not say what you believe to false.Do not say for which you lack adequate evidence 关系the maxim of relation 使你的话与话题相关be relevant方式the maxim of manner --- 避免模糊、歧义，应简明有序Avoid obscurity of expression and ambiguity;Be brief/be orderly.Chapter8:.言语社区Speech CommunityIt refers to a group of people who form a community and share at least one speech varietyas well as similar linguistic norms.LangUage VarietieS （语言变体）：Variety is a gen eric term for a PartiCuIar COhere ntform of language in which specific extra linguistic criteria can be used to define it as avariety.RegiSter （语域）：it is the SitUatiOnal USe of Ianguage, a Variety USed for a PartiCUIar PurPose or in a ParticuIar setting.DiaIeCt： it refers to any regionaI, soCiaI or ethniC variety of a IangUage.RegionaI diaIeCt： it refers to the IangUage variety Used in a geograPhiCaI region..ReCeiVed PrOnUnCiatiOn （标准发音）：ReCeiVed PrOnUnCiation is the SUPPOSed aCCePtabIe standardized PronUnCiation of the middIe 2t0h CentUry .It is a non-IoCaIized aCCent, whiCh enjoyS high PreStige and haS beCome a marker of UPPer CIaSS.SOCiOleC：t it referS to the IingUiStiC Variety CharaCteriStiC of a PartiCUIar SoCiaI CIaSS.It 's also called social dialect.Genderlect: it is a variety of speech or conversational used by a particular gender.Hedges: hedges are the words whose meaning implicitly involves fuzziness and whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy.Fillers: fillers are those words or phrases that we put into speeches to fill the gaps when we're nervous or when we are at a loss for words, like um, ay'know, or sooooooAge dialect: the varieties of language according to age are called age dialect. Agedialect is not a distinct entity. In talking about age dialect, we are talking about the correlation between the use of certain linguistic forms and age groups. In that sense, age dialect is a matter of proportion.Ethnic dialect: it is a dialect used by a racial or national group. It is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial to discrimination or segregation.Standard dialect （标准方言）：it is a superimposed, socially PreStigiOuS dialect Of a language that has been given either legal or quasi-legal status. It is the language employed by the government and used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school setting where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.RegiSter （语域）：it refers to VarietieS according to the USe of Ianguage.Field（语场）:it refers to What is going on and to the area of OPerati on of the Ian guage activity.TenOr（语旨）:it refers to the relati ons betwee n the PartiCiPa nts.Mode： it refers to the means of communication.Pidgin （洋泾浜语）：it refers to a con tact la nguage that arises in SitUatiO ns Where sPeakers of different languages cannot understand each oth'serfirst language or native language and, thus, need to develoP a common means of communication.PidginizatiOn: i t is a Process which generally involves the simPlification of a language in order to create a Pidgin.Creoles （克利奥尔语）：Creoles are former Pidgins whose functional and grammatical limitations and si mplification have been eliminated and which now function as fully fledged, standardi zed native languages.Creolization: The process whereby a pidgin turns into a Creole is called creolisation. It involves the expansion of linguistic system of a pidgin and the increase in the numb er of its functions in daily communication.LingUa FranCe (通用语): A lingua franca is defined as a language which is used habitually by people wh ose mother tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them.Chapter9DisCoUrse CommUnitie:s The common ways in which members of a social group use language to meet their social needs.IingUiStiC determinism语言决定论：It POSitS that language determines the Way We think, or in other words, we actually live in language instead of other way roundiCon: image, Picture Or rePreSentatiOn.Sign: a linguiStic unit; it uniteS a cOncePt and a SOund-image.Metaphor: a device fOr Seeing SOmething in termS Of SOmething elSe.DisCoUrse: ThiS term, With a caPital D, cOined by linguiSt JameS Gee, referS tO WayS Of SPeaking, reading and Writing, but alSO Of behaving, interacting, thinking, valuing, that are characteriStic Of SPecific diScOurSe cOmmunitieS.disCoUrse:The PrOceSS Of language uSe, Whether it be SPOken, Written Or Printed, that includeS WriterS, textS, and readerS Within a SOciOcultural cOntext Of meaning PrOductiOn and recePtiOn.Charades： CharadeS iS a fun game tO Play With yOur friendS and family at hOme, at PartieSOr On camPing triPS! CharadeS are baSically WOrdS Or PhraSeS that are acted Out in PantOmime (WithOut Saying any WOrdS Or making any SOundS). CharadeS can alSO have SubjectS like the title Of a bOOk, mOvie Or ShOW that iS acted Out. CharadeS are uSually Played With tWO teamS. Each team draWS cardS that have the WOrd Or PhraSe they are gOing tO act Out. The Other team trieS tO gueSS What iS being acted Out.StereOtyPe刻板印象：COnVentionalized WayS of talking and thinking about other PeOPle and cultureS.ChaPter10The father of Behaviorism: John B. Watson “ give me a child, and I 'll make himanything you want him to be ”Behaviorism: It is described as a developmental theory that measures observable behaviors produced by a learner 're s ponseto stimuli. Responsesto stimuli can be reinforced with positive or negative feedback to condition desired behaviors. The behaviorist theory is a psychological model defining behavior as something that is conditioned or instilled. It states that humans are products of their environments and all behaviors are positively reinforced, negatively reinfrced,or published.Innatism: It is a philosophical doctrine that holds that the mind is born withideas/knowledge, and that therefore the mind is not a“blank slate ” at birth, as early empiricists such as John Locke claimed. It asserts therefore that not all knowledge is obtained from experience and the senses.InteraCtiOniSm（互动主义）:lt is micro-sociological and believes that meaning is produced through the interactions of individuals. The social interaction is a face-to-face processconsisting of actions, reactions, and mutual adaptation between two or more individuals. The interaction includes all languages （including body language） and mannerism.Interlanguage: lt is the learner's developing second language knowledge. lt may have characteristics of the learner's native language, characteristics of the second language, and some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systems. lnterlanguages are systematic, but they are also dynamic, continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses about the second language. L2 learners process through an interlanguage, which is an independent knowledge of L1 and L2 system.ACquiSitiOn: lt is the process of taking in information without making conscious effort. Learning: lt is the process of taking in information with conscious effort and attention to the task in hand.COmpetenCe:lt refers to a speaker's knowledge of his language as manifest in his ability to produce and to understand a theoretically infinite number of sentences most of which hemay have never seen or heard before.PerfOrmanCe: lt refers to the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features like hesitations, accompanying the use of language.UniverSal grammar: Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans. lt attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. LangUage transfer（语言迁移）:It refers to SPeakerSOr WriterS applying knoWIedge from their native language to a second language. lt is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation When someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as When translating into a second language.COmPrehenSibIe input（可理解性输入）:It means that StUdents should be able to understand the essence of What is being said or presented to them.CritiCal PeriOd HyPOtheSiS（关键期假设）:The CritiCal PeriOd hypothesis ClaimS that there is an ideal “window”of time to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after whiCh this is no longer possible. It is generally assumed that there are different CritiCal periods for different parts of language, e.g. phonology and syntax and that not for all parts of language there is a CritiCal period.。