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Abstract:―Hawsmoot‖ is a short story written by Peter L. Sandberg. This paper attempts to analyze it from the angle of stylistics and to describe the most significant stylistic features of this story and the function of these stylistic features. Based on the stylistic theory, this thesis explores the stylistic effects made by the stylistic characters reflected in the short story from the following aspects: discourse analysis, phonological features, graphological features, syntactic features, lexical features, and rhetorical features. Key Words: stylistic features; effects; style; vividI. Introduction―Hawsmoot‖ is a narrative story about climbing. The protagonist Hawsmoot who had climbed on the cliff of the Grand Giraffe for thirty years without using a rope. One day, there came a young German also climbed the Grand Giraffe without using a rope. The story developed with the two people climbing. My paper tries to analyze the stylistic effects to the story‘s theme made by the stylistic features. Stylistic analysis can enhance our understand ing of the ways in which impressions, effects and meanings are communicated by language in literary works and prepare the way to the intrinsic study of literary works.―Hawsmoot‖has its own distinctive characteristics, which are shown in vocabulary, sentence, grammar and the whole discourse. In this thesis, I will make an analysis of it based on the stylistic theory. And I will explore the special effects of every stylistic feature to the theme and author‘s attitude. The author‘s successful apply of these stylistic devices makes the story interesting, attractive as well as understandable for readers.II.Stylistic Analysis2.1 Discourse AnalysisThe story is set in the base of the Grand Giraffe, and the field of discourse about this story is climbing. Referring to different fields and subject matters, people have to use different sets of vocabulary. In this story, the author uses lots of mountaineering terms, and I will analyze this aspect in the fifth part. Here I will explore another important aspect of the field—the purpose which the language serves in a social activity. The conversations in this story mainly talked between the young German, Hawsmoot and a group of young climbers. And the function of these conversations are most expressive and co native. The former expresses the addresser‘s feelings and emotions and the latter is used to influence the addressee‘s behavior or attitude. In this story line 4 ―…good climb…great climb alone‖, what the young German said expresses confidence and passion towards the climb without a rope. Besides, in line 43 and 44―…climb…overhang…‖ the two sentences vividly show us that the young German‗s arrogant and self-importance character as the author said he is cocksure. The language used here successfully shows the purpose of expressive function. In line 125―Don‘t …without……‖ and the line 148 ―You shouldn‘t do it.‖, here, the function of thegirl‘s words is co native. It aims at influencing Hawsmoot‘s behavior—persuading him to use a rope. In this story, there are also other persuasive sentences, all of these show that the girl is worrying about Hawsmoot, because she thinks that Hawsmoot is old now and she is not confident that he can climb the Grand Giraffe without using a rope. The girl‘s persuasion greatly attracts our attention, because that also was readers want to say, and we also worried about Hawsmoot. From what Hawsmoot said, we can feel that he is a poised and polite man. He seldom talks with others, instead he concentrating on the climb, but when others talks to him, Hawsmoot replies them always in a poised and polite way. In this story, the author let us see that this is because of the wide variety of language that is possible in each case. People have more choice of language in conversation and literature than in other domains.Another aspect of discourse is tenor—the addresser‘s attitude. In this story, the writer usesnumerous informal expressions. The use of slang and colloquialism characterizes this story‘sinformal styles. Some informal expressions, such as, ―cocksure‖, ―came over him‖, ―eatcrow‖, ―so and so‖, etc. All of these show that the conversations between the climbers arecasual, and the climbers‘uninhibited personalities.2.2 Phonological Features2.2.1 Sound PatterningSound patterning is not only a source of aesthetic satisfaction, but also a phonological means of emphasis, establishing relationship between the patterned words. In this story, the authoruses various types of sound patterning, such as, alliteration, reverse rhyme, consonance and end rhyme. Firstly, let‘s see the alliteration. In line 13―climbing clubs‖⁄klaɪmɪŋ–klʌb⁄—C V C, in line115 ―heart begin to hammer‖⁄hɑrt–'hæmɚ⁄, in line 146, ―hands over his head‖⁄hænd–hɪz–hed ⁄, in line 151 and 152, ―hands stuck hard to the holds‖⁄hænd–hɑrd–hold]⁄, and so on. We know that alliteration is the repetition of the same consonant sound in several words close together in a sentence or in a line. The use of alliteration can produce specialsound effects to make the text a harmonious rhythm, rhyme sonorous, a symmetrical form,and reads fluently. The listed examples all show the sound patterning of alliteration,especially the latter three. When we read these phrases, we can feel a strong sense of rhythm and a tense atmosphere. This let us can‘t help being nervous and worrying about Hawsmoot. There are also sound patterning of reverse rhyme used in this story. In line 98 ―wind was whipping‖⁄wɪnd –wɪpɪŋ⁄—C V C, in line 152―sometimes in summer‖⁄'sʌmtaɪmz–sʌmə⁄, reverse rhyme is used here. Reverse rhyme, repeating the initial consonants and the vowels. Itreads fluently and enhances rhythm of language. Besides, consonance and end rhyme are also used in this short story. In line 235 ―the ground, confused, alarmed‖⁄ɡraʊnd–kən'fjuzd–ə'lɑrmd⁄—C V C. In line 154 and 155 ―the words and the sounds‖⁄wɜːdz–saʊndz⁄—C V C . All of them attribute to the rhythmic sound effects.2.2.2 OnomatopoeiaSome linguists have pointed out that ―onomatopoeia is actually the mutual reinforcement ofsense by sound and sound by sense‖. In this story, in line 109 ―The dry leaf rustle on the slopedied‖, here the word rustle show us a vividly dynamic picture, as if we have heard the sound of the leaves blowing. It describes the environment and situation of the Grand Giraffe they climbed.2.3 Graphological FeaturesGraphology is considered very useful as an orientational device clarifying the writer‘sintention by the order and the way in which items of information are presented. In the latter part of this story, the author uses italic many times. The italic sentences are all about thesuggestion to use a rope. Here, the function of it is to emphases and attract readers‘ attention. By author‘s emphasis readers realize that at that time Hawsmoot‘s determination of no ropesis shaking, he is always hearing the sound of using a rope, and maybe he realizes that he is oldnow and have to use ropes from now on. It is attributive to the reveal of the theme—the passing of time.2.4 Syntactic Features2.4.1 Types of Verb MeaningIn the former part of this story, the author mainly describes the characters about the youngGerman and Hawsmoot, and clauses are most stative situation types. The third and tenthparagraphs respectively describe the young German‘s and Hawsmoot‘s appearance featuresusing the stative verbs, such as, ―was, had, wore…‖. These stative verbs refer to a state of being, and show us the two character‘s basic appearance situations. There are also manystative verbs referring to states of perception, states of emotion and attitude. In line 235 and 236 ―He felt a great desire to drop off, to let go; he was weary, tired out.‖ This sentence vividly expresses Hawsmoot‘s extremely tire condition. When describes the climbing scenes, the author uses many dynamic verbs. For example, in line 240 to 243 ―…kicked…missed …hung out…‖this dynamic sentence his actions when he missed his hold and theseries of dynamic verbs create a tense atmosphere, giving readers a feeling of nervous and exciting.2.4.2 Participant RolesIn this story, the author constantly shows us Hawsmoot‘s mental states, and all these mental states involve two participant roles: a senser and a phenomenon. When climbing Hawsmoot constantly recalled the past, what he sensed is sentimental and a kind of reminiscence. In dynamic situations, the agentive role embodied in the story all the time. Besides, external forces ―wind‖ plays an important role in this story. It is the destructive external force for all climbers.2.5 Lexical FeaturesAs a story focusing on climbing, the author uses lots of special mountaineering terms, such as―lederhosen, climbing parka, overhang, foothold, lever, inched…‖ The use of the specialized vocabulary brings about a sense of profession and makes the story more interesting. General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. In this story, author chooses to use more specific words. The use of specific words makes the story more informative in detail and evokes vivid images in the reader‘s mind. In line 119 to 123, the specific words ―hung, raise, following, kicking, moving, levering‖ makes Hawsmoot actions more vividly presented to us. Besides, author uses more short words which make the story more vivid and understandable.2.6 Other Rhetorical FeaturesIn short stories, in order to better convey meanings, figurative language is often employed. We can find the use of different figures of speech in this short story.2.6.1SimileThis story is rich in simile. In paragraph 3, when describes the young German, authorcompares his smile as the distant lake below him, and his eyes to the cold autumn sun. Theuse of simile makes readers have a more vivid perception about his image. This descriptionsuccessfully portrays his cold and arrogant characteristic. In line 166 and 167, ―…fall like…‖Hawsmoot sees the falling pieces of grit as the dropping water, from this we can see that howhigh he is above the ground, and this expresses a feeling of tense. The writer uses the directmethod to make readers to think, to feel and to appreciate the scenes of the climbing.2.6.2 ParallelismA figure of speech that uses similar structures in separate sentences to express related ideasand with which the sentence is emphatic and forceful. For example, in line 157 to 161 ―It wasafter…It was after…It was either just before…‖ these forceful sentences express Hawsmoot‘sstrong emotion as he recalls the painful past, and it helps to build up an emotional climax. III. ConclusionThe above analysis let us have a better and deep understanding about the stylistics as well as the theme of this story. The specialized vocabulary, the informal conversations, the dynamic verbs and also some rhetorical devices combined show readers series dynamic and vivid scenes, and make the story more interesting, attractive and easier to understand. Definitely, there are some aspects which are worthy making the further research, such as the sequence,segmentation, and the other rhetorical features.Bibliography:[1] Qian Yuan. ―STYLISTICS: A Course book for Chinese EFL Students ‖ [M]. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2006.[2]姚琴. 情景语境观下的话语生成与理解[J].江苏大学外国语学院, 2010.[3]张庆云. 徐晓光.对短篇小说《爱的牺牲》的功能文体分析[J]. 泰山学院大学外语教学部,2012.。

文体学复习(一)

资料范本本资料为word版本，可以直接编辑和打印，感谢您的下载文体学复习(一)地点：__________________时间：__________________说明：本资料适用于约定双方经过谈判，协商而共同承认，共同遵守的责任与义务，仅供参考，文档可直接下载或修改，不需要的部分可直接删除，使用时请详细阅读内容文体学复习Style: Manners indicating prominent linguistic features, devices or patterns, most (or least) frequently occur in a particular text of a particular variety of language. (有许多种，此为in this book, general, linguistic-oriented), P5Stylistics: is a branch of linguistics which studies in a scientific and systematic way concerning the manners/linguistic features of different varieties of language at different levels.Literary stylistics: concentrates solely on unique and overall linguistic features of the various genres of literature. （考点）★★The development of stylisticsThe scope of studyThree crucial aspects of speech:① Substances [sounds and symbols]; ② Form; ③SituationStylistic analysis: is generally concerned with the uniqueness of a text (what is peculiar to the use of language in a given text for delivering the message). This naturally involves comparisons of the language of the text with that used in conventional types of discourse. Stylisticians may also wish to characterize the style of a given text by systematically comparing the language uses in that text with those in another. Thus, we may conclude that stylistic analysis is an activity which is highly comparative in nature.Practice 5. Analyze the following text.Policeman: What’s your name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Dr. Poussiant. I’m a physician.Policeman: What’s your first name, boy?Black psychiatrist: Alvin.The word ‘boy’ may be used to address a male inferior. In above conversation, the form is used to address a physician, who is usually accorded high respect in the US and is addressed as ‘Dr. So-and-so’ (Title + Surname). Insistently using the form ‘boy’, the white policeman shows his racist contempt of and prejudice against the black people.Linguistic description: refers to the exploration and classification of linguistic features of a given text.★每个category下面的各个分类(1) The Phonology Category: Phonology here is used to refer to the system of speech sounds in a language.(2) The Lexical Category: Lexis is used here to refer to the choice of words.(3) The Syntactic/Grammatical /Category: Syntax is used here to refer to rules for ordering and connecting words into sentences.(4) Semantic Category: Semantics is used here to refer to the meaning of words, expressions, etc. and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to the addressee.Procedure of linguistic description1) Work systematically through the text and note down points we feel of some stylistic significance respectively under the various headings.2) Quantify the frequency of a linguistic feature.3) Assess the importance of stylistic features.4) Make statements about the overall linguistic picture of the text in question, bringing together diverse features to show how theyform a coherent, integrated pattern, and making judgments about or interpreting the significance of such patterns in relation to the context of the text as a whole.5、（1）Text: A text is any passage, spoken or written, of whatever length, that forms a unified whole. A text is then a semantic unit, a unit not only of form, but also of meaning. A text is realized by a sequence of language units, whether they are sentences or not.Cohesive devices:Implicit connectivityExplicit connectivity1) Transitional words/phrases2) Grammatical device①Ellipsis ②Substitution ③Coreference3) Lexical reiteration材料Examine the following conversation, find out whether linguistic units in it are overtly cohesive or not.A: See who that is.B: I’m in pyjamas.A: OK.• Linguistic units in the conversation are not overtly cohesive. In this text, the relevance of B’s remark to A’s first remark is conveyed by pragmatic implication. “I’m in pyjamas” implies anexc use for not complying with A’s command (= “No, I can’t, because I’m in pyjamas.”) A’s second remark implies that he accepts B’s excuse and undertakes to do himself what he originally asked B to do (= OK. I’ll go myself and see.” Texts are therefore recogni zed asappropriately coherent in actual use. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs.（2）Context: Context refers to all elements of a communicative situation. (One is “linguistic context”, refe rring to thelinguistic units preceding and/or following a particular linguistic unit in a text. The other is “extra-linguistic context” or “context of situation”, referring to the relevant features of the situation in which a text has meaning. )Contextua l factors:★①Field of discourse(语场)：the institutional setting, private or public, in which a piece of language occurs, embracing not only the subject matter in hand(正在进行中的主要的事情), but the wholeactivity of the speaker or participant in a setting, whichcorr esponds to Halliday’s “ideational function” of language.②Tenor(语旨)：The participants, their education, social status, the role-relationship between the addresser and the addressee; the degree of intimacy; the degree of social distance. (It’s concerned with who is taking part in the exchange of meaning ----the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their relative status, their attitude, and their role relations.)③Mode(语式)：the medium of communication——the graphic signs [visual] or sound waves [auditory] by means of which a message is conveyed from one person to anther; Channel; channel limitation; other detailed choices, the functions of language in the particular situation.Practice 4. Analyze the following conversation(Jenny comes to Alan’s hou se. She is conducting a survey for the government.)Alan: Won’t you come in, Miss-er-.Jenny: Cartwright, Jenny Cartwright.Alan: I’m Alan Marlow. (Alan shows Jenny into the living room.)Alan: Oh won’t you make yourself comfortable, Jenny?(After some minutes of talk, which is omitted here)Jenny: Mr. Marlow … Alan: Call me Alan. (The Marlows, Episode 11)The context shows clearly that Alan and Jenny are total strangers. The conven-tional address form between strangers is Title + Sur-name (Mr./Miss So-and-so). But Alan addresses the girl by her first name and later asks her to do the same. His adoption of first-naming is an example of the manipulation of language. It is a move towards a friendlier relationship, indicating that Alan does not want their encounter to be formal and distant, as it is customary between strangers. In contrast, Jenny chooses to remain formal and distant by addressing Alan as “Mr. Marlow”.Linguistic Items6、Speech sounds:★(1) Stress: Stress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is the result of extra force used in pronouncing a particular word or syllable. a) To show emphasis; b) To show surprise, anger, doubt, horror or excitement; c) To distinguish meaning of identical words or phrases. P23(2) Pause: Pause refers to the brief interruption of the articulatory process between consecutive linguistic units such as sounds, syllables, words, phrases and sentences.a) voiced pause or filled pause; b) silent pauseFunction: P23(3) Pitch: This relative height of speech sounds as perceived bya listener is called “pitch” and to indicate different feelings or attitudes, such as agreement, doubt, surprise, delight, scorn, abhorrence, or hatred. a) The falling pitch; b) The rising pitch; c) The fall-rise pitch; d) The rise-fall pitch; e) The level pitch; f) The fall-plus-rise pitch. (各用在什么情境下，有什么作用P24~25)(4) Tempo: Tempo refers to the speed of speaking. Tempo reflected in monosyllables: a) quick and clipped syllables; b) loose and drawled syllables; c) slow and held syllables. Tempo reflected in sentences: a) the quick “allegro”; b) the slow “lendo”; c) the increasing “accelerando”; d) the decreasing “rallentando”.Function: Generally speaking, a quick tempo indicates excitement, surprise, agreement, happiness, indignation, whereas a slow tempo usually indicates confusion, emphasis, disagreement, hesitation, sadness, tiredness, low spirit or disappointment, etc.7、Graphological Items ——the study of writing system of a languageGraphological level——the expression or realization of language in its writing systemPunctuation ( the dash破折号, the colon冒号, the exclamation mark感叹号)；各自用处效果CapitalizationItalics 斜体Paragraphing（分段）：Paragraphing refers to the way in which a text is divided into paragraphs. It is a device to reveal the relational structure in a text, the organization of the content.各自用处效果8、Lexical Items(1) General or Specific(2) Anglo-Saxon or Latinate(3) Other Lexical Items9、Syntactic/Grammatical Items(1) Clause TypesClause: A clause forms a sentence or part of a sentence. It is a group of words which form a grammatical unit and which contains a subject and a finite verb, often functioning as a noun, adjective or adverb.1) In terms of the clause constituents, there are 5 basic types:2) In terms of the structure of the verb phrases (if any) in a clause:① Finite clauses are clauses in which the first or the only verb phrase is a finite form.E.g. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.② Nonfinite clauses（非限定从句）are clauses whose verb phrase is non-finite, e.g. an –ing participle. He finished his work before leaving the classroom.③ Verbless clauses（无动词分句）are clauses which contain no verb element, e.g.: Hundreds of people were killed in the fire, many of them children.3) In terms of functions in a sentence:①Independ ent clause, not subordinate to another clause.E.g. I am a teacher.②Subordinate clause is a clause which forms part of another clause as its element, or as constituent of a phrase within a clause.nominal clause（名词性从句）e.g. What he said is true.relative clause（关系从句）functioning as post modifiers of a noun phrase.E.g. People who smoke annoy me.comparative clause, than, asadverbial clauses denoting time, place, reason, etc.(2) Sentence TypesSentence: A sentence is, grammatically, the largest unit of grammatical organization within which parts of speech and grammatical classes are to function.In terms of complexity or the number of constituent clauses:① Simple sentence consists of a single independent clause.② Multiple sentence consists of more than one clause.a) Compound sentence（复合句）consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses.E.g.: The storm is over, but the ground is still wet.b) Complex sentence（复杂句）consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clause,e.g.: Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet.c) Compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses, one being compound, and at least one complex dependent clause, e.g.:Although the storm is over, the ground is still wet, and we cannot go out for a walk.In terms of grammaticality:①Major sentence is a sentence (simple or multiple) which conforms to the regular patterns of clause structures. (formal in style)②Minor sentence does not conform to the regular clause patterns,e.g.: Oh, if I were you!All aboard!In terms of function:①Declarative sentence（陈述句）②Interrogative sentence（疑问句）General questionSpecial questionAlternative questionDisjunctive question（反义疑问句）③Imperative sentence（命令、祈使、要求）④Exclamatory sentence（感叹句）In terms of sentence length:①Short sentence（casual, easy, informal, emphatic, eye-catching, to the point, effective, express a concept）② long sentenceIn terms of the beauty of structure or emphasis:Periodic sentence（圆周句）is a sentence which suspends the completion of the main thought until(near) the end,e.g.:Every time a Cooper person is in peril, and absolute silence is worth four dollars a minute, he is sure to step on a dry twig.②Loose sentence（松散句）in contrast completes the main thought well before the end.Balanced sentence contains two distinct halves or parts, each of about the same length and importance,e.g.:In Plato’s opinion man was made for philosophy; in Bacon’s opinion philosophy was made for man.(beautiful in form, impressive in meaning; formal writings, expository and argumentative prose, public speech)10、British/American EnglishBritish English范围：EFL（mother tongue）: Britain; The Irish Republic；Australia；New Zealand；South Africa；The West Indian Island ESL：Singapore；MalaysiaThree periods: Old English, Middle English, Modern EnglishAmerican English范围：EFL：（mother tongue）The United States of America; Canada ESL：Mexico；The Philippines; Samoa（萨摩亚）History of AmE:Differences between BrE & AmE: 每项具体例子要看In VocabularyIn Grammar① The use of pr esent perfect (BrE) or past tense (AmE)② The use of “have” or “have got” to indicate possession③ The use of “got” (BrE) or “gotten” (AmE)④ The use of different prepositions⑤ The use of different expressionsIn SpellingIn Pronunciation(RP=Received Pronunciation GA=General American)11、Spoken English & Written English（口头语和书面语）（1）Medium: Medium refers to graphic signs (visual medium) or sound waves (auditory medium) by means of which a message is conveyed from one person (addresser) to another (addressee).Martin Joos’ classification（2）区别：① At the lexical level② At the syntactical/grammatical level③ At the phonological/graphological level④ Semantically补充：Striking differences1) Hearer/Reader involvement.Generally most speeches assume the presence of the hearerNon-verbal signals like facial expressions of incomprehension or boredom, feedback in the way of laughter, applause and even booing (feedback from audience attening a lecture and the like).A written text normally presumes the absence of the reader, and direct feedback from the reader is not possible.2) Linguistic explicitnessIn speech, the participants rely heavily on their common background knowledge and the immediate context for much of their information.The immediate context can eliminate the ambiguity or dark information carried by implicit linguistic structures, bring some words with concrete referents, and recrysta-lize the denotations of some otherwise abstract words.Writing, generally, does not rely on the immediate context for understanding. Nor can the writer normally hope that his /her readers share with him/her much of the personal background knowledge needed for the understanding of the written text. On the contrary he/she must give great explicitness to whatever he/she is trying to say on paper.3) PreparednessWriting is on the whole more ‘careful’ than speaking.Permanent record, a clear idea about the subject matter and logical arrangement of thought, compact and self-contained.Speech, esp. conversation, is often spontaneous. Random shift of topic, a general lack of conscious planning, features of hesitation, slips of the tongue, overlapping or simultaneous speech.Stylistic differencesSpoken texts contrast with written texts in terms of grammatical, lexical and phonological/ graphological features.Gregory(19107):1) Distinctions amongst speechSpeech can be spontaneous (such as casual conversation) or non-spontaneous (as what actors and teachers are doing).Within spontaneous speech, there is conversing (with the participation of others) versus monologuing (with no interruption from others). The latter kind of sustained spontaneous speech is found in classroom teaching, TV interviewing, radio commenting, and the talking between scholars.Non-spontaneous speech can be sub-categorized as reciting (such as story telling, poem recitation and singing) and as the speaking of what is written. In literate cultures, most non-spontaneous speech is the speaking of what has been written.2) Distinctions amongst writingThe text that has been written may be written to be spoken as if not written, or written to be spoken, or even written not necessarily to be spoken.a) Texts written to be spoken as if not written such as the lines in a drama, sound like real speech. But they are speeches that have been planned and prepared, whereas ordinary speech is spontaneous; and their situations are more compact and self-contained than those of conversing and monologuing.b) Texts written to be spoken with no effort to conceal their written origin such as scripts for sermons, speeches, lectures, news bulletins and commentaries, can be really the reading of an article or essay but the hearer is not in the same situation as the reader where he/she can turn back a page to check his/her understanding. Hence their repeating of the main points in a slightly different way and their manipulation of prosodic and paralinguistic features for the spoken mode.c) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken with no relation to the spoken mode such as a telephone book or a dictionary may be described as written to be read.d) Texts written not necessarily to be spoken but with a relationship with the spoken mode such as dialogue in a novel, may be categorized as written to be read as speech (as if heard); and the interior monologue related to such texts may be categorized aswritten to be read as if thought (as if overheard).（3）① Electronic English (E-Discourse): Electronic English is a general term, and it is used to here to refer to the computer-mediated English, which can also be labeled by other names through slight differences exist.② Nature of Electronic English:E-English is interactive, electronic, communicative in nature, with the text presented on the screen.③ Stylistic features:a) Lexicallyb) Syntactically12、Formal & Informal（会辨别formality）★(1) Formality: Formality refers to the way in which the style or tone of language will vary in appropriateness according to the social context: the occasion, the number of hearers, and the role-relationship——the relationship between the roles adopted by the addresser and the addressee in a given situation.Formal——Common core——Formal补充：Session 9 Formal vs Informal Language9.3 Functional tenor and degrees of formality1.Functional tenor tells us the addresser’s intent ion of using the language.2.Certain functional tenors can hit any point on the personal tenor formality continuum.an expository speech: formal, with many passive constructions and a technical vocabulary; or, informal, in an ad-lib manner, with personal anecdotes, reference to the audience.an insult: formal (formal structure and vocabulary, calm or deliberate delivery) or informal.9.4 Martin Joos’ classification(Martin Joos, 1967) The range of formality:5 levels: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.The frozen level: In Joos' analysis, the frozen level is used for written legal documents or highly solemn speech which consists of memorized sentences that must be repeated verbatim. These might include quotations from proverbs or ritual expressions which are part of a formal ceremony.The formal level is used for public addresses such as lectures or speeches where the audience is not known to the speaker personally or where personal acquaintance is not acknowledged. This level requires much attention to form (with well-planned thematic structure and phonological, lexical and syntactical coherence), and allows little or no interaction. It is typically marked with the use of may place of might , can (in 'May I present Mr Smith ?'). The speaker is usually considered to be an authority and, therefore, has higher status than the hearers for that particular event.The consultative level is used at less formal gatherings such as committee meetings where status is still fairly clearly designated,but where participants interact. There is still considerableattention to form (with rather clear pronunciation, accurate wording and complete sentences), and participants may not know each other well. It may be necessary for speakers to elaborate and give a significant amount of background material.In contrast, the casual level is used among friends, or peers who know each other well enough that little elaboration is necessary. Participants pay very little attention to form (shown by the use of slang and ellipsis as in 'Been a good thing if...') and concentrate totally on content and relationship. One of the markers of this level is the use of 'Come on' with the implication 'Consider yourself among friends'.The final level identified by Joos is 'intimate', language used between people who see each other daily (family members for instance) and share the majority of their daily life experiences. As a result, language is unelaborated and conversation may be meaningless to outsiders because of its telegraphic quality. No attention is paid to form.第六种：The Gobbledygook 冗长的废话，官话e.g.1) My beloved parent has just passed to his heavenly reward.2) My dear father has just expired.3) My father has just passed away.4) My dad has died.5) My old man just kicked the bucket. --- by Martin JoosJoos' categories present an efficient way of looking at degrees of formality. It is fairly easy to distinguish the frozen style of (written) legal documents with their Latinate diction and impersonalsyntax, from the intimate style of (spoken) interchanges betweenclose friends, with their slang and elliptical syntax. But it is not easy to categorize the intervening degrees, or relate them tolinguistic features. So most linguists agree that the situation is more complex than Joos imagined and see the range as a continuum from the most formal to the most Situation and Formality informal/intimate, with an infinite number of stopping places in between.(2) PolitenessPoliteness refers to a) how languages express the social distance between speakers and their different role-relationships; b) how face-work, that is, the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face during conversation, is carried out in a speech community.(3) Impersonality（非人格性，非人称性）Impersonality: Any discourse that is described as impersonal is marked by a distinct lack of the personal and informal mode.Language markers indicating degrees of impersonality include:the generic pronoun one;the third person nouns instead of personal pronouns;the passive voice;the introductory it as a sentence beginner;abstract nouns or nominal groups.Accessibility（可读性）Accessibility, synonymous with acceptability, or readability, refers to whether a piece of language is easy to understand by the addressee.Fog index（Robert Gunning）符合指数，可读性程度★Fog Index=0.4（L+H）L=the average sentence length in a passageH=the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passageWhat should be known:the total number of words;the total number of sentences;the total number of hard words( at least 3 syllables, notcounting inflection or compounding).Smaller=easierAn easily accessible text: about 10 or fewerAn casual conversation: about 5A legal document: more than 20Practice: 书P6913、Women & Men / Black English / Taboo & EuphemismTaboo: Taboo is often used to refer to a word or expression which is avoided by some people for religious, political, social, sexual,or other reasons and is usually replaced by a corresponding euphemism.Euphemism: A euphemism is often defined as substituting an inoffensive or pleasant word or expression for a more offensive one. Euphemism can even make the harsh reality appear neutral, which iswhy they are often employed by politicians in order to take thepeople in and endear themselves to the public.14、Conversation（定义，特征，各level 特征分析）Conversation refers to the act or an instance of talking together, for example, a familiar talk between friends; a verbal exchange of ideas, etc.Common features:informalityinexplicitnessnormal non-fluencylexical banalitysyntactic loosenessrandomness of subject matter15、Public speaking（定义，特征，构成要素）(1) Public speeches are speeches delivered in public for a special purpose, such as open-class lectures or seminars in a university, religious preaches in the church, speeches delivered at a meeting or conference, the inaugural address of the president elect, etc.(2) General features: formal in style, clear and vivid in tone, persuasive in purpose(3) Types①The informativeThe persuasiveThe entertainingThe stimulating(4) Ways of delivery（效果，分别的优缺点）Reading from a manuscriptReciting from memoryImpromptu speakingExtemporaneous speaking（outline）三四两种的区别16、News Reporting★(1) News reporting is the reporting of anything timely which has importance, use or interest to a considerable number of persons in a publication audience.(2) Classification①Place：National & Provincial②Contents: Quality Papers（严肃性）& Popular Papers（大众性）③Time: Morning, noon, evening, Sunday④Nature: Hard news（纯新闻），Soft news(3) Field: politics, economy, military, culture, technology, etc.Tenor: the journalists and masses different purposesMode: radio, broadcast, TV broadcast, newspaper, and magazine.(4) Definition of news(5) News value: timeliness, freshness（时新性）；importance, prominence（显著性）；locality, proximity（接近性）；oddity, weirdness, novelty（新奇性）；interest(6) The Make-up of News Report★书上例子及课后习题一定要看3 parts: the headline, the lead, the body1> The Headline①Definition: the text in large bold type at the top of the newspaper article, indicating the nature of the article below it.②Function:to advertise or sell the newsto summarize the storyto beautify the pageMain features:The omission of articles and the link verbFrequent use of abbreviationsPresent tense is often usedShort powerful words are often employedThe use of pre-modificationFrequent use of figures of speechLexical features:a cronym and shortened words（缩略词和截短词）colloquial and conversational words（口语化词）midget words（小词）the use of pre-modificationFormats of HeadlinesThe banner/streamer 通栏标题The flush left head 左对齐式（垂直式）标题The dropped line/indented headThe centered headThe cross-line/key line head单行标题The step head 齐头标题The pyramid headThe inverted pyramid headThe jump head2> The Lead导语Definition: The lead is the first or the first few paragraphs of the news report, consisting of the newest, most important, or the most attractive facts.Who, what, when, where, ,whyFeatures: succinct, informative and intriguingForms:The contrast lead对比式导语The question lead提问式导语The quotation lead引语式导语The blind lead 盲式导语The descriptive lead描写性导语The main fact lead 主要事实导语The anecdotal lead 轶事导语The personal lead3> The body①The body is the main part of the news report.②Writing method:The inverted pyramid methodThe chronological methodThe highlight method(7) Stylistic features17、Advertising书上例子要看①Advertising is the non-personal communication of information, usually paid for and usually persuasive in nature about the products, services or ideas by identified sponsors through various media.② Fun ction:Information giving functionDemand-creating functionDistribution stimulating functionNew customer introducing functionGet-action functionGood-will establishing function③ Classification:By medium, newspaper ads, magazine ads, TV ads, radio ads, direct mail ads, outdoor ads, human body ads, Internet ads, etc.By audience, consumer ads, business ads(commercial ads); service ads, specified ads, charity ads, etc.By writing methods, hard-sell ads(intellect, fact, reason,telling advantages, serious, factual, accurate, objective) and soft-sell ads(emotion, figures of speech)Elements of adsHeadline, the illustrations, the body copy, the slogan, thetrade-mark, and the standing details (supplementary items).Writing methods of the body-copyThe straight-line copy (objective, industrial products, cars, camera, with complicated structures)The narrative copy (story-telling)The testimonial copy ( use some VIPs or people in real life to introduce the product)⑦Stylistic features。

文体学Intruduction

• You pays your money and • You doesn’t take your choice. • __ E.E. Cummings • The two sentences look ungrammatical, but are specially designed to express the meaning that the transaction is unfair or irregular as is seen in the ungrammatical form. They remind us of a new perspective in looking at the style.
• (1) My beloved parent has joined the heavenly choir. • (2) My dear father has passed away. • (3) My father has died. • (4) My old man has kicked the bucket. Each of these statements communicates the same fact that his father died. But the words which express the fact are different in each case. The matter is the same, but the manner has changed. In other words,
Hale Waihona Puke •Analysis(2)
• 3. Meaning of context • Linguists have emphasized the role contexts of situation as determinants of style. There is an observable match (Correlation) between linguistic features and contextual factors. For example:

实用文体学

Formal vs. informal style:Formal style differs sharply from informal style phonologically, lexically, syntactically and textually.I. Differences in soundHe dunno.–He doesn’t know.Whatcha wanna is … --What you want is…I wanna go now–I want to go now.He is gonna make it.—He is going to make it.Gimme the bottle.—Give me the bottle.’Cos I’ve been there.– Because I have been there.In informal context, assimilation(语音同化）, liaison（连音）and elision（省音）are common while in formal context very rare.1.assimilatione.g.: Who has been there? /’hu:z ‘bin hiə/2.liaisone.g.: for instance / fə’ r instns/3. elisione.g.: a good deal / ə‘gu ‘di:l/II. Differences in vocabularyThe origin of English vocabulary: Anglo-Saxon, French, Latin and Greece.Anglo-Saxon French Latinfire flame conflagrationfear terror trepidationsmall petite diminutiveholy sacred consecratedrise mount ascendeat dine ingestExercise: Match the words in column A with the words in column B.A Bdomicile endcommence sweatdismiss buyconclude houseinform tellinquire tiredperspiration beginreside gofatigued askpurchase fireproceed liveCompare the following sentences1. a. The concert concluded with a performance of Beethoven’s 5th symphony.b. They ended the concert with Beethoven’s 5th symphony.2. a. The police are investigating the case of murder.b. The police are looking into the case of murder.III. Differences in grammar1. a. It is I who am to blame.b. It is me who’s to blame.2. a. At last there was something aboutwhich to write home.b. At last there was something to writehome about.3. a. Whom are you writing to?b. Who are you writing to?4. a. If she was happy, I would ask her to staythe whole evening.b. If she were happy, I would ask her to stay thewhole evening.5. a. It has been noted with concern that thestock of books in the library has beendeclining alarmingly.b. The number of books in the library has beengoing down.6. a. What a day!b. What a day it is!Question: Tell which of the two sentences in each group is formal and which is informal.7. a. He’s older than me.b. He is older than I.8. a. Much higher altitudes were achieved by this method.b. This method achieved much higher altitudes.9. a. It is more time that we need.b. We need more time.10. a. Living in the country, we had few social visits.b. We lived in the country, so nobody visited us.11. a. If time permits, we’ll go picnicking tomorrow. b. Time permitting, we will go picnicking tomorrow.12. a. Her mother being ill, she had to stay at home and take care of her mother.b. Because her mother is ill, she got to stay at home and take care of her mother.13. a. She failed the exam, and we were surprised. b. Her failure to pass theexam surprised us.IV. Differences in textual cohesionDespite the discouragement I had received, I continued to study. I kept pursuing my interest in science partly to prove that I could do it and partly because I enjoyed it. However, that enjoyment had decreased very much during my college years. The constant discouragement and pressures that I received as a woman had their result. I became less interested and my work suffered. All the energy that I had put into fighting these pressures distracted me from my work. Eventually, I believed the quality of work was lowered. However, I managed to finish school and then attempted to apply my skills.Dear Pete,Thanks for the letter. It was nice to hear from you again and get all the news. That holiday of yours must have been marvelous. We keep thinking about fixing something up and in fact Ann has been trying to persuade me to book up for Spain again, but I can’t say I’m very keen---I’m all for staying in this country for a change. As it happens, we probably won’t have all that much time for a holiday, though –we’ve just taken a lease on a flat, and it’ll take us from when we move in until…The following text (Text A) is informal in some ways. Try rewriting it and make it more formal.Text AWe won’t formally extend the time you have to do your assignments, but if you can’t hand your assignment in on time because something has gone wrong or because you didn’t plan properly, then you can hand it in within the next 14 days. If it is late because something happened to distract you and you couldn’t have foreseen that would happen, it will not be punished.Suggested version:Text BFormal extension of time is not granted as such, but if, through bad luck and planning, an assignment can not be submitted on time, it may be submitted within the next 14 days. If it is late because of some unforeseen distraction, it will not be penalized.Comment:1) Text B is a formal written discourse, characterized by its high lexical density whereas Text A is a loose spoken discourse, characterized by its low lexical density and more clauses.2) ）It is true that nominalization of Text B makes the formal discourse.3) In Text B, we can also find adjectivization also does its part in making the discourse what it is. we can see that the underlined words unforeseen are of this kind. Please translate the sentence:定期复习将有助于提高考试成绩。

文体学论文——精选推荐

Stylistic Analysis of a Conversation系名称：外语系年级：12 级班级：二班*名：***学号：**********Stylistic Analysis of a Conversation IntroductionConversation is without doubt the most commonly used kind of language, and therefore, it is a variety familiar to the majority of English-speaking people. This variety is used in everyone’s daily life. And it has its own distinct stylistic features. So it is necessary for us to analyze it from the perspective of general stylistics.The material for analysis is a conversation between two housewives who are in the same age rank <mid-thirties> and have known each other for some time. The occasion is that B is invited to A' house for an evening chat over coffee.The conversation focused on the lives of two housewives. Therefore such conversation regularly lacks an overall theme. So the participants may chat about some irrelevant and random things. Changes of subjects can be often found. Stylistic Analysis1. At the Phonological LevelPhonology refers to speech sounds in a language. Here, the main focus is on stress, elision, pause, para-linguistic devices and overlapping of words.Conversation can be divided into two major kinds: spontaneous conversation and non-spontaneous conversation. This conversation belongs to the former one. Words to be spoken sound very natural and spontaneous(a general lack of planning).1.1 StressStress refers to the prominence of sounds. It is a very important way of expressing different feelings or implying different meanings in oral communication. It has the following functions in this conversation:a) To show emphasis:I'll be all right in a MINUTE.It implies“It is in a minute(not too long)I'll be all right.”STUpid I had er about five thousand BOOKS to take back to senate HOUSE YESterday.It emphasizes how stupid I was,what,where,and when.b) To show surprise,anger, doubt, horror or excitement:You got a COLDIn this sentence, “cold”is stressed, which indicates A's doubt as if saying “Did you get a cold? ”.1.2 ElisionElision is one of the distinct phonological style makers in conversation, which is frequently used by the speakers involved. In the conversation, the most frequent elisions are I'm ,I've, I'll, it's, I'd, hasn’t, you're, and that's. These elisions can perfectly indicate the informality of the conversation as well as intimate relationship between two neighbors.1.3 PausePause can be seen as a signal of ending a thought unit. In English,there are voiced pauses (um, er,ah) , and silent pauses-silent breaks between words, such as the pause at the end of a sentence, the pause between a dependent clause and its main clause, and the pause between words or phrases. In this conversation, both kinds of pauses can be frequently found./= short pause //=long pauseIn this conversation, the usually overuse of pauses may reflect certain feeling or attitude of speaker, such as nervousness, hesitation, confusion, or uncertainty.1.4 Para-linguistic devicesA andB in the conversation often resort some para-linguistic devices, such as laughters (laughs for/laughs quietly for-)and monitoring signals(such as you know, well, I thought, what have you got ) to help convey the meanings and feelings.For example, "no, I thought you sounded as if you were"1.5 Overlapping of words or phrasesOverlapping of words or phrases of A and B is also very common in this conversation.*=overlapping of words of two participantsWhen one person comes up with a new idea, he may not always wait for his turn till the other person finishes his sentence. Instead, he utters his words in a high pitch and a quick tempo till the other person stops.1.6 Normal non-fluencyNormal non-fluency is very common in this , which is resulted from overlapping of words and other factors such as sudden change of subject matter, hesitation, nervousness, and a lack of planning of the conversation. For example:No, just a bit sniffy cos I'm-I am cold2. At the Lexical LevelLexis refers to the choice of words and expressions and here, we will focus our attention on the use of colloquial words and general words.2.1 Use of colloquial wordsIt is normal and natural to see so many colloquial words in this conversation, such as yeah, got, just, well, cos(because), etc. These words can express the speaker's attitude or surprise, disgust, or some feelings. Colloquial words are also the signal of informality.2.2 General wordsGeneral words are also used very frequently in this conversation, such as do, clour, go, and, nice, etc. These general words may not convey specific meanings, but there is no need to be so specific in daily conversation. And probably general meaning is what the participants require.3. At the Syntactic/Grammatical LevelSyntax refers to the rules for ordering words into sentence. In this part, we mostly concentrate on sentence types and voice.It is found that sentences (as far as length and structures are concerned) in the conversation are not complicated to understand. More minor sentences and short sentences are used, which are style makers of informality.3.1 Preference for interrogative sentencesInterrogative sentences appear frequently in this short conversation. Conversation is the communication between at least two people. It mainly takes the form of asking and answering. In this way the oral communication between people can proceed. Thus, apart from declarative sentences, which are used most frequently in all varieties. Interrogative sentences are frequently used here. There are 7 interrogative sentences in all 30 sentences, occupying 23 percent of the total number of sentences, which is much higher compared with other varieties.3.2 Use of active voiceIn conversations, speakers usually are the major active characters. Their words mainly express their own feelings or narrate an event. In this way, active voice will be the most suitable voice to achieve such effects. In this conversation, most of sentence are in active voice. And most of them have such beginning “I + verb ”. For example, you got, I thought, you want, I got, it is, I get, and so forth. According to this, we can assume in the process of conversation the speaker is usually the most important factor, who will conduct or lead the proceeding of conversation.3.3 Frequent use of elliptical sentencesDaily conversation is not as formal as the written variety. Elliptical sentences are used frequently. Elliptical sentences sometimes may cause inexplicitness of the language. However due to their intimate relationships, and para-linguistic means, such as gestures,laughters, or facial expressions, the characters can understand each other well. It is unnecessary to use complete sentences.4. At the Semantic LevelSemantics refers to the meaning of words or expression, and by what means the meaning is conveyed from the addresser to addressee. Here, we will touch upon some figures of the conversation.In this conversation, there are not very distinct semantic style makers.But we should not deny there are some semantic features in conversation. In fact, the occasional use figures can be found here./ No / just a / bit sniffy / cos I’m——I AM COLD /Repetition is used here. The clause of “I’m ”appeared two times, which can imply B’s doubt and nervousness./ That’s not a tinny GARment. /Understatement is reflected here. B wanted to express that this is a big garment.in the days when I was a human BEing. //*Satire can be found here.5. Contextual Factors AnalysisFirstly, the conversation all happened in informal place-A' house. Dialogues in private place must be casual and informal. Secondly, the intimate relationship among two housewives decides what they will talk about. They talked about their life trivial matters. Moreover, sometimes words may reveal the speaker's status, job, education and so on. For example,A: It /GROWS quickly//B: / YEAH/ I get very fed UP//It implies A is pregnant.Furthermore, another feature should be pointed out here. Conversation is characterized by randomness of subject matter, a general lacking of planning. The subjects, ranging from health to work, come back to garment.ConclusionWe have made a very rough stylistic analysis of the conversation, mainly concentrating on the phonological, lexical, syntactic/grammatical and semantic level and finally some contextual factors are touched upon. Taking these analyses into consideration, the conversation belongs to the informality. In this conversation, there are still some perspectives untouched upon, such as textual analysis, graphological style makers.etc. Taking these factors into consideration, it still needs our further researches.。

文体学

一、Outline of this course:The name of this book is English Stylistics. Generally it is about the study of styles in language and variations in language, but in this course, we focus on modern stylistics, which has two branches, literary stylistics and general stylistics. The course introduced us an influential theoretical framework of stylistics and applied the theory in the concrete analysis of the main varieties of Modern English.二、Terms definition.Stylistics: Stylistics is a b ranch of linguistics which applies the theory and methodology of modern linguistics to the study of the style. It studies the use of language in specific contexts and attempts to account for the characteristics that mark the language use of individuals and social groups.Style: 答案一：Style can be taken as the language habits of a person or group of persons in a given situation. (老师课堂讲授)答案二：Style may be seen as the various characteristic uses of language that a person or group of persons make in various social contexts.(个人整理)Variety: Variety can be taken as the different types or styles of a language.Dialect: Dialect is the language variation that is associated with different users of the language. Register:答案一：Register is the language variation that is associated with different use to which they are put. (教材)答案二：①Register can be taken as the varieties in which different situations with different situations with different occupational or social group.②Register can be taken as the distinctive varieties of a language used in different types of situation.(老师课堂讲授)答案三：Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use in particular speech situations, in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users. For that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects. (个人整理)四、This term we covered Chapter1、2、3、4、5 and 9.In Chapter1(the aims and concerns of stylistics), we talked about the definitions of stylistics, modern stylistics, language, speech act, variety and style, 3 terms in language use, 4 influencing factors (regional variation, social variation, situational variation, topic variation), 5styles of formality.In Chapter 2(the necessity for stylistic study), we gave an introduction and analyzed the 3 need for stylistic study, i.e. stylistic study helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness; stylistic study sharpens the understanding and appreciation of literary works; stylistic study helps achieve adaptation in translation.In Chapter 3(the classification of varieties of English), we revealed two main kinds of situational varieties: dialectal varieties(dialects) and diatypic varieties(registers). We’ve 5 categories of the former, they are individual dialect(personal linguistic features); temporal dialect(dialect of time/ age/ epoch); regional dialect(origin of birth and grown-up) and social dialect(social groups and social background) and standard dialect. As to the latter, the field, mode and tenor of discourse and their relationships were covered.In Chapter 4(the levels of linguistic description & the content and procedure of stylistic analysis), we mentioned the aim of stylistics in linguistic description, which is to give an analytical tool. We also covered the 3 levels language, namely the level of phonology (to study the writing system);lexis (to study words choice) and grammar (morphology to study word formation and syntax to study words into sentences); semantics(to study meanings). Besides, the 3 levels of linguistic description were also included; they are level of phonology and graphology; level of lexis and grammar; level of semantics.In Chapter 5(the formal and informal language and the relationship between its participants), we covered types of tenor, degrees of formality and their relation. Martin Joo's 5 classifications (frozen style, formal, consultative, casual, intimate) are efficient in many ways, but the situations are so complicated that the degree of formality can fall in any point. 5 elements in speech situation (setting, purpose, audience, social relation and topics) and linguistic features (vocabulary, phonology, syntax, semantics) are mentioned, so do their relations with formality. Besides, we also covered co-occurrence restriction, degree of involvement and the inter-relationship between 3 functions of language (ideational/interpersonal/textual function) and 3 components of a text (field, mode, tenor).In Chapter 9(the English of advertising), we talked about the function of advertising and the function of the language of advertising. What’s more, we covered the graphological features of display advertising, i.e. full use of grephological contracts, prominent use of pictures, clear identification of the advertiser.括号内扩展内容仅助于理解，不必全部写在试卷上。

文体修辞学36个概念解释及例子分析(完整版)

DefinitionChapter11.Stylistics is an area of study which straddles two disciplines: literary criticism andlinguistics. Besides, it is directly related to literary interpretation, and make use of linguistic facts and theory.Chapter22. Style as deviance refers to the distinctiveness of a literary text resides in its departure from the characteristics of what is communicatively normal.e.g. p13The phrase “a grief ago” from a poem of that name by Dylan Thomas.It violates two rules of English: a) the indefinite article a clashes syntactically with the uncountable noun grief; b) the post modifying adverb ago clashes semantically with the head word grief. The highly deviant nature of the phrase attracts much attention from the reader to itself, and thus makes it possible for the poet to express what cannot be expressed through the normal use of language.（汪洁）3. By style as choice is meant that style results from a tendency of a speaker or writer to consistently choose certain structures over others available in the language.e.g.In writing The Eve of St. Agnes, Keats first produced the line, “As though a rose should close and be a bud again”. But when he re-read the line, he substituted the word shut for close:”As though a rose should shut and be a bud again”4. The view of style as foregrounding is a further view of style which appears to be a compromise between view of style as deviance and view of style as choice. The term foregrounding is a concept of pictorial arts, referring to that part of the composition that appears to be closest to the view.e.g. P19When he laughed, respectable senators burst with laughter,And when he cried the little children died in the streets.(W.H. Auden, Epitaph on a Tyrant)Auden could have chosen a different structure for each line, yet he limited himself to the same option. The parallel structure here draws the attention of the reader and makes him see the sematic connection between the two lines. This is a type of foregrounding.（汪洁）Chapter 35. Grammetrics: the ways in which grammatical units are fitted into metrical units such as lines and stanzas.e.g.P35This Is Just to SayI have eatenthe plumsthat were inthe ice-boxand whichyou were probablysavingfor breakfastForgive methey were deliciousso sweetand so coldIt creates a pulling-forward effect. In one line, although the verb eat can either take an object or not, the absence of punctuation at the end of the line makes us expect one. Thus we are driven forward to the second line where our expectation is satisfied.(章嫣羚)6. Affixation: is the addition of a prefix or suffix to an item which already exists in the language.e.g. P46And I Tiresias have foresuffered all. (T.S.Eliot)The nonce word foresuffered is coined by adding the prefix …fore-‟to the item …suffer‟. The prefix …fore-‟conveys the meaning …beforehand‟and is normally reserved for joining with such items as …see‟, …tell‟ and …warn‟. The novel use here, according to Leech, encapsulates a newly formulated idea: it is possible to anticipate mystically the suffering of the future, just as it is possible to …foresee‟ and …foretell‟ or to have …foreknowledge‟ of the future events.(章嫣羚)7. Graphology: the encoding of meaning in visual symbols.e.g.P30Graphological deviation can occur in any sub-area of graphology, such as the shape of the text, the type of print, grammetrics, punctuation, in-dentation, etc. [Thematic-fronting]8. Marked theme: The initial unit of a clause may be called its theme. The rest of clause elements might be put in the thematic position in order to achieve certain literary effect. The theme thus produced is unusual and is therefore called a “marked “ theme. E,g. P40My opinion of the coal trade on that river is, that it may require talent, but it certainly requires capital. Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (D ickens, David Copper field).In the second sentence, two objects----talent and capital were placed in the front of each clause. The function of the unusual clause theme seems to be three-fold: a) it neatly knits the paragraph together and is thus a powerful device of textual cohesion, b) it serves to form a contract in meaning between the two parallel clauses, c) it gives much emphasis to the two words shifted to the initial position.（屈静华）9. compounding: compounding is the combination of two or more items to make a single compound one. NE,g.P47While I, joy-jumping, empty-eyed sang on the day my father died.( Edwin Brook)In this sentence, joy-jumping is a compound made up on the pattern of noun + “ing” participle. This word coined from the idiom “ jump for joy” which means “jump because of joy”. The day when “my” father died cannot be a happy day. Therefore, the extension of the compound rule here on an idiom makes the situation describes in the poem much more ironical.The word empty-eyed is also a compound. It means “on the day my father died”“ there are no tears in …my‟ eyes”. Here, the ironical effect is further reinforced and developed.（屈静华）10. Aphesis: the omission of an initial part of a word.E,g.Thou on whose stream, ‟mid the steep sky‟s commotion,Loose clouds like earth‟s decaying leaves are shed, (P.B. Shelley, Ode to the West Wind) The complete form of mid‟ in the line is …amid‟.（夏莹）11. Apocope: the omission of a final part of a word.E,g.Till a‟ the seas gang dry, my dear,And the rocks melt wi‟ the sunI will love thee still, my dear,While the sands o‟ life shall run.(Robert Burns, A Red, Red Rose)Here ,Burns has used a‟ for …all‟ ,wi’for …with‟ and o’ for …of‟.（夏莹）12. Conversion: which is often described as …zero affixation‟, is the adaptation of an item to a new grammatical function without changing its form.E,g.“I‟ll Golden Bull you, you rascal!” roared the Majesty of Prussia. (Macaulay)The noun phrase Golden Bull is turned to a verb to convey the meaning, to fight(someone) like a Golden Bull. Since Golden Bull was used as a proper noun in the preceding sentence, the conversation of it into a verb makes the passage highly cohesive. It also vividly manifests the boorishness of the Majesty of Prussia.（叶淑萍）13. Syncope: the omission of a medial part of a word.E,g.A voice so thrilling ne‟er was heardIn spring-time from the cuckoo-bird,Breaking the silence of the seasAmong the farthest Hebridges.(Wordsworth, The Solitary Reaper)The original form of ne‟er in the first line is “never”. It‟s a conventional licenses of verse composition. It changes the pronunciation of the original words so that the poet may better and more easily arrange sound patterns to achieve their intended communicative effects.（叶淑萍）Chapter 414. Oxymoron: It is the yoking together of two expression which are incompatible, so that in combination they have no conceivable literal reference to reality. 矛盾修辞False true /die merrily /a living death--------create the communicative effect15. Paradox: It is a statement which is absurd because it is self-evidently false. 似非而是Ignorance is strength. Express a certain truth or message through apparent falsehood.16. Metonymy: It is the substitution of a word referring to an attribute of the thing that is meant,rather than the substitution of a part for the whole,or the whole for a part. 转喻e.g. P65The glories of our blood and state,Are shadows,not substantial things;There is no armour against fate;Death lays his icy hand on kings;Sceptre and CrownMust tumble downAnd in the dust be equal madeWith the poor crooked Scythe and Spade.(Shirley,The Glories of our Blood)Sceptre and Crown are things that kings and queens carry and wear to present their power and authority, and are therefore metonyms for kings and queens. Scythe and spade are things used by peasants or farm workers, and are therefore metonyms for peasants.（冯丹）17. Synecdoche:a) It is a type of transference of meaning which involves the substitution of a part for the whole. b) It can also be interpreted more broadly to include substitution of the whole for a part. 提喻He can‟t ride a wheel. A wheel substitutes the bicycle.18. Metaphor: It is the figurative meaning is derived from the literal meaning or it is, as it were, the literal meaning. 隐喻e.g. P69The frog came on the cat‟s feet.She is really a duck, she thought.(Galsworthy,The Forsyte Saga)She is a human referent and treated either as a duck.（陈沈慧）19. Overstatement: It is termed hyperbole in traditional rhetoric. It distorts the truth by great exaggeration. It is usually used to emphasize strong feeling and to create a sentimental , satiric or comic effect.An overstatement is often metaphorical. 夸张，夸张手法e.g. P71For she was beautiful-her beauty madeThe bright world dim,and everything besideSeemed like the fleeting image of a shade.(Shelley)The overstatement her beauty made the bright world dim expresses the speaker‟s great admiration for the female figure. Actually, what the poet intends to say, put in plain terms, is that she was extraordinarily beautiful. （陈沈慧）20. Homophony: The words that have the same pronunciation but differ in form and meaning. 同音异义词e.g. P77When I am dead, I hope it may be said…His sins were scarlet,but his books are read.‟(Belloc, On his Books)When we have heard these lines we would have two simultaneous interpretations of the last lexical item: the past participle of the verb 'read 'which relates to his books and the adjective 'red' relating to its hyponym scarlet in the first half of the same line.21. Polysemy :the ambiguity of an individual word or phrase that can be used (in different contexts) to express two or more different meanings 一词多义e.g. P79Franklin:Hancock‟s right. This is our passport to the gallows. But there is no backingout now. If we don‟t hang together, we shall assuredly hang separately.(Peter Stone and Sherman Edwards, 1776)The playwrights here deliberately exploit the use of hang to mean both …put to death with a rope around the neck‟ (as in punishment for a crime) and …remain united‟ (an idiom with the word together). In this way, they have succeeded in making Franklin a witty, humorous and highly literary character, like Franklin was in person.22. Understatement: It is the opposite of overstatement in that it misrepresents the truth by deliberately understanding it as opposed to exaggerating it. In traditional rhetoric, scholars make a distinction between two types of understatement, namely litotes[a negative construction] and meiosis. 降格陈述e.g. P73The face wasn‟t a bad one; It had what they called charm.(Galsworthy)The face wasn‟t a bad one in this context is a non-committal way of saying; the face was a very good (or charming) one.Chapter 5Define the following terms.Alliteration consonance rhymeOnomatopoeia assonance iambanapaest pentameter dactyldimeter tetrameter trochee23. Alliteration is the repetition of the initial consonant cluster in stressed syllables.Example: ‟last but not the least ‟ …now or never‟The best laid schemes o‟ mice and menGang aft a-gley(Robert Burns ,To a Mouse)Alliteration is usually used to form a connection of similarity or a connection of contrast. The alliteration in To a Mouse links mice and men seems to form a connection of both similarity and contrast. Firstly, it forms a referential contrast between man, the supreme head of animal creation, and the mouse, one of the smallest and timidest, and most inconsequential of creatures. Secondly, with the help of the conjunction and, it points out a similarity between men and mouse who as this passage suggests seem to share the vulnerability of fate. The connection between the two created by alliteration seems to emphasize the point that creatures superficially different are basically the same.24. Consonance is the repetition of the final consonant cluster in stressedsyllables.Example: P103Nothing lovelier that that lonely call,Bare and singular ,like a gullAnd there notes or four ,then that was all .It drew up from the quiet like a well ,Waited ,sang, and vanishing ,was still .(Jon Swan ,In Her Song She Is Alone )The repeated / l / sound effectively unites the key words of the stanza: caii with gull and well with still. The / l / sound in the quoted lines and elsewhere in the poem has a lingering, almost echoing effect, which greatly reinforces the tone of the poem.25. Rhyme is defined in Concise Oxford Dictionary as “identity of sounds between words or verse lines extending back from the end to the last fully accented vowel and not further”. The general function of rhymes is to get the texts more organized and to bestow “music” to the texts. It may also be used to achieve more significant effects. Example: P100For I have known them already, known them all—Have known the evenings, mornings, afternoons,I have measured out my life with coffee spoons;(T. S. Eliot, Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock)The rhyme of the last two lines is very significant. It links together the two words, afternoons and spoons which have a logical association between them. For the words are used in a context of a poem which is about a society that spends its afternoons over coffee and cakes.26. Onomatopoeia is ambiguous and can be interpreted in several different ways. Firstly, it refers to the use of words formed in imitation of the natural sounds associated with the object or action involved.The other interpretation of onomatopoeia may be phrased as the recurrence of phonemes in a text unit that suggests certain natural sound which reinforce the meaning conveyed in that text unit.Example :P104 ,Crack came an officer‟s club on his forehead .He blinked his e yes blindly a few times ,wobbled on his legs ,threw up his hands and staggered back .(T.Dreiser,Sister Carrie)The use of crack in create a vivid effect to the passage. The sound make us hear as well as see what are described.p106.I chatter over stony ways,In little sharps and trebles,I bubble into eddying bays,I babble on the pebbles.The three onomatopoeic words chatter, bubble and babble give a vivid description tothe sounds and motion of the brook, they have brought great immediacy to the scene, make us feel as if we were right there by the brook. The description is further high-lighted by the recurring sounds /l/ and /b/. the sound /l/ belongs to a class of sound called liquid which is fluid-sounding and the sound /b/ is a plosive resembling the sound of the bubbles. Therefore, their repeated presence makes the text sound more bubbly and steam-like.27. Assonance is the repetition of identical vowel or diphthong in stressed syllables.Example:Think from how many tressDead leaves are broughtTo earth on seed or wing(Vernon Watkins ,The Compost Heap)The words that carry the assonance, as can be easily noticed, are: trees, leaves and seed. These words are stressed rhythmically in the lines. Interesting, we find that the meanings of there words are already associated. More significantly, there words may be said to represent the cycle of life: from the organic to the inorganic and from the inorganic to the organic. Thus, assonance not only contributes to musical quality if a literary text, but also to its meaning.28. Iamb is the commonest type of verse foot. It has a pattern alternating stressed and unstressed syllables beginning with an unstressed syllable.A‟/‟ to mark a stressed syllable ,and a‟V‟ to mark an unstressed syllable.Example:P111In eve/ ry cry / of eve/ ry man .In eve/ ry in/ fant‟s cry / of fear .(W.Blake ,London )In eve/ ry cry/ of eve/ ry manIn eve/ ry in fant‟s cry/ of fearall the letters in blue are unstressed syllables, and in red are stressed syllables, the poem begins with unstressed syllable, and alternating with stressed syllables.29. Anapaest is a pattern in which one stressed syllable alternates with two unstressed syllables, but beginning with the two unstressed syllables.Example:P112The Assy/rian came down /like the wolf /on the fold .(Byron ,The Destruction of Sennacherib )The Assy rain came down like the wolf on the fold.all the letters in blue are unstressed syllables, and in red are stressed syllables. The poem begins with two unstressed syllables, then following a stressed syllable. Thenthe meter keeps repeating with two unstressed syllables and a stressed syllable.32. Dimeter is a line of verse consisting of two metrical feet or of two dipodies. Example:P115∕ˇˇ∕ˇˇOne more un / fortunate∕ˇˇ∕Weary of / breath∕ˇˇ∕ˇˇRashly i m / portinate ,∕ˇˇ∕Gone to her /death!We can see there are two foots in each line.33.Tetrameter is a line of verse consisting either of four dipodies (as in classical iambic, trochaic, and anapestic verse) or four metrical feet (as in modern English verse)Example:P115ˇ∕∕∕ˇ∕ˇ∕Who fought / for free / dom, more / than lifeˇ∕ˇ∕ˇ∕ˇ∕Who gave / up all, / to die / in strife?We can see there are four foos in each line.34. Trochee may be described as alternating stressed and unstressed syllables, beginning with a stressed syllable.Example: P111/ ˇ/ˇ/ ˇ/Men of /England ,/wherefore /plough/ ˇ/ ˇ/ ˇ/For the /Lords who /lay ye/low?(P.B.Shelley,Song to the Men of the England)A‘/’to make a stressed syllable, and a‘ˇ’to make an unstressed syllable. Chapter 635. Repetition: It is restricted to mean the case of exact copying of a certain previous unit in a text, such as a word, phrase or even a sentence.重复e.g. P132Gold! Gold! Gold! Gold!Bright and yellow,hard and cold,Molten,graven,hammer‟d and roll‟d,Heavy to get and light to hold.(Thomas Hood)The word Gold is repeated four times. Reinforced by the capitalization of the first letter of the word and the exclamation mark “!”, the word attracts much attention to itself. The repetition here shows the poet‟s great intensity of feeling when talking about gold.36. Parallelism: It means exact repetition in equivalent positions. It requires some variable feature of the pattern-some contrasting elements which are parallel with respect to their position in the pattern.平行结构例子Not many lives, but only one have we; One, only one.(Anonymous, Only One Life)The word one is repeated intermittently three times and the word only twice. This greatly emphasizes the fact that there is only one life for a person and suggests that one should really treasure it.e.g. P137I came, I saw, I conquered. (Julius Caesar)试卷相关题型Stylistic analyses1.Recite one poem give stylistic analyses2.graphological features1) A Christmas TreeStarIf you areA love compassionate,You will walk with us this year,We face a glacial distance , who are hereHuddledAt your feet(W.S. Burford)p55. 4(1)In the poem, graphological feature mainly is shape of the text .The shape of the poem strikes us because it is not like that of a conventional poem. We can find that the poem is about a Christmas tree, therefore, the author wrote it in the shape of a Christmas tree. The first line includes only one word ”star”, which turns into the top of the tree; from the second line to the fifth one, from” A love compassionate” to”who are here”constitute the branches and leaves. Also, ”Huddled”makes the trunk, and :At your feet”makes the root. All of the words appear in appropriate positions from top to bottom. So, seeing the poem, all the beautiful scenes of Christmas came onto our mind, especially the happiness and love. That is the main idea poetry want us to understand.p55. 4(2)In the poem, graphological deviation mainly includes two types: the type of print and grammetrics. The type of print is menifest in the de-capitalization of the first letter of certain words. The grammetrics is shown in the following points. First, the title of the poem does not stand clearly as the usual case. Second, one sentence runs over lines, which shows the poet intends the poem to be read as a whole and places emphasis on the unity of the discourse. It can arise the reader's expectation and interest. Third, every line of the poem creates a pulling-forward effect. It is intended to make the reader actively involve himself in reading the poem with interest, curiosity and pleasure. Eg: in the first line, 'rainbow youre a two faced sort', there is an absence of an object, which makes us expect one. Thus we are driven forward to the second line where our expectation is satisfied. But a new expectation is aroused again by the presence of the forth line 'uses', we have only to read next line.l(aleaffalls)onelIness(E.E.Coummings)p56. 4(3)The whole poem is a sentence of “a leaf falls/loneliness”. The main idea of the poemis about loneliness. The shape of the poem strikes us most unusual because it is not like that a conventional poem. When we look it carefully, we may find that the poem is consist of separated words and became a list. When we see it, with our imagination, we may feel that word “leaf” in the middle like the real leaves are falling down. And the letter out of the brackets is constituted word “loneliness”. So, when we read the poem, as if it was saying that “I am like a leaf falls lonely.”3.the function of metaphor1)Sunday Rain by John UplikeThe window screenis trying to doits crossword puzzlebut appears to knowonly vertical words.Here the writer uses personification to give the window screen human attributes. When the rain falls on the window screen, the rain drops will slide vertically down to the bottom of the screen. It is like how we do a crossword puzzle, when we work out a vertically-arranged word completely, we link all the letters.How can rain drops DO crossword puzzle? How can rain drops KNOW? Apparently, the writer adds human attributes to the rain and it has special effects.2)An Empty HouseYou beat your pate, and fancy wit will come:Knock as you please, there’s nobody at home.(Alexander Pope)In this poem, Pope uses a type of metaphor that is “A non-human referent is given human attributes”. He gives “wit” human attributes and treats it as a human being, and “nobody” in the last sentence also refers to it. Besides, here “pate” means “brain” (or “head”), and Pope regards it as a house (or “home”) where “wit” lives.This metaphor is a satire of those people who are too silly or lazy to use their head. It tells us that there is no use to beat your pate foolishly when faced with a problem. Instead, you should use your head and think about the problem until you come up with any idea.3) Dreams(Langston Hughes)Hold fast to dreamsFor if dreams dieLife is a broken-winged birdThat cannot flyHold fast to dreamsFor when dreams goLife is a barren fieldFrozen with snowWritten in 1926, Dreams is one of the most famous poems of Langston Hughes's. Langston Hughes, born Feb 1, 1902, is an American poet, novelist, and playwright. And he is known for his work during Harlem Renaissance. In Dreams, Hughes is advising the readers to never stop dreaming and to never give up on a dream. Though he feels the world is a very depressing place, dreams can make it wondrous and exciting. The word "life" in the poem is described by metaphor. Life, actually, is an abstraction, but poet describes it as a broken-winged bird and a barren field, which are animate. In order to tell people to insist on dreams, poet uses the broken-winged bird which cannot fly and the barren field which is frozen with snow. The two vehicles above are like life without dreams in respect of that if there‟s no dream, life will have no freedom and joy, and it will be cold, dark, depressing and dim. So metaphor in Dreams makes the pale statements conveyed ironically and vividly.4)Ways of Composingtypewriter:a mouthful of teeth chatteringafraid to be quietA pencil can lie down and dreamdark and silver silences(Eve Merriam)1.The poet Eve Merriam is an American poet and writer who wrote for children. Therefore, in her works, she used metaphor so often that children can understand easily.2.Here, the metaphor function is: A non-human referent is given human attributes. (1)Typewriter is the tenor and a mouthful of teeth is the vehicle, the poet take typewriter as a mouthful of teeth to show children the appearance in a very interesting way.(2)A mouthful of teeth is a non-human referent, but here they are "chattering", a pencil is a non-human referent, but here it can lie down and dream, the poet gives these two non-human referents human attributes to show children that what is a typewriter, how it works and if it can take the place of pencil very vividly.5)FogCarl SandburgThe fog comes 雾来了，on little cat feet. 踏着小猫的脚步。

整理文体学答案

文体学课后题 1、2单元1 Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in thefollowing examples.1）Words and phrasesshilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhymehigh and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhymekith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhymepart and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme 2）Pride and Prejudice = alliterationThe Love’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliterationBill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliterationFather in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliteration The Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration3)Advertisements--Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision--Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision--Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment, but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful—but don’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples 1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught.2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master.3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick.3 1)phonological devices in the following extract.A creak of hinges...aisle.In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable.2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms.“TOM!”No answer. ...--Mark TwaiThis is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Y-o-u-u, Tom!” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard far away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through.3单元1 What are thethree ways of clause classification classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause.2 how do we distinguish situation typesBy according to meaning or sense of the verb.3 Name the participant roles in action typesThe participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4What is a simple sentence What is a multiple sentence Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It maybe either a compound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clausesfunction as modified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incomplete sentenceNeither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minor sen tence is supposed to be “complete” in the sense that it is finished. An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture (4) Why are you lateBecause I—Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phraseWhat is the use of pre-modificationWhat is the function of post-modificationA complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines can economize space, and arouse the reader’s interest as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out. Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style.Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written textsFor effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech Whichtype of branching is preferred in written stylesRight-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation of writer may favor right-branching and use short, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity.Left-branching, however, is better adapted to writing because it is structurally more compact and logical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas are presented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel in suspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards the end of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase orderWhat are the stylistic effectsof fronting and postponementThe basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or less fixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile inposition. The change of the order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of a linguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. For example,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (fronting talent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University. (Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its functionSyntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form . tense, aspect) and phrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example,See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill.And sand. Power sand.This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand name Power.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use ofLatinate and that of native words WhyGenerally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion and official communication; and in most cases, they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual of Anglo-Saxon origin constituteEnglish-speaking people’s basic words areemotionally charged. A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specificword Is it true that use of specific words should always be recommendedA word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class of objects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that group or class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader’s or hearer’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there is no need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vague for some (tactical) reason.5 What is repetition What is reiteration Why should people employ repetition and reiteration in speech or writing When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example,We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 and afternoon classes begin at 2:00 again.When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. For example,We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again.In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps to direct the reader’sattention to the interpretation of its significance.Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoid the monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression.6 What is collocation What is the use pf analyzing lexicalcollocation of an item in a piece of language Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of the item. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text.7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a generalword whose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words.1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk)2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk)4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box(container)5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle(vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly asimilar conceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associate meanings.9 Compare the A B extracts in terms1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words;2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more.In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four of which are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are from Latin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand.10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement.(Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories)To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong, savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to show what good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer.5单元1 What is dialectA dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one social dialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accentAccent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks a dialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with different accents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from one dialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or her accent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a London accent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speak British English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English Is there a standard accent withwhich people speak Standard EnglishStandard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely accepted such as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元1 1）What does ‘channel limitation’ mean How does channellimitation affect language useChannel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only—visual or auditory. Speech,in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facial expressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, on the other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should be explicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother”, which is understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context. But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make it explicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of the classroom building is Wang Qian’s mother.2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ from prepared written formIn spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising one’s utterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said and its response by the hearer, and sim ultaneously to plan the next utterance. If one’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech is characteristically broken up by the following features of normal non-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts. For example,He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shallI say er - withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mm goldfish bowl round his head - not very easy… 7单元1What is role relationship Give some examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer —salesman,colleaguesinanoffice, management —employees, teacher —pupil, parent —child. 2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of various attitudesLanguage features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibilityfactors affect the degrees of formalityThe degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on. 4How does language vary in terms of politenessLanguage varies according to the degree of intimacy between the address and addressee; the degree of social distance separating the addresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation.5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address formsThe basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor,Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), First name + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith, Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) and Terms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet).6 What is linguistic impersonality Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to the addresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, etc7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibilityWe can measure the degrees of accessibility by the following formula:FOG INDEX = (L+H)L = the average sentence length in a passageH = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words inthe passageSuppose a passage has:--a total number of words 120 --the number of sentences 6--t he number of “hard” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 =Fog index: × (20 + =Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult.8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of There was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for an acciden t to happen. It wasn’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody’ll get me in an accident. I was facing failure, real failure. I’d never faced complete failure before. I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a little newspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together.Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling StoneB(The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediateconsiderational verification. Qualificationally,my recent policalisational experience hassuitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, bothin literary manipulativeness and socioeconomiclogistics, thereby ensuring financial viability.My aim would be the immediate terminalisation ofreadership fallout by content amendment throughextreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, New StatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. The sentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personal pronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates the speaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract,which indicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber’s entry in the Dictionary denotes that the telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber’s request and the Post Office i s not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses of such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of the public the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree of formality.A I’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, I train students to become more sensitiveand aware of interpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words, as well as nonverbal behavior.I try to ignite symbols in your mind, so we can come toa point of agreement on language. This is an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we’ve stron g teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics,thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, New StatesmanComparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though both are formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses short sentences and a fair portion of common words. But there are professional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely accepted functions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serveA newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a press advertisementThe headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. It has been estimated that five times as many people read the headline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospective buyer’s attention, tostimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisementA complete press advertisement consists of the following components:HeadlineIllustrationBody copy Signature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details are sometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English. Move to Axe Mine rs’ JobsWoman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A m ove was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with West Europe.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for Easter Holidays.。

新闻报道中的文体学

Graphological Features
What is Graphology?
Graphology is the analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting. The Graphological features concerns the use of alphabet, the number system, punctuation, capitalization, headlining, italicizing, bracketing, diagramming, paragraphing, spacing, etc.
San serif letters 无衬线字体 Flush left 左对齐
Friendly and Approachable
San serif letters Jump head
无衬线字体转页标题
To Create Suspense
Big Picture in the Front Page, without Headline 图片标题
1.Alternating use of long and short statementtype sentences
Grammatical Features
2.Inverted sentence structure and expanded simple sentences 3.Heavily modified nominal groups 4.Simple verbal groups
2. Inverted sentence structure and expanded simple sentences

整理文体学答案

文体学课后题1、2单元1Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples. 1）Words and phrases shilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhyme high and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhyme kith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhyme part and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme 2）Pride and Prejudice = alliteration The Love ’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliteration Bill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliteration Father in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliteration The Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration 3)Advertisements --Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision --Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision --Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment, but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful —but don ’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration 2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples 1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught. 2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare ’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master. 3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick. 3 1)phonological devices in the following extract. A creak of hinges...aisle. In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable. 2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom 3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms. “TOM!”No answer. ...--Mark Twai This is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!”　is said louder than “Tom!”. “Ｙ-o-u-u, Tom !” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard fa r away. The exclamation marks “!”　show her emotion, and the dash “—“　implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over ”　and “under ”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through. 3单元1 What are thethree ways of clause classification? classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause. 2 how do we distinguish situation types? By according to meaning or sense of the verb. 3 Name the participant roles in action types? The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4What is a simple sentence? What is a multiple sentence?Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either a compound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clauses function asmodified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incompletesentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minorsentence is supposed to be “complete ” in the sense that it is finished.An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why are you late? Because I —Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is anincomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is the use ofpre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article,numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinativeand the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to;the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines caneconomize space, and arouse the reader ’s interest as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out.Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style.Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly,guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech? Which typeof branching is preferred in written styles?Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informalpresentation of ideas.A writer may favor right-branching and useshort, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is better adapted to writing because it is structurally more compact andlogical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas arepresented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel insuspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards theend of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are the stylistic effects of fronting and postponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or lessfixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile in position. The change ofthe order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of alinguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. Forexample,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (frontingtalent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University.(Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function?Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form (e.g. tense, aspect) and phrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example, See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill. And sand. Power sand. This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand name Power.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate and that of native words? Why? Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion and official communication; and in most cases, they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people ’s basic vocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged. A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specific word? Is it true that use of specific words should always be recommended? A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class of objects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that group or class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words ismore informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader ’sor hearer ’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there is no need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vague for some (tactical) reason. 5 What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employ repetition and reiteration in speech or writing? When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example, We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 and afternoon classes begin at 2:00 again. When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. For example, We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again. In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps todirect the reader ’s attention to the interpretation of its significance. Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoidthe monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression. 6 What is collocation? What is the use pf analyzing lexical collocation of an item in a piece of language?Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of theitem. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text. 7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a general wordwhose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words. 1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk) 2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk) 4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box (container) 5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle (vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly a similar conceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associatemeanings. 9 Compare the A B extracts in terms 1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words; 2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more. In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four of which are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are from Latin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand. 10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement. (Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories) To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong,savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to showwhat good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer.5单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region(regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect).Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar andpronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one socialdialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accent?Accent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks adialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with differentaccents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from onedialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or heraccent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a Londonaccent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speakBritish English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English? Is there a standard accent with whichpeople speak Standard English?Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely acceptedsuch as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元11）What does ‘channel limitation ’　mean? How does channel limitation affect language use?Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limitedto one channel only —visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facialexpressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, onthe other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should beexplicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother ”,whichis understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context.But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make itexplicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of theclassroom building is Wang Qian ’s mother .2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ fromprepared written form?In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising oneutterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said andits response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance.If one ’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech ischaracteristically broken up by the following features of normalnon-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and falsestarts. For example,He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shall I say er- withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mmgoldfish bowl round his head - not very easy …Appreciative Neutral Pejorative work drudgery, toil, grind fashion, style vogue fad policeman, cop flatfoot civil servant government official bureaucrat famous, celebrated, renowned notorious portly, stout, chubby, plumpfat adventurous, daring reckless, rash学无止境7单元1What is role relationship? Give some examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the rolesadopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Rolerelationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer —salesman, colleagues in an office, management —employees, teacher —pupil, parent —child. 2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of various attitudes? Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility 3.What factors affect the degrees of formality? The degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on. 4 How does language vary in terms of politeness? Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between the address and addressee; the degree of social distance separating the addresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation. 5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms? The basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), First name + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith,Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) and Terms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet). 6 What is linguistic impersonality? Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to the addresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, etc 7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibility? We can measure the degrees of accessibility by the following formula: FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H) L = the average sentence length in a passage H = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passage Suppose a passage has: --a total number of words 120 --the number of sentences 6 --the number of “hard ” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20 H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3 Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3) = 13.32 Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult. 8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.A There was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I ’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for an accident to happen. It wasn ’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody ’ll get me in an accid ent. I was facing failure, real failure. I ’d never faced complete failure before. I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a little newspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn ’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together. Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling Stone B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.) My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisationalexperience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation …．“Weekend Competition ”, NewStatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. Thesentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personalpronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates thespeaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to thespeaker ’s profession as a politician ’s adviser. Most of the content ware Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract, which indicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber ’s entry in t he Dictionary denotes thatthe telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber ’and the Post Office is not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses o f such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of thepublic the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree offormality.A I ’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, Itrain students to become more sensitive and aware ofinterpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words,as well as nonverbal behavior. I try to ignite symbols in yourmind, so we can come to a point of agreement on language. Thisis an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we ’vestrong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an Americanpolitician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalisedpresidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification forimmediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recentpolicalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship ofthe NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomiclogistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be theimmediate terminalisation of readership fallout by contentamendment through extreme conservation …．“Weekend Competition ”,New Statesman Comparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though bothare formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses shortsentences and a fair portion of common words. But there areprofessional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written inprofessional jargons relating to the speaker ’s profession as a politic adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities?Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely acceptedfunctions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serve?A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect,shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a pressadvertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. Ithas been estimated that five times as many people read theheadline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospectivebuyer ’s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement?A complete press advertisement consists of the following components:Headline学无止境IllustrationBody copySignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details aresometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English.Move to Axe Miners’ JobsWoman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with WestEurope.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for EasterHolidays.。

文体学答案

3)Advertisements文体学课后题1 、2 单元--Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound 1 Identify and classify patterns ofelisionsound repetition in the followingexamples. --Extra Pintas Warma Winta = soundelision1)Words and phrases--Be different daily. Be dreamy or shilly-shally = pararhymedramatic. Experiment, super-duper = rhymehigh and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhymebut still economise. Be bold and be beautiful —but don't break the bank.(in order) alliteration;kith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhymepart and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme2)Pride and Prejudice = alliterationThe Love's labour Lost = alliterationOf Mice and Man = alliterationBill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliterationFather in a Fix = alliteration WitchWatch = alliterationThe Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration2The underlined word(s) in each of thefollowing examples1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught.alliteration;alliterationreverse rhyme;2)Romeowis a word imitating the sound 2)Read the following extract from the made by a cat and shares the same novel Adventures of Tompronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare 's tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeoh as deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master.3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick.31) phonological devices in the followingextract.A creak of hinges...aisle.In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle.What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable.3)Sawyer and comment on thegraphological forms. “TOM”!No answer. ...--Mark TwaiThis is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. Whenw e read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM”! issaid louder than “Tom!”. “Y-o-u-u, Tom!” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard far away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over ” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, whois speaking to herself. It is very much are: agentive role (doer of thelike a stage monologue. After reading, action),external force (causer ofwe have a vivid image of Granny in our the action), intrumental role mind. And there is a touch of humour (tool to do the action with), all through.recipient role (receiverof theaction)and objective role (the 3 单元affectedor the resultof the1 What are thethree ways of clause action).classification?4 What is a simple sentence? What isSVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we havefinite clause, non-finite clause and A multiple sentence consists of moreverbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause.2 how do we distinguish situation types? By according to meaning or sense of the verb.than one clause. It may be either acompound sentence,a complex sentence,or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S OC .I:relative clauses function as modified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between aminor sentence and an incomplete roles in actionsentence? Neither type conforms to the basicThe participant roles in action typesclassification according to multiplesentence?constituents,verb phraseandDirectly/indirectlyfunctions. By constituents clausessimple sentence conforms to A can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, basic clause structure SV(O) (C) the(A).3 Namet he participant types?clause structure. But a minor sentence can be a noun or a pronoun; theincomplete sentence never comes to its clause, a relative clause, end because of sudden interruption or etc.other reasons. For example,Frequent use of pre-modification inOf the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.6What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is the use of pre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out. Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style. Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.is supposed to be complete ” in the post-modifier is usually a sense that it is finished. An prepositional phrase, a noun phrase,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why you late? Because I —newspaper headlines can economizespace, and arouse theareinterest as wellreader ' sbecause pre-modification is usually short,a non-finite7What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.readers often feel in suspense and try toread on to obtain the main idea towardsthe end of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are thestylistic effects of fronting andpostponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or lessis commoni n fixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A beinginformal speech? Which type branching is preferred in written styles? of mobile in position. The change of the order can make a particular language unit more salient.Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation ofideas.A writer favor right-branchingand use short, simple sentences torepresent a narrative style of simplicity,directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is better adapted to writingbecause it is structurally more compactand logical, and it is usually moreformal. Since subordinate ideas arepresented first, postponing the mainidea,President of the University. (Postponing President of the University again foremphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function? Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form (e.g. tense, aspect) and8 Which type of branchingFronting refers the movement of a sententialelement from its usual may position to the front,and postponement refers the movement of alinguistic unit from its normal place towards the endof the sentence. In both cases the elements movedare highlighted. For example,(1)Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr.Micawber has not. (fronting talent and capitalfor emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped thephrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example,See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill. And sand. Power sand.This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand name Power.4单元2What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate and that of nativewords? Why?Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion and official communication; and in most cases, they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectualdistance.Words of Anglo-Saxon origin constitute English- speaking people ' s basic vocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged.A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a generalword and a specific word? Is it true that use of specific words should always berecommended?A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class of objects or action, and specific when it refersto a membero f that group or class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader ' s or hearer 's mind.However, general terms are preferred, when there is no need for specification, orwhen the user wantsto leave things vague for some (tactical) reason.5What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employrepetition and reiteration in speech or writing?When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. example,We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 and afternoon classes begin at 2:00 again.When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. For example,We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again.In literary texts, repetition is usuallyrhetorical. The intensive repetition ofan expression a powerfulthematic device. It2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, towhelps to direct the reader 'sattention to the interpretation of itssignificance. Whatever is repeated isemphasized.Reiteration is used to avoid themonotonous effect of the repetition of thesame expression.6 What is collocation? What is the use pfanalyzing lexical collocation of an item ina piece of language?For Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words togetherin a text. In a given text, the collocates of anitem constitute its lexical context whichdetermines the meaning of the item.This device may contribute to the theme ofthe text. The analysis of collocation can helpus grasp the main idea of the text.7 The following are groups of specific words.Name a general word whose meaning isincluded in the meaning of the specificwords.can be 1) stride, strut, march, amble,strode, saunter (walk)(pull)3)whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk) 4)bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box (container)5)car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle(vehicle)8The words in each of the following groups have roughly a similar conceptual meaning.Discuss the difference in their associatemeanings.9Compare the A B extracts in terms 1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words;2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more.In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four of which are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are from Latin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand.10Comment on the adjective used in thefollowing advertisement. dialect and accent?(Manhattan shirts, slacks and Accent is the special phonologicalfeatures shown by one who speaks aTo persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong, savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famousto show what good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer.5 单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one social dialect when needed.dialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with different accents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from one dialect to another while speaking buts/he is unable to cover his or her accent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a London accent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speak British English with a Manchester accent.3What is Standard English? Is there astandard accent with which people speakStandard English?Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured varietywhich is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely accepted such as RP (received2 What is the difference betweenaccessories)pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent isrelated to BBCb roadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元1 1 )What does ‘channel limitation ' mean?How does channel limitation affectlanguage use?Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only —visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facial expressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, on the other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should be explicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother”, which is understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context. But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make it explicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of the classroom building is Wang Qian 's mother . 2)In what ways does spontaneously spokenlanguage differ from prepared writtenform?In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising one 's utterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said and its response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance. If one 's planning falls behind the delivery, the speech is characteristically broken up by the following features of normal non-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts. For example,He was - as it were - you know himdo you - how shall I say er - formality? withdrawn - er shut-in as though asThe degrees of formality are though he had a kind of - mmg oldfishdetermined by the role relationships, bowl round his head - not very easy⋯number of hearers, and contexts of7单元situation, such as a public lecture,playground at playtime, church1What is role relationship? Give someservice, cocktail party, and so on.examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresserand addressee in a given situation. Rolerelationships range from temporaryto permanent: casual acquaintanceson a train, customer —salesman,colleagues in an office,managemen—t employees, teacher —pupil, parent —child.2 By what scales do we classify languagefeatures typical of various attitudes?Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility3.What factors affect the degrees of4How does language vary in terms of politeness?Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between the address and addressee; the degree of social distance separating the addresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation.5What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms?The basic address patterns include:Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend),Title + Last Name( Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), First name +Last Name( Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith, Thatcher), First Name( Michael, John), Shortened FirstElizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) and Terms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet). 6What is linguistic impersonality?Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to the addresser andName (Mike=Michael, --the number of sentences 6addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, etc7. How do we measure the degrees of accessibility?We can measure the degrees ofaccessibility by the following formula:FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H)-- the number of “hard ” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3)13.32Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, thementioned text is just a little difficult.8Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.AThere was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling StoneL = the average sentence length in a passageH = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in the passageSuppose a passage has:--a total number of words 120(newspaper). The company was bankruptin essence. I 'd gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving aroundand waiting for an accident to happen. Itwasn't suicide as such. It was just drivingaround very sloppily, saying. Fuck it,maybe somebody 'll get me in anaccident. I was facing failure, real failure. I'd neverfaced complete failure before. I was Editorship of the NS, both inreally depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a little newspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn't last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Comeo n now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together.Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling Stoneliterary manipulativeness andsocioeconomic logistics, therebyensuring financial viability. My aimwould be the immediateterminalisation of readership falloutby content amendment throughextreme conservation ⋯.“Weekend Competition ”, New StatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. The sentencesB are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personal pronouns.The (The passage is a parody of thewords are common.A lthough the diction speech style of an American politician,indicates the speaker is educated, the once a presidential adviser.)whole passage is highly accessible.My on-going advisationalExtract B is written in capacity having beenprofessional jargons relating to the terminalised presidentially, Ispeaker 's profession as a wish to submit mypolitician ' s adviser. Most of the applicationised notificationcontent words are Latinate and learned, for immediate considerationalwhich make the writing very formal and verification.difficult to process, though it isQualificationally, my recentpersonal. policalisational experiencehas suitabilized me for the 9 Identify the language markers inthe following extract, which inyour mind, so we can come to aimpersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber 'sentry in the Dictionary denotes that thetelephone number is withheld publicationat the subscriber 'sThis is an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we 've strong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the anAmericanauthorized to supply it to enquirers. politician,subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to savingmembers of the public the trouble of fruitless enquiry.London Telephone DirectoryMy on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification forimmediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, myrecent policalisational experienceformality.A I ' m a college professor. As acommunications specialist, I train students to become more sensitive and aware of interpersonal communication — symbolicbehavior, use of words, as well as nonverballiterary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability.My aimwould be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendmentt hrough extreme conservation ⋯.behavior. I try to ignite symbolsindicate the degreeof point of agreement on language. Then names and addresses of such adviser.)10 Compare the following two passages has suitabilizedme for theand comment on the degree of Editorship of the NS, both inrequest and the Post Officeis not speech style ofonce a presidential Weekendgive information and to reflect, shape Comparatively speaking, B is much moreand guide public opinion. formal than A though both are formalin a sense. A is less formal because 3the speaker uses short sentences and a fair portion of common words. But there are professional jargons. It iswell planned and logical. B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker 's profession as a politician 's adviser. Most of the4 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a press advertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. It has been estimated that five times ascontent words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8单元1 What functions does language serve many people read the headline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospective buyer ' s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertisement brand name.in social activities?Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists havecome up with different numbers of functions.The widely accepted functions are: referential,expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguisticand poetic.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement? A complete press advertisement consists of the following components:HeadlineIllustrationSignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature lineCompetition New Statesman A newspaper has two main functions: to2 What functions does a newspaper Body copyserve?and standing details are sometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English.Move to Axe Miners ' JobsWoman Pilot 's Bid for Solo FlightRecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak Storms Easter Holiday Bus Crash Trial Verdictsingle-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4)Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5)China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with West Europe.(6)Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for Easter Holidays.Rewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners ' jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking。

文体学

7)registers:field of discourse is the subject matter,mode of discourse is the linguistic reflection of the relationship that the language user has to the medium of communication,tenor of discourse is the linguistic reflection of the personal relationships between speaker/writer and hearer/reader--called personal tenor.Registers are distinctive varieties of language used in different types of situation.
8)Aims at providing a methodology of analysis--a clear technique of description which, ideally, will allow any persons to cope with any text they want to study, a procedure that can ensure that no items of stylistic significance is overlooked.ordered approach:take the object of study-a text, work through the text carefully, note down its stylistic features, and discuss them in terms of a number of levels of language--substantial,formal and situational.

文体学变异举例分析

NAME: Duan Siyuan CLASS: English 3 NUMBER: 24Language Deviation1.Phonological deviation:a)杜甫《秋兴八首（二）》《秋兴》八首之二是写诗人身在孤城夔州，从落日的黄昏坐到深宵，翘首北望，长夜不寐，心总是牵挂着长安，从而抒写怀念故国的情怀。

全诗如下：夔府孤城落日斜，每依南斗望京华。

听猿实下三声泪，奉使虚随八月槎。

画省香炉违伏枕，山城粉堞隐悲笳。

请看石上藤罗月，已映洲前芦荻花。

分析：此处“落日斜”的“斜”字本应该念“xié”，但是在此处却应该念“xiá”，因为念“xiá”可以和下一句的“望京华”的“华”字押“a”韵，使得诗歌更加富有韵律感，念起来朗朗上口。

b)'Cause if love was money, you'd be yelling cha-ching. ------You’re MyZingAnalysis: Here, the word cause should have been the word because, but itdrops the initial part of the word to make the lyric of the song shorter andeasier to sing.2.Graphological deviation:a)《走不出逝去的心境》------尹才干香烟缭绕香烟缭绕古刹依旧罄声依旧冥想中的那条小径依旧蜿蜒在清寂的禅意里钟声落响在光秃秃的石板上轮回在来去匆匆的季节里弯弯曲曲的几条小径足够尼姑们走完一生但永远也走不出她们逝去的心境分析：●诗人尹才干截取寺庙中尼姑的日常生活为创作背景，从中获取进入心灵奥秘的隐秘话语，尼姑在古刹中每天从早到晚敲罄打钟、参禅打坐、念佛诵经，陪伴香烟缭绕到老。

●这首诗的外形显然就是寺庙中烧香的香灰炉，而最上面的弯弯曲曲的‚香烟缭绕‛八个字就是寺庙中烧香炉跑出的烟，如此文本与情境、意境和谐交融，形象生动，正是在这种烟雾沉沉中，往事才重上心头，人的心境也就异常孤独而又敏感。

文体学中的变异

⏹变异说：Style is deviation from the norm.⏹实现层（语音层）——语音变异（书写层）——书写变异⏹形式层（词汇层）——词汇变异，方言变异，语域变异，历史时代变异（语法层）——语法变异，语域变异，⏹语义层——语义变异，语用变异，语篇变异⏹1、Phonological deviation⏹诗歌语言中的非重读音节的省略（elision 元音省略，aphesis 首字母省略，apocope 尾音消失）或者添加的现象（expansion）.⏹And heavily from woe to woe tell o‟er _Shakespeare elision⏹But came the waves and washed it away _Spenser expansion⏹Ba‟luster, ba s‟tard, …July. 词的重音位置转移，属于语音变异⏹Omission 1) Aphesis the omission of an initial part of a word⏹2)Syncope the omission of a medial part of a word⏹3)mispronunciation and sub-standard pronunciation special pronunciation: rhyming词的读音为了押韵发生变化wind读成动词的读音waind⏹2、Graphological deviation⏹一种是指发音的变异在书写上的体现，另一种是指在排版、斜体、粗体、大写、标点及打印等方面的变异。

⏹误拼词We know eggsactly how to sell eggs. Easier Dusting by a stre-e-tch.⏹Seeker of truth⏹Follow no path⏹All path lead whereTruth is here没有标点如逗号和大小写，并且在排列上最后一句与前面有一空行。

(完整版)整理文体学答案

文体学课后题1、2单元1Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples.1）Words and phrasesshilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhymehigh and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhymekith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhymepart and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme2）Pride and Prejudice = alliterationThe Love’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliteration Bill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliterationFather in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliterationThe Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration3)Advertisements--Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision--Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision--Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment,but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful—but don’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught.2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master.3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick.3 1)phonological devices in the following extract.A creak of hinges...aisle.In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable.2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms.“TOM!”No answer. ...--Mark TwaiThis is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Y-o-u-u, Tom!” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard fa r away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through.3单元1 What are thethree ways of clause classification?classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependent clause.2 how do we distinguish situation types?By according to meaning or sense of the verb.3 Name the participant roles in action types?The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action), intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4What is a simple sentence? What is a multiple sentence?Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O) (C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either acompound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clauses function asmodified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and an incomplete sentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a minor sentence is supposed to be “complete” in the sense that it is finished. An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why are you late? Because I—Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is the use of pre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. The determiner can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines can economize space, and arouse the reader’s intere st as well because pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spell out details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks up their eagerness to find out. Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style. Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech? Which typeof branching is preferred in written styles?Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation of ideas.A writer may favor right-branching and use short, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is betteradapted to writing because it is structurally more compact andlogical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas are presented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel insuspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards theend of the sentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are the stylistic effects offronting and postponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or less fixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile in position. The change of the order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of a linguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. For example,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (fronting talent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University. (Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function?Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the same syntactic form (e.g. tense, aspect) and phrase/clause structure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example,See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill. And sand. Power sand.This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand namePower.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use of Latinate andthat of native words? Why?Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion andofficial communication; and in most cases, they help to create theeffect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.Words ofAnglo-Saxon origin constitute English-speaking people’s basicvocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged. A highpercentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual in informal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specific word?Is it true that use of specific words should always berecommended?A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class ofobjects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that groupor class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often toovague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader’s or hearer’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there isno need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vaguefor some (tactical) reason.5 What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employrepetition and reiteration in speech or writing?When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example,We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 andafternoon classes begin at 2:00 again.When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. Forexample,We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again.In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetitionof an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps todirect the reader’s attention to the interpretation of its significance.Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoidthe monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression.6 What is collocation? What is the use pf analyzing lexical collocationof an item in a piece of language?Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of the item. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text.7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a general wordwhose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words.1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk)2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk)4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box (container)5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle (vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly a similarconceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associatemeanings.1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words;2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more.In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four ofwhich are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are fromLatin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand.10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement.(Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories) To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong, savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to show what good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer. 5单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one social dialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accent?Accent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks a dialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with different accents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from one dialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or her accent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a London accent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speak British English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English? Is there a standard accent with whichpeople speak Standard English?Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English.Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely accepted such as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain.6单元11）What does ‘channel limitation’ mean? How does channel limitation affect language use?Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only—visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facial expressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, on the other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should be explicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother”, which is understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context. But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make it explicit like The teacher standing under the tree in front of the classroom building is Wang Qian’s mother.2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ from prepared written form?In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising one’s utterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said and its response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance. If one’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech is characteristically broken up by the following features of normal non-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts. For example,He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shall I say er- withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mm goldfish bowl round his head - not very easy…7单元1What is role relationship? Give some examples.By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer—salesman, colleagues in an office, management—employees, teacher—pupil, parent—child.2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of variousattitudes?Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility3.What factors affect the degrees of formality?The degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on.4 How does language vary in terms of politeness?Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between theaddress and addressee; the degree of social distance separating theaddresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation.5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms?The basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), Firstname + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith,Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) andTerms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet).6 What is linguistic impersonality?Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to theaddresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personalpronouns such as I, we, you, etc7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibility?We can measure the degrees of accessibility by the followingformula:FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H)L = the average sentence length in a passageH = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words in thepassageSuppose a passage has:--a total number of words 120--the number of sentences 6--the number of “hard” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3) = 13.32Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult.8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.AThere was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for an accident to happen. It wasn’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody’ll get me in an accid ent. I was facing failure, real failure. I’d never faced complete failure before.I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a littlenewspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together.Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling StoneB(The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having beenterminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediate considerationalverification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisationalexperience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS,both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomiclogistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aimwould be the immediate terminalisation of readershipfallout by content amendment through extremeconservation….“Weekend Competition”, New StatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. Thesentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personal pronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates the speaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract, whichindicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber’s entry in t he Dictionary denotes that the telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber’s request and the Post Office is not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses of such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of the public the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree of formality.A I’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, I train students to become more sensitive and aware of interpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words,as well as nonverbal behavior. I try to ignite symbols in your mind, so we can come to a point of agreement on language. Thisis an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we’ve strong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, New Statesman Comparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though both are formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses short sentences and a fair portion of common words. But there are professional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities?Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely accepted functions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serve?A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a press advertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. It has been estimated that five times as many people read theheadline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospectivebuyer’s attention, to stimulate interest or desire, to make him/herremember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement?A complete press advertisement consists of the following components: HeadlineIllustrationBody copySignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details are sometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English.Move to Axe Miners’ JobsWoman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with West Europe.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for Easter Holidays.。

文体学chapt 2 On Style

3) …production of the word shut may produce a sense of “suddenness” and “abruptness” compared with close. Chinese examples: The story of “推敲”
Chairman Mao’s revision of poetry
The choice of shut is more appropriate and significant than close in three respects (p.17):
1) …forming a semi-rhyme or assonance
2) …phonetic connection between shut and bud underlies the semantic connection
communicatively normal. This has led to approaches to style
as deviance.
Two examples of style as deviance: (1) A grief ago The phrase violates two rules of English: p.13.
The poem violates English grammatical rules and the violations are systematic: p.13.
The advantage of the approach to style as deviance: It can help us to see and keep in mind that there is a difference between everyday language and literary language. Two disadvantages of this approach: 1) It is difficult to define the nature and status of the norm from which style of a text deviates. 2) It encourages us to look at the language of grammatically highly deviant authors like e. e. cummings at the expense of the relatively non-deviant ones such as T. S. Eliot. More generally, it tends to undervalue all non-deviant language.

文体学复习(二)

文体学复习Unit One1。

Stylistics: A discipline that studies the ways in which language is used；it is a discipline that studies the styles of language in use. 2. Subdivision of Stylistics ： General and LiteraryUnit Two1。

Why should we study Stylistics？A。

It helps cultivate a sense of appropriateness。

B。

It sharpens the understanding and appreciation of literary works。

C。

It helps achieve adaptation in translation。

Unit Three1. Dialects： Language variations that are associated with different users of the langu age.2. Registers: Language variations that are associated with the different use to which th ey are put.3. Patterns of Dialects： Individual； Temporal； Regional; Social and Standard， a mong which Social dialect can be further divided into socioeconomic status, ethnic，gender and age variety。

4。

Patterns of Registers: Field of discourse; Mode of discourse and Tenor of discours e.Unit 51. Formality: It refers to the way in which the style of language will vary in appropriat eness according to the social context: the occasion and the relationship between addre sser and addressee.2。

文体分析与英语诗歌欣赏

这首诗。
1 字体标记(Graphological Style M 文体 akers)
一般来说，任何一首诗都有如下的字位形式: 以平行短行排列;每行第一个字母大写 ;几行构成一小节。这首诗非常符合这种形式。它由四小节构成，每小节包括四行。其书写格式也很规整，没有任何偏差。
2 音体位文标记(Phonological Style M arkers)
即使是对英语诗体一窍不通的读者在大声朗读这首诗时也会很容易地感觉到它的乐趣。这种乐感可以从下面这些音位文体标识中体会到。 1. 1 头韵(alliteration) 在这首诗中，我们可以找到几组其第一个辅音相同的词“ hishouse" ， "watch(his) woods" ， "his har ess" ， n "sound' s
关于什么是诗，不同的学者和批语家有不同的定义。亚例，用文体分析法来体会诗体语言的典型特征。
里斯多德说， “ 诗主要是传达普遍真理”威廉华滋华斯在。
其著名的“ 序言” 中说”一切好诗都是强烈感情的自然流 “ 露”马例阿偌德的定义是“ 。诗即对生活的批评” 等等。无论怎样定义，诗总是一种文学形式。它有着文这所具有的这些共同特征，诸如，是语言的艺术，反映社会生活，充满想象，有美的形式，有强烈的震撼力量，有永恒的价值。因此，文学的三个因素— 真实、想象和美— 同样属于诗。 G " W " Tur er 说，文体学是语言学中着重于语言使 n “ 和中的变化的那一部分。文体学意为对文体的研究，从词的形式，用科学的或至少是有条理的方法进行研究”它通常。是对书面语的调查，尤其是文学文本，尽管有时也检验口头语言。狭义上讲，它仅指文学文体学，即对作者及其文学作品文体的语言学研究 ;广义上讲，它研究各种文体，包括文学文体。文体学为文学的研究铺平了道路。通常，我们从两个角度来研究文学:一，我们可以着重于社会环境，文学传统以及一部文学作品的作者的个人背景。我们分析文学作品二，本身，而从这一角度分析其媒介便是语言。文体分析能够帮助我们理解和欣赏文学作品中语言传达印象、效果和意义

整理文体学答案

文体学课后题 1、2单元 1 Identify and classify patterns of sound repetition in the following examples. 1）Words and phrases shilly-shally = pararhyme super-duper = rhyme high and mighty = assonance fair and square = rhyme kith and kin = reverse rhyme toil and moil = rhyme part and parcel = reverse rhyme by hook or by crook = rhyme 2）Pride and Prejudice = alliteration The Love’s labour Lost = alliteration Of Mice and Man = alliteration Bill Rogers, Marvelous Marathon Man = alliteration Father in a Fix = alliteration Witch Watch = alliteration The Wonder of Waterfall = alliteration 3)Advertisements --Drinka Pinta Milka Day = sound elision --Extra Pintas Warma Winta = sound elision --Be different daily. Be dreamy or dramatic. Experiment, but still economise. Be bold and be beautiful —but don’t break the bank. = (in order) alliteration; alliteration; reverse rhyme; alliteration 2 The underlined word(s) in each of the following examples 1)Nim Chimpsky sounds like Noam Chompsky, who believes that man has a language learning device in the mind, which enables the child to learn the language however badly it is taught. This makes man different from animal, which does not have such a device. That is why chimpanzee (who is considered to be the most intelligent animal) can never learn the language however hard it is taught. 2）Romeow is a word imitating the sound made by a cat and shares the same pronunciation with the main character in Shakespeare’s tragedy Romeo and Juliet. Romeo has deep love for Juliet. It indicates that Romeow the cat has affection for the master. 3) Record shop named Moby Disc, which implies it is a huge shop of its kind, for it reminds one of the Moby Dick, a book which depicts people hunt a huge whole called Moby Dick. 3 1)phonological devices in the following extract. A creak of hinges...aisle. In this passage the authors uses alliteration high-heeled, assonance tiled surface of the central aisle. What is more conspicuous is the use of onomatopoeic words such as creak, booming thud, flutter, tiptap, which present the different kinds of noises heard in the church. The use of such words help the reader share the same experience of the writer and make the description vivid and believable. 2）Read the following extract from the novel Adventures of Tom 3）Sawyer and comment on the graphological forms. “TOM!” No answer. ...--Mark Twai This is one episode of the novel Adventures of Tom Sawyer, depicting how Granny is looking for Tom, who is naughty and hiding under the bed. The different form of letters with punctuation marks indicates how Granny speaks. When we read it, we have the feeling of watching Granny on a stage play. For example, “TOM!” is said louder than “Tom!”. “Y -o-u-u, Tom !” indicates Granny drawls her voice and with unusual loudness so as to be heard far away. The exclamation marks “!” show her emotion, and the dash “—“ implies her sudden stop. The italicized through emphasizes the contrast with “over” and “under”, humorously implying her glasses are intended for ornament rather than practical use. In the whole passage, we see the only character Granny, who is speaking to herself. It is very much like a stage monologue. After reading, we have a vivid image of Granny in our mind. And there is a touch of humour all through. 3单元 1 What are thethree ways of clause classification? classification according to constituents, verb phrase and functions. By constituents clauses can be grouped into SV(A), SVO(A), SVC, SVOO, SVOC. By verb phrase we have finite clause, non-finite clause and verbless clause. By functions clauses can be categorized either as independent clause or dependentclause.2 how do we distinguish situation types?By according to meaning or sense of the verb.3 Name the participant roles in action types?The participant roles in action types are: agentive role (doer of the action), external force (causer of the action),intrumental role (tool to do the action with), recipient role (receiver of the action) and objective role (the affected or the result of the action).4 What is a simple sentence? What is a multiple sentence? Directly/indirectlyA simple sentence conforms to the basic clause structure SV(O)(C) (A).A multiple sentence consists of more than one clause. It may be either a compound sentence,a complex sentence, or a mixed sentence.D :nominal clauses function as S O C .I:relative clauses function as modified in NP and comparative c f as m in NP ADJP5 What is the difference between a minor sentence and anincomplete sentence?Neither type conforms to the basic clause structure. But a min or sentence is supposed to be “complete” in the sense that it is finished. An incomplete sentence never comes to its end because of sudden interruption or other reasons. For example,(1) Attention, please. (2) Help!(3) Going to the lecture? (4) Why are you late? Because I —Of the four sentences, (1) (2) (3) are minor sentences whereas (4) is an incomplete.6 What are the major components of a noun phrase?What is theuse of pre-modification?What is the function of post-modification?A complete noun phrase consists of four constituents: determiner, pre-modifier, head and post-modifier. Thedeterminer can be an article, numerals, numeral pronouns; all the words between the determinative and the head are pre-modifier, whatever part of speech they belong to; the head can be a noun or a pronoun; the post-modifier is usually a prepositional phrase, a noun phrase, a non-finite clause, a relative clause, etc.Frequent use of pre-modification in newspaper headlines can economize space, and arouse the reader’s intere st as wellbecause pre-modification is usually short, thus cannot spellout details. This keeps the reader in suspense and kicks uptheir eagerness to find out. Pre-modification tends to be informal and appears in less formal style.Post-modification can be very long and complicated. Using post-modification can give enough room for details and for further information. Therefore, it is frequently used in more formal contexts, for instance, written language. Written legal English prefers post-modification in noun phrases, because the composer of a legal document must ensure that it conveys meaning exactly and explicitly, guarding against any possible misinterpretation.7 What are the three basic factors in the formation of written texts?For effective presentation of information and language processing on the part of the reader, we usually attach importance to sequence, segmentation and salience in the formation of texts, both spoken and written.8 Which type of branching is common in informal speech? Which type of branching is preferred in written styles? Right-branching is common in speech, in relaxed and informal presentation of ideas.A writer may favorright-branching and use short, simple sentences to represent a narrative style of simplicity, directness and intensity. Left-branching, however, is better adapted to writing because it is structurally morecompact and logical, and it is usually more formal. Since subordinate ideas are presented first, postponing the main idea, readers often feel in suspense and try to read on to obtain the main idea towards the end of thesentence.9 What is the basic phrase order?What are the stylisticeffects of fronting and postponement?The basic phrase order in an English declarative clause is more or less fixed: SV(O)(C)(A), with A being mobile in position. The change of the order can make a particular language unit more salient.Fronting refers the movement of a sentential element from its usual position to the front, and postponement refers the movement of a linguistic unit from its normal place towards the end of the sentence. In both cases the elements moved are highlighted. For example,(1) Talent Mr. Micawber has, capital Mr. Micawber has not. (fronting talent and capital for emphasis)(2) A car stopped and out stepped the President of the University. (Postponing President of the University again for emphasis)10 What is syntactic parallelism and its function? Syntactic parallelism refers to the repetition of the samestructure in two or more neighboring clauses or sentences. It reinforces meaning by contrast or antithesis, or helps to build up an emotional climax. For example,See how they can saw. Power saw. And drill. Power drill.And sand. Power sand.This is an advertisement for selling Power Brand series of tools. When the reader finishes the reading, they will not forget the brand name Power.4单元2 What is the difference in the effect between the use ofLatinate and that of native words? Why?Generally speaking, Latinate words are words of science, religion and official communication; and in most cases, they help to create the effect of coolness, dignity and intellectual distance.Words of Anglo-Saxon originconstitute English-speaking people’s basicvocabulary.Such words are emotionally charged. A high percentage of Anglo-Saxon words is quite usual ininformal style.3 What is the difference between a general word and a specificword? Is it true that use of specific words should always be recommended?A word is general when it refers to a group of objects or a class of objects or action, and specific when it refers to a member of that group or class. The relationship between a general (superordinate) and specific (subordinate) term is hyponymy. General terms are often too vague to convey any precise meaning. The use of specific words is more informative in detail and can evoke vivid images in the reader’s or hearer’s mind. However, general terms are preferred, when there is no need for specification, or when the user wants to leave things vague for some (tactical) reason.5 What is repetition ?What is reiteration? Why should people employ repetition and reiteration in speech or writing? When a linguistic form is used twice or more, the result is repetition. For example,We begin our morning class at 8:00. Lunch begins at 11:30 and afternoon classes begin at 2:00 again.When the same idea is repeated in a different form, it is reiteration. For example,We begin our morning classes at 8:00, and afternoon classes start at 2:00 again.In literary texts, repetition is usually rhetorical. The intensive repetition of an expression can be a powerful thematic device. It helps to direct the reader’sattention to the interpretation of its significance.Whatever is repeated is emphasized. Reiteration is used to avoid the monotonous effect of the repetition of the same expression.6 What is collocation? What is the use pf analyzing lexicalcollocation of an item in a piece of language? Collocation refers to the concurrence of words or conventional use of certain words together in a text. In a given text, the collocates of an item constitute its lexical context which determines the meaning of the item. This device may contribute to the theme of the text. The analysis of collocation can help us grasp the main idea of the text.7 The following are groups of specific words. Name a generalword whose meaning is included in the meaning of the specific words.1) stride, strut, march, amble, strode, saunter (walk)2) drag, haul, heave, wrench, tow (pull)3) whisper, chatter, babble, mumble, mutter (talk)4) bottle, vase, jug, cup, pot, barrel, bucket, box(container)5) car, jeep, van, tanker, minibus, cart, bicycle(vehicle)8 The words in each of the following groups have roughly asimilar conceptual meaning. Discuss the difference in their associate meanings.9 Compare the A B extracts in terms1) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon words;2) the percentage of Latinate words of three syllables and more.In A of the 48 words, only six come from other languages, four of which are from French, but in B of the 39 words, 18 words are from Latin and another one from Greek. Since Latinate words make up a high percentage in B, it is much more difficult to understand.10 Comment on the adjective used in the following advertisement.(Manhattan shirts, slacks and accessories)To persuade the would-be customers to buy the product, the author uses a series of appreciative adjectives: confident, correct, successful, strong, savvy, fashionable, happy, robust, virile, and wise, plus famous to show what good things Manhattan Brand products would bring to the buyer.5单元1 What is dialect?A dialect is a variety habitually adopted by people in a certain region (regional dialect) or by people of a certain social group (social dialect). Dialects differ from one another in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.one regional dialect speaker may be able to speak more than one social dialect when needed.2 What is the difference between dialect and accent? Accent is the special phonological features shown by one who speaks a dialect. It is regional in nature. A dialect can be spoken with different accents, standard and non-standard. A person may shift from one dialect to another while speaking but s/he is unable to cover his or her accent. For example, a Londoner speaks British English with a London accent, but a person born and brought up in Manchester may speak British English with a Manchester accent.3 What is Standard English? Is there a standard accent withwhich people speak Standard English? Standard English refers to the particular socially-favoured variety which is based on the speech and writing of educated users of the language. With a widely accepted, codified grammar and vocabulary, SE is primarily used for public communication: used in books and newspapers, official documents and news broadcasts; in schools, taught to non-native learners of English. Yes. In each regional variety, one accent is most widely accepted such as RP (received pronunciation) in British English. Since this accent is related to BBC broadcaster, the royal family and educated speech, it is considered to be the standard accent in Britain. 6单元 1 1）What does ‘channel limitation’ mean? How does channel limitation affect language use? Channel limitation means that the transmission of a message is limited to one channel only —visual or auditory. Speech, in most cases, has no channel limitation. Talking face-to-face, both the speaker and hearer can see and hear each other. Apart from the language, gestures, facial expressions, shared knowledge, and situation all contribute to the communication. Therefore, the language is often inexplicit. Writing, on the other hand, has channel limitation. Then the language should be explicit. For example, The teacher standing there is her mother”, which is understandable if the two speakers are together in the same context. But in written language such should be forbidden. We should make it explicit like The teacher standing under t he tree in front of the classroom building is Wang Qian’s mother. 2）In what ways does spontaneously spoken language differ from prepared written form? In spontaneous speech one has little time for planning or revising one’s utterance. While speaking, one has to monitor what has been said and its response by the hearer, and simultaneously to plan the next utterance. If one’s planning falls behind the delivery, the speech is characteristically broken up by the following features of normal non-fluency: filled/ unfilled pauses, unintended repetitions, and false starts. For example, He was - as it were - you know him do you - how shall I say er - withdrawn - er shut-in as though as though he had a kind of - mm goldfish bowl round his head - not very easy… 7单元 1What is role relationship? Give some examples. By role relationship we mean the relationship between the roles adopted by addresser and addressee in a given situation. Role relationships range from temporary to permanent: casual acquaintances on a train, customer —salesman, colleagues in an office, management —employees, teacher —pupil, parent —child. 2 By what scales do we classify language features typical of various attitudes? Language features indicating the attitude are usually classified along four scales: formality, politeness, impersonality and accessibility 3.What factors affect the degrees of formality? The degrees of formality are determined by the role relationships, number of hearers, and contexts of situation, such as a public lecture, playground at playtime, church service, cocktail party, and so on. 4 How does language vary in terms of politeness? Language varies according to the degree of intimacy between the address and addressee; the degree of social distance separating the addresser and addressee. Language becomes more and more polite when the addressee is more senior in status and les intimate in relation. 5 What are the basic patterns of the use of address forms? The basic address patterns include: Title (Professor, Doctor, Reverend), Title + Last Name (Professor Zhang, Mr Smith, Miss Thatcher), First name + Last Name (Michael Hall, John Smith), Last Name (Smith, Thatcher), First Name (Michael, John), Shortened First Name (Mike=Michael, Elizabeth=Liza/Liz), Nickname (Piggy, Bully) and Terms of Endearment (Darling, Dear, Honey, Sweet).6 What is linguistic impersonality?Language becomes impersonal when it avoids direct reference to the addresser and addressee. That is the writing avoids the use of personal pronouns such as I, we, you, etc 7 . How do we measure the degrees of accessibility? We can measure the degrees of accessibility by the following formula:FOG INDEX = 0.4 (L+H)L = the average sentence length in a passage H = the percentage of hard (inaccessible) words inthe passageSuppose a passage has:--a total number of words 120--the number of sentences 6--the number of “hard” words 16L: 120 ÷ 6 = 20H: (16 ÷ 120) × 100 = 13.3Fog index: 0.4 × (20 + 13.3) = 13.32Since an easily accessible text is supposed to have a fog index of about 10, the mentioned text is just a little difficult.8 Compare Extracts A and B in terms of the degree of accessibility.AThere was real stress I had to face, about 1970, three years into publication of Rolling Stone (newspaper). The company was bankrupt in essence. I’d gotten top ambitious.I remember one day, just driving around and waiting for anaccident to happen. It wasn’t suicide as such. It was just driving around very sloppily, saying. Fuck it, maybe somebody’ll get me in an accid ent. I was facing failure, real failure. I’d never faced complete failure before. I was really depressed. In retrospect, to go bankrupt with a little newspaper at the age of 24 is not the most terrible thing. It was absurd. It didn’t last long. You reach a point where your confidence is really shattered. It takes other people to help build up your confidence. Come on now, face the bastards down. You start to build and put it back together. Jann Wenner, editor of Rolling Stone B(The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit myapplicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability.My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, NewStatesmanExtract A uses short sentences and most of them are simple. The sentences are mostly in the active with a high frequency of personal pronouns. The words are common. Although the diction indicates the speaker is educated, the whole passage is highly accessible.Extract B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process, though it is personal.9 Identify the language markers in the following extract, which indicate the degree of impersonality.The symbol * against a subscriber’s entry in t he Dictionarydenotes that the telephone number is withheld publication at the subscriber’s request and the Post Office is not authorized to supply it to enquirers. Then names and addresses of such subscribers are, however, shown in the Directory in cases where frequent enquires are received by the Post Office for the exchange number, with a view to saving members of the public the trouble of fruitless enquiry. London Telephone Directory10 Compare the following two passages and comment on the degree of formality.A I’m a college professor. As a communications specialist, I train students to become more sensitiveand aware of interpersonal communication —symbolic behavior, use of words, as well as nonverbal behavior.I try to ignite symbols in your mind, so we can come toa point of agreement on language. This is an invisible industry. Since the Second World War we’ve strong teachers in this discipline.B (The passage is a parody of the speech style of an American politician, once a presidential adviser.)My on-going advisational capacity having been terminalised presidentially, I wish to submit my applicationised notification for immediate considerational verification. Qualificationally, my recent policalisational experience has suitabilized me for the Editorship of the NS, both in literary manipulativeness and socioeconomic logistics, thereby ensuring financial viability. My aim would be the immediate terminalisation of readership fallout by content amendment through extreme conservation….“Weekend Competition”, New StatesmanComparatively speaking, B is much more formal than A though both are formal in a sense. A is less formal because the speaker uses short sentences and a fair portion of common words. But there are professional jargons. It is well planned and logical. B is written in professional jargons relating to the speaker’s profession as a politician’s adviser. Most of the content words are Latinate and learned, which make the writing very formal and difficult to process.8 单元1 What functions does language serve in social activities? Language serves a number of functions in social activities. Linguists have come up with different numbers of functions. The widely accepted functions are: referential, expressive, conative, phatic, metalinguistic and poetic.2 What functions does a newspaper serve?A newspaper has two main functions: to give information and to reflect, shape and guide public opinion.34 What are the functions of a headline/body copy in a press advertisement?The headline is the most indispensable element in an advertisement. It has been estimated that five times as many people read the headline. It should be so designed as to capture a prospective buyer’s attention, tostimulate interest or desire, to make him/her remember the advertisement brand name.7 What are the main components of a press advertisement?A complete press advertisement consists of the following components:HeadlineIllustrationBody copySignature lineStanding detailsBut illustration is optional and signature line and standing details are sometimes missing.10 Rewrite the following headlines in ordinary English. Move to Axe Miners’ Jobs Woman Pilot’s Bid for Solo Flight RecordBaby Boom Threat in BeijingCar Ads Target WomenChina Stepping up Agro-Cooperation with W. EuropeTwo Killed in Freak StormsEaster Holiday Bus Crash Trial VerdictRewritten versions (suggested):(1) A move was submitted to reduce miners’ jobs.(2) A woman pilot bid for breaking single-flight record.(3) A sharp increase in births poses a threat in Beijing.(4) Car advertisements aim at women buyers.(5) China is speeding up cooperation in agriculture with West Europe.(6) Two persons were killed in a freakish storm.(7) A verdict was reached at the trial for the bus crash for Easter Holidays.。

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• Shut the door!
3. The combination of question and exclamation marks specifies the writer’s doubt or surprise about certain language items.
What?! He said I was his best (?!) friend.
• I came, I saw, I conquered. ---Julias caesar
凯撒用这种手段来炫耀他可以不费吹灰之力就可以征服对手的能力。这种形式一方面使阅读时间变短, 停顿变得简短有力使各句之间的意义联系密切, 减少了三个过程之间的时间差;另一方面, 这一手段特别强调了最后一个过程。用逗号来连接came, saw, conquered三个过程, 从而在语法上给三者相同的地位。因此, “ 征服对手”所需时间与“ 来”和“ 看”所需时间一样长, 从而强调了“ 征服”这一过程的迅速, 使凯撒的傲慢之情味跃然纸上。
• • • • • • • • • • • •
四十岁的爱情 Roger McGough
aged playing nis the ends they home net still bethem 中夫年妇
Middle couple ten when game and go the will be tween
• To enclose words used in special senses or borrowed from other contexts. • To enclose words that the writer considers inappropriate or untrue. Another “Livelihood project”
Example: How, is, my, lit, tle, friend? How, is, my, lit, tle, friend? --Charles Dickens Dombey and Son Commas are repeatedly used here to imitate the rhythm of a clock.
• And in extreme cases, the shape of the text and the symbols of the different linguistic levels are even essential for the interpretation of the text.
• R. Draper, Target Practice • The poem is shaped like a bull’s eye or target with a series of concentric circles. • Each circle from the outside to the inside represents a progression in the degree of seriousness of injury. • Uniqueness and originality
She loves me She loves me not She loves She loves me She She loves She ——Emmett Willows
•
The poem has a stripping effect like the stripping away of daisy-petals. Each subsequent repetition of the two base lines of the poem is diminished by one word.
Quotation
• To indicate the authenticity of the quoted words. • To direct the reader’s attention to the quoted words. • In marring the girl he worried “ a bit more than he could chew”.
• “Nicholas!” said his uncle sharply. • “Nicholas,” said his mother softly.
2. An exclamation mark ending an imperative sentence adds to the peremptory or urgnent force of a command.
…the first car in town a girl Girl that’s what Jason couldn’t bear smell of gasoline making him sick then got madder than ever because a girl Girl had no sister but Benjamin Benjamin the child of my sorrow ful if I’d just had a mother so I could say Mother Mother… --Willian\m Faulkner The Sound and the Fury
(E.E.Cummings)
• e.e. cummings 的这首诗l ( a , 通过语言变异的现象, 来达到突出的目的, 给读者留下了过目不忘的印象。诗人把诗歌看作一种可视艺术, 通过独特的排版方法, 把单个的词在视觉上的美表现的淋漓尽致。他的诗歌给读者美的享受, 同时也留给读者许多遐想的空间。
Graphological Style Markers
Graphology（笔迹，语相）refers to the shape or size of the symbols used to convey meaning.
Various aspects of design in graphology (e.g. punctuation, capitalization, spelling, paragraphing) are resources which can be utilized for communicative purpose.
打球完回走网旧人左
网打后家球依把分右
• 本首诗运用了语象变异的方法。其一，诗中选的词排成两个竖列，宛如夫妇双方，中间隔了一张网，正在一来一去的击球；其二，诗中选的词基本都是单音节词，读来机械单调，很容易让人联想到这对夫妇枯燥乏味，缺乏情趣的生活；其三，诗中的两个关键词tennis 和between被拆开了，分别置于两个竖列中，隐喻两人的感情世界已被一张无形的网隔开，不再融为一体。这些都说明了语象变异在表达主题的重要性，尤其是在诗歌中。
This is a paragraph describing Quentin’s psychology before he commit suicide. The absence of punctuation reveals his illogical, irrational, crazy thoughts at the moment.ຫໍສະໝຸດ I. Punctuation
标点符号都有其常规的, 无标记的用法。
偏离这些常规,以及某种符号的高频率出现, 都可在适当的情景语境中取得特殊的文体效应。
Exclamation 1 . A vocative used with an exclamation mark represents urgent warning or command.
40-LOVE
Roger McGough
• middle • couple • ten• when • game • and • go • the • will • be tween aged playing nis the ends they home net still bethem
40-Love
• 这首怪异的l (a 从视觉上给了我们强烈的冲击。 a leaf falls / loneliness l(a里的l恰恰是树干的形状，代表一棵树，随后用拆分单词的形式呈垂直状态落下，刚刚像是树叶离开树在风中飘零而后无声、孤寂地凋落在离树不远处的地面上。更巧妙的是对单词loneliness 的拆分，l/one/iness。一片叶子从树上飘落。从此，离开了树的叶子孤独了，没有了叶子的树也孤独了。
• 2. Dashes can be used to mark off a parenthesis. They tend to give a somewhat more dramatic and informal impression. “Let us say “good night”, my fine boy, said the gentleman, when he had bent his head—I saw him! Over my mother’s little glove (David Copperfield, Murdstone)
(2) Layout (Shape of a text)
The shape of a text can be designed in an unconventional way so that it may be suggestive of a certain literary theme.
L(a Le Af Fa Ll s) one l iness
[冰山译]
•
艹（一 ◇ 十艹洛）冖卂艹冖卂
•
• 译文：茕（一叶落）茕
— Think you’re in Heaven? Well — you’ll soon be in H E L L (M. Horovitz)