转 语言学7 名词解释

转语言学7 名词解释1.80.What is an alphabet?What is asyllabary?An"alphabet"refers to the letters or signs representing speech sounds used in writing alanguage,arranged in aconventionalorder.A"syllabary"refers to aset or table or system of written characters representing syllables rather than individual sounds.1.81.What is agrapheme?What is orthography?(1)A"grapheme"is the minimal constructive unit in the writing system of alanguage.The English grapheme Ais represented by A,α,a etc.(2)Orthography means correct spelling,spelling rules or attemptsto improve spelling.1.82.What is reference?"Reference",as far as writing is concerned,means that in asound writing system the graphemes and the phonemes are expected to buildup and to keep up co-reference.For instance,the Reference of the English grapheme Bgenerally is"b"and that of the grapheme Xis"ks".The problem with reference is that more than one phoneme can be represented by one single letter or grapheme.The grapheme O,for example,can represent its its different corresponding phonemes as in：so,money,together,sob.For reference used in the sense of"sense"or"meaning",place refer back to 1.64.1.83.What is affixation,conversion and compounding?(1)"Affixation"is the morphological process whereby grammatical of lexical information is added to the base(root or stem).It has been the oldest and the most productive word-formation method in the English language and some other European languages."Prefixation"means addition of aprefix to make anew word,while"suffixation"means adding asuffix to aword.The word"unfaithful"is result of both prefixation and suffixation.(2)"Conversion"(called sometimes"full conversion")is aword-formation process by which aword is altered from one part of speech into another without the addition(or deletion)of any morpheme."Partial conversion"is also alteration when aword of one word-class appears in afunction which is characteristic of another word-class,e.g.,"the wealthy"(=wealthy people).(3)"Compounding"is so complex aword-formation process as far as English is concerned that there is no formal criterion that can be used for the definition of it,though it may mean simply that two words or more come together used as one lexical item,like"dustbin".1.84.What is blending,abbreviation and back formation?(1)"Blending"is arelatively complex form of compounding in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root,or by joining the initial parts of the two roots,e.g.,smog→smoke+fog,boatel→boat+hotel,etc.(2)"Abbreviation",also called in some cases"clipping",means that aword that seems unnecessarily long is shortened,usually by clipping either the front or the back part of it,e.g.,telephone→phone,professor→prof.,etc.Broadly speaking,abbreviation includes acronyms that are made up from the first letters of the long name of an organization,e.g.,WorldBank→WB,European Economic Community→EEC,etc.Other examples of acronyms can be found with terminologies,to be read like oneword,e.g.,radio detecting and ranging→radar.Test of English as aForeign Language→TOEFL,etc.(3)"Back-formation"refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where ashorter word is derived by detecting an imagined affix from alonger form already present in the language.It is aspecial kind of metanalyais,combined with analogical creation(see 1.85),e.g.,editor→edit,enthusiasm→enthuse,etc.1.85.What is analogical creation?What is borrowing?The process of"analogical creation",as one of the English tendencies in English word-formation,refers to the phenomenon that anew word or anew phrase is coined by analogy between anewly created one and an existing one.For example,"marathon"appeared at the First Olympic Games and by analogy modern English created such words as"telethon","talkthon",etc.Analogy may create singlewords(e.g.,sunrise-moonrise,earthrise,etc.；earthquake-starquake,youthquake,etc.)and phrases(e.g.,environmental pollution-sound pollution,air pollution,cultural pollution,etc.)."Borrowing"means the English language borrowed words from foreign languages,which fall in four categories：aliens,denizens,translation-loans and semantic borrowings."Aliens"are foreign loans that still keep their alienshapes,i.e.,morphological and phonologicalfeatures,e.g.,"elite","coup détat","coupé",etc.(from French)."Deniens",also foreign words,have transformed their foreign appearance,i.e.,they have been Angolcized(orAmericanized),e.g.,"get"(a Scandinavian borrowing),"theater"(a French loan),etc."Hybrids"are also denizens,because they are words made upof two parts both from foreign soil,such as"sociology"("socio-"from French and-logy from Greek)."Translation-loans"are words imported by way oftranslation,e.g.,"black humor"from French("humor noir"),"found object"form French,too("object trouve"),etc.Finally,se mantic borrowings have acquired new meaning under the influence of language or languages other than the source tongue.For example,"gift"mean"the price of awife"in Old English(450-1150AD),and after the semantic borrowing of the meaning of"gift or present"of the Scandinavian term"gipt",it meant and still means"gift"in the modern sense of it.1.86.What is assimilation,dissimilation and metathesis?"Assimilation"refers to change of asound as the result of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is called"contact"or"contiguous"assimilation.The assimitative processes at word in language could be explained by the"theory of least effort",i.e.,in speaking we tend to exert as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often places of articulation in uttering asequence of sounds.Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often.In expressions such as"immobile","illegal",etc.,the negative prefixes should be or have been"in-"etymologically."Dissimilation",opposite of assimilation,is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another sound,so that the sounds become less alike than expected.As there are two sounds in the Latin word"peregrines",for instance,the first segment had to dissimilate into[l],hence the English word"pilgrim"."Metathesis"is aprocess involving an alteration in the sequence of sounds.Metathesis had origina lly been aperformance error,which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community.For instance,theword"bird"was"bird"in Old English.The word"ask"used to bepronounced[ask]in Old English,as still occurs in some English dialects.By Zhang Zuchun 2001/12/30胡壮麟《语言学教程》课后答案Annie@2005-05-09 18：19 Define the following terms：1.design feature：are features that define our humanlanguages,such asarbitrariness,duality,creativity,displacement,culturaltransmission,etc.2.function：the use of language tocommunicate,tothink,nguage functions inclucle imformativefunction,interpersonal function,performative function,interpersonal function,performative function,emotive function,phaticcommunion,recreational function and metalingual function.3.etic：a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike's distinction of phonetics and phonemics.Being etic mans making far too many,as well as behaviously inconsequential,differentiations,just as was ofter the case with phonetic vx.phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.4.emic：a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike's distinction of phonetics and phonemics.An emic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final resource to the native members of aspeech communith rather than via qppeal to the investigator's ingenuith or intuition alone.5.synchronic：a kind of description which takes afixedinstant(usually,but not necessarily,the present),as its point of observation.Most grammars are of this kind.6.diachronic：study of alanguage is carried through the course of its history.7.prescriptive：the study of alanguage is carried through the course of its history.8.prescriptive：a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be,ying down rules for language use.9.descriptive：a kind of linguistic study in which things arejust described.10.arbitrariness：one design feature of human language,which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.11.duality：one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary.level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.12.displacement：one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present cin time and space,at the moment of communication.13.phatic communion：one function of human language,which refers to the social interaction of language.14.metalanguage：certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.15.macrolinguistics：he interacting study between language and language-related disciplines such aspsychology,sociology,ethnograph,science of law and artificial intelligence etc.Branches of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics,anthropological linguis tics,et petence：language user's underlying knowledge about the systemof rules.17.performance：the actual use of language in concrete situation.ngue：the linguistic competence of the speaker.19.parole：the actual phenomena or data oflinguistics(utterances).20.Articulatory phonetics：the study of production of speechsounds.21.Coarticulation：a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved.Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation.22.Voicing：pronouncing asound(usually avowel or avoiced consonant)by vibrating the vocal cords.23.Broad and narrow transcription：the use of asimple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription；the use of asimple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription；while,the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detailis referred to as narrow transcription.24.Consonant：are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert,impede,or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.25.Phoneme：the abstract element of sound,identified as being distinctive in aparticular language.26.Allophone：any of the different forms of aphoneme(eg.th is an allophone of/t/in English.When/t/occurs in words like step,it is unaspirated t.Both th and tare allophones of the phoneme/t/.27.Vowl：are sound segments produced without such obstruction,so no turbulence of atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.28.Manner of articulation；in the production of consonants,manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.29.Place of articulation：in the production of consonants,place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation,narrowing,or the obstruction of air.30.Distinctive features：a term of phonology,i.e.a property which distinguishes one phoneme from another.plementary distribution：the relation between tow speech sounds that never occur in the same environment.Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution.32.IPA：the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet,which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 then it has undergong anumber of revisions.IPA is acomprised system employing symbols of all sources,such as Roman small letters,italics uprighted,obsolete letters,Greek letters,diacritics,etc.33.Suprasegmental：suprasegm ental featuresare those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal supra-segmental features aresyllable,stress,tone,and intonation.34.Suprasegmental：aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principle suprasegmental features are syllable,stress,tone,and intonation.35.morpheme：the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content,a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,whether it is lexical or grammatical.poundoly morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes,such as classroom,blackboard,snowwhite,etc.37.inflection：the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes,such asnumber,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.38.affix：the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem).39.derivation：different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.40.root：the base from of aword that cannot further be analyzed without total lass of identity.41.allomorph：；any of the different form of amorpheme.For example,in English the plural mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/in dogs and as/iz/in classes.So/s/,/z/,and/iz/are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.42.Stem：any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.43.bound morpheme：an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to,e.g.the plural morphemein"dog's".44.free morpheme：an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.45.lexeme：A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of aword(e.g."dog in the manger")46.lexicon：a list of all the words in alanguage assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation.47.grammatical word：word expressing grammatical meanings,such conjunction,prepositions,articles and pronouns.48.lexical word：word having lexical meanings,that is,those which refer to substance,action and qua lity,such asnouns,verbs,adjectives,and verbs.49.open-class：a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.50.blending：a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two words.51.loanvoord：a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only aslight adaptation,in some cases,to eh phonological system of the new language that they enter.52.loanblend：a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed,but the meaning is fully borrowed.53.leanshift：a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.54.acronym：is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has aheavily modified headword.55.loss：the disappearance of the very sound as amorpheme in the phonological system.56.back-formation：an abnormal type of word-formation where ashorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from along form already in the language.57.assimilation：the change of asound as aresult of the influence of an adjacent sound,which is more specifically called."contact"or"contiguous"assimilation.58.dissimilation：the influence exercised.By one sound segment upon the articulation of another,so that the sounds become less alike,or different.59.folk etymology：a change in form of aword or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous 60.category：parts of speech and function,such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech,theidentification of terms of parts of speech,the identification of functions of words in term of subject,predicate,etc.61.concord：also known as agreement,is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in asyntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.62.syntagmatic relation between one item and others in asequence,or between elements which are all present.63.paradigmatic relation：a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at aparticular place in astructure,or between one element present and he others absent.64.immediate constituent analysis：the analysis of asentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups(or phrases),which are in trun analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.65.endocentric construction：one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent,or approaching equivalence,to one of its constituents,which serves as the centre,or head,of the whole.Hence an endocentric construction is also known as aheaded construction.66.exocentric construction：a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any to any of its constituents.67.deep structure：the abstr act representation of the syntactic properties of aconstruction,i.e.the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents,such sa the relation between,the underlying subject and its verb,or averb and its object.68.surfacte structure：the final stage in the syntacticderivation of aconstruction,which closely corresponds to the structural organization of aconstruction people actually produce and receive.69.c-command：one of the similarities,or of the more general features,in these two government relations,is technically called constituent command,c-command for short.ernment and binding theory：it is the fourth period of development Chomsky's TG Grammar,which consists of X-bar theme：the basis,or the starting point,of the utterance.municative dynamism：the extent to which the sentence element contributes to the development of the communication.72.ideational function：the speaker's experience of the real world,including the inner world of his own conscio usness.73.interpersonal function：the use of language to establish and maintain social relations：for the expression of social roles,which include the communication roles created by language itself；and also for getting things done,by means of the interaction between one person and another.74.textual function：the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.75.conceptual meaning：the central part of meaning,which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.76.denotation：the core sense of aword or aphrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.77.connotation：a term in acontrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity aword denotes.78.reference：the use of language to express apropostion,meaning the properties of the entity aword denotes 79.reference：the use of anguage to express aproposition,i.e.to talk about things in context.80.sense：the literal meaning of aword or anexpression,independent of situational context.81.synonymy：is the technical name for the sameness relation.plentary antonymy：members of apair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each fiel dcompletely,such asmale,female,absent.83.gradable antongymy：members of this kind are gradable,such as long：short,big；small,fat；thin,etc.84.converse antonymy：a special kind of antonymy in that memembers of apair do not constitute apositive-negativeopposition,such as buy；sell,lend,borrow,above,below,etc.85.relational opposites：converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial relations.There are always two entities involved.One presupposes the other.Theshorter,better；worse.etc are instances of relational opposites.86.hyponymy：a relation between tow words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in the meaning of another word(the hyponym)87.superordinate：the upper term in hyponymy,i.e.the class name.A superordinate usually has several hyponyms.Under animal,for example,there are cats,dogs,pigs,etc,88.semantic component：a distinguishable element of meaning in aword with two values,e.g+human positionality：a principle for sentence analysis,in which the meaning of asentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.90.selection restriction：semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that aparticular lexical item can take,e.g.regret requires ahuman subject.91.prepositional logic：also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus,is the study of the truth conditions forpropositions：how the truth of acomposite propositions and the connection between them.92.proposition；what is talk about in an utterance,that part of the speech act which has to do with reference.93.predicate logic：also predicate calculus,which studies the internal structure of simple.94.assimilation theory：language(sound,word,syntax,etc)change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows.95.cohort theory：theory of the perception of spoken words proposed in the mid-1980s.It saaumes a"recognition lexicon"in which each word is represented by afull and independent"recognistion element".When the system receives the beginning of arelevant acoustic signal,all elements matching it are fully acticated,and,as more ofthe signal is received,the system tries to match it independentlywith each of them,Wherever it fails the element is deactivated；this process continues until only one remains active.96.context effect：this effect help people recognize aword more readily when the receding words provide an appropriate context for it.97.frequency effect：describes the additional ease with which aword is accessed due to its more frequent usage in language.98.inference in context：any conclusion drawn from aset of proposition,from something someone has said,and so on.It includes things that,while not following logically,are implied,in an ordinary sense,e.g.in aspecific context.99.immediate assumption：the reader is supposed to carry out the progresses required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word in encountered.nguage perception：language awareness of things through the physical senses,esp,sight.nguage comprehension：one of the three strand of psycholinguistic research,which studies the understanding of language.nguage production：a goal-directed activet y,in the sense that people speak and write in orde to make friends,influencepeople,convey information and so on.nguage production：a goal-directed activity,in the sensethat people speak and write in order to make friends,influence people,concey information and so on.104.lexical ambiguity：ambiguity explained by reference tolexical meanings：e.g.that of Isaw abat,where abat might refer to an animal or,among others,stable tennis bat.105.macroproposition：general propositions used to form anoverall macrostructure of the story.106.modular hich aassumes that the mind is structuied into separate modules or components,each governed by its own principlesand operating independently of others.107.parsing：the task of assigning words to parts of speech with their appropriate accidents,traditionally e.g.to pupils learning latin grammar.108.propositions hatever is seen as expressed by asentence which makes astatement.It is aproperty of propositions that they have truth values.109.psycho linguistics：is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structure.Psycholinguistics can be divided into cognitive psycholing uistics(being concerned above all with making inferences about the content of human mind,and experimental psycholinguistics(being concerned somehow whth empirical matters,such as speed of response to aparticular word).110.psycholinguistic reality：the reality of grammar,etc.as apurported account of structures represented in the mind of aspeaker.Often opposed,in discussion of the merits of alternative grammars,to criteria of simplicity,elegance,and internal consistency.111.schemata in text：packets of stored knowledge in language processing.112.story structure：the way in which various parts of story are arranged or organized.113.writing process：a series of actions or events that are part of awriting or continuing developmeng.municative competence：a speaker's knowledge of the total set of rules,conventions,erning the skilled use of language in asociety.Distinguished by D.Hymes in the late 1960s from Chomsley's concept of competence,in the restricted sense of knowledge of agrammar.115.gender difference：a difference in aspeech between men and women is"genden difference"116.linguistic determinism：one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis,nguage determines thought.117.linguistic relativity：one of the two points in Spir-Whorf hypotheis,i.e.there's no limit to the structural diversity of languages.118.linguistic sexism：many differences between me and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women's place in society.119.sociolinguistics of language：one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to language use in asocial context.120.sociolinguistics of society；one of the two things in sociolinguistics,in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of aspeaking community.121.variationist linguistics：a branch of linguistics,which studies the relationship between speakers'social starts and phonological variations.122.performative：an utterance by which aspeaker does something does something,as apposed to aconstative,by which makes astatement which may be true or false.123.constative：an utterance by which aspeaker expresses aproposition which may be true or false.124.locutionary act：the act of saying something；it's an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax,lexicon,andly.,the utterance of asentence with determinate sense and reference.125.illocutionary act：the act performed in saying something；its force is identical with the speaker's intention.126.perlocutionary act：the act performed by or resulting from saying something,it's the consequence of,or the change brought about by the utterance.127.conversational implicature：the extra meaning not containedin the literal utterances,underatandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker's knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.128.entailment：relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other：e.g."Mary isrunning"entails,among other things,"Mary is not standing still".129.ostensive communication：a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive-infer-ential.municative principle of relevance：every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance.131.relevance：a property that any utterance,or aproposition that it communicates,must,in the nature of communication,neces sarily have.132.Q-principle：one of the two principles in Horn'sscale,i.e.Make your contributionnecessary(G.Relation,Quantity2,Manner)；Say no more than youmust(given Q).133.division of pragmatic labour：the use of amarked crelatively complex and/or expression when acorrespondingunmarkeda(simpler,less"effortful")alternate expression is available。