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语言学纲要 资料pdf

语言学纲要 资料pdf

语言学纲要资料pdf摘要:一、引言1.语言学的定义和重要性2.语言学的历史发展二、语言学的基本分支1.语音学2.语法学3.语义学4.语用学5.语言学的历史比较研究三、语言学与相关学科的关系1.心理学2.社会学3.人类学4.计算机科学四、语言学在实际应用中的价值1.教育领域2.翻译和interpretation3.语言治疗和康复4.语言技术应用五、语言学的前沿发展与挑战1.神经语言学2.语言演化与演化语言学3.语言多样性与语言濒危4.语言技术的新发展六、结语1.语言学的重要性和影响2.语言学的发展趋势和前景正文:语言学是一门研究语言的科学,探讨语言的结构、起源、发展、变化、认知、社会与文化等方面的问题。

语言学的研究对于了解人类思维、沟通和文化交流具有重要意义。

语言学的历史发展可以追溯到古希腊时期,当时的哲学家们开始对语言的本质和结构进行思考。

随着历史的发展,语言学逐渐分化出许多不同的分支,如语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学等。

语音学研究语音现象,包括音位、音高、音节、音调等方面。

语法学研究语言的结构和规则,包括单词、句子的构成和语法关系。

语义学研究语言的意义,包括词汇、句子的意义和语义关系。

语用学研究语言的用途和语境,包括语言行为、言语交际和话语分析等方面。

语言学的历史比较研究则关注语言的起源、演变和亲缘关系。

语言学与其他学科如心理学、社会学、人类学和计算机科学等有着密切的联系。

心理学研究心理过程和行为,对于理解语言的认知机制具有重要意义。

社会学关注社会结构和文化背景,对于理解语言的社会与文化功能有重要作用。

人类学则从人类进化的角度研究语言,探讨语言的起源和演变。

计算机科学则将语言学应用于自然语言处理和人工智能等领域。

语言学在实际应用中具有很高的价值。

在教育领域,语言学为提高教学质量、设计课程和评估体系提供了理论依据。

在翻译和interpretation 领域,语言学为准确传达信息、消除语言障碍提供了方法指导。

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料

(完整word版)新编简明英语语言学教程复习资料Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递The design features mentioned in the course book include arbitrariness, productivity or creativity, duality, displacement and cultural transmission.By arbitrariness it is meant that the symbols used in human language are arbitrary, i.e. there is no logical connection between the symbols and what they stand for.The feature of productivity means that language is productive or creative, i.e. it is possible for its users to construct and understand an unlimited number of sentences, includingsentences they have never heard before.Duality is a feature of the structure of the human language system, which consists of two levels. At the lower level there exist a limited number of sounds which are meaningless, while at the higher level these meaningless sounds can be arranged and rearranged in various ways to form meaningful language units, unlimited in number.The feature of displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or unreal, in the past, present, or future.Cultural transmission, in contrast to genetic transmission, refers to the fact that human babies, though born with the ability to acquire a language, must be taught to use it.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

(完整word版)语言学概论

(完整word版)语言学概论

第一章语言和语言学。

语言的性质:符号性(符号的任意性、稳固性、渐变性、线条性)、系统性、社会性。

还有民族性、生成性、模糊性。

广义语言:包括语言系统、言语活动和言语作品。

狭义语言:只指语言系统,而言语包括言语活动和言语作品。

语言与言语关系:语言是抽象的,言语是具体的;语言是社会的,言语是个人的;语言是现成的,言语是临时的;语言是有限的,言语是无限的;语言是稳定的,言语是多变的。

语言来自言语,依存于言语;语言制约着言语,指导人进行言语活动。

语言的层级:上层包括语素、词、句子,下层是语音层,包括音位、音节。

语素:最小的语音语义结合体。

词:最小的能够独立运用的语言单位。

句子:最小的语言交际单位。

语言系统的四个子系统:语音、语义、语汇、语法。

语音的系统性主要体现在音位之间的对立和音节内部的组合。

语义的系统性主要表现在义项的聚合关系和句义的组合规则。

语汇系统包括三级语汇单位:语素、词、固定短语。

语素是最基本的语言符号,词和固定短语一般是复合符号,词是语汇系统的主体。

固定短语包括熟语和专名。

语法系统包括词语的结构和功能。

语言的基本关系:组合关系和聚合关系。

组合关系:若干较小的语言单位组合成较大的语言单位,构成成分之间的关系就是组合关系,也叫线性序列关系。

组合关系就是结构关系,有相同组合关系的语言单位构成的类叫结构类。

聚合关系:具有相同组合功能的语言单位之间的关系就是聚合关系,又叫联想关系。

具有相同聚合关系的语言单位就构成某种聚合类即功能类。

语言的词法类型:词根语、屈折语、粘着语、编插语。

词根语又叫孤立语,缺乏形态变化,语法意义主要靠词序和虚词表示。

如汉语。

屈折语通过各种屈折方式表示语法意义,屈折分为内部屈折和外部屈折。

内部屈折通过词的语音交替(改变部分语音)构成不同的语法形式,外部屈折通过词缀表意。

印欧语系、阿拉伯语,尤其俄语和德语。

粘着语又称胶着语,通过加词缀表语法意义。

如土耳其语、日本、朝鲜、蒙古等语。

粘着语与屈折语:都有丰富的形态变化,但粘着语没有内部屈折;粘着语的一个词缀只表示一种语法意义,一种语法意义也只用一个词缀,要表不同意义就加多个词缀;粘着语词缀一般自成音节且词根与词缀和词缀与词缀结合不紧密,独立性相当大。

语言学重点内容整理

语言学重点内容整理

语言学重点内容整理一、语言和语言学1.语言的本质(1)自然属性:语言从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(2)社会属性:是人类最重要的交际工具。

(3)心理属性:是人类进行思维的工具。

语言的自然属性从本质上来说是一套符号系统。

(99年填空)2.什么是符号?语言符号和其它符号的不同特点。

符号:用甲事物指代乙事物,甲即乙的符号。

语言符号的特点:①有声的;②成系统的;③分层次的装置,语音→音素→音节→语素→词;④音义结合是任意的,是约定俗成的(不可论证,无理据);⑤线条性:语言符号在输出时是一个接一个的,不能全盘端出。

语言符号与客观事物的关系。

(98年大题)3.语言最基本的社会功能:交际功能。

文字:是在语言的基础上产生的,是记录语言的书写符号。

符号:是形式和内容(意义)的统一体。

(1)语言符号的形式:声音(语音)是语言的物质外壳,听觉可感知。

(2)语言符号的内容:意义(语义)是人们对现实现象的概括反映。

(99年填空)4.语言符号的特点:①任意性和强制性;②线条性;③系统性。

人的语言和动物语言有何不同?简要说明语言符号的任意性和强制性。

(01年大题)答:①任意性:语言符号的音与义之间没有必然的、本质的联系,它们的结合是由社会“约定俗成”的。

表现:某种具体语言的音义结合关系;形成人类语言多样性的一个重要原因。

②强制性:符号的任意性知识是就创制符号时的情形说的。

符号一旦进入交际,也就是某一语音形式与某一意义结合起来,表示某一特定的现实现象以后,它对使用它的社会成员来说就具有了强制性。

任何人不能借口任意性而随意改变音义之间的结合关系。

符号的音义结合是社会约定俗成的,它们之间的关系改变也要由社会来决定。

5.语言的构成(1)底层:音位。

音位和音位组合成音节——语言符号的形式部分(01年填空)(2)上层:音义结合的符号和符号的序列——结构语素→词→句子6.符号的组合关系语言符号具有线条性的特点。

符号和符号前后依次相接组合起来,好似一个链条,环环相扣。

语言学概论完整资料

语言学概论完整资料

语言学概论完整资料第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系?答:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是遗传的,而是一种社会现象。

语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

2. 简答语言符号的特点。

答:(1)符号和语言,“能指”和“所指”。

能指是能够指称某种意义的成分,所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。

(2)语言符号的“任意性”。

符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系,语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系,完全是任意的,约定俗成的。

(3)语言符号的强制性和可变性。

在同一社会、同一时代,对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的,而语言又是发展变化着的。

(4)语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。

话只能一个字一个字,一句话一句话地说,因此语言符号是离散的,而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。

3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。

答:组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位,或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系,是横向关系。

聚合关系是在组合的某一个位臵上能够相互替换,有共同的特点,故能聚合归类。

组合是横向的结构关系,聚合是归类规则,有了组合、聚合关系,便展现出了整个语言平面,聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的,或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的,而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。

所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一,不可分割。

4. 解释“符号”答:符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。

5. 解释“语言”答:语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的,有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分,语言是均质的,是言语活动中的社会部分。

语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。

6. 口语和书面语的关系。

答:语言的客观存在形式首先是口语,第二种客观存在形式,是书面语。

语言学知识点总结

语言学知识点总结

语言学知识点总结一、语言的定义和特点语言是人类交流思想、表达情感、传递信息的一种符号系统。

它具有以下特点:1. 语言是一种符号系统:语言使用具有特定意义的符号来表示事物和概念。

2. 语言具有交流功能:语言是人类交流的工具,通过语言可以传达思想、交流情感、传递信息。

3. 语言具有社会性:语言是社会行为的产物,其形成和发展与人类社会密切相关。

4. 语言具有文化特性:不同语言反映了不同的文化观念和价值体系。

二、语音学语音学是研究语音的科学,主要包括以下内容:1. 音位与音素:语音学将语音分为不同的音位,而音位又由音素组成。

2. 发音器官:语音的产生与发音器官的构造和功能密切相关,如喉、口腔、舌等。

3. 音节与音变:语音学研究了音节的构成和变化规律。

4. 语调和语音语调:语调是语音的音高变化,而语音语调则是语言的音高、音长和音强等变化。

三、语法学语法学是研究语言结构和语言规则的学科,主要包括以下内容:1. 词类与句法关系:语法学将词语分为不同的词类,并研究它们在句子中的作用和关系。

2. 句子结构与语序:语法学研究句子的构成和语序的规律,如主谓宾结构、主谓一致等。

3. 句法关系和语法功能:语法学研究句子中词语之间的关系,如主谓关系、动宾关系等。

4. 语法规则和语法变化:语法学研究了语法规则的形成和变化,如词形变化、语法变异等。

四、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科,主要包括以下内容:1. 词义和词汇关系:语义学研究词语的意义和词语之间的关系,如同义词、反义词等。

2. 句义和句子意义:语义学研究句子的意义和句子中词语之间的关系,如逻辑关系、语义角色等。

3. 语用学:语义学研究语言使用中的意义和交际功能,如语境效应、指称和暗示等。

五、语言变化与语言接触语言是动态的,会随着时间的推移而发生变化。

语言变化研究语言变迁的原因和规律,语言接触研究不同语言之间的相互影响和借用现象。

六、语言习得与语言教学语言习得研究儿童和成人习得语言的过程和规律,语言教学研究如何有效地教授和学习语言。

语言学知识点+整理

语言学知识点+整理

第一单元What is linguistics? 什么是语言学?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Phonetics语音学:the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of a branch of linguistics called phoneticsPhonology音系学:as linguists became interested in how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication ,they developed another branch of study related to sounds called phonology.Morphology形态学:the study of the way in which these symbols are arranged form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.Syntax句法学:the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in languages is governed by rules ,the study of these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistics studies Semantics语义学:the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as semanticsPragmatics语用学:when the study of meaning is conducted,not in isolaion,but in the context of use,it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmaticsSociolinguistics社会语言学:the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics心理语言学: Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology\Applied linguistics应用语言学:findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability.the study of such applications is generally known as applied linguisticsOther related branchs include anthropological linguistics,neurological linguistics,mathematical linguistics,and computational linguistics.Some important distinctions in linguistics。

英语专业语言学复习资料.doc

英语专业语言学复习资料.doc

1Arbitrariness: Human language is arbitrary. This refers to the f act that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with. For example, f or the same animal dog, in English we call it /d0g/, inCh inese as “gou”, but “yilu” in Japanese.2Duality:To human language, the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and letters) combine to f orm meaningf ul units (words) at anotherlevel.3A descriptive linguisticsattempts to tell what is in the language, it attempts to describe the regular structures of the language as they are used, not according to some view of how they should be used. While the prescriptive linguistics tells people what should be in the language and tries to lay down rules to tell people how to use a language. Most modern linguistics is descriptive, whereas traditional grammars are prescriptive.4Immediate constituent analysis: The approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents is called immediate constituent analysis. IC analysis is a hierarchical analysis showing the dif ferent constituents at dif ferent structural levels based on the distribution of linguistic f orms. The best way to show IC structure is to use a tree diagram. The f irst divisions or cuts are known as the immediate constituents(ICs), and the f inal cuts as the ultimate constituents(UCs).5Assimilation:Sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables. As the f ollowing sounds bring about the change, this process is called regressive assimilation.e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal] when f ollowed by a [+nasal] consonant.6Phonetics: The study of linguistic speech sounds that occur in all human languages , how they are produced, how they are perceived, and their physical properties, is called phonetics. The task of phonetics is to identif y what are speech sounds in a language, and then to study their characteristics. It includes three main areas: articul atory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.7 Phonology: It is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. 8 Allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.9Recursiveness:It refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any def inite limit. The rules introducing prepositional phrases also introduce the important concept of recursion.10 Stress: The prominence given to certain sounds in speech. When a word has more than one syllables, one of them will be pronounced with more prominence than others. This brings us to another speech sound phenomenon, that of stress. When a word belongs to dif ferent word classes, the stress of the word will be sometimes placed on diff erent syllables. When all the words above are stressed on thefirst syllables, they are nouns, but if they have the second syllables stressed, the words become verb s. Stress may also have af unction at the sentence level. In this case, the phonetic f orm of word stress may be show which part of sentence is in f ocus.11Morphology: is thus the study of the internal structure, f orms and classes of words, intended structure relevant rule f or word f ormation.12Allomorph: An allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. Allomorphs are phonological or orthographic variants of the same morpheme. Allophones are in complementary distribution, allomorphs are also in complementary distribution, that is to say, they cannot occur in the same environment. e.g. -s, -es, and -en are all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.13Derivation: the f ormation of new words by adding aff ixes to other words or morphemes in morphology and word f ormation.14Acronym: words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and are pronounced as single words. Exmples: NATO, radar and yuppy.15blending: A single new word can be f ormed by combining two separate f orms. Typically, blending is finished by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. For example, brunch is f ormed by the shortened f orms of breakfast and lunch.16Compounding:is the f ormation of new words by joining two or more stems. We have three types of compounds: 1, noun compounds:noun+noun: armchair, rainbow; 2, verb compounds: verb+verb: to sleep-walk; 3, adjective compounds: verb+adjectives: stir-crazy17Root: Some morphemes like car, talk, f riend and tour can stand alone as words. Such morphemes are called f ree morphem es. A word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is a free morpheme, such as talk. Such an element is called a root. remains when all aff ixes are stripped from a complex word, e.g. system f rom un- + system + atic + ally. 18Minimal pairs and sets: The phonologist is concerned with what differences are signif icant, or technically speaking, distinctive. A distinctive diff erence is one that brings about the change of meaning. In order to determine which are distinctive sounds, the customary practice is to set up minimal pairs-pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.19Stem: A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an aff ix can be added. It may be the same as , and in other cases, dif ferent from, a root. For example, in the w ord “f riends” , “f riend” is both the root and the stem, but in the word “f riendships”, “f riendships” is its stem, “f riend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one root ,e.g., “mailman” , “girlf riend” ,ect.20Suffix: Af f ixes can be joined to the end of the root or stem, in which case they are called suff ixes.An “affix” is the collective term f or the type of f ormative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem). Aff ixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classif i ed into three subtypes: pref ix, suff ix and inf ix, e. g. , “mini-”, “un-”, ect.(pref ix); “-ise”, “-tion”, ect.(suff ix).21Syntax: the term used to ref er to the structure of sentences and to the study of sentence structure.22IC analysis: the approach to divide the sentence up into its immediate constituents byusing binary cutting until obtaining its ultimate constituents. 23Semantics: the study of linguistic meaning.24Sense: the inherent part of an expression’s meaning, to gether with the context, determines its ref erent. 25Reference: (in semantics) the relationship between words and \ the things, actions, events and qualities they stand f or. An example in English is the relationship between the word tree and the object “tree” (ref erent) in the real world.26Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning; thematic meaning ; connotative meaning; social meaning; affective meaning;ref l ective meaning; collocative meaning;后5种称associ ative meaning27Lexical gap: the absence of a word in a particular place in a semantic field of a language. For instance, in English we have brother versus sister, son versus daughter, but no separate lexemes f or “male” and“f emale” cousin.28Pragmati cs: can be def ined as the study of languages in use. It deals with how speakers use languages in ways which cannot be predicted f rom linguistic knowledge alone, and how hearers arrive at the intended meaning of speakers. In a broad sense, pragmatics studies the principles observed by human beings when communicate with each other. We can roughly say that pragmatics takes care of meaning that is not covered by semantics. So people use the f ormula as itsdef inition:PRAGMATICS=MEANING-SEMANTICS. 29Anaphora: a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.30Cohesion: the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different elem ents of a text. This may be the relationship between di ff erent sentences or different parts of a sentence.31Coherence: the relationship that links the meanings of utterances in a discourse or of the sentences in a text.32Prototype: what members of a particular community think of as the best example of a lexical category, e.g. f or some English speakers “cabbage” (rather than, say, “carrot”) might be the prototypical vegetable. 33 Prototype theory: a theory of human categorization that was posited by Eleanor Rosch. Following this theory, natural categories are organized according to prototypes which are considered as the most typical or representative of the category. A robin or sparrow is regarded as a prototype of the category of “bird”. People decide whether an entity belongs to a category by comparing that entity with a prototype.34iconicity: a feature of a language which means that the structure of language reflects in some way the structure of experience, that is, the structure of the world, including the perspective imposed on the world by the speaker. Caesar’s historic words “Veni, vidi, vici (I ca me, I saw, I conquered)” is a good case to prove the iconicity of order(the similarity between temporal events and the linear arrangement of elements in a linguistic construction). Iconicity of distance a ccounts f or the fact that things which belong together conceptually tend to be put together linguistically, and things that do not belong together are put at a distance. This entails that conceptual distance corresponds to linguistic distance not merely physical distance. eg: a, I killed the chicken. b, I caused the chicken to die. Iconicity of complexity: The phenomenon that linguistic complexity ref lects conceptual complexity is usually called iconicity of complexity.35Reflective meaning: is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meanings, when one sense of a word f orms part of our response to another sense. Ref lective meaning is the product of people’s recognition and imagination.36Ambiguity: It refers to the phenomenon that an expression has more than one meaning. Two diff erent types of ambiguity can be distinguished on the basis of what is causing it: lexical ambiguity (more than one word meaning) and structural ambiguity (more than one synt actic structure) 37The diacritics: are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in theirpronunciation38Complementary distribution: [p.pH] are two different phones and are varivants of the phoneme /p/such variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution, because they never occur in the same context. [p] occurred af ter [s] while [ph] occurs in other places.39syllable: A unit in speech which isof t en longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.41 the difference between derivational affix and inflectional affix (1)Inf lectional aff ixes very of t en add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. In contrast, derivational aff ixes of ten change the lexical meaning.E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2)Inf lectional aff ixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational aff ixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness f or the f ormer, and that between brother and brotherhood f or the latter. (3)In English, inf lectionalaff ixes are mostly suffixes, which are always wordf inal. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational aff ixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.定义:Derivational morphemes which are used to make new words in the language and are of ten used to make words of a di ff erent grammatical category from the stem Inflectional morphemes, which are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical f unction of a word.。

语言学概论资料(按大纲整理)

语言学概论资料(按大纲整理)

语⾔学概论资料(按⼤纲整理)第⼀章语⾔和语⾔学第⼀节认识⼈类的语⾔⼀、语⾔的性质和类型1.只有⼈类才有语⾔【领会】语⾔是⼈类所独有的。

⼈类的语⾔跟动物的“语⾔”相⽐较,有⼏个显著和重要的特点:⼀是“内容更多”。

多种场合、多种⽅式、多种内容。

⼆是“⽤处更⼤”。

主要:交际功能。

其它:标志、记录、思维、认知,等等。

三是“能够创造”。

具有离散性,能⽤有限的声⾳和意义按照⼀定规则组配成⽆限的话语。

2.语⾔和民族、国家的关系【领会】⼤多数情况:⼀个民族使⽤⼀种语⾔。

但不能把“相互能够听懂”作为确定语⾔的标准,并进⼀步作为确定民族和国家的标准。

这种理解只适合于欧洲的“新兴民族国家”,对⼀个历史悠久、幅员辽阔的国家是不适应的。

尽管“语⾔”是最直观、最容易识别的民族标志,但事实上还不是最可靠的标志。

从⽬前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史⽂化传统和由此产⽣的民族认同感”也许是维系⼀个民族的最根本的因素,因⽽也是确定⼀个民族的最根本的标准。

3.语⾔的谱系分类和语⾔的形态分类【领会】语⾔的谱系分类就是从“历时”演变⾓度划分不同的语⾔,是根据各种语⾔在语⾳、语汇、语法等⽅⾯是否有共同来源和相似性的⼤⼩对语⾔进⾏的分类。

也叫“语⾔的亲属关系分类”。

从语⾔的“共时”⾓度来划分不同的语⾔,可以建⽴“语⾔的形态分类”,也叫“语⾔的结构类型分类”。

可分为“形态语”和“孤⽴语”,或者分成“综合性语⾔”和“分析性语⾔”。

4.语系、语族;屈折语、孤⽴语;综合性语⾔、分析性语⾔【识记】谱系分类层级:语系、语族、(语⽀)、语⾔、⽅⾔、次⽅⾔(⼟语)。

语系是根据语⾔有⽆历史同源关系划分出来的语⾔类别,是语⾔谱系中最⼤的类。

语系的下⼀级叫作“语族”,同⼀语族的语⾔不但有相同的来源,相似点也更多。

形态语(综合性语⾔)指通过词的形态变化来体现各种结构意义的语⾔。

包括“屈折语、黏着语”等⼩类。

如俄语、维吾尔语。

孤⽴语(分析性语⾔)指没有形态变化的语⾔。

语言学整理资料

语言学整理资料

第一章:语言与语言学A语言的特性:一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性:语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

2. 规约性:语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。

二、二层性:指拥有两层结构这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。

(有限手段无限使用,人类交际最显著特征)三、创造性:指语言的能产性,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

四、移位性:指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点(好处:使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考)B与动物语言区别:由于喉部结构的差异,不适合吐字发音。

但可使用手势语言C语言的功能:信息功能人际功能施为功能感情功能寒暄交谈娱乐功能元语言功能D语言学的发展脉络:一、传统语言学:1.从哲学角度思考(名实之争):区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究(梵文):为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度(主要比较印欧语系):试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们共同母语(提供了科学的方法)二、现代语言学(20c,结构语言学)语言是一个符号系统,提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”(符号可感知)与“所指”(符号所代表的内容)、“组合关系”(两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系)与“聚合关系”(某一位置能够互相替代)(区分历时)更强调共时研究,重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”,认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。

E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想:生成语言学派:语言是人类内在化的能力,人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。

强调语法的天赋性、自主性,着重探索人类语言的机制、共性,同时探究各个语言的参数差异,即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。

天赋假设:语言是天赋,儿童生下了就有普遍语法,婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。

(完整word版)英语语言学 整理资料名词+简答

(完整word版)英语语言学 整理资料名词+简答

第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。

每个分支的研究对象是什么?Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicablein any linguistic studyPhonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communicationPhonology,which studies how sounds are put together and used in communicationMorphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form wordsSyntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentencesSemantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of useSociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind.Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological inguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学Modern linguistics与传统语法Traditional grammar 有什么区别?Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究?什么叫历时研究?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study (共时研究); the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study(历时研究). A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么?1) Arbitrariness 。

语言学复习总结重点.doc

语言学复习总结重点.doc

一.Antonymy (反义词):(书本P70)1.Gradable antonyms (分程度反义词):a matter of degree.eg. Old—middle-aged—young hol-warm-coldplementary antonyms (互补关系):a matter of degree between two extremes.eg. Alive― ead; male一female3.relational opposites (关系反义词):pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationshipbetween the two items.eg. father-son; teacher-pupil; doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below二、Paul Grice (保罗•格莱斯)提出的两个概念(书本P86)1.conventional implicature (规约含意,约定俗成的):is based on the conventional meaningof certain words in the language・eg. He is rich blit he is not greedy.2.particularized conversational implicature (特殊规约隐涵):is inferred by the hearer withreference to the context of communication.eg. A: Where is the steak? B: The dog looks very happy.三、Charles Hockett (霍凯特)提出的人类语言的识别特征之一(书本P8)Arbitrariness (I膛总:t生):There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds・ eg. Rumble, crash, cackle, bang四.Free morpheme (可独立存在的):a morpheme which can be a word by itself.eg. boy (书本P33)五、新构词(书本P99)1.blending (拼缀,紧缩法):a blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words,eg. Smog -一smoke+fog; motel——motor+hotel2.acronyms (首字母缩写,词首字母缩略法):are words derived from the initials of severalwordseg. IT-——information technology; CPI——consumer price index六.Language aptitude (语言能力倾向,语言学能):the natural ability for learning a second language.(书本P164)七、Semantic Changes (语意变化):(书本P102)1.semantic broadening (扩展,意思越来越广,语义扩大化)2.semantic narrowing (意思变小)3.semantic shift (转换)八.indirect speech act (间接言语行动):which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.(书本P84-85)1.The primary speech act is the speaker's goal of communication while the secondaryspeech act is the means by which he achieves goal.2・ eg. A: Let's go to the movies tonight.B: I have to study for an exam. (冋答问题或者名词解释)九、Sapir-Whorf Hypotheis (假说):1. A theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf whichstates that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by the structureof their native language・(书本P128)2・ Now there are mainly two different interpretations about the hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. While the strong version believes that language patterns determinepeople's thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that former influences the latter.(全背)3・ eg. English-speaking culture tends to teach its people to name what is eful and important.4. A good illustration of this point is the word snow in Eskimo and English.十. Strategies for learning a second language?(书本P165)1.Find their own way,taking charge of their learning・anize information about language・3.Are creative,developing a "fbcT for the language by experimenting with its grammar andwords.4.Make their own opportunities for practice in using the language inside and outside theclassroo m.5・ Learn to live with uncertainly by not getting fluttered and by continuing to talk or listen without understanding every word.e mnemonics and other memory strategies to recall what had been learned・7.Make errors work for them and not against for them.e linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of their first language, in learning asecond language.e contextual cues to help them in comprehension.10.Learn to make intelligent guesses.11.Learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform"beyond their competence^・12.Learn certain tricks that help to keep conversations going.13.Learn certain production strategies to fill in gaps in their own competence・14.Learn different style of speech and writing and learn to vary their language according tothe formality of the situatiori・H—> How to determine a word^s category?(书本P44)三个标准及分别的例子:1.Meaning2.infleclion3.distribution十二. Q: when ^conversation implicature occur?(书本P87)A:Only when a maxim is flouted(公然违抗).Flouting a maxin means violating blatantly ・十三、A phoneme is a phonological unit・ It is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.(书本P23)十四. The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study・(书本P4)十五、Krashen^ input Hypothesis (书本P163)(课本黑体字)Comprehensive input (全lif 白勺输入):i+1:i represents learners5current state of knowledge, the next stage is the i+1十六、what is morphological rules?(形态学规则)(书本P36)They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. 十七、what is interlanguage?(语际语,人工辅助语言,中介语)(书本P160)Proposed by S.Pit Corder and Larry Seiinker, the concept of interlanguage was established as learner's independent system of the second language, which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from one extreme of his native language to the other of the second language・十八、What is acculturation^(语言文化移入,文化适应)(书本P135)A process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community. (可能考单词acculturation) intercultural communication(单词跨文化交际)十九、what is inflectional morphemes?(曲折语素;屈折词素;屈折性语素)(书本P36)Which are for the most part purely grammatical markers and signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on.? ? ?eg. "John has noticed the change in his friend.” Here the -ed endings are morphemes which do not add any lexical meaning but represent the concept of tense and aspect.二十、what is roots?(词根)(书本P34)The root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning.Roots typically belong to a lexical category・二—、what is phrases?(短语)(书本P44)Syntactic units that are built around a certain word category・二十二- what is Wh Movement?(特殊疑问句)(书本P56)二十三、Sense relations between sentences (书本P71-72)(选择题一题)1.X is synonymous with Y 同义2.X is inconsistent with Y 彳:一致3.X entails Y (Y is an entailment of Y)包括4.X presupposes Y (Y is a prerequisite of X)先提条件5.X is a contradiction 矛盾6.X is semantically anomalous 反常的二十四、Pragmatics (ig用学),和语义学的最大区别?Context (书本P77-78)1.区别:What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study ofmeaning the context of use is considered・2.总结最大区别:context二十五. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (书本P7)二十六、Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)关键期假说的主要思想(书本P147)(选择)The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one's life extending from about two to puberty. (While the strong one suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposurethe weak holds that lang uage learni ng will be more difficult and in complete after puberty.)二十七、what is a behaviorist view of language acquisition?(语言习得的行为主义主要观点是什么?)(书本P141)Traditional behaviorists view language as a kind of behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.[An innatist view of language acquisition: Chomsky proposed that human beings are bom with an innate ability known as Language Acquisition Device, or LAD. Universal Grammar (UG)An interactionist view of language acquisition]二十八、what is bilingualism?(双语能力)(书本P122)Ability to speak two languages equally well.二十九、What is Spoonerism?(斯本内现象,首音互换)(书本P186)Transposition of initial consonants in a pair of words.eg. Wrong road―long road三十、What is Garden path sentences?(径句)(书本P186)A garden path sentence is an awkward sentence that misleads the syntactic parser and takes itdown the garden path to the wrong analysis.eg. The horse raced past the barn fell.。

语言学概要必背知识点(自整——打印自检版)

语言学概要必背知识点(自整——打印自检版)
u 语言系统的二层性:
语言系统分为音系和语法两个层面,在这两个层面上都有最小单位和小单位组成大 单位的多级组织结构。音系层的最小单位大大少于语法层,低层级单位少于高层级 单位。
u 客观现实、心理现实
现实现象分为客观现实和心理现实,客观现实是外在于人的客观存在,通过人的感 官感知并在人脑中综合处理转化为心理现实。
5、说明语言系统的层级性(二层性)
层级性:语素-词-短语-句子:低层级单位比高层级单位少,高层级单位由低层级单位按 规则组合而成 二层性:音系层+语法层 二层性的符号用较少数目的成分单位可构成很多符号形式 音系层的最小单位数远远低于符号层的最小单位数
6、人类语言符号和其他动物“语言”的区别
任意性、传授性(后天习得)、单位的明晰性、能产性(组合和替换)、结构的二层性(音 系+语法)、不受时地环境的限制
音质音位是时间维向上线性切分的最小音系单位,如果不限于线性切分,音位还可 以进一步分析为一个或几个发音特征的区分,例如辅音音位...
u 音峰、音谷 u 复元音
是在一个音节里的音值前后不一致的元音,发音时嘴唇和舌头从一个元音的位置过 渡到另一个元音的位置,如普通话语音中的ɑi,ei,ɑo,ou,uɑi,uei 等
组合规则:语法单位连接起来构成更大语言片段的规则
语言学概要必背知识点
第一章 导言+语言的功能 u 语言学
以回答“语言是什么”为研究内容,透过无处不在的语言现象来探索语言本质
u 语言
人类最重要的交际工具,是人们进行沟通的主要表达方式。 思维工具、交际工具、社会属性 作用、分类、用文字记录
u 语言交际 u 思维(特点)
认识现实世界时动脑筋的过程,也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的 能力,概念属于哲学、逻辑学、心理学等范畴,其形式、过程、生理机制都与语言 密切相关,以语言为载体和动因,具有一定的生理基础。 普遍性、特殊性、和语言相关性、有生理基础

语言学复习资料

语言学复习资料

1、第一章2、语言学,是研究语言的科学。

语言是语言学的研究对象。

3、语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律,使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。

4、中国、印度、希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统,是语言学的三大发源地。

5、语言研究的任务也只是给古代流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解,而不是探索语言的规律。

6、人们抓住汉字、分析它的形体,讲求它的古代读音和意义,形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。

7、从研究古代经典中的书面语的语文学发展到全面研究语言的语言学,是语言研究的深刻转折。

8、语言本身的构造很复杂,可以分为语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。

9、综合各种语言的基本研究的成果,归纳成语言的一般规律,这是理论语言学的任务。

10、语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域,只要有人活动的地方就需要语言。

语言不仅与社会科学,而且还和很多的自然科学发生了密切的关系。

11、语言进行交际的过程可以分为:编码—发送—传递—接收—解码,五个阶段。

12、语言学既是一门古老的科学,又是一门年轻的科学,既与社会科学有密切的关系,也与自然科学有密切的关系。

它的研究成果越来越为其他学科所关心、所运用。

它在整个科学体系中占有重要的地位。

13、话的长短差别很大。

短可以只有一个词,长可以长到无止境。

例如,在一定的环境中,“看”就可以是一句话,表达一个完整的意思。

但这种现象不典型。

说话通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来,造出一句话。

如看。

看书。

看一本书。

看一本有趣的书......不论多长的句子,我们都可以加上一些成分,使它更长。

当然实际说话的时候,句子是不会太长了。

因为说话的人说到后来会忘记前面说过的内容。

14、句子的数目无限,每句话又可以拉得很长。

事实告诉我们:无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则,学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。

15、每个人说话是自由,想什么时候说就什么时候说,想说什么就说什么,但说话时选择什么材料,遵循什么规则是不自由的,必须服从社会的习惯。

完整word版,00541语言学概论资料

完整word版,00541语言学概论资料

第一章语言和语言学第一节语言的客观存在形式一、语言:1.语言是一种社会现象,不是一种物质实体。

2.言语交际是一个编码(说话)和解码(听话)的过程。

(语言的客观存在形式首先表现为人与人之间的口头交际行为,有声的口头语言,即口语)3.语言的客观存在形式跟语言学家研究的语言是不完全一模一样的。

二、口语和书面语的主要差别:1.口语:是有声的口头语言。

2.书面语:是经过加工提炼和发展了的口语书面形式。

3.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。

4.书面语比口语更精练、更精确。

5.书面语比口语省略成份少一些。

(多了一些成份)三、口语与书面语的关系:1.口语是第一性的,书面语是第二性的。

2.书面语反过来影响和促进口语的发展。

3.口语、书面语基本是一致的。

(一般情况下)四、书面语产生具有重大的历史意义:书面语的产生克服了口语的时间、空间的限制,是人类进入文明社会的标志。

五、语言和民族:1.语言是民族的重要标志,但不是最可靠的标志。

(1)在绝大多数情况下一个民族使用一种语言。

(2)也有一个民族使用多种语言。

(犹太民族)(3)不同民族使用同一种语言。

(满族、汉族)(4)尽管语言是最直观的,最容易识别民族的标志,从目前了解到的情况来看,“共同的历史文化传统和由此产生的民族认同感”,也许是维系一个“民族”的最根本的因素。

因而也是确定一个民族的最根本的标准。

不能单凭“互相理解程度”来区分语言和方言。

(广东上海)六、语言与种族的关系:语言和种族没有必然的联系,但不是完全没有联系。

特别就“语系”而言,两者之间的联系还是比较明显的。

(汉语、汉藏语系都有声调)七、语言和种族没有必然联系的根本原因是:语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关,但是语言不是一种生理现象,也不是一种心理现象,不是先天遗传的,它是一种社会现象,完全是在一定的语言环境中后天获得的,所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

八、语言的客观存在形式:口语、书面语。

语言的客观存在形式首先表现为有声的口头语言即口语,而当出现了文字以后,又表现为有形的书面语言即书面语。

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第一章:语言与语言学A语言的特性:一、任意性与规约性1. 任意性:语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系。

2. 规约性:语言的形式和意义是约定俗称的关系。

二、二层性:指拥有两层结构这种特性,上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成,每层都有自身的组合规则。

(有限手段无限使用,人类交际最显著特征)三、创造性:指语言的能产性,这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。

四、移位性:指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间和观点(好处:使得我们有可能用抽象的概念来交流或思考)B与动物语言区别:由于喉部结构的差异,不适合吐字发音。

但可使用手势语言C语言的效用:信息效用人际效用施为效用感情效用寒暄交谈娱乐效用元语言效用D语言学的发展脉络:一、传统语言学:1.从哲学角度思考(名实之争):区分主语、谓、宾等逻辑成分概念、对语言起源问题的讨论2. 语文学习角度研究(梵文):为阅读理解古代经典文献服务的3. 历史比较角度(主要比较印欧语系):试图通过语言亲属关系的比较研究语言的发展规律,拟测它们配合母语(提供了科学的方法)二、现代语言学(20c,结构语言学)语言是一个符号系统,提出语言的线条性、任意性、“能指”(符号可感知)与“所指”(符号所代表的内容)、“组合关系”(两个同一性质的结构单位按照线性顺序组合的关系)与“聚合关系”(某一位置能够互相替代)(区分历时)更强调共时研究,重视排除历史干扰而对语言现状进行现实的描写区分“内部语言学”和“外部语言学”,认为语言学首先要进行语言系统和系统内部各个要素的研究。

E当代语言学三个主要流派的基本思想:生成语言学派:语言是人类内在化的能力,人类语言虽然差别很大但遵循的原则相同。

强调语法的天赋性、自主性,着重探索人类语言的机制、共性,同时探究各个语言的参数差异,即在探索人类语言共性的基础上探究各个语言的特点。

天赋假设:语言是天赋,儿童生下了就有普遍语法,婴儿言语获得过程是先天的“语言习得机制”。

转换-生成语法:关于语言能力的理论其研究目标是回答人类为什么会说话以及如何了解新的句子。

语言能力(潜意识)根据转换规则可生成句子效用语言学:“效用”指语言的交际效用。

基本观点:语言的交际效用既是语法研究的出发点,也是语法研究的归宿。

基本问题:语言为什么是这样的。

答案:由语言的交际效用所决定。

也研究语言的共性,认为人类各语言只存在蕴含性共性。

主要思想:重视语言的社会学性质;认为语言是做事的一种手段不是知识的一个表现形式;注重对个别语言以及个别变体的描写;用“连续体”这一概念来解释众多语言现象;依靠对各种语篇的观察和统计学的手段来验证;把系统范畴作为核心。

系统语法;效用语法:概念、人际、语篇认知语言学:观点:语言乃人脑心智和人的认知能力的重要组成部分;语言世界不是直接对应于客观的物理世界,而是有一个主观的心理世界作为中介,主观的心理世界就是人的认知域。

意象是语言结构被赋予认知内容的基本手段。

各种语法结构的类型,都可以视为不同意象所造成的不同结构类型,并均有理据性,均可验证基本观点:语法不是任意性,自主的形式化系统,是概念化的现实的符号表达。

体验性:“体验主义”的语言观;研究人的思想以及语言不能脱离人的体验性。

第二章:语音A发音:人类的发音器官分三部分:动力源(肺),发音体(声带),共鸣器(口腔/鼻腔/咽腔—统称声腔)。

共鸣器部分主要作用是调节气流,许多不同的音素就是这一部分的变化形成的。

由主动的发音器官接触或靠近被动发音器官,从而发出声音B元辅音的差别:根本区别在于气流在口腔和鼻腔是否受阻,元不受C区分不同元音和辅音的要素:元音:舌位前后+舌位高低+唇形圆展辅音:发音部位、阻碍方法、声带状况和气流节制D英汉中元辅音差别:元:1.除了央元音/ə/之外几乎没有一个处在相同部位的。

英语中的元音都是舌面音,没有舌尖元音和卷舌元音。

2.英语元音分布比较均匀,而汉语元音分布不够均匀,高元音居多。

3.英语中的元音有长短的差别(如beat和bit,fool和full),而汉语没有。

4.英语前元音没有圆唇音,而后元音多为圆唇音。

5.汉语中的元音元音基本上在极限位置上,而英语中的语音并非如此。

6.汉语还有鼻化元音。

辅音:1.英汉辅音在发音部分方面虽然有诸多相似之处,但它们的发音方法和发音机制有着细微的差别。

2.英语辅音有清浊之分,而汉语辅音的区别并不全在清浊,除了几个个别的浊音,如鼻音、边音,其余的擦音、塞音和塞擦音的区别在于送气与否。

3.此外,英语辅音时长较短,单念时不允许延长;汉语辅音无论是清是浊,无论送气不送气,单念时听起来较长,似乎后面跟了一个短暂的/ə/音E音位和音位变体音位:某种语言或方言中具有区别意义效用的最小语音单位。

音位变体:属于同一个音位的各个音素叫音位变体。

音位变体就是音位在语音环境中的实际发音划分音位的方法:最小对比对测试音位变体现象:音位随位置不同出现读音差异的现象自由变体现象:音位随方言或个人习惯出现读音差异的现象F音系规则的描述方法带音擦音→不带音擦音/___不带声音斜线表示变化产生的环境,横线(焦点线)表示目标音段的位置。

G音节的划分原则:最大节首原则(MOP),即当辅音的位置面临选择时,将其归入节首而不是节尾。

又称CV原则,指的是在一个VCV或vccv序列中,最大限度地把C或CC划归下一个音节的节收,而不是前一个音节的结尾,将音节结构划分为V-CV或V-CCVH声调与重音的区别:重音是指在音节发音时的力度,重音是一个相对概念,只适用于两音节以上的词,其音节在节律层级上排列为相对的轻重关系,是一种结构属性;声调是一种特征属性,意指对比性的相对音高(高低型),如非洲的声调语言,或者是曲线声调变化(旋律,汉语的阴平阳平)第三章:词汇A语素及语素的类型语素是最小的语言单位,不能再进一步划分为更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变其词汇或语法意义形态学是对语素进行系统研究的语言学分支。

它研究词的内部结构和构造规则自由语素:能够独立成词。

如dog,close黏着语素:不能够独立成词。

如dis-,-ed单语素词vs.多语素词(复合词和复杂词)复合词:多个自由语素构成的词,如godfather,sunflower复杂词:可以再分为词根(root)和词缀(affix)词根是构成词的基础成分,不能再进一步分析,可以是自由语素或黏着语素(如receive,perceive和conceive中的-ceive)。

词缀本质上是黏着的。

根据它与词根和词干的相对位置,分为前缀、后缀和中缀。

词干:指能够附加上屈折词缀的语素或语素组合。

如friends和friendships中的friend和friendshipB构词方法及规则:屈折变化:通过附加词缀(如数、人称、有定性、体和格)来表现语法关系,附加词缀不会改变被附加词的语法类。

如table/tables,boy/boy’s派生:词根+派生词缀:un+conscious=unconscious,通常会改变被附加词的语法类复合:指两个或两个以上的词素构成的词,或是指由两个单独的词连接起来构成一个新的形式的构词方法:blackboard、living roomC世界语言中的主要语法范畴与名词有关的语法范畴:性(阴阳中性)、数(单复双)、格(主宾通作与属)、有定与无定(冠词、这那(有),有个(无))与动词有关:体((通过动词的变化体现时间或动作的状态)完成、进行、普通、起始、持续、尝试)、时(过去现在将来)、人称(一二三)、态(主动、被动、使动)、式(陈述式、命令式、虚拟式、愿望式)与形容词和副词有关:级(原级、比较级、最高级)D词类的划分标准:词类:通过分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征、语义特征和音系特征,或者根据词在形式上的相似性,如屈折变化和分布,来对词进行分组分类。

比如,英语中的名词有单复数;动词有过去式,完成式;形容词有比较级;副词跟形容词类似,且通常以-ly为后缀。

第四章:文字A文字发展的脉络欧洲:早起苏美尔文字→后期苏美尔文字→古波斯文字+古埃及文字→西奈/迦南文字→腓尼基文字+塞浦路斯文字→希腊文字→拉丁文字汉字:早期汉文字→后期汉文字欧洲文字演进过程曲折,经历了数个时期和民族的改良,而汉文字的演进在完全独立方式下进行B汉字为什么没有走上表音文字的道路1. 汉字自身的性质与特点决定了汉字拼音化的不可行性2. 方言的存在是汉字拼音化一大阻碍3. 汉字拼音化对阅读古籍来说有很大的困难4. 汉字是中国传统文化的代表,不可随意丢弃表音文字: 从语言的底层入手,单个符号记录语言中抽象的语音单位的文字。

表意文字:从语言的上层入手,单个符号记录语言中音义结合的语法单位的文字第五章:句法A乔姆斯基转换生成语法理论的核心概念:语言能力:一名语言使用者的语言知识应当被刻画为由有限的规则和原则构成的语法系统,而这些规则和原则正好是他理解并产出无限数量的短语和句子的基础语言能力与语言运用的区别:一名语言使用者对于语言规则系统的潜在意识成为他的语言能力,而语言运用指在具体场景中语言的实际运用因此,我们进行句法研究的语料来源于我们对英语(或其它语言)的自省,即我们的语言能力普遍语法:关注语言的共性,而非它们之间的差别。

在他看来, 语言成分之间的组合方式似乎受到一些普遍规则的支配。

语言学家的任务就是要找到一个适合所有语言的语法框架转换语法:以短语结构语法为基础,附加一组能将语句深层结构映射为相应表层结构的转换跪着并以此为核心而形成的一种分析自然语言(主要是英语等屈析语)的语法生成语法:一种语法必须生成所有而且只有语法句子的语言B为什么说语言是结构性:一个句子由一些不含歧义的词语构成的集合构成,然而这词可以通过不同的方式组合形成完全不同的意思。

从而可以得出句子构造的两个重要性质:词语序列是线性排序的;词语的可能集群形式。

但是,通过分析英语中一般疑问句的构造规则,我们可以看到句子不是非结构性的。

C树形图:为了给出“主语”的结构定义,引入成分结构和树形图句子构造的三个方面的信息(在树形图中得以体现):a. 单词在句子中的线性排序b. 词语在句子中的分类情况c. 词语在句子中的集群以及结构构成词类划分标准:意义、屈析、分布情况(最为可靠的标准是根据分布情况来确定是哪个词类)D X-bar 理论短语范畴:NP(N), VP(V), AP(A), PP(P)The structure: (specifier) + head + (complement)Head (中心语,NVAP):一个短语的词Specifier (标志语):中心语左边Complement (补足语):中心语右边英语是head-initial(左枝)语言,日语是head-final(右)E原则与参数理论:XP规则是一个普遍规则,语言之间的差别在于参数不同F移位与疑问句移位的起因通常为话题化,即根据不同的话题将句子成分改变位置(通常是提前)。

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