医学英语课文翻译
医学英语课文翻译1-11单元
第一单元肺、肾的结构肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾乳头。
每个肾乳头被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾乳头流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,供应肾脏上、中、下区域的血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些终叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分—紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
医学英语课文翻译杨庆华
医学英语课文翻译杨庆华It's 8: 30 AM, time to begin patient rounds. Today we'll make patient rounds with the pulmonary team. In room 1107, we find 65yr. old Mr. Smith who was admitted yesterday afternoon. The pulmonary team includes the attending physician, senior pulmonary fellow, junior resident, and 3 medical students. The admitting junior resident who admitted the patient the previous day begins the case presentation. Mr. Smith presents with a sore throat, productive cough and shortness of breath; he's been febrile for 5 days; his illness failed to respond to IV Annkacin given during his hospitalization at a small local hospital so he was transferred to our hospital with the diagnosis of pneumonia. His family brought his medical records including a Chest X- ray and lab reports performed in the local hospital, but the junior resident left them in his on-call sleeping room. One of the medical students quickly retrieves the nursing chart from the nursing station. Review of the vitals is noteworthy for a progressive increasing pulse and respiratory rate during the night. The junior resident now briefly reexamines thepatient, lung auscultation, and then the pharynx. After completing the physical exam, he notes the patient has "crackles" in the right lung base and purulent pharyngeal exudate. No results of yesterday's Chest X-ray, CBC, and ABG were provided. An ABG or pulse oximetry forgotten. Further examination notes bilateral diffuse crackles, BP 90/60,pulse 120, resp.32/min. He orders a stat ABG and Chest X- ray and while waiting we request the nurse check the patient's O2 saturation using pulse oximetry and discover the O2 saturation is only 80%. Urgent arrangements are made to transfer the patient to ICU.翻译:查房准备早晨8点30分,开始查房。
医学英语课文翻译unit1-7.
Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
学术英语(医学)Unit1~4课文翻译
Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻,但是大多数医生通情达理,还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法,大脑千头万绪,事无巨细,不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求,即使所提要求十分中肯,也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团,就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天,我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾,试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作,一个医生的脑海机灵转动,需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁,是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好,恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高,但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多,最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约,按时看病,并能按时做血液化验,但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来,她健康良好,在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者,并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验,这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗?她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行 30 分钟的事。
糖尿病:她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何?她最近是否和营养师谈过?她是否看过眼科医生?足科医生呢?她的血压还好,但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药?药片多了是否让她困惑?更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻?骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐,因为这可以预防骨质疏松症?而我现在又要给她加一种药丸,而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧?她家里的情况怎么样呢?她现在是否有常见的生活压力?亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症?有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢?健康保养:她最后一次乳房 X 光检查是什么时候做的?子宫颈抹片呢? 50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查?过去 10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗?她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件?奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路,告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
医学英语课文翻译
医学英语课文翻译Unit One器官系统众所周知,细胞是人体的基本单位,大量的细胞构成某种类型的组织,各类组织再共同形成不同的器官。
特定种类的器官进一步组合形成系统,即器官系统。
一般而言,人体拥有十大器官系统,它们分别是循环系统、呼吸系统、消化系统、泌尿系统、神经系统、内分泌系统、生殖系统、免疫系统、骨骼系统和肌肉系统。
有些器官系统对我们而言非常熟悉,并能感觉到它们的活动,例如呼吸系统。
无论白天还是夜间,我们都在呼吸。
另一方面,有些器官系统对我们来说相对陌生,例如内分泌系统,我们无法感知内分泌腺在机体内的活动。
人体构架人类为什么会长成现在模样?我们为何能够直立而不是像动物那样爬行?是什么让人类得以转动头颅,手脚和身体的其他部位?答案就是骨架,即人体的构架。
骨架是指我们身体中所有骨头的集合。
有了骨架,我们的血液和组织才能够形成现在的形状,有了它,我们全身的肌肉编排才会有序,才能协调我们身体的运动。
此外,人体构架将重要脏器包覆起来以保护其免受外界伤害。
骨架由骨、软骨、腱和韧带等几个重要元素组成的,骨是骨架的重要组成部分。
新生儿一般拥有350多块骨头,但当他长大后,部分骨骼相互连接二最终减少为206块。
我们身体大部分的运动都是由胳臂和腿来完成的,因此胳膊和腿上的骨也最多,而且其中多数为长骨。
股骨位于大腿内部,是人体内最长的骨头。
脊柱由26块骨组成,担负着支撑躯干结构并容纳重要神经的责任。
胸腔由胸骨和肋骨包裹而成,容纳了心脏、肺等重要生命器官。
最后,我们的头部也有20多块骨,其中头盖骨遮盖着大脑,其他骨头则构成脸部。
Unit Two保持健康的决定因素每个人都希望自己一辈子保持健康。
然而,没有人能实现这个目标,我们每个人都可能由于各种原因染上这种或那种疾病。
有时候我们自己都不知道是怎么得病的。
世界卫生组织指出,个人健康状况是由多种因素决定的,其中包括个人特质或生物学特质、个人的行为或生活方式、自然环境以及社会、经济环境。
医学英语课文翻译
Unit OneText A: Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人,尊重病人,尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的,虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法,这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的,这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何,不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的(希波克拉底宣言),这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分,希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时,这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令,在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神,使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来,尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期,专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
医学英语教程课文翻译Unit1
Unit 1Reading A The Human complex— A Never –failing Source of Wonderment(人类的复杂性——一个永远不会失去惊叹的话题)“ In my view, ” wrote Thomas Jefferson in 1814 , “no knowledge can be more satisfactory to a man that of his own frame, its parts, their functions and action s. ” Distinguished thinkers before and since Jefferson have held this belief, but curiously, it is not one that the average person wholeheartedly shares.Man’s attitude toward his own body—his single most precious possession—is decidedly ambivalent. At one and the same time he is fascinated by it and fearful of it, partly in echo of ancient taboos, partly in the conviction that the body is too complicated to understand.( “在我看来,”托马斯杰佛逊于1814年写道:“对人来说,没有什么知识会比了解自身的架构、部件、功能和作用更能使他满足。
”包括杰佛逊在内的杰出思想家均持有这个观点,但有趣的是,这个观点并不为普罗大众所由衷地接受。
人们对自己的身体,这个对他自身来说最为宝贵的财富,态度其实是充满矛盾的。
[整理版]医学英语原文翻译1至5单元
1. 生理学是研究生物体正常功能的一门科学。
它研究生物体如何进行各种活动,如何饮食,如何运动,如何适应不断改变的环境,如何繁殖后代。
这门学科包罗万象,涵盖了生物体整个生命过程。
生理学成功地解释了生物体如何进行日常活动,基于的观点是生物体好比是结构复杂而灵巧的机器,其操作受物理和化学规律控制。
尽管从生物学整个范畴看,生物体某些活动过程是相似的,如基因编码的复制,但许多过程还是某些生物体群组特有的。
鉴于此,将这门学科分成不同部分研究如细菌生理学,植物生理学和动物生理学是有必要的。
Physiology is the study of thefunctions of living matter. It is concerned with how an organism performs its varied activities: how it feeds, how it moves, how it adapts to changing circumstances, how it spawns new generations . The subject is vast and embraces the whole of life. The success of physiology in explaining how organisms perform their daily tasks is based on the notion that they are intricate and exquisite mac hines whose operation is governed by the laws of physics and chemistry. Although some processes are similar across the whole spectrum of biology—the replication of the genetic code for example —many are specific to particular groups of organisms. For this reason it is necessary to divide the subject into various parts such as bacterial physiology, plant physiology, and animal physiology. 2.正如要了解一个动物如何活动,首先需要了解它的构成,要充分了解一个生物体的生理学活动就必须掌握全面的解剖学知识。
医学学术英语(医学)课文翻译以及课后问题答案
Unit11、Some factors that may lead to the complaint:·Neuron overload·Patients* high expectations·Mistrust and misunderstanding between the patient and the doctor2、Mrs. Osorio’s condition:·A 56-year-old woman·Somewhat overweight·Reasonably well-controlled diabetes and hypertension·Cholesterol on the high side without any medications for it·Not enough exercises she should take·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan3、Good things:·Blood tests done·Glucose a little better·Her blood pressure a little better but not so great Bad things:·Cholesterol not so great·Her weight a little up·Her bones a little thin on her last DEXA scan 44、The situation:·The author was in a moderate state of panic: juggling so many thoughts about Mrs. Osorio’s conditions and trying to resolve them all before the clock ran down.·Mrs. Osorio made a trivial request, not so important as compared to her conditions.·Mrs. Osorio seemed to care only about her “innocent —and completely justified —request”:the form signed by her doctor.·The doctor tried to or at least pretended to pay attention to the patient while completing documentation.5、Similarities:·In computer multitasking, a microprocessor actually performs only one task ata time. Like microprocessors, we human beings carft actually concentrate ontwo thoughts at the same exact time. Multitasking is just an illusion both in computers and human beings.Differences:·The concept of multitasking originated in computer science.·At best, human beings can juggle only a handful of thoughts in a multitasking manner, but computers can do much better.·The more thoughts human beings juggle, the less human beings are able to attune fully to any given thought, but computers can do much better.6、·7 medical issues to consider·5 separate thoughts, at least, for each issue·7 x 5 = 35 thoughts·10 patients that afternoon·35 x 10 = 350 thoughts·5 residents under the authors supervision·4 patients seen by each resident·10 thoughts, at least, generated from each patient·5 x 4 x 10 = anther 200 thoughts·350 + 200 = 550 thoughts to be handled in total·If the doctor does a good job juggling 98% of the time, that still leaves about10 thoughts that might get lost in the process.7、Possible solutions:·Computer-generated reminders·Case managers·Ancillary services·The simplest solution: timeUnit21、The author implies:• Peoples inadequate consciousness about the consequence of neglecting the re- emerging infectious diseases·Unjustifiability of peoples complacency about the prevention and control of the infectious diseases·Unfinished war against infectious diseases2、Victory declarations:·Surgeon General William Stewart's hyperbolic statement of closing “the book on infectious disease”.·A string of impressive victories incurred by antibiotics and vaccines·The thought that the war against infectious diseases was almost overWhat followed ever since:·Appearance of new diseases such as AIDS and Ebola·Comeback of the old afflictions:» Diphtheria in the former Soviet Union» TB in urban centers like New York City» Rising Group A streptococcal conditions like scarlet fever·The fear of a powerful new flu strain sweeping the world3、Elaborate on the joined battle:·WHO established a new division devoted to worldwide surveillance and control of emerging disease in October 1995.·CDC launched a prevention strategy in 1994.·Congress raised fund from $6.7 million in 1995 to $26 million in 1997.4、The borders are meaningless to pathogenic microbes, which can travel from one country to another remote country in a very short time.5、TB:·Prisons and homeless shelters as ideal places for TB spread·Emerging of drug-resistant strain or even multi-drug-resistant strain·A ride on the HIV w^on by attacking the immunocompromisedGroup A strep:·A change in virulence·Mutation in the exterior of the bacteriumFlu:Constant changes in its coat (surface antigens) and resultant changes in its level of virulence6、Examples:·Experiment in England is seeing the waning immunity because of no vaccination.·Du e to poor vaccination efforts, the diphtheria situation in the former Soviet Union is serious. '• The vaccination rates are dropping in some American cities, and it will lead to more diphtheria and whooping cough.7、The four areas of focus:·The need for surveillance·Updated science capable of dealing with discoveries in the field ·Appropriate prevention and control·Strong public health infrastructure8、The infectious diseases such as TB, flu, diphtheria and scarlet fever will never really go away, and the war against them will never end.Unit31、Terry's life before·She loved practicing Tae Kwon Do·She loved the surge of adrenaline that came with the controlled combat of tournaments.·She competed nationally, even won bronze medal in the trials for the Pan American Games.·She attended medical school, practiced as an internal medicine resident, and became an academic general internist.·She got married and got a son and a daughter.2、The symptoms of MS and autoimmune disease:·Loss of stamina and strength·Problems with balance·Bouts of horrific facial pain·Dips in visual acuity3、Terry did the following before she self-experimented:·She started injections.·She adopted many pharmacotherapies.·She began her own study of literature:» She read articles on websites such as PubMed.» She searched for articles testing new MS drugs in animal models.»She turned to articles concerning neurodegeneration of all types —dementia,Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and Lou Gehrig's disease.»She relearned basic sciences such as cellular physiology, biochemistry, and neurophysiology.4、Approaches Terry mainly used:·Self-experimentation with various nutrients to slow neurodegeneration based on literature reports on animal models·Self-experimentation with neuromuscular electrical stimulation which is not an approved treatment for MS·Online search to identify the sources of micronutrients and having a new diet ·Reduction of food allergies and toxic load5、Cases mentioned in the text:·Increased mercury stores in the brains of people with dental fillings·High levels of the herbicide atrazine in private wells in Iowa·The strong association between pesticide exposure and neurodegeneration ·The association of single nucleotide polymorphisms involving metabolism of sulfur and/or B vitamins·Inefficient clearing of toxins6、With 70% to 90% of the risk for diabetes, heart disease, cancer, andautoimmunity being due to environmental factors other than the genes, we can take many health problems and the health care crisis under our control, for example, optimizing our nutrition and reducing our toxic load.Unit41、Two concepts:·Complementary medicine refers to the use of conventional therapies together with alternative treatments such as using acupuncture in addition to usual care to help lessen pain. Complementary and alternative medicine is shortened as CAM.·Alternative medicine refers to healing treatments that are not part of conventional therapies —like acupuncture, massage therapy, or herbal medicine. They are called so because people used to consider practices like these outside the mainstream.2·TCM does not require advanced, complicated, and in most cases, expensive facilities.·TCM employs needles, cups, coins, to mention but a few.·Most procedures and operations of TCM are noninvasive.·The substances used as medicine are raw herbs or abstracts from them, and they are indeed all natural, from nature.·TCM has been practiced as long as the Chinese history, so the efficiency i s proven and ensured.·Ongoing research around the world on acupuncture, herbs, massage and Tai Chi have shed light on some of the theories and practices of TCM3、It may be used as an adjunct treatment, an alternative, or part of a comprehensive management program for a number of conditions: post-operative and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, post-operative dental pain, addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma.4、A well-justified NO:·More intense research to uncover additional areas for the use of acupuncture ·Higher adoption of acupuncture as a common therapeutic modality not only in treatment but also in prevention of disease and promotion of wellness ·Exploration and perfection of innovative methods of acupuncture point stimulation with technological advancement·Improved understanding of neuroscience and other aspects of human physiology and function by basic research on acupuncture·Greater interest by stakeholders·An increasing number of physician acupuncturists5、·Appropriate uses of herbs depend on proper guidance:» Proper TCM diagnosis of the zheng of the patient» Correct selection of the corresponding therapeutic strategies and principles that guide the choice of herbs and herbal formulas·Digression from either of the above guidence will lead to misuses of herbs, and will result in complications in patient6、·Randomized controlled trialsAdvantages:»Elimination of the potential bias in the allocation of participants to the intervention group or control group» Tendency to produce comparable groups» Guaranteed validity of statistical tests of significanceLimitations:» Difficulty in generalizing the results obtained from the selected sampling to the population as a whole» A poor choice for research where temporal factors are anissue»Extremely heavy resources, requiring very large samplegroups• Quasi-experimentsAdvantages:» Control group comparisons possible» Reduced threats to external validity as natural environments do notsuffer the same problems of artificiality as compared to awell-controlled laboratory setting.» Generalizations of the findings to be made about population since quasiexperiments are natural experimentsLimitations:» Potential for non-equivalent groups as quasi-experimental designsdo not use random sampling in constructing experimental and controlgroups.» Potential for low internal validity as a result of not using random sampling methods to construct the experimental and control groups• Cohort studiesAdvantages:»Clear indication of the temporal sequence between exposure andoutcome» Particular use for evaluating the effects of rare or unusual exposure» Ability to examine multiple outcomes of a single risk factorLimitations:» Larger, longer, and more expensive» Prone to certain types of bias» Not practical for rare outcomes• Case-control studiesAdvantages:»The only feasible method in the case of rare diseases and those with long periods between exposure and outcome»Time and cost effective with relatively fewer subjects as compared to other observational methodsLimitations:» Unable to provide the same level of evidence as randomized controlled trials as it is observational in nature» Difficult to establish the timeline of exposure to disease outcome• “N=1” trialsAdvantages» Easy to manage» InexpensiveLimitations:» Findings difficult to be generalized to the whole population» Weakest evidence due to the number of the subject7、• Synthesis of evidence is completely dependent on:» The completeness of the literature search (unavailable for foreign studies) » The accuracy of evaluation·There are situations in which no answer can be found for the questions of interest in RCTs and database analyses.·There's the requirement of using less stringent information rather than “hard data”8、·Assessment of the intrinsic value of traditional medicine in society·Research and education·Political, economic, and social factorsUnit51、·Dis-ease refers to the imbalance arising from:» Continuous stress» Pain» Hardships·Disease is a health crisis ascribable to various dis-eases.·Prompting elimination of dis-eases can alleviate some diseases.2、·Wellness is a state involving every aspect of our being: body, mind and spirit.·Manifestations of a healthy person:» Energy and vitality» A certain zip in gait» A warm feeling of peace of heart seen through behavior3、·Constant messages, positive and negative,are sent to our mind about the health of our body.·Physical symptoms are suppressed by people who go through life on automatic pilot.·Being well equals to being disease- or illness-free in the minds of them. ·They confused wellness with an absence of symptoms.4、·People's minds are infected by spin:» Half-truth» Fearful fictions» Blatant deceit: some as a form of self-deceit·Spin is a result of unconscious living.·The kind of falseness is pandemic.5·Our body intelligence is suppressed or dormant from a lack of use.·There are tremendous amount of stress on a daily basis.·Our bodies are easily ignored for years because of a lack of recreation time. ·Limiting, self-defeating and even self-destructive behaviors undermine our wellbeing and keep them from achieving our full potential.6·We grow more reluctant to take risks.·We lose the ability to feel and acknowledge our deepest feelings and the courage to speak our truth.·We continue to deny and repress our feelings to protect ourselves. ·Fear, denial and disconnection from our bodies and feelings become an unconscious, self-protective habit, a kind of default response to life.7·A multi-faceted process:» Looking for roots of and resolutions for the issues in different dimensions » Building our wellness toolbox slowly» Picturing our whole state of being·Attention to the little stuff:» Examining our lives honestly and setting clear intentions to change» Striving to maintain a balance of our mind, body and spirit» Taking small steps in the way to perceive and resolve conflict8·Try to awaken and evolve in order to live more consciously.·Get in touch with our genuine feelings and emotions.·Come to terms with the toxic emotionsUnit61、In the past, most people died at home. But now, more and more people arecared in hospitals and nursing homes at their end of life, which of course brings a new set of questions to consider.2、·Sixty-four years old with a history of congestive heart failure·Deciding to do everything medically possible to extend his life·Availability of around-the-clock medical services and a full range of treatment choices, tests, and other medical care·Relaxed visiting hours, and personal items from home3、Availability of around-the-clock medical resources, including doctors, nurses,and facility.4、·Taking on a job which is big physically, emotionally, and financially·Hiring a home nurse for additional help·Arranging for services (such as visiting nurses) and special equipment (like a hospital bed or bedside commode)5、·Health insurance·Planning by a professional, such as a hospital discharge plaimer or a social worker·Help from local governmental agencies·Doctor's supervision at home6、·Traditionally, it is only about symptom care.·Recently, it is a comprehensive approach to improving the quality of life for people who are living with potentially fatal diseases.7、·Stopping treatment specifically aimed at curing an illness equals discontinuing all treatment.·Choosing a hospice is a permanent decision.Unit71、·A dying patient·Decision whether to withdraw life-support machines and medication and start comfort measures·The family's refusal to make any decision or withdraw any treatments2、·The doctor as exclusive decision-maker·The patient as participant with little say in the final choice3、·Respect for the patient, especially the patient s autonomy·Patient-centered care·The patient as decision-maker based on the information provided by the doctor4、·Patients are forced to make decisions they never want to.·Patients, at least a large majority of them, prefer their doctors to make final decisions.·Shifting responsibility of decision-making to patients will bring about more stress to patients and their families, especially when the best option for the patient is uncertain.5、Doctors are very much cautious about committing some kind of ethicaltransgression.6、·Shouldering responsibility together with the patient may be better than having the patient make decisions on their own.·Balancing between paternalism and respect for patients autonomy constitutes a large part of medical practice.Unit81、·Research:An activity to test hypothesis, to permit conclusions to be drawn, and thereby to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge·Practice:Interventions solely to enhance the well-being of an individual patient or client and that have a reasonable expectation of success·Blurred distinction:»Cooccurrence of research and practice like in research designed to evaluate a therapy» Notable departures from standard practice being called “experimental”with the terms “experimenta l”and “research” carelessly defined2、·Autonomy:Individuals treated as autonomous agents .·Protection:Persons with diminished autonomy entitled to protection·A case in point:Prisoners involved in research3·“Do no harm” as the primary principle·Maximization of possible benefits and minimization of possible harms . ·Balance between benefits and potential risks involved in every step of seeding the benefits4、·“Do no harm” as a fundamental principle of medical ethics·Extension of it to the realm of research by Claude Bernard·Benefits and risks as a set “duet” in both medical practice and research5、·Unreasonable denial of entitled benefit and unduly imposed burden:Enrolment of patients in new drug trial: Who should be enrolled and who should not?·Equal treatment of equals:Determining factors of equality: age, sex, severity of the condition, financial status, social status6、·Definition:The opportunity to choose what shall or shall not happen to them ·Application:» A process rather than signing a written form» Adequate information as the premise» A well-informed decision as the expected result7、·Requirements for consent as entailed by the principle of respect for persons ·Risk/benefit assessment as entailed by the principle of beneficence·More requirements of fairness as entailed by the principle of justice: » At the individual level: fairness» At the social level: distinction between classesUnit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
医学英语课文翻译unit
Unit1肺和肾的功能肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应;它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量;大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房;剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流;肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道直径大约2毫米的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性;从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失;因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中;肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉;肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房;肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行;每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米;肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域组成;外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成;这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处;锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾;每个肾被一个肾小盏包裹;肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂;经肾流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱;由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液;肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液;当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,这些血管又进一步细分;细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉;从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质;由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液;组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成;每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网肾小球和一个附着在上面的小管组成;这个小管包含几个明显的解剖和功能成分;Unit2细胞与衰老衰老是一种正常的生理过程,伴有肌体内平衡适应性反应的进行性改变;研究老年人健康问题和保健的特殊分支称作老年医学;衰老的明显特征众所周知:头发花白和脱落,牙齿脱落,皮肤起皱,肌肉减少,脂肪积存增加;衰老的生理征兆是肌体对环境压力反应的功能和能力逐渐减退.;如同保持不断地体内平衡应对温度、饮食和氧供反应变慢一样,机体代谢也减慢了;衰老的这些迹象与机体中细胞数的净减少及存余细胞的功能缺失有关;衰老的另一个表现是组织的细胞外成分也随年龄的变化而变化;负责肌腱力量的胶原纤维的数量增加,而质量却随着衰老降低;动脉壁胶原质中的变化造成动脉壁伸展性缺失,如同动脉壁上的积聚物造成动脉粥样硬化即动脉壁脂肪物质堆积一样;弹性蛋白是另一种细胞外成分,主要负责血管和皮肤的弹性;随着年龄的变化,它的变粗,变碎并需要获得更大的钙亲和力,这些可能也是造成动脉粥样硬化的原因;葡萄糖在机体中是最丰富的糖类,它在衰老的过程中也可能起作用;根据一个假设,任意给细胞内外的蛋白质增加葡萄糖,结果会在相邻蛋白质分子间形成不可逆交联;当人衰老时,会形成更多的交联,这可能导致正在衰老的组织变得僵化,丧失弹性;虽然正常情况下,每分钟会有好几百万的新细胞产生,但人体有几种细胞:心脏细胞,骨骼肌纤维细胞,神经细胞是无法替代的;实验显示,许多种类的细胞分裂能力有限;在机体外生长的细胞仅仅分裂几次就停止了;细胞分裂数与捐献者的年龄有关,与这些细胞获取的不同物种的正常寿命有关;这些发现为这种假说提供了有力证据,即细胞有丝分裂的终止是正常的,有基因决定的;根据这个观点,衰老基因是出生时就存在的基因蓝图的一部分,它取决于生命攸关的减慢或停止过程出现的特定时间;衰老的另一个理论即自由基理论;自由基是含有未配对电子的带电荷分子;这是一种不稳定的高反应性分子,容易损害蛋白质;自由基的影响有:皮肤起皱,关节僵直,动脉硬化;自由基也可以损害DNA;造成自由基的因素有:空气污染,放射线以及我们摄取的某些食物;饮食中的其他物质如维生素E,维生素C,β-胡萝卜素以及硒都是抗氧化剂,可以抑制自由基形成;最近的两个研究支持了衰老的自由基理论;孕育健康长寿的果蝇株产生超正常量的酶:过氧歧化酶;它可以中和自由基;同样,把产生过氧歧化酶的基因注射进果蝇胚胎会延长其平均寿命;然而,关于衰老的理论,有些是在细胞水平上解释其过程,有的则强调整个生物体内运作的调节机制,比如免疫系统产生各种抗异物侵扰的抗体,可是会对细胞本身发起攻击;这种自身免疫应答可能是细胞表面变化造成,引起抗体附加并标记出破坏细胞;当细胞表面变化增加,自身免疫应答加强,产生众所周知的衰老;Unit3生物化学和人类发展生物化学是在细胞和分子水平上运用化学研究生物过程的学科;省略2句生物化学使用化学、物理学、分子生物学和免疫学研究在生物物质中发现的复杂分子的结构与行为,研究那些分子相互作用构成细胞、组织和整个生物体的方式;生物学涉及从基因移植到巨分子结构和功能的广阔的细胞功能范围;……比如:单分子DNA如何复制生成其本身两个完全相同的副本,DNA分子中基础序列如何确定编码蛋白质中氨基酸的序列;我们以详细的机械术语描述这些生物进程的能力为其他生物科学研究奠定了坚实的化学基础;再者,我们把基础生命过程理解为化学结构和反应,比如遗传信息的传输,这种意识具有重要的哲学含义;……第二,……导致镰状细胞贫血、囊性纤维化、血友病和许多其他遗传疾病的分子病变在生物化学的水平上得以阐述;一些导致癌症发生的分子事物得以识别;了解基本的缺陷为发现有效的治疗方法开启了大门;生物化学使得合理设计新药成为可能,包括病毒如HIV病毒复制所需的酶的特殊抑制剂;生物工程制造的细菌或其他生物可以用来作为制造有价值蛋白质的工厂,如胰岛素和血细胞发育的诱导剂;生物化学非常有助于临床诊断;……DNAprobesDNA探针在遗传疾病,传染性疾病以及癌症的精确诊断中越来越起作用;农业也应生物化学的发展受益匪浅,产生了更加有效的、对环境无害的除草剂、杀虫剂;基因工程植物更能抵抗虫害;所有这些努力因基因组测序的进展而加速发展;第三,生物化学的进展正在使研究者们研究一些生物和医学上最令人激动得问题;受精卵如何会产生与肌肉、大脑和肝脏细胞不同的细胞感官是如何工作的大脑疾病如老年痴呆症和精神分裂症的分子基础是什么免疫系统如何区分自我和非自我长期记忆和短期记忆的分子机制是什么对于这些问题的答案,过去曾经似乎很遥远,现在已经得到初步解答,并且可能在不久的将来得到更加全面的解答;Unit4病理学简介病理学是研究疾病的科学;在临床实践和医学教学中,病理学的含义更为广泛:病理学由一系列的知识、观点和研究方法构成,它们对理解现代医学及医学实践至关重要;病理学不等同于疾病组织的形态学,把两者等同起来是一种过时的看法;病理学包括对疾病功能及结构的认识和理解,包含从分子水平到对个体的影响;随着新科学方法的应用,人们更深入地了解疾病,病理学所涵盖的内容也会不断地改变、更新和拓展;病理学的最终目的在于确定疾病的原因,从而达到防治疾病的基本目标;病理学的范围病理学是医学科学和实践的基础;没有病理学,医学实践也将无从谈起;临床病理学和实验病理学人们对疾病的认识来自于对病人的观察,同样也来自于对动物和细胞培养的实验性研究;而最大的贡献则来自于对病体组织和体液的深入研究;临床病理学临床医学以对疾病的纵向研究为基础,即研究病人病史,检查、研究和治疗疾病;而临床病理学更关注疾病本身的现况分析,深层次研究发病原因和机制,以及疾病对人体各个器官和系统的影响;两者相辅相成、不可分割;不理解病理学,临床医学无从开展;而没有了临床意义,病理学也就失去了存在价值;实验病理学实验病理学观察诸如疾病动物模型或细胞培养等实验系统的操作效果;幸运的是,细胞培养技术在进步,所以在医学研究和实验病理学中,人们对实验动物的使用减少了;然而,通过细胞培养复制完整人体中普遍存在的生理环境仍然是一种极其困难的尝试;病理学的分支病理学是一门拥有庞大分支的学科;在实践中,病理学包含以下几大分支:组织病理学:通过对组织的检查研究和诊断疾病;细胞病理学:通过对单个细胞的检查研究和诊断疾病;血液病学:对血液中细胞成分和可凝结成分的异常进行研究;微生物学:对传染性疾病及相关生物体进行研究;免疫学:对机体特殊防御机制进行研究;病理化学:从组织和体液的变化中研究和诊断疾病;遗传学:对异常染色体和基因进行研究;毒理学:对已知或疑似毒物的作用进行研究;法医病理学:病理学在法律中的应用,比如对可疑情况下的死亡进行调查;由于这些分支都拥有各自的专业人士队伍,对病理学进行划分的专业意义大于它的教育意义;病理学的教学必须着眼于整体,因为在这些常规分类中机体和疾病是没有区分的;因此,该书采用多学科方法阐述病理学;系统病理学部分概述各器官的正常结构与功能,描述各临床症状和体征的病理学基础,强调了各疾病的临床意义;普通病理学和系统病理学病理学教学内容分为两部分:普通病理学:研究和阐明主要疾病过程的机制和特点,如先天性疾病和后天性疾病、炎症、肿瘤和恶化等;系统病理学:描述影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病,如阑尾炎、肺癌和动脉粥样化等;普通病理学普通病理学总论研究和阐明存在于各主要疾病的共同病因、发病机制和特点;本书第二部分包含这些内容,举例说明各种疾病;在学习系统病理学之前,理解普通病理学的各原理至关重要;普通病理学是学习各种疾病系统病理学之前所必须具备的理论基础;系统病理学系统病理学各论研究和阐明影响各器官或器官系统的各种疾病;注意区分“系统的”和“人体的”在本文中的使用;人体病理学具有遍及所有人体系统的疾病的特性每种疾病通常是由于普通病理学中最具特征的一类或更多种类的原因和发病机制造成;因此,急性阑尾炎是影响阑尾的急性炎症;肺癌是肺细胞受到致癌作用的结果;而因此形成的癌细胞的行为会遵循已确立的恶性肿瘤的模式,等等;unit5Innate immunity also called natural or native immunity provides the early line of defense against microbes. it consists of cellular and biochemical defense mechanisms that are in place even before infection and are poised to respond rapidly to infections .These mechanisms react to microbes and to the products of injured cells . and they respond in essentially the same way to repeated infections .The principal components of innate immunity are 1 physical and chemical barriers. such as epithelia and antimicrobial chemicals Produced at epithelial surfaces: 2 phagocytic cells neutrophils, macrophages , dendritic cells. and natural killer NK cells: 3 blood proteins, including members of the complement system and other mediators of inflammation; and 4 proteins called cytokines that regulate and coordinate many of the activities of the cells of innate immunity. The mechanisms of innate immunity are specific for structures that are common to groups of related microbes and may not ,distinguish fine differences between microbes. 固有免疫又叫自然免疫或者先天性免疫为抵制微生物提供了早期的天然防线;它有细胞和生化机制构成,他们甚至在感染之前就已经开始运转,随时准备迅速应对感染;这些机制对微生物和受损细胞的产生做出反应,也已基本相同的方式应对重复感染;固有免疫主要成分是1.物理和化学屏障,比如上皮组织和上皮表层产生的抗菌化学物;2.噬菌细胞嗜中性粒细胞,巨噬细胞,树突状细胞和自然杀伤细胞;3.血蛋白,包括补体系统的成分和其他的炎症介质;4.一种叫做细胞因子的蛋白质能够调节和协调固有免疫的细胞活动;固有免疫机制是专门针对成组的相关联微生物共同拥有的结构的,他们可能无法分辨为生物之间的细小差别; In contrast to innate immunity. there are other immune responses that stimulated by exposureto infectious agents and increase in magnitude and defensive capabilities with each successive exposure to a particular microbe Because this form of immunity develops as a response to infection and adapts to the infection. it is called adaptive immunity. The defining characteristics of adaptive immunity are exquisite specificity for distinct molecules and an ability to "remember" and respond more vigorously to repeated exposuresto the same microbe .The adaptive immune system is able lo recognize and react to a large number of microbial and nonmicrobial substances. In addition. it has an extraordinary capacity to distinguish between different , even closely related, microbes and molecules,and for this reason it IS also called specific immunity. It is also sometimes called acquired immunity. to emphasize that potent protective responses are “acquired" by experience .Themain components of adaptive immunity are cells called lymphocytes and their secreted products.such as antibodies. Foreign substances that induce specific immune responses or are recognized by Symphocytes or antibodies are called antigens. 与固有免疫相比,因接触感染因子而被激活的其它的免疫反应会因为与某一种微生物的反复接触而体积增大和防御能力增强;因为这种形式的免疫会随着对感染的反应而发展和调整,因此叫做适应性反应;适应性免疫的明确特征是对不同的分子有敏锐的特异性,他有记忆的功能能够对相同微生物的重复感染做出更加激烈的应答;适应性免疫系统能够识别,并对大量的微生物和非微生物产生应答;此外,他有一种卓越的能力,能够区别不同的甚至是关系紧密的微生物和分子;正因为如此,它有被成为特异性免疫,有时候也叫后天免疫,是为了强调这种强大的保护应答是因为不断接触而获得的;适应性免疫的主要成分是淋巴细胞和他们的分泌物比如抗体;诱发特异性免疫或者被淋巴细胞或抗体识别的外来物质被称为抗原; Mechanisms for defending the host against microbes are present in some form in all multicellular organisms . These mechanisms constitute innate immunity The more specialized defense mechanisms that constitute adaptive immunity are found in vertebrates only. Two functionally similar but molecularly distinct adaptive immune systems developed at differenttimes in evolution. About 500 million years ago, jawless fish. such as lampreys and hagfish. developed a unique immune system containing diverse lymphocyte-like cells that may functionlike lymphocytes in more advanced species and even responded to immunization The antigen receptors on these cells were variable leucine-rich receptors that were capable of recognizing many antigens but were distinct from the antibodies and T cell receptors appearedlater in evolution. Most of the components of the adaptive immune system, including lymphocytes with highly diverse antigen receptors, antibodies. specialized lymphoid tissues, evolved coordinately within a short time in jawed vertebrates e. g. , sharks. about 360 million years ago. The immune system has become increasingly specialized with evolution . 保护诉诸抵制微生物的机制在所有的多细胞生物中以某种形式存在着;这些机制构成了固有免疫;构成适应性免疫的更加特异的防御机制只有在脊椎动物身上才有;在进化过程中两种功能相似但是分子相异的适应性免疫系统在不同时期得到了发展;大约5亿年前,八目鳗和盲鳗这些无颚鱼进化了一种独一无二的免疫系统,它有各种像淋巴细胞一样的细胞,能在更加高级的物种里像淋巴细胞一样发挥作用,甚至能对免疫应答;这些细胞上的抗原受体是多变的亮氨酸受体,能够识别许多的抗原,但是却和后来进化过程中出现的抗体和T细胞不同;适应性免疫系统的大多数成分,包括带有高度多样化抗原受体的淋巴细胞,抗体和特异的淋巴组织,是在3亿6千万年前在有颚脊椎动物比如鲨鱼中短时间里协调进化的;免疫系统也在进化过程中日益特异化; Innate and adaptive immune responsesare components of an integrated system of host defense in which numerous cells and moleculesfunction cooperatively. The mechanisms of innate immunity provide effective initial defense against infections. However. many pathogenic microbes have evolved to resist innate immunity. their elimination requires the more powerful mechanisms of adaptive immunity .There are many connections between the Innate and adaptive immune systems. The innate immune response to microbes stimulates adaptive immune responses and influence nature of the adaptive responses Conversely. adaptive immune responses often work by enhancing the protective mechanisms of innate immunity, making capable of effectively combating pathogenic microbes. 固有免疫和适应性免疫是宿主整个防御系统组成成分,无数的细胞和分子彼此协作;固有免疫的机制对感染提供早期的有效防御,然而,一些病原微生物已经进化到可以抵制固有免疫,消除他们需要更加强大的适应性免疫机制;固有免疫和适应性免疫有千丝万缕的联系,对微生物的固有免疫应答会激发适应性免疫应答,影响适应性免疫的性质;反过来,适应性免疫应答常常通过加强固有免疫的保护机制是自己有能力和病原微生物有效的战斗;unit7受体药理学研究化学物质对生物体形象的方方面面,当其用于缓解或治疗疾病时,称为药物; 大多数药物通过与生物体的受体结合产生药效;药物分子与受体之间的化学键通常可以逆转;药物和受体的反应是否活跃取决于两者三维立体结构互补程度高低;因此,药物化学结构上的微小改变就有可能对药理活性产生深远/很大的影响; 药理是交叉学科,直接从所有基础医学学科吸取知识资源,反之也为临床医学的方方面面提供信息;因此,药理学的中心原理-受体概念的出现应该是源于生物学家john Newport Langley和以研究免疫学和梅毒化学疗法而闻名的大师Paul ehrlich等人的研究倒是合情合理的了; 还在剑桥大学读生理学本科时,langley已发现阿托品可拮抗匹鲁卡品对平滑肌的收缩作用;他于1878年发表研究成果,并假设“神经末梢或腺体细胞存在一种或一类物质,与阿托品、匹鲁卡品都可形成化合物,且化合过程遵循某种法则,两种药物的相对质量、他们与该物质的化合亲和性是影响因素;”之后三十年间,langley脑中逐渐形成这类“物质”特征的更为清晰的图景;通过对失神经肌肉去神经骨骼肌的实验,他得出结论:药物并非直接作用于神经末梢或是肌肉;他观察到无论肌肉是否受神经支配,尼古丁都能引起肌肉收缩,此外,当时普遍认为箭毒作用于神经末梢,langley研究发现箭毒可以阻滞尼古丁对失神经肌肉去神经骨骼肌的收缩作用;最后,被箭毒麻痹的肌肉受到电击仍会收缩;Langley认定尼古丁和箭毒一定是与神经/肌肉以外的某种物质结合,1905年他将该物质命名为“接受物质”; 1878年enrlich的医学博士毕业论文标题为某些重要染料的组织学功能;惊叹于用于组织染色的某些染料呈现出特异性,他推测药物是否产生治疗效果取决于它是否具有“合适的亲和性”;然而,他将这个想法最先应用于免疫学而非药理学;根据他的侧链理论:通过特殊化学功能组,毒素与抗毒素可形成联合;之后,他扩展理论引入新概念:寄生虫体内的化学受体,这些受体可作为神奇的化学子弹药物瞄准的靶点;尽管这些观点完全受到现代药理学家的认可,erhlich很长时间却一直反对用来解释药物-组织的相互关系,因为从呻毒与锥虫的牢固结合有较强疗效到许多药物的药效之短暂之间存在认识上的巨大鸿沟;但是随着时间的流逝、数据的积累、特别是langley实验的启发,ehrlich最终“打消疑虑,接受了化学受体的概念”; 如今,受体理论成为理解化学物质对生物体作用的通用概念,无论该化学物质是外源性的药理性的还是内源性的生理性的、Goldstein,etc.为当代的受体理论下了定义:药物作用于生物体的特殊分子组分即受体,产生特定效果;藉此,受体分子的功能随之调整,产生可测的效果;。
医学英语课文翻译
第一单元 A History of TCMText A A History of TCM1.通过考古发掘,中医药的历史可以追溯到数百万年前。
原始人们在基本生存方面花了大部分时间:狩猎、种植植物以获取食物、建造住所、保护自己。
很容易想象,随着时间的推移,他们会尝试大多数当地植物来寻找食物。
经过一段时间,随着口头记载的流传,可以确定哪些植物可以做美食,哪些可以用于建筑,哪些可以影响疾病,和哪些是有毒的。
通过试验和错误,一种原始的草药和饮食疗法在中国逐渐形成。
2.火作为一种取暖,燃料和光的资源在他们的生活中也发挥了关键作用。
他们围坐在火堆周围,我们的祖先发现热的治疗力量是很自然的。
这些力量对像关节炎这类寒湿病的作用特别明显,热量起到迅速缓解的作用。
这是艾灸的艺术的起源,热量的医疗应用适合于多种多样的条件。
3.在他们艰苦的生活中,这些古老的人们一定经历了各种各样的伤害。
痛苦的一个自然的反应是摩擦或按压病变部位。
这种动手的治疗逐渐演变成一个系统的治疗操作。
人们发现按压在身体上特定的穴位有广泛的影响。
他们开始使用磨骨碎片或石片增强感觉,针刺诞生了。
中国传统医学历史的记载4.中医的书面历史发展主要是在过去的3000年。
商朝的考古挖掘揭示了医学著作被刻在占卜的骨头上:早期的巫师,大多数是妇女,使用肩胛骨执行占卜仪式;后来这些骨头也被用于写作。
5.在1973年发现的11篇写在丝绸上的医学文献在某些方面阐明了中国历史早期的复杂实践。
追溯到公元前168年,这些文章讨论饮食、锻炼、艾灸和草药疗法。
,一本广泛混杂萨满魔法的文章(52病方)描述了草药和食物的药理作用。
这个时期还存在着神农的传说,农业的皇帝,他每天品尝100草药来评估他们的性能。
(据说他在调查的过程中已经中毒多次调)6.到公元400年,中国传统医学的基础已具有书面形式。
此时,医学中大多数魔法的方面已经落后;越来越相信自然的力量可以治愈疾病。
最重要的书籍是在公元前300年到公元400年之间编制的黄帝内经。
医学英语课文翻译
第一单元 A History of TCMText A A History of TCMThe history of traditional Chinese medicine can be traced through archaeological excavations extending back millions of years.Primitive people spent most of their time on basic survival: hunting, locating and preparing plants for food, building shelters, and defending themselves. It's easy to imagine that over time, they'd have sampled most of the local plants in their search for food. In time, an oral record evolved that identified those plants that made good food, those that were useful for building, those that had an effect on illness, and those that were poisonous. Through trial and error, a primitive form of herbal medicine and dietary therapy was taking shape in China.Fire also played a central role in their lives as a source of warmth, fuel, and light. As they huddled around fires, it was only natural that our ancestors would discover the healing powers of heat. Those powers would have been especially evident for cold, damp ailments such as arthritis, for which heat provides immediate relief. This was the origin of the art of moxibustion, the therapeutic application of heat to treat a wide variety of conditions.These ancient people must have experienced a variety of injuries during their rugged lives. A natural reaction to pain is to rub or press on the affected area. This hands-on therapy gradually evolved into a system of therapeutic manipulation. People discovered that pressing on certain points on the body had wide-ranging effects. They began to use pieces of sharpened bone or stone to enhance the sensation, and acupuncture was born.Written History of Traditional Chinese MedicineThe written history of traditional Chinese medicine has evolved mostly over the last 3,000 years. Archaeological digs from the Shang Dynasty (1,000 b.c.) have revealed medical writings inscribed on divination bones: early shamans, mostly women, used scapula bones to perform divination rites; later these bones were also used for writing.The discovery in 1973 of 11 medical texts written on silk has shed some light on the sophisticated practices of that early period of Chinese history. Dated to 168 B.C., the texts discuss diet, exercise, moxibustion, and herbal therapy.Liberally mixed with shamanistic magic, an extensive text,Prescriptions for Fifty-two Ailments, describes the pharmacological effects of herbs and foods.Also dating from about this time is the legend of Shen Nong, the Emperor of Agriculture, who tasted 100 herbs daily to assess their qualities. (He is said to have been poisoned many times in the course of his investigations.)By A.D. 400, the basic foundations of traditional Chinese medicine had been put into written form. By this time, most of the magical aspects of medicine had been left behind; there was an increasing belief in the powers of nature to heal disease.The most important book compiledbetween 300 B.C. and A.D. 400 is Huang Di Nei Jing (Huangdi’s Canon of Medicine).The work is divided into two books: Simple Questions and Spiritual Axis.The first book deals with general theoretical principles, while the second more specifically describes the principles of acupuncture and the treatment of disease. Remarkably, this ancient work is still valid; it forms the foundation for the contemporary practice of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, the Nei Jing states that cold diseases should be treated with hot herbs, and hot diseases should be treated with cold herbs. This principle is still followed today in clinical practice.Hot, inflammatory infections are treated with cold herbs such as honeysuckle flowers or Coptis root; cold, debilitating conditions suchas chronic fatigue are treated with warm, stimulating herbs such as ginseng or Astragalus roots.Modern research has confirmed that these plants contain constituents with strong pharmacological effects on these specific conditions. By the second century A.D., physicians all over China were compiling writings of the latest discoveries in acupuncture and herbal medicine. It was during this time that the famous physician Hua Tuo wrote about herbal anesthesia.Although his formula for the anesthetic has been lost, his unique system of acupuncture points is still in use. He was also a pioneer in recommending exercise as a method of maintaining wellness. He is quoted as saying "a running stream never goes bad," meaning exercise moves qi and prevents the stagnation that leads to disease.Another pioneer of the time was Zhang Zhongjing, who wrote Treatise on Febrile and Miscellaneous Diseases after witnessing an epidemic that ravaged his city and killed most of his relatives. This highly regarded physician developed a system of diagnosis so sophisticated that it is used by practitioners in modern hospitals 1,700 years after his death.Progress of Medicine in ChinaThe progress of medicine in China runs parallel to the nation's political history. Between the second and fifth centuries A.D., China experienced a period marked by war and political turmoil.One of the ironies of war is that it has a tendency to lead to advances in medicine. The periodic times of unrest in Chinese history, such as this, were no exception, as the increased need for practical, convenient, effective remedies led to further developments in medical treatment.During this time, Ge Hong wrote Prescriptions for Emergencies in order to spread the knowledge of acupuncture and moxibustion to the masses.Around A.D. 650, Sun Simiao compiled Prescriptions Worth A Thousand Gold, which integrated the clinical experiences of the different schools of acupuncture at that time.During the Tang Dynasty (618-907 A.D.), China's Imperial Medical Bureau established departments of Acupuncture, Pharmacology, and Medical Specialties. Numerous additional treatises and compilations of medical knowledge and experience were prepared.In the Five Dynasties period (907-1368 A.D.), advancements in printing techniques led to a dramatic increase in the publication of medical texts.One of the important books of the period was Canon on the Origin of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, in which Wang Zhizhong incorporated the clinical experiences of the practitioners of folk medicine.During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), many medical specialists compiled the works of their forebears, further expanding the extensive base of medical knowledge.The most famous physician of the period was Li Shi Zheng (1518-1593), a kind and generous healer who did not accept payment for his services. After reviving the son of a prince from a coma, he was appointed court physician and served in the Imperial Academy of Medicine.His most incredible achievement was his 40-year effort in writing the Ben Cao Gong Mu (General Catalog of Herbs), a monumental work published after his death. Consisting of 52 volumes at the time of its printing, the Ben Cao Gong Mu remains an important reference for traditional Chinese herbalists.The recent history of traditional Chinese medicine saw the integration of new techniques with ancient understanding. This integration process continued until the 19th century, when the Opium War of 1840 turned China into a semi-colonial society. Western colonial powers derided traditional medicine as primitive and outdated.The Communist party came to power in themid-20th century, bringing much turmoil to China; however, the Communists saw the need to promote traditional Chinese medicine to avoid dependence on the West.A great need for traditional doctors arose since there were far too few Western-trained physicians to serve the huge population: only 10,000 Western-trained doctors were available to serve 400 millionpeople.Traditional Chinese medicine began a course of revival that continues today. Many Western-trained physicians and scientists in China started to conduct research on acupuncture, moxibustion, and herbal medicine, and a gradual integration of the two systems began.In 1945, an acupuncture clinic opened in a Western hospital in China for the first time. Since then, traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine have been practiced side-by-side in Chinese hospitals, sometimes by a physician who has been trained in both fields.For example,a cancer patient might receive radiation to treat a tumor then be sent to the herbal department for formulas to strengthen his immune system and normalize his blood count.Since the 1970s, Chinese hospitals have trained students from more than 100 countries in the principles of traditional medicine.Interest in traditional Chinese medicine was sparked in the United States in the early 1970s when New York Times reporter James Reston experienced an acute appendicitis attack while in China.His report of receiving acupuncture to relieve hispost-operative abdominal pain brought an awareness of this system of healing to the general public.Since then, acupuncture and herbal medicine have gradually taken hold in North America. With more than 10,000 practitioners and an increasing number of schools of traditional Chinese medicine, this ancient system has taken its well-deserved place in the Western world.Text A A History of TCM通过考古发掘,中医药的历史可以追溯到数百万年前。
学术英语(医学)Unit1~4课文翻译
Unit 1 Text A神经过载与千头万绪的医生患者经常抱怨自己的医生不会聆听他们的诉说。
虽然可能会有那么几个医生确实充耳不闻,但是大多数医生通情达理,还是能够感同身受的人。
我就纳闷为什么即使这些医生似乎成为批评的牺牲品。
我常常想这个问题的成因是不是就是医生所受的神经过载。
有时我感觉像变戏法,大脑千头万绪,事无巨细,不能挂一漏万。
如果病人冷不丁提个要求,即使所提要求十分中肯,也会让我那内心脆弱的平衡乱作一团,就像井然有序同时演出三台节目的大马戏场突然间崩塌了一样。
有一天,我算过一次常规就诊过程中我脑子里有多少想法在翻腾,试图据此弄清楚为了完满完成一项工作,一个医生的脑海机灵转动,需要处理多少个细节。
奥索里奥夫人 56 岁,是我的病人。
她有点超重。
她的糖尿病和高血压一直控制良好,恰到好处。
她的胆固醇偏高,但并没有服用任何药物。
她锻炼不够多,最后一次 DEXA 骨密度检测显示她的骨质变得有点疏松。
尽管她一直没有爽约,按时看病,并能按时做血液化验,但是她形容自己的生活还有压力。
总的说来,她健康良好,在医疗实践中很可能被描述为一个普通患者,并非过于复杂。
以下是整个 20 分钟看病的过程中我脑海中闪过的念头。
她做了血液化验,这是好事。
血糖好点了。
胆固醇不是很好。
可能需要考虑开始服用他汀类药物。
她的肝酶正常吗?她的体重有点增加。
我需要和她谈谈每天吃五种蔬果、每天步行30 分钟的事。
糖尿病:她早上的血糖水平和晚上的比对结果如何?她最近是否和营养师谈过?她是否看过眼科医生?足科医生呢?她的血压还好,但不是很好。
我是不是应该再加一种降血压的药?药片多了是否让她困惑?更好地控制血压的益处和她可能什么药都不吃带来的风险孰重孰轻?骨密度 DEXA 扫描显示她的骨质有点疏松。
我是否应该让她服用二磷酸盐,因为这可以预防骨质疏松症?而我现在又要给她加一种药丸,而这种药需要详细说明。
也许留到下一次再说吧?她家里的情况怎么样呢?她现在是否有常见的生活压力?亦或她有可能有抑郁症或焦虑症?有没有时间让她做个抑郁问卷调查呢?健康保养:她最后一次乳房X 光检查是什么时候做的?子宫颈抹片呢?50 岁之后是否做过结肠镜检查?过去10 年间她是否注射过破伤风加强疫苗?她是否符合接种肺炎疫苗的条件?奥索里奥夫人打断了我的思路,告诉我过去的几个月里她一直背痛。
基础医学英语课文翻译
基础医学英语课文翻译-CAL-FENGHAI.-(YICAI)-Company One1【Chapter 1】The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane— as with the hinge joint of the elbow— or movement around a single axis—as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate.顱骨不能運動,是由於骨與骨之間的連接太過緊密.但其他的關節可允許活動,如一個平面上的前後屈身運動,如肘關節;或是繞軸心旋轉運動,如樞軸點允許頭部轉動.The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move jus one part of the body, as when bending a finger.結締組織是肌肉末端附著於不同的骨面上,所以當肌肉收縮時,兩骨彼此靠近而產生運動.這也就使整個人體可以運動起來,如走路,運動軀體某個部位,如彎曲手指.The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halve: one half receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs.心臟是一塊被分為幾乎對等兩半的肌肉.一辦吸收來自肺部的血液,並把血液運送到機體的其餘部位,另一半使流經全身的血液回流入肺.The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood releases carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled.氣管分成左右支氣管,各連結左右肺,左右之氣管在分支20多次,在終端形成大量為小的肺泡.從空氣攝取的氧氣流經這些肺泡壁內的毛喜血管流入血液.血液在經肺泡把釋放出的二氧化碳排出體外.The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply.泌尿系統維持水分及體內某些小分子物質,如鈉`鉀的正常水平.身體是通過讓腎過濾血液來做到這一點的.腎是兩個有效的過濾器官,他濾出各種多餘的小分子物質,保留那些供應不足的小分子物質.A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs.腦垂體是一個主要的腺體,他位於頭中部腦下方.他至少分泌八種激素,這些激素對人體生長,腎功能及性器官發育有影響.The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova( the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by sperm, nourishing and provid-ing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child.女性生殖系統產生,輸送卵子(女性性細胞),將未受精的卵子排出體外,而當精,卵結合時,女性生殖系統培養,提供胚胎生長場所,並孕育新生兒.【Chapter 2】A symptom is something a patient can de-tect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ.症狀是病人自己就能察覺到的,比如,高燒,流血,或是疼痛.而徵兆則是醫生所能夠觀察到的,比如,血管擴張或是體內器官腫大.The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resis-tance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however m large areas of the body might become infected.覆蓋在體表或者器官開口處的皮膚和黏膜能在很大程度上抵抗細菌或其他感染體的入侵.如果這些屏障遭到了損壞或損傷,身體對感染的抵抗力就會下降.在一些病情較輕的病例中,疥子和小膿胞可能會發生.在病情較重的病例中,身體的大面積區域則可能會被感染.Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mu-cus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract.呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染,幸運的是,呼吸道內附蓋滿了能分泌黏液的細胞,他們能捕捉微小的有機體和塵粒.另外,被叫做纖毛的細小毛髮也覆蓋了呼吸道,他們像微風下麥田裡的小麥一樣舞動著,輕輕地將異物掃出呼吸道.In addition, foreign mater in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing.除此之外,呼吸道內的異物還常常因為擤鼻涕`咳嗽`打噴嚏和清喉嚨而被彈出.Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread.如果膿塊不破裂,裡面的膿不排除掉,感染很可能會擴大.1.Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chainof them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their com-plements on the antigen molecule.每一個抗體由一條化學亞單位(及氨基酸)的重鏈和一條輕鏈所構成.這條輕鏈上有特別的部位,在那裡,氨基酸能使其補體和抗原分子相連.2.In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies “butter” the surface of someantigens and make them “tastier” to phagocytes, which engulf the antigens.在某些情況下,通過調理素作用的過程,抗體在抗原表面塗抹上一些”奶油”,讓吞噬細胞更喜歡吞噬他們.3.Sometimes an antibody hooks to bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, or complement,to actually destroy the bacterium, As the antibody-antigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex “fixes” complement to it.在另一些情況下,抗體和一個細菌抗原合上以後,卻需要一個中間體,或補體來實施對該細菌的消滅.於是,當抗體和抗原的結合體隨血液循環時,該結合體會有一個補體附體.4.During the first day or so , antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the blood. Butthis is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves.在第一天左右,血液中沒有發現對付傳染病的抗體,但是,這只是因為涉及抗體製造的基本細胞已被當前的抗原存在所觸發而準備開始繁殖.【Chapter 3】The fleshy belly is attached to one bone while the tendon passes over a joint to become firmly attached to the adjoining bone.肌腱跨過關節牢固連接相鄰的兩塊骨頭,而腹肌則與骨頭緊密相接.Shortening of the fleshy part of the muscle produces movement at the joint by pulling on the tendon. The tendon itself does not change in length.腹肌收縮拉動肌腱使關節運動,而肌腱本身的長度是不變的.The many bundles surrounded by the fibrous connective tissue fascia form the fleshy belly of the muscle.許多纖維束又被纖維結締組織筋膜所包繞,最後形成肌肉的肌腹部份.The relation of the muscle bundles to the tendons is that the muscle bundles ate surrounded and held together by the fibrous connective tissue that is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue of the tendonous part of the muscle.肌束和肌腱之間的關係是:肌束被纖維結締組織包繞並連接在一起,纖維結締組織又與肌鍵部份的結締組織相延續.The nerve fibers separate within a muscle with a terminal branch of the nerve going to each muscle fiber.在一塊肌肉中神經纖維可分枝出許多神經末梢,分配到每塊肌纖維中.【Chapter 4】Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.扁骨一般較薄,由兩層大致平行的骨密質骨板圍繞一層鬆質骨構成.Bones undergoing either intramembranous or endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from he time that initial calcification occurs until the final structure appears.自最初的鈣化發生開始,骨通過膜內骨化或軟骨內骨化而不斷地得以重塑,直至最後結構的形成.And still others, espe-cially the sex hormones, aid osteoblastic activity and thus promote the growth of new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates.還有其他激素,特別是性激素,協助成骨細胞活動因而促進骨生長.性激素作用具有兩面性,他能促進骨生長,但也使骺板所有軟骨細胞退化.There are two principal effects of aging on the skeletal sys-tem. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones.衰老對骨骼系統有兩個主要作用.第一個作用是骨鈣喪失.The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic portion of bone matrix.衰老對骨骼系統的第二個主要影響,是蛋白質合成速度降低至使產生骨基質的有機成分的能力下降.【Chapter 5】The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, whereas the py-loric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has sufficiently digested. 賁門括約肌的舒張與收縮使食物由食管入胃,而幽門括約肌卻使食物在充分消化後出胃. These substances help transform food present in the stomach into a semifluid substance called chime. The pyloric sphincter allows food to pass into the small intestine only after it has been transformed into chime.這些物質(鹽酸)協助將胃內現存的食物轉變成為稱為食糜的半流質物質.幽門括約肌只有在食物完全變為食糜後才將其排入小腸.【Chapter 6】Air enters the body through the nose and passes through the nasal cavity, which is lined with a mucous membrane and fine hairs(cilia) to help filter out foreign bodies, as well as to warm and moisten the air.空氣通過鼻進入人體內.在通過鼻腔時,其內排列的黏膜和纖毛過濾了異物,同時使進入的空氣溫暖而溼潤Paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-containing spaces within the skull that communi-cate with the nasal cavity.副鼻竇位於頭顱骨內,中空含氣,並與鼻腔相通.They, too, have a mucous membrane lining and function to provide the lubricating fluid mucus, as well as to lighten the bones of the skull and help produce sound.副鼻竇也有黏膜襯裡,其功能是提供潤滑黏液,減輕頭顱骨負荷,以及協同發聲.It is in the hypopharyngeal region that the pharynx, serving as a common passageway for food from the mouth and air from the nose, divides into two branches, the larynx(voice box) and the esopha-gus.下咽部是來自於嘴的食物和來自鼻的空氣之共同通道,他在這裡又分為兩支,喉(聲音盒)和食管.A special deterrent to this event is provided for by a flap of cartilage attached the root of the tongue that acts like a lid over the larynx.這一起著特殊阻滯作用的物體是一層連著舌根的軟骨結構,它像塊蓋子蓋過喉.The measure of how easily the lungs expand under pressure is compliance.肺器之所以能在壓力下輕鬆自如地展開,其方法就是因勢利導,順其自然.Breathing is regulated unconsciously by center in the brainstem. These centers adjust the rate and rhythm of breathing according o changes in the composition of the blood, especially the concen-tration of carbon dioxide.腦幹裡呼吸中心在不知不覺中控制和調節了呼吸.這些中心根據血液裡的成分,特別是二氧化碳的濃度來調節呼吸的速率和節奏.If too much carbon dioxide is exhaled by hyper-ventilation, body fluids tend to become more alkaline, a condition termed alkalosis. If too little car-bon dioxide is exhaled as a result of hypoventilation, body fluids tend to become more acid, a condi-tion termed acidosis.如果因為換氣過度而二氧化碳呼出過多,身體體液就容易變的偏鹼性,一種被稱為鹼中毒的狀態.然而,如果由於換氣不足,二氧化碳呼出過少,身體體液就容易變的偏酸性,一種被稱為酸中毒的狀態.Lining the trachea and bronchial tree are cells that secrete mucus, which traps pollutants and bacteria. Also in the bronchi are cells containing tiny cilia, that project into the blanket of mucus and with constant wavelike motions push the mucus up out of the airways.第一,氣管和支氣管樹鋪滿能分泌黏液的細胞,它們能捕捉污染物質和細菌.第二,支氣管裡還有長有細小纖毛的細胞,它們深入遍布的黏液層,不停地通過波浪般的動作把黏液向上清掃出呼吸道.【Chapter 7】There are three major types of blood vessels, i.e. , veins, and capillaries.血管分為三大類,即動脈、靜脈、毛細血管The largest artery, the aorta, is about 1 inch in diameter and has the thickest wall.主動脈是最大的動脈,管腔直徑約為1英吋,血管壁最厚The capillary boundaries are the most important center of activity of the entire circulatory system.毛細血管網是整各循環系統的最重要活動中心Most veins are equipped with one-way valves that permit the blood to flow in only one direction. They are most numerous in the veins of the extremities.大多數靜脈具有單向瓣膜,使血液朝著一個方向流動.在四肢的靜脈中,這樣的瓣膜最多The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the right ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen from the lungs into the left atrium.肺動脈攜帶右心室出來的、含氧量低的血液;而肺靜脈將含氧量高的血液從肺攜帶到左心房Blood returning from tissues other than the lungs enters the heart by way of the venae cavae: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.從組織(肺組織除外)而來的血液經腔靜脈,即上腔靜脈與下腔靜脈,回到心臟When the atria contract, blood in the right atrium is forced through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.當心房收縮時,右心房的血液則通過三尖瓣進入右心室Atrial contractions force blood from the left atrium through the mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle.心房收縮將血液從左心房擠壓通過二尖瓣,進入左心室When the ventricles contract, blood in the left ventricle is forced through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, the body’s largest artery, for distribution to the tissues.當心室收縮時,左心室的血液被擠壓通過主動脈瓣,進入主動脈(機體內的最大動脈),然後分配到機體的各个組織【Chapter 8】Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract are absorbed into blood for transport to the tissues.血液吸收肺部來的氧和消化道來的營養物質,並輸送到組織At the same time, carbon dioxide and other waste products of cellular metabolism are absorbed from the tissues for transport to the organs of elimination.同時,組織的細胞代謝產生的二氧化碳和其他廢物,送到排泄器官The blood also transports hormones from endocrine glands to their target organs.血液還將內分泌腺產生的激素輸送到它們的靶器官。
医学英语 课文翻译
Unit OneText A: Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊著名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人,尊重病人,尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最著名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专著——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的,虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法,这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的,这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何,不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的(希波克拉底宣言),这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分,希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时,这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令,在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神,使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来,尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的著作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论著和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期,专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
医学英语新教程(下册)课文翻译
医学英语(下册)课文翻译UNIT 1 疾病的介绍1 人体是一个艺术的杰作。
我们对身体的功能了解越深,就越赏识。
即使在生病时,身体在故障修复和补偿方面表现也相当出色。
身体内不断发生变化,然而,一个叫内环境稳定(稳态)的平稳状态能大抵保持平衡。
机体内环境稳定出现某种重大的紊乱,就能引起各种各样的反应,这些反应常常促使疾病的体征和症状出现。
比如,由于运动员对氧气的需求增加,他们体内的红细胞计数就会异常升高。
这是一个使更多血红蛋白循环的自然补偿机制,但它却是红细胞增多症的一个症状。
2 当一个器官需要做更多工作时,它往往会增大,肥大。
心脏会因为长期的高血压而增大,因为它必须不间断地克服巨大的阻力把血液输送到全身。
当瓣膜存在缺陷时,心肌同样也会肥大,因为那些要么太宽,要么太窄的瓣膜需要额外的抽吸作用。
如果一个肾衰竭了,另一个肾就会增大以满足身体的需要,并弥补那个有缺陷的肾。
当流向这两个肾的血液不足时,它们会通过分泌荷尔蒙(激素)的方式帮助血压升高。
然而,如果某个器官或身体的某个部位没有得到使用,它就会萎缩,或者,也就是说,面积变小或功能下降。
3 血液在维持内环境稳定方面发挥着几个作用。
当组织受到创伤,损伤,或者感染时,血流就会积聚在受损区域。
这是极其重要的,因为血液携带了专门用于清除有害物质和细胞碎片的细胞。
血液中的其他细胞则产生抗体,以抵抗致病生物的入侵。
4 疾病是某个身体部位,生理系统,或整个身体的不健康状态,其中结构或功能发生紊乱。
疾病经常始于细胞水平。
一个异常的基因不管是因遗传所得,还是因环境因素引起突变或变异,都能启动疾病程序。
比如,当基因信息遭到侵袭(常被病毒侵袭),癌症的发生会伴随着细胞的疯长。
新的研究方法使某些疾病能与异常基因的发现联系起来。
疾病可以是一种结构性的异常,比如,先天性心脏缺陷,也可以是没有器质性改变的功能性病变。
疾病可能是一种结构性的异常,比如,先天性心脏缺陷,也可能是没有器质性变化的功能性病变,比如,高血压或外伤。
医学英语课文翻译
Unit 1 解剖学▪肺的血管系统▪肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流▪肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极(地)控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房▪肾结构成分▪人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾乳头。
每个肾乳头被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾乳头流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
▪由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,供应肾脏上、中、下区域的血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的小叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些终叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
▪组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分—紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
基础医学英语课文翻译
【Chapter 1】The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane—as with the hinge joint of the elbow— or movement around a single axis—as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate.颅骨不能运动,是由於骨与骨之间的连接太过紧密.但其他的关节可允许活动,如一个平面上的前後屈身运动,如肘关节;或是绕轴心旋转运动,如枢轴点允许头部转动.The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move jus one part of the body, as when bending a finger.结缔组织是肌肉末端附着於不同的骨面上,所以当肌肉收缩时,两骨彼此靠近而产生运动.这也就使整个人体可以运动起来,如走路,运动躯体某个部位,如弯曲手指.The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halve: one half receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs.心脏是一块被分为几乎对等两半的肌肉.一办吸收来自肺部的血液,并把血液运送到机体的其余部位,另一半使流经全身的血液回流入肺.The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood releases carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled.气管分成左右支气管,各连结左右肺,左右之气管在分支20多次,在终端形成大量为小的肺泡.从空气摄取的氧气流经这些肺泡壁内的毛喜血管流入血液.血液在经肺泡把释放出的二氧化碳排出体外.The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply.泌尿系统维持水分及体内某些小分子物质,如钠`钾的正常水平.身体是通过让肾过滤血液来做到这一点的.肾是两个有效的过滤器官,他滤出各种多余的小分子物质,保留那些供应不足的小分子物质.A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs.脑垂体是一个主要的腺体,他位於头中部脑下方.他至少分泌八种激素,这些激素对人体生长,肾功能及性器官发育有影响.The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova( the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by sperm, nourishing and provid- ing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilizedby sperm, and nourishing a newborn child.女性生殖系统产生,输送卵子(女性性细胞),将未受精的卵子排出体外,而当精,卵结合时,女性生殖系统培养,提供胚胎生长场所,并孕育新生儿.【Chapter 2】A symptom is something a patient can de-tect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ.症状是病人自己就能察觉到的,比如,高烧,流血,或是疼痛.而徵兆则是医生所能够观察到的,比如,血管扩张或是体内器官肿大.The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resis-tance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however m large areas of the body might become infected.覆盖在体表或者器官开口处的皮肤和黏膜能在很大程度上抵抗细菌或其他感染体的入侵.如果这些屏障遭到了损坏或损伤,身体对感染的抵抗力就会下降.在一些病情较轻的病例中,疥子和小脓胞可能会发生.在病情较重的病例中,身体的大面积区域则可能会被感染.Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mu-cus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract.呼吸通道尤其容易受到感染,幸运的是,呼吸道内附盖满了能分泌黏液的细胞,他们能捕捉微小的有机体和尘粒.另外,被叫做纤毛的细小毛发也覆盖了呼吸道,他们像微风下麦田里的小麦一样舞动着,轻轻地将异物扫出呼吸道.In addition, foreign mater in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing.除此之外,呼吸道内的异物还常常因为擤鼻涕`咳嗽`打喷嚏和清喉咙而被弹出.Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread.如果脓块不破裂,里面的脓不排除掉,感染很可能会扩大.1.Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, anda light chain of them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acidscan link with their com-plements on the antigen molecule.每一个抗体由一条化学亚单位(及氨基酸)的重链和一条轻链所构成.这条轻链上有特别的部位,在那里,氨基酸能使其补体和抗原分子相连.2.In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies “butter” thesurface of some antigens and make them “tastier” to phagocytes, which engulf the antigens.在某些情况下,通过调理素作用的过程,抗体在抗原表面涂抹上一些”奶油”,让吞噬细胞更喜欢吞噬他们.3.Sometimes an antibody hooks to bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, orcomplement, to actually destroy the bacterium, As the antibody-antigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex “fixes” complement to it.在另一些情况下,抗体和一个细菌抗原合上以後,却需要一个中间体,或补体来实施对该细菌的消灭.於是,当抗体和抗原的结合体随血液循环时,该结合体会有一个补体附体.4.During the first day or so , antibodies against the infection cannot be found inthe blood. But this is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves.在第一天左右,血液中没有发现对付传染病的抗体,但是,这只是因为涉及抗体制造的基本细胞已被当前的抗原存在所触发而准备开始繁殖.【Chapter 3】The fleshy belly is attached to one bone while the tendon passes over a joint to become firmly attached to the adjoining bone.肌腱跨过关节牢固连接相邻的两块骨头,而腹肌则与骨头紧密相接.Shortening of the fleshy part of the muscle produces movement at the joint by pulling on the tendon. The tendon itself does not change in length.腹肌收缩拉动肌腱使关节运动,而肌腱本身的长度是不变的.The many bundles surrounded by the fibrous connective tissue fascia form the fleshy belly of the muscle.许多纤维束又被纤维结缔组织筋膜所包绕,最後形成肌肉的肌腹部份.The relation of the muscle bundles to the tendons is that the muscle bundles ate surrounded and held together by the fibrous connective tissue that is continuous with the fibrous connective tissue of the tendonous part of the muscle.肌束和肌腱之间的关系是:肌束被纤维结缔组织包绕并连接在一起,纤维结缔组织又与肌键部份的结缔组织相延续.The nerve fibers separate within a muscle with a terminal branch of the nerve going to each muscle fiber.在一块肌肉中神经纤维可分枝出许多神经末梢,分配到每块肌纤维中.【Chapter 4】Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.扁骨一般较薄,由两层大致平行的骨密质骨板围绕一层松质骨构成.Bones undergoing either intramembranous or endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from he time that initial calcification occurs until the final structure appears.自最初的钙化发生开始,骨通过膜内骨化或软骨内骨化而不断地得以重塑,直至最後结构的形成.And still others, espe-cially the sex hormones, aid osteoblastic activity and thuspromote the growth of new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates.还有其他激素,特别是性激素,协助成骨细胞活动因而促进骨生长.性激素作用具有两面性,他能促进骨生长,但也使骺板所有软骨细胞退化.There are two principal effects of aging on the skeletal sys-tem. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones.衰老对骨骼系统有两个主要作用.第一个作用是骨钙丧失.The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic portion of bone matrix.衰老对骨骼系统的第二个主要影响,是蛋白质合成速度降低至使产生骨基质的有机成分的能力下降.【Chapter 5】The cardiac sphincter relaxes and contracts to move food from the esophagus into the stomach, whereas the py-loric sphincter allows food to leave the stomach when it has sufficiently digested.贲门括约肌的舒张与收缩使食物由食管入胃,而幽门括约肌却使食物在充分消化後出胃. These substances help transform food present in the stomach into a semifluid substance called chime. The pyloric sphincter allows food to pass into the small intestine only after it has been transformed into chime.这些物质(盐酸)协助将胃内现存的食物转变成为称为食糜的半流质物质.幽门括约肌只有在食物完全变为食糜後才将其排入小肠.【Chapter 6】Air enters the body through the nose and passes through the nasal cavity, which is lined with a mucous membrane and fine hairs(cilia) to help filter out foreign bodies, as well as to warm and moisten the air.空气通过鼻进入人体内.在通过鼻腔时,其内排列的黏膜和纤毛过滤了异物,同时使进入的空气温暖而湿润Paranasal sinuses are hollow, air-containing spaces within the skull that communi-cate with the nasal cavity.副鼻窦位於头颅骨内,中空含气,并与鼻腔相通.They, too, have a mucous membrane lining and function to provide the lubricating fluid mucus, as well as to lighten the bones of the skull and help produce sound.副鼻窦也有黏膜衬里,其功能是提供润滑黏液,减轻头颅骨负荷,以及协同发声.It is in the hypopharyngeal region that the pharynx, serving as a common passageway for food from the mouth and air from the nose, divides into two branches, the larynx(voice box) and the esopha-gus.下咽部是来自於嘴的食物和来自鼻的空气之共同通道,他在这里又分为两支,喉(声音盒)和食管.A special deterrent to this event is provided for by a flap of cartilage attached the root of the tongue that acts like a lid over the larynx.这一起着特殊阻滞作用的物体是一层连着舌根的软骨结构,它像块盖子盖过喉.The measure of how easily the lungs expand under pressure is compliance.肺器之所以能在压力下轻松自如地展开,其方法就是因势利导,顺其自然.Breathing is regulated unconsciously by center in the brainstem. These centers adjust the rate and rhythm of breathing according o changes in the composition of the blood, especially the concen-tration of carbon dioxide.脑干里呼吸中心在不知不觉中控制和调节了呼吸.这些中心根据血液里的成分,特别是二氧化碳的浓度来调节呼吸的速率和节奏.If too much carbon dioxide is exhaled by hyper-ventilation, body fluids tend to become more alkaline, a condition termed alkalosis. If too little car-bon dioxide is exhaled as a result of hypoventilation, body fluids tend to become more acid, a condi-tion termed acidosis.如果因为换气过度而二氧化碳呼出过多,身体体液就容易变的偏硷性,一种被称为硷中毒的状态.然而,如果由於换气不足,二氧化碳呼出过少,身体体液就容易变的偏酸性,一种被称为酸中毒的状态.Lining the trachea and bronchial tree are cells that secrete mucus, which traps pollutants and bacteria. Also in the bronchi are cells containing tiny cilia, that project into the blanket of mucus and with constant wavelike motions push the mucus up out of the airways.第一,气管和支气管树铺满能分泌黏液的细胞,它们能捕捉污染物质和细菌.第二,支气管里还有长有细小纤毛的细胞,它们深入遍布的黏液层,不停地通过波浪般的动作把黏液向上清扫出呼吸道.【Chapter 7】There are three major types of blood vessels, . , veins, and capillaries.血管分为三大类,即动脉、静脉、毛细血管The largest artery, the aorta, is about 1 inch in diameter and has the thickest wall.主动脉是最大的动脉,管腔直径约为1英寸,血管壁最厚The capillary boundaries are the most important center of activity of the entire circulatory system.毛细血管网是整各循环系统的最重要活动中心Most veins are equipped with one-way valves that permit the blood to flow in only one direction.They are most numerous in the veins of the extremities.大多数静脉具有单向瓣膜,使血液朝着一个方向流动.在四肢的静脉中,这样的瓣膜最多The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the right ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen from the lungs into the left atrium.肺动脉携带右心室出来的、含氧量低的血液;而肺静脉将含氧量高的血液从肺携带到左心房Blood returning from tissues other than the lungs enters the heart by way of the venae cavae: the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava.从组织(肺组织除外)而来的血液经腔静脉,即上腔静脉与下腔静脉,回到心脏When the atria contract, blood in the right atrium is forced through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle.当心房收缩时,右心房的血液则通过三尖瓣进入右心室Atrial contractions force blood from the left atrium through the mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle.心房收缩将血液从左心房挤压通过二尖瓣,进入左心室When the ventricles contract, blood in the left ventricle is forced through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, the body’s largest artery, for distribution to the tissues.当心室收缩时,左心室的血液被挤压通过主动脉瓣,进入主动脉(机体内的最大动脉),然後分配到机体的各个组织【Chapter 8】Oxygen from the lungs and nutrients from the digestive tract are absorbed into blood for transport to the tissues.血液吸收肺部来的氧和消化道来的营养物质,并输送到组织At the same time, carbon dioxide and other waste products of cellular metabolism are absorbed from the tissues for transport to the organs of elimination.同时,组织的细胞代谢产生的二氧化碳和其他废物,送到排泄器官The blood also transports hormones from endocrine glands to their target organs.血液还将内分泌腺产生的激素输送到它们的靶器官。
医学英语_课文翻译
Unit 1肺和肾的结构一、肺的血管系统肺从两个血管系统----支气管循环系统和肺循环系统获得血液供应。
它的营养血液来自于支气管循环系统,流向肺部除肺泡外的所有组织,因为支气管循环系统始于主动脉及上肋间动脉,接受大约1%的心输出量。
大约三分之一的支气管循环的静脉输出流入全身静脉,然后回到右心房。
剩余的输出流入肺静脉,并在心脏最小静脉的作用下,在正常情况下,以1%-2%的量自右向左分流。
肺动脉系统沿着气道从肺门向外周延伸,向下连接下段气道(直径大约2毫米)的动脉,它们壁薄且富有弹性。
从这儿开始,动脉成肌肉化发展,直至其达到30微米,此时肌层消失。
因为这些小肌肉动脉起着积极控制肺部血流分布的作用,所以大部分动脉压降产生在这些小肌肉动脉中。
肺小动脉将血液排空,送入广泛分布的毛细血管网,进入肺静脉。
肺静脉的壁很薄,它们最终在肺门处与动脉和支气管汇合,出肺进入左心房。
二、肾结构成分人类肾脏在解剖学上位于腹膜后隙,与下胸椎和上腰椎平行。
每个成年人的肾脏大约重150克,长、宽、厚分别为12厘米、6厘米以及3厘米。
肾脏的冠状部分分为/由两个明确的区域(组成)。
外周部的皮质大约1厘米厚,深部的髓质由几个肾锥体构成。
这些锥体状结构的底部位于皮髓质结合处。
锥体的顶部伸入肾门,称为肾**。
每个肾**被一个肾小盏包裹。
肾小盏与肾大盏相聚组成肾盂。
经肾**流出的尿液汇集在肾盂,通过输尿管排入膀胱。
由主动脉分支出来的肾总动脉为两肾输送血液。
肾总动脉通常分为两个主侧支,这两个侧支又进一步分为叶动脉,为肾脏上、中、下区域供应血液。
当这些血管进入肾实质,变成叶间动脉通向肾皮质时,(这些血管)又进一步细分。
细分后的更小血管在皮髓质结合处成为竖支--弓状动脉。
从弓状动脉伸出的叶间动脉进入皮质。
由于传入小动脉始于这些末端叶间动脉,所以为肾小球毛细血管输送血液。
组织学上,肾脏是由一个叫做“肾单位”的基本单位组成。
每个肾脏约含有一百万个肾单位,“肾单位”有两个主要成分:过滤成分―紧包着毛细血管网(肾小球)和一个附着在上面的小管组成。
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Unit OneText A: Hippocratic Oath, The Medical Ideal 或许在医学史上最持久的,被引用最多次的誓言就是”希波克拉底誓言”.这个以古希腊着名医师希波克拉底命名的誓言,被作为医师道德伦理的指导纲领.虽然随着时代的变迁,准确的文字已不可考,但誓言的主旨却始终如一——尊敬那些将毕生知识奉献于医学科学的人,尊重病人,尊重医师尽己所能治愈病人的承诺。
作为被大家公认的”医学之父”,我们对希波克拉底知之甚少.他生活于约公元前460-380年,作为一名职业医师,与苏格拉底是同代人.在他的时代,他被推举为当时最着名的医师和医学教育者.收录了超过60篇论文的专着——希波克拉底文集,被归于他的名下;但是其中有些论文的内容主旨相冲突,并成文于公元前510-300年,所以不可能都是出自他之手.这个宣言是以希波克拉底命名的,虽然它的作者依然存在疑问。
根据医学历史权威的看法,这个宣言的内容是在公元前四世纪起草的,这使希波克拉底自己起草这个宣言成为可能。
无论如何,不管是否是希波克拉底自己起草的(希波克拉底宣言),这个宣言的内容都反映了他在医学伦理上的看法。
作为代表当时希腊观点的唯一一小部分,希波克拉底誓言首次被写时并没有受到很好的欢迎。
然而,在那远古时代结束时,医生们开始遵循誓言的条款。
当科学医学在罗马帝国衰亡后遭受一显而易见的衰退时,这个誓言,连同希波克拉底医学的指示命令,在西方都几乎被遗忘是有可能的。
正是通过东方坚持不懈的探索精神,使得希波克拉底医学信念和希波克拉底宣言得以在这一恶化的时期幸存下来,尤其是通过阿拉伯当局在医学上的着作。
希腊医学知识而后在西方基督教复活是通过了阿拉伯文论着和原始希腊文的拉丁文翻译。
到17世纪后期,专业行为标准已经在西方世界建立。
被专业组织通过的第一部医学伦理学的法典是由英国内科医生托马斯·珀西瓦尔(1740 - 1804)1794年编写的, 并在1846年被改编和通过了美国医学协会(AMA)。
Thomas Percival提出的道德规范为职业医师提供了金标准,主宰着医生们服务他人时的道德权威和独立性以及医生对病人的责任,还有医生的个人荣誉。
种子已经被希波克拉底或者他的代笔者们所播种。
二战之后,由于在罪犯身上进行骇人听闻的医学实验而违反了医学伦理准则,23位来自行德国纳粹集中营的医生被判有罪。
这一事件导致了纽伦堡宣言的诞生(1947),这意味着关于人类受试者的道德治疗的讨论的开启,概述了在医学研究中关于这些受试者权益的道德问题。
这反过来导致1948年世界医学协会通过了维也纳宣言的宣誓。
誓言的重申一直是个问题。
医学伦理相当复杂。
他们必须平衡病人的期望、社会需求和禁忌、经济和政治现实以及并不断发展的医学和科学知识之间的关系。
例如,当初的誓言要求无论在任何情况下患者都应得到治愈。
然而,在双盲试验中使用安慰剂是在药物开发必不可少的,但却意味着医生没有试图进行治疗。
而当初的誓言,也将禁止病人分流治疗。
病人分流治疗用于战争或灾害时根据病人的生存机会优先进行治疗。
对有或没有医疗保险的病人进行不同的医疗保健是不可能的。
使用高剂量毒性药物进行化疗的某些危险形式将被禁止。
最后,能够减轻身处无法治愈境地的病人痛苦的安乐死被当初的誓言所禁止。
因此,人们争辩自希波克拉底的时代以后,原始的希波克拉底誓言在一个发生了翻天覆地的社会经济、政治和道德变革的社会是无效的。
这指引我们对誓言进行修改,使其更适合我们的时代。
四个当今使用最广泛的版本是:日内瓦宣言(前文已提及);迈蒙尼德的祷告; Lasagna宣言;修复后的希波克拉底宣言.虽然他们的措辞和内容不同,主要原则是一样的—尽自己最大能力去治疗病人,永不造成故意伤害,和保护病人的私密—然而没有一条誓言要求各种神灵去惩罚一个违反了誓言的医生,除了恢复希波克拉底宣言现在,大部分医学毕业生在走出校园进入社会从事医疗实践活动前都会向某种形式的医学宣言起誓.然而,这通常是一个与原来相似性很小的现代版本。
尤其是在美国的一些医学院校结合其他的誓言和现代的规则,创建一个可行的伦理模式。
与原来的不同,新的誓言不需要医生发誓才可以练习。
相反,它是一个实践的代码和一个年轻医生进入专业和对治愈病人承诺的象征。
现在的问题是---为什么有这么多从古代流传下来的作品,能够在整个医学科学的发展历史中对医学实践过程产生如此深刻地影响。
德国人劳埃德这样评价希波克拉底:在西方世界,希波克拉底的名字一直就代表着一个典范。
而这正恰恰是这个誓言所要表达的:一个理想的金道德标准代表了一条明确的分界线区分医治者和杀手,医生做出的保卫生命的承诺,以及永远不要故意夺走他人的生命。
当事情出错时社会总是试图把责任推给医生,在这样的一个世界里,这个被维护的誓言,将不仅保护医生和病人,还保护他们的家庭和整个社会。
可以理解的是,正因为它已经太过时了,一些激进分子可能会要求在毕业典礼中将希波克拉底誓言移除。
然而,即使在科技和医疗启蒙的当今时代,仍然需要道德和医学伦理方面的黄金标准(不管这听起来多么乌托邦)。
不仅是为那些继承的医疗业务的人树立了一个榜样,而且也保护了那些在医疗实践的接收端中的人。
原始誓言的修改是不可避免的。
希波克拉底,一个在科学方法上一丝不苟以及在关于人和疾病的世界的观察很敏锐的人,毫无疑问会赞同那些为了跟上世界的发展的目的改变,但只要希波克拉底宣言的基本原则对医生和实践者仍然适用,它就会长期为人类所用,即便它的作者已经被遗忘。
Unit 2 American Medical Education1医学教育看来正处于一种长久动荡的状态中。
自1900年代早期,有超过20篇来自研究机构、教育单位和专业特别小组的报道批评医学教育重视科学知识超过于对生命的理解,临床推理,实践技能和性格、同情心和诚实的发展。
这种情况是怎么发生的,我们又能为此做些什么呢在这篇发表在《Journal》上并介绍了一系列关于新医学教育文章中,我们总结出了上世纪以来在医学教育上发生的变化和描述了现在的挑战,并以此作为一个专业教育的关键目标的框架:传播知识,传授技能和灌输职业的价值观。
Abraham Flexner和美国医学教育2将近一个世纪之前,Abraham Flexner,一个为提高教学的卡内基基金会的研究学者,对北美的医学教育进行评估,参观了当时在美国和加拿大办学的155所医学院校。
他在1910年的报告,主要是面对公众,帮助改变了美国医学教育的形象。
Flexner的报告的影响力源于他对医疗实践的科学依据的强调,他的调查的综合性以及他表达的信息对美国公众的吸引力。
虽然医学教育的改革已经在进行中,但是Flexner的报告通过批评许多学校和老师的资质平庸和唯利是图,一些学校里不适合的课程和设备以及和德国的基于大学的医学教育系统对比不科学的职业准备的方法,加速了改革的进程。
3Flexner 的核心观念是形式分析推理,作为一种对自然科学的整体思考,应当在内科医师思维培训中被推从。
这个观点在19世纪80年代得到了哈佛,密歇根大学以及宾夕法尼亚大学的倡导,但却是在约翰霍普金斯大学的教育项目中被充分诠释,这被felxner认为是医学教育的理想模式。
除了医学教育科学的基础建立,flexner预想了在学术定向的医院的医学教育的临床阶段,富有思想的内科医师将会研究在病人护理上出现的问题,并教他们的学生做同样的事,对于flexner而言,研究不是终点,它重要是因为他导致更好的病人护理和教学,实际上他同意那句格言“多思考,少发表”。
20世纪的医学转型4自Flexner日之后学术环境就已经发生转变。
在学术医院,科研的重要性迅速超过教学,并且“不发表文章就要毁掉前途”的风气在美国大学和医学院校涌起,研究成果也变成评价能力的度量标准;教学、关护病人和从事广阔的公共健康课题被视为次级重要的活动。
因此,当今教学附属于科研,同样也是美国在生物学问题上的医学教育的一瞥,代表了一个长期屹立的传统。
5除了教学和病人护理相关研究的重心转移,有关人类疾病研究过程的转变也促成了我们的这种现状。
在20世纪上半叶,美国医学教育一个突出的特点就是调查与教学和病人护理的整合。
教学、临床护理和调查这三者都是为彼此的目的而服务,因为大多数研究都是基于对临床病人的直接检查。
因此,杰出的临床研究人员往往也同样是出色的临床医生或老师。
然而,在1960年以后,随着医学研究的方向渐渐趋于分子化,大多数尖端调查中病人被忽视了,而专注于实验室研究也成为大多数有威信的科学项目所必需。
临床老师们发现成为尖端研究者越来越难,同时越来越少的调查者能够像以往那样将他们深奥的临床知识和经验带到教学中去。
6不出flexner所料,过去的二十年间,愈发恶化的医疗环境再度给医学教育带来一系列的危害。
奋斗于临床一线的教师由于与日俱增的压力,不得不拔高他们的临床工作效率,换而言之,他们需要通过治疗病患创收。
导致他们迫于无奈,只得疏于临床教学。
更糟糕的是,商业市场的残酷氛围侵蚀了大片医学学术中心。
在医学生看来,学院的主管更强调的是产能,市场占有率,账本底线以及服务单位的角色,而不是预防保健,减缓病痛。
医疗服务的商业性将威胁到医学的职责性,而医学生深受这一风气的误导7因此我们面临的当前处境是:医学生还有住院医生经常被那些很少花时间看病人以及磨练他们临床技术(还有那些把医学实践当成他们职业生涯的次要活动)的教员传授临床医学知识,或是被那些在现代生物医学知识上不太熟悉(还有那些认为离开他们繁忙的实践转到教学没有得到或者得到很少学术方面的报酬)的老师传授知识。
在任何一种情况下,许多的临床教师不再可能成为Flexner眼中所谓的临床医生的发掘者。
职业教育式的医学学习8所有形式的职业教育的共同目标是为学生给他人熟练的、负责任的服务实践做准备。
因此,培训专业人才必须掌握丰富理论和大量知识,但是,对他们付出的最终检测,将不是他们知道什么,而是他们能做什么。
医学教育的目的是传输知识,传授技能,并在适当的平衡和综合的方式下灌输职业价值观。
当代医学教育中知识,技能和职业价值观如何体现呢9正如Flexner所希望的那样,医学教育同化入大学文化深刻地影响了学生们应对医学知识基础的方式。
理论上,在以无背景和价值中立形式上阐明的科学知识被看成是医学知识和理论的原始基础。
这种知识基于基础科学;这种学术很少能充分地迎合成功的医学实践所要求的实践技能和不同的道德取向。
然而,Flexner 并没有想到这种知识会在制定临床决策的时候成为唯一的甚至是主导基础。
在他发行报告后的15年内,Flexner也开始相信医学课程已经超过了医学科学的那一面却忽略了医学社会和人文的那一面。
1925年他写到说“在美国,医学科学是年轻的、朝气蓬勃的、积极的,但是现在却悲哀的缺乏文化和哲学的背景。