英语语言学知识要点
英语语言学笔记
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语音学
语音(Phonetics)
研究语言的发音机制、音素(音位)的发音特征和分布规律。
/b/、/t/、/d/等辅音音素的发音方式。
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音位(Phoneme)
语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。
在英语中,“bit”和“bet”因音位/ɪ/和/ɛ/的不同而意义不同。
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音系学
音系(Phonology)
研究语言中音素的组合规则和模式,以及这些规则如何影响语言的意义。
英语中的重音和节奏模式对单词和句子的意义有影响。
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语法学
语法(Grammar)
描述语言中单词、短语和句子如何组合成有意义的结构的规则系统。
句子“The cat sat on the mat.”遵循英语语法规则。
英语语言学笔记
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主题/子主题
关键概念/术语
定义/解释
示例/应用
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语言学基础
语言学(guistics)
研究语言的科学,包括语言的结构、功能、演变以及语言在社会中的应用。
语言学家研究不同语言的语音、语法、词汇等。
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语言(Language)
人类特有的、用于沟通的一套符号系统,包括口语、书面语和手势语等。
研究语言中的词汇、短语和句子如何表达意义。
单词“happy”的意义是“快乐的”。
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语用学
语用(Pragmatics)
研究语言如何在特定情境中使用,以及语言使用者的意图、背景和互动如何影响语言的意义。
“It’s cold in here.”可能不仅仅是描述温度,还可能暗示要求关窗或开暖气。
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社会语言学
社会语言学(Sociolinguistics)
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学知识点总结
英语语言学是研究英语语言及其发展历史、语音、语法、词汇、语用等方面的学科。
以下是一些英语语言学的知识点总结:
1. 英语语音学:英语语音学主要研究英语的发音、声调、重音等语音现象。
其中,英语的发音规则主要包括元音、辅音和声调等方面的规则。
2. 英语语法学:英语语法学主要研究英语的语法结构和规则,包括句子结构、时态、语态、名词、形容词、副词等语法范畴。
3. 英语词汇学:英语词汇学主要研究英语的词汇构成、演化和使用情况,包括单词、词组和习语等方面的研究。
4. 英语语用学:英语语用学主要研究英语的语用功能和语境,包括语言交际、暗示、礼貌、语用失误等方面的研究。
5. 英语语音语调学:英语语音语调学主要研究英语的语音语调系统,包括英语的发音、声调、重音、节奏等方面的研究。
6. 英语文体学:英语文体学主要研究英语的文体风格和语言习惯,包括正式文体、口语文体、文学文体等方面的研究。
7. 英语词汇记忆学:英语词汇记忆学主要研究如何有效地记忆英语词汇,包括词汇记忆的方法、技巧和策略等方面的研究。
8. 英语跨文化交际学:英语跨文化交际学主要研究英语在不同文化中的交际和使用,包括跨文化沟通、文化差异、交际礼仪等方面的研究。
以上是一些英语语言学的重要知识点总结,不同学科之间的交叉
和融合也在不断推进着英语语言学的发展。
(完整版)英语语言学超强总结
语言学总结一、语言和语言学1、语言的差异性特色:Design of features of language任意性arbitrariness指语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系二重性duality指语言由两层结构组成创立性creativity指语言能够被创立移位性displacement指语言能够代表时间和空间上不能及的物体、时间、见解2、语言的功能(不是很重要)信息功能informative人际功能interpersonal施为功能performative感情功能emotive function寒暄功能phatic communication娱乐功能recreational function元语言功能metalingual function3、语言学主要分支语音学phonetics 研究语音的产生、流传、接受过程,观察人类语言中的声音音位学phonology研究语音和音节结构、分布和序列形态学morphology研究词的内部结构和构词规则句法学syntax 研究句子结构,词、短语组合的规则语义学semantics不但关心字词作为词汇的意义,还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。
如语素和句子的意义语用学pragmatics在语境中研究意义4、宏观语言学macrolingustics心理语言学psycholinguistics 社会语言学sociolinguistics 人类语言学 anthropological linguistics计算机语言学 computational linguistics5语言学中的重要差异规定式和描述式:规定式:prescriptive 说明事情应该是怎么样的描述式: descriptive 说明事情本来是怎么样的共时研究和历时研究:共时:synchronic 研究某个特准时期语言历时: diachronic研究语言发展规律语言和语言:语言:langue 指语言系统的整体语言: parole 指详尽实质运用的语言语言能力和语言运用:乔姆斯基(chomsky 提出 )能力: competence 用语言的人的语言知识储备运用: performance 真实的语言使用者在实质中的语言使用二、语音学1、语音学分支发音语音学声学语言学听觉语音学articulatory phonetics 研究语言的产生acoustic phonetics 研究语音的物理属性auditory phonetics 研究语言怎样被感知2 IPA (国际音标)是由daniel Jones 琼斯提出的三、音位学1、最小对峙体minimal pairs2、音位phoneme3音位变体allophones4互补分布 complementary distribution5自由变体 free variation6差异特色 distinctive features7超音段特色 suprasegmental feature音节syllable 重音 stress 语调 tone 声调 intonation四形态学1词的组成语素 morpheme 自由语素 free morpheme 粘着语素bound morphemeRoot 词根词缀affix词干stem屈折词汇和派生词汇inflectional affix and derivational affix2特有的词汇变化 lexical change proper新创词语 invention 混拼词 blending 缩写词 abbreviation首字母缩写词 acronym逆构词汇 back-formation 例: editor— edit类推构词 analogiacal creation 例: work-worked,,slay-slayed外来词 borrowing五句法学1范围 category 数 number性 gender 格 case 时 tense 体 aspect一致关系 concord支配关系 govenrment2结构主义学派 the structure approach组合关系syntagmatic relation 词和词组合在一起聚合关系paradigmatic 拥有共同的语法作用的词聚在一起结构和成分construction and constituents : 句子不但是线性结构liner structure 还是层级结构hierarchical structure(句子或短语被称为结构体,而组成句子或短语即结构体的称为成分) 3直接成分解析法immediate constitutional analysis指把句子分成直接成分-短语,再把这些短语依次切分,获取下一集直接成分,这样层层切分,直到不能够再分4向心结构和离心结构 endocentric and exocentric constructions向心:指一个结构中有中心词,例an old man ,中心为 man离心:指结构中没有明显的中心词。
英语语言学知识点
英语语言学知识点英语语言学是英语语言文学专业培养计划中的一门基础必修课,接下来店铺为你整理了英语语言学知识点,一起来看看吧。
英语语言学知识点:定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited sourceof expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCo mpetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
(827)英语语言学知识
英语语言学是研究英语语言的科学领域,它涵盖了英语的语音、语法、词汇、句法、语义以及语用等方面的研究。
本文将从不同角度介绍英语语言学的基本概念、研究方法以及一些相关的重要理论。
一、语音学语音学是研究语音的科学,它关注的是语音的产生、传播和感知。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解英语的音素和音系,即英语中的音位和音位之间的关系。
此外,我们还需要了解如何正确地发音,包括英语的元音和辅音。
二、语法学语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的科学,它关注的是语言中单词和句子的组成以及它们之间的关系。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解英语的基本句型和句子成分的分类。
同时,我们还需要学习英语的时态、语态和语气等语法现象。
三、词汇学词汇学是研究词汇的科学,它关注的是词汇在语言中的作用和使用。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解英语的词汇分类和词义的多样性。
同时,我们还需要学习如何正确地使用英语词汇,包括词汇的拼写和用法。
四、句法学句法学是研究句子结构和句子成分的科学,它关注的是句子的组成和句子成分之间的关系。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解英语句子的基本结构和句子成分的分类。
同时,我们还需要学习如何正确地构造和分析英语句子。
五、语义学语义学是研究语言意义的科学,它关注的是语言中词汇和句子的意义。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解词汇的意义和句子的意义,包括词语之间的关联和句子的推理。
同时,我们还需要学习如何正确地理解和表达英语的语义内容。
六、语用学语用学是研究语言使用的科学,它关注的是语言在社交交际中的实际运用。
在英语语言学中,我们需要了解英语的语用规则和语用策略,包括言语行为和话语的意图。
同时,我们还需要学习如何在不同语境下使用英语,以达到有效交流的目的。
《(827)英语语言学知识》是一篇关于英语语言学基本概念、研究方法和相关理论的文档。
通过学习语音学、语法学、词汇学、句法学、语义学和语用学等方面的知识,我们可以更好地理解和运用英语语言。
希望本文能够帮助读者对英语语言学有更深入的了解和认识。
英语语言学知识整理
Chapter 1 Introduction语言学的定义:Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.问题:How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language→It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.What the linguist has to do “first, then, but”:①to observe and collect language facts and generalizations are made about them.②to formulate some hypotheses about the language structure.③to check the hypotheses thus formed repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. 普通语言学问题: What are the major branches of linguisticsWhat does each of them study→phonetics语音学→the study of sounds→phonology音位学→study how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning→morphology形态学→study the way in which symbols or morphemes are arranged and combined to form words.→syntax句法学→the study of rules of forming sentences→semantics语义学→the study of meaning→pragmatics语用学→ the context of language useSociolinguistics社会语言学:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch. Psycholinguistics语言心理学:Relate the study of language to psychology Applied linguistics应用语言学:In a narrow sense it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Some important distinctions in linguistics:①prescriptive规定性/descriptive描写性②synchronic共时/diachronic历时③speech口语/writing书面语④langue语言/parole言语the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure——Course in General Linguistics⑤competence语言能力/performance语言应用the American linguist N. Chomsky⑥traditional grammar 传统语法/modern linguistics现代语言学问题:in what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar①linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.②modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.③modern linguistics does not force languages into a Latin-based framework.问题:Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronicWhyIn modern linguistics, a synchronic 不考虑历史演进的, 限于一时的 approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic 探求现象变化的, 历时的 one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied, it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development. Synchronic descriptions are often thought of as being descriptions of language in its current existence, and most linguistic studies are of this type.问题:For what reasons does modern linguistics give priority to speech rather than to writingFrom the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.语言的定义:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Design features of language7个识别特征①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Functions of language:三大主要功能:The descriptive functionThe expressive functionThe social functionRoman Jacobson6种首要因素,结构主义语言学家①speaker addresser→emotive 感情功能②addressee→conative 意动功能③context→referential所指功能④message→poetic 诗学功能⑤contact→phatic communion交感功能⑥code→metalinguistic 元语言功能Other functions:①phatic function 问候功能②informative f. 信息功能③interrogative f. 询问功能④expressive f. 表达功能⑤evocative f. 感染功能⑥directive f. 指令功能⑦performative f. 行使权力功能①ideational②interpersonalindicate/establish/maintain/social relationships③textual问题:How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performanceThe distinction between langue and parole was made by Saussure, langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use. Parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently, while parole varies from people to people, and from situation to situation.The distinction between competence and performance proposed by the American linguists Chomsky, competence is a deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and the performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Imperfect performance is caused by social and psychological factors.Saussure makes this distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. In his opinion, parole is simple a mass of linguistic facts, too varied confusing for systematic investigation, and that linguistics should do is to abstract langue from parole, ., to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Similar to Saussure, Chomsky thinks what linguists should study is the ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.问题:What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system①arbitrariness 任意性 at the syntactic level②productivity 能产性,创造性Secondary units底层结构 sounds③duality 双层性Primary units 上层结构 units of meaning④displacement 不受时空限制性handle generalization and abstraction⑤cultural transmission 文化传递性⑥interchangeability 互换性⑦convention 约定性Chapter 2 PhonologyPhonetics: 语音学①the study of the phonic medium of language②look at speech sounds from 3 distinct but related points of view.Ⅰstudy the sounds from the speaker’s point of view→articulatoryphonetics发音语音学Ⅱlook at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view→auditory phonetics 听觉语音学Ⅲstudy the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves→acoustic phonetics声学语音学③study how sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.Organs of speech:⒈three important areas①The pharyngeal cavity→the throat② the oral cavity→the mouth③ the nasal cavity→the nose⒉ The pharyngeal cavity→windpipe/glottis/larynx/vocal cords⒊ the oral cavity→tongue/uvula/soft palatevelum/hard palate/teeth ridgealveolus/teeth/lipsInternational Phonetic Alphabet IPA①diacritics 附加符号②broad transcription宽式标音→the transcription with letter-symbols only③narrow transcription严式标音→the transcription with letter-symbolstogether with the diacritics Classification of English speech sounds①two broad categories of speech sounds in English: Vowels/consonants②two ways to classify the English consonants: In terms of manner ofarticulationIn terms of place of articulation ③In terms of manner of articulation:Stops/fricatives/affricates/liquids/nasals/glides④In terms of place of articulation:Bilabial/labiodental/dental/alveolar/palatal/velar/glottal⒈criteria :monophthongs单元音The position of the tongue in the mouth: front/central/backThe openness of the mouth: close vowels/semi-close vowels/semi-openvowels/open vowelsThe shape of the lips: unrounded/rounded/ei //ai //au //u //i //i //ε// u /Phonology 音韵学,语音体系Difference of phonology and phonetics:①Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages.②Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patternsand how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.Phone音素: A phone is a phonetic unit or segment.Phoneme音位: It is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophone音位变体: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. Phonemic contrast音位对立Complementary distribution音位变体的互补分布Minimal pairs最小对立体:含音位的单词的全部音标Minimal set最小对立集:is used to find the important sounds in language. Phonological Analysis音位分析Principle: certain sounds cause changes in the meaning of a word or phase, whereas other sounds do not.Phonetically similar sounds:描述音位关系Free variants: 音位的自由变体The difference of pronouncing a sound caused by dialect, habit, individual difference or regional differences instead of by any distribution rule. Some rules in phonology①sequential rules: 序列规则If a word begins with a / l / or a / r /, then the next sound must be a vowel.If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey the following three rules:The first phoneme must be / s /The second phoneme must be / p / / t / / k /The third phoneme must be / l Syllable音节:A syllable nucleus often a vowel with optional initial and final margins often consonants单音节词多音节词英语单词都有重读音位学中,单词由音节构成,音节由音位构成;句子里读重音的词:Nouns/main verbs/adjectives/adverbs/numerals/demonstrative pronouns②tone词汇层面English is not a tone languageChinese is a typical tone language:Level/the second rise/the third fall-rise/the fourth fall③intonation句子层面English has four basic types of intonation:The falling tone/the rising tone/the fall-rise tone/the rise-fall tone问题:What are the two major media of communicationOf the two, which one is primary and whySpeech and writingSpeechBecause from the point of view of linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. The writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises. Even in today’s world there are still many languages that can only be spoken but not written. Then ineveryday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed.Spoken language reveals more true features of human speech while written language is only the “revised” record of speech. And linguists’ data for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from everyday speech, which they regarded as authentic.问题:What is voicing and how is it causedVibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called “voicing”, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Chapter 3 Morphology 词法形态学1 定义和知识点:①the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure②the branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.③it is essentially synchronic, primarily concerned with the forms of words through the use of morpheme construct.④it overlaps with the other sub-branches as a word is a sound unit that has meaning and syntactic function.⑤four facets:Sounds phonologyConstructions syntaxMeanings semanticsForms of words2 词性分类①open class words:名、动、形、副 are the content words of a language②closed class words: 连、介、冠、代 are small and stable since few new wordsare added3 词素有关Morpheme: 词素构成单词的最小意义单位,包括声音和意义,abstract units任意性Morph: 形素the sound of a morpheme 声音Allomorphs: 语素变体The variant forms of a morpheme4 分类morphemes① Free morpheme自由词素: A morpheme which can be a word by itself② bound morpheme粘着词素:A morpheme that must be attached to another one③ lexical morphemes/ derivational morphemes派生词素,包括前后缀: They are used to derive new words, also known as derivational morphemes④ inflectional morphemes屈折词素:词类不发生变化5 单词定义:WordA word is a unit of expression which is intuitively recognized by native speakers in both spoken and written language.A word is a basic and minimal units of a language to make sentences, which are combinations of words according to syntactic rules.A word is a lexeme词位. A lexeme is a word in an abstract sense.A word can be defined as a grammatical unit.6 单词结构:StructureRoot: the root constitutes the core of the word and carries the major component of its meaning. Roots belong to lexical category.Stem: it is the form of the word to which both inflectional and derivational morphemes can be added.Base: 词基Affixes: they are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. All of them are bound morphemes and don’t belong toa lexical category.7 单词合成:Word formation①morphological rules→productive morphological rules②derivation③compounds 几点注意:When the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be like this: n. + n. / adj. + adj.When the two words fall into different categories: n. + adj. / v. + n. 不总是这样The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.8 单词合成过程:①compounding②affixation or derivationBlends 混合词Abbreviation 缩略语③shortening acronyms 按音节拼读首字母的单词Initials 按字母拼读的单词Clippings 缩写词④backformation 逆构词法9 要点Grammatical morphemes are grammatical in nature, functioning as grammatical markers or show syntactic relations.They consist of both inflectional morphemes and some free ones like in, and, do, they, while, where, but and that, which are traditionally known as functional words.Chapter 4 Syntax 句法1 定义It is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2 四大派别①traditional syntax 传统学派②structural syntax 结构主义学派索绪尔③transformational syntax 生成学派乔姆斯基本书重点学习④functional syntax 功能学派哈里德3 范畴CategoriesMajor lexical categoriesAdjective APreposition P限定词/成分程度词修饰语助词Conjunction Con 连词Syntactic categories句法范畴的定义:①The fact that words in all human languages can be grouped together intoa relatively small number of classes.②注:The word-level categories are the most central categories to the syntactic study.Major lexical categories主要词汇范畴 play a very important role in sentence formation and they are often assumed to be the heads around which phrases are built.Minor lexical categories次要词汇范畴Meaning 意义Three criteria to determine a word’s category inflection 屈折变化Distribution 分布It is misleading to assume that a word’s category can be told straightforward from its meaning:①nouns do not concretely reveal their entities.②some words tend to be verbs but they can also be used as nouns.③words with the same or similar meanings sometimes belong to different word categories.Phrases are syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.↓The phrase is built around the word category.↓The word category determines the category of phrase.4 要点生成学派认为句子由短语构成;短语→单词→词素→音节→短语层面任何短语都有2个层面单词层面5 the most commonly recognized and discussed phrasal categories:NP: noun phraseVP: verb phraseAP: adjective phrasePP: prepositional phrase6 the elements of phrases that are formed of more than one word:①head/termed head 中心语/中心成分:The word around which a phrase is formed②specifiers 标志语/标志成分:The words on the left side of the heads③complements 补语/补足语/补足成分:The words on the right side of the heads7 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则定义:A special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that makes up a phrase.The phrase structure rule for NP, VP, AP, PPNP→Det N PP …VP→Qual V NP …AP→Deg A PP …PP→Deg P NP …XP ruleX’ Theory X 标杆理论①X’: The intermediate level formed by the head and the complement between word level and phrase level.②X’ Theory: specifier X’ wordX’=X complementCoordination rule 并列规则Coordinate structures 并列结构Coordination 并列,并列关系Four important properties of coordination:①there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.②a category at any level a head or an entire XP can be coordinated.③coordinated categories must be of the same type.④the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.8 Phrase elementsSpecifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.①semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head.②syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary.In English specifiers occur at the left boundary of their respective phrases. Complements are themselves phrase and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Complements are attached to the right of the head in English.;中心成分决定补充成分时,决定着是否需要补充成分,需要什么样的补充成分,以及补充成分的位置问题;The XP Rule revisedComplementizers Cs: 补语化成分Words which introduce the sentence complementComplement clause: 补语从句The sentence introduced by the complementizerComplement phraseCP:补语短语Matrix clause 主句Modifiers 修饰成分,修饰语The Expanded XP rule:9 sentencesThe S rule: S→NP VP4种短语1种句子为屈折短语10 transformations 转换规则Yes-no questionSyntactic movement wh-questionPassive voiceTransformation/Inversion倒置定义: a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another.Inversion倒置:All Ss occur within larger CPs, whether they are embedded or not. Inversion revised:If we assume that there can be only one element in each position in a tree structure, complementizers and auxiliaries are mutually exclusive. Trace: 用“e”表示Head movement 中心语移位:The movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in anotherInversion→一般疑问句+显性助词Do insertion:Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position11 Two levels of syntactic structureDeep structure D-structure:The structure formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization propertiesSurface structure S-structure:The structure corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate tansformationsThe XP Rule↓Deep structure subcategorization restricts choice of complements↓Transformations↓Surface structure12 Wh Movement:Move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentenceWh Movement revised:Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP13 Move α and constraints on transformationsthere is a general rule for all the movement rules. This general rule is referred to as Moveα,where “alpha”is a cover term for any element that can be moved from one place to another.only certain categories are targeted by movement rules, and there are limits on how far elements can be moved.①inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.②no element may be removed from a coordinate structure.Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1语义学定义:Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning.2The naming theoryancient Greek scholar PlatoA→BThe words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for. Limitations:This theory seems applicable to nouns only.Abstract notions can not be defined by this theory.3The conceptualist view概念论There is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. Semantic triangle/triangle of significance Ogden and Richards 1923年提出Thought/referenceSymbol/form ……………………………...referent4Contextualism 语境论J. R. Firth——British linguistMalinowski Polish anthropologistWittgenstein German philosopherThe contextualist view of meaning is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts.Two kinds of context:The situational contextThe linguistic context/co-textThe main components of a particular spatiotemporal situation:The placeThe timeThe speakerThe hearerThe actionsThe various objects and eventsThe linguistic context is concerned with the probability of a word’sco-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.5 Behaviorism 行为主义论American BloomfieldThis theory is linked with psychological interest.刺激反应理论:Jill JackS------------------r………..s-------------------R6 lexical meaningSense and referenceSense 定义:It is concerned with the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, the collection of all its features; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Dictionary compilers are interested in每个单词都有它的意义senseReference 定义:It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.不是所有单词都有语义referenceMajor sense relations:synonymy 同义关系synonyms①dialectal synonyms 方言同义词British English and American EnglishGirl------lass/lassie Scottish dialectLiquor-------whiskey Irish dialectB AAutumn fallLift elevatorLuggage baggageLorry truckPetrol gasolineFlat apartmentWindscreen windshieldTorch flashlight②stylistic synonymsWords having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality . old man/daddy/dad/father/male parentStart/begin/commenceKid/child/offspringKick the bucket/pop off/die/pass away/decease③synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluation meaningCollaborator / accomplice④collocational synonyms 短语同义词Accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke…forRotten tomatoes/addled eggs/rancid bacon/sour milk⑤semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词Amaze/astoundDrift/floatpolysemy 一词多义homonymy 同音异义①identical in sound homophones: Rain/reign night/knight piece/peaceleak/leek②identical in spelling homographs: Bow/bow tear/tear lead/lead③identical in both sound and spelling complete homonyms: Fast/fastscale/scalehyponymy 下义关系①It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.②superordinate 上坐标词③hyponyms 下义词④co-hyponyms 共同下义词. Flower: rose/tulip/carnation/lily/morning gloryAnimal: dog/cat/tiger/lion/wolf/elephant/fox/bearFurniture: bed/table/desk/dresser/wardrobe/setteeantonymy 反义关系①gradable antonyms 等级反义词②complementary antonyms 互补反义词不能共存,非此即彼③relational opposites 反向反义关系相反的两个极端但可共存7 sense relations between sentences①X is synonymous with Y.X真,Y真;X假,Y假②X is inconsistent with Y.X 真,Y假;X假,Y真③X entails Y.X真,Y一定真;X假,Y可真可假④X presupposes Y.X真,Y一定真;X假,Y仍为真⑤X is a contradiction. X永远假⑥X is semantically anomalous.语义破格句8 analysis of meaningcomponential analysis----a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析Semantic features语义特征:The word “man” comprises the features of +HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALE predication analysis----a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up the meanings of all its constituent words.There are two aspects to sentence meaningGrammatical meaning: grammatical well-formednessThe grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.Semantic meaning:Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions选择限制.constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.注意同生成学派次范畴化进行对比Predication analysis:proposed by the British linguist G. Leech.Predication: it is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.A predication consists of arguments变元and predicate谓词. TOMSMOKEKID, APPLELIKEBE HOTSNOWArguments变元定义:It is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with a nominal element in a sentence.Predicate谓词定义:It is something said about an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.Classification of the predication according to the number of arguments contained in a predication:①two-place predication②one-place predication③no-place predicationChapter 6 Pragmatics语用学Origin 起源:1938, American philosopher Charles MorrisFoundation of the Theory of SignsSemiotics:符号学 a science of signs3 branches: syntax/semantics/pragmatics√Pragmatics 定义:It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.As the process of communication is essentially a process of conveying and understanding meaning in a certain context, it can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study.Two major traditions in the study of pragmatics:①the Anglo-American tradition:Lay much emphasis on the study of specific language phenomena②the European continental tradition:It does not identify pragmatics with a specific unit of analysis, but takes pragmatics to be a general cognitive, social, and cultural perspectives at the use of language.√Pragmatics VS. SemanticsWhat essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Five concepts: 五个概念整理First noted by British linguist John Firth in the 1930sIt is essential to the pragmatic study of languageIt is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speakerand the hearer.Various components of shared knowledge have been identified.Context determines the speaker’s use of language and also the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him.Various components of shared knowledge:Knowledge of the language they useKnowledge of what has been said before属于linguistic contextKnowledge about the world in generalKnowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is takingplaceKnowledge about each other和进行比较The meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of thesentence itself in terms of predication. abstract/decontextualizedA sentence is a grammatical concept.Concrete/context-dependentAn utterance can be grammatically a complete sentence or incomplete sentence.注:the meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning.Speech act theory 言语行为理论理论基础:when we are speaking, we are performing actionsdoing somethingof the 20th century.It is a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication. It aims to answer the question “what do we do when using language ”Constatives: 述事话语表述句定义They are statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable. Performatives: 行事话语施为句定义They are sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.√①locutionary act言内行为The act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon, and phonologyThe act of uttering words, phrases, and clauses②illocutionary act言外行为语言学家最感兴趣The act of expressing the speaker’s intentionThe act of performed in saying something③perlocutionary act言后行为主要与听话人有关The act performed by or resulting from saying somethingIt is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance. It is the act performed by saying something.Specific acts that fall into the five type share the same illocutionary point, but differ in their strength.①representatives/assertives阐述类:stating or describing, saying what the speakerbelieves to be true②directives指令类: trying to get the hearer to do something③commissives承诺类:committing the speaker himself to some future course ofaction.④expressives表达类:expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state⑤declarations宣告类:bringing about immediate changes by saying something.√When someone is not saying in an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather his is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.A traditional way to explain indirect language use is by the mismatch between the basic language forms and their typical communicative functions.We know of there exist three basic sentence forms, the declarative sentence, the imperative sentence, and the interrogative sentence.√Searle proposed the notion of indirect speech act, which aimed to explain indirect language in the light of the speech act theory.Primary speech act主要言语行为It is the speaker’s goal of communicationSecondary speech act次要言语行为It is the means by which he achieves his goalThe relation between the secondary speech act and the primary one is that between means and end.The recognition of the real purpose of the speaker through want he says is achieved through inferences made by the hearer based on his general knowledge and also his knowledge of some pragmatic theories and principles.。
专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多,但是多集中于基本概念和运用,不需要深入挖掘,记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点:Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性(声音和意义)Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能:Informative 信息功能(功能语言学中称之为ideational function)Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务,来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系,例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能,例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支:Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音,这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征(音节、重音、音调、语调)Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程,即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素(有自己构成英语单词的称为此,是单词root/stem)和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素(需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此,是词缀,进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀,在现代英语中主要指单复数,时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀,这是形成新词的关键)。
英语语言学大全
英语语言学大全英语是全球通用的语言之一,许多人都学习英语,但并不了解英语语言学的深层次内容。
本文将为您介绍英语语言学的基本概念和主要分支,希望帮助您更好地了解和学习英语。
一、语言学基础概念语言学是研究语言的学科,它涉及语言的形态、结构、意义、使用和历史等方面。
在语言学中,有一些基础概念需要了解:1.语音学语音学是研究语音的学科,包括语音的产生、听觉和声学特征等方面。
在学习英语时,我们需要掌握它的基本音素、音标和发音规则,才能有效地进行听、说、读、写等活动。
2.语法学语法学是研究语言结构和组织的学科,有时也称为句法学。
它研究语言的词类、句子结构、语法关系等方面。
通过学习英语的语法,我们可以正确使用语言,避免出现语法错误。
3.语义学语义学是研究语言意义的学科,它探究词汇、短语和句子意义的形成和变化。
在英语学习中,我们需要理解单词和短语的意义,以及句子的含义,以便正确理解和表达内容。
4.语用学语用学是研究语言使用的学科,包括口语和书面语言的使用场合、对话方式、说话人的语言目标和对听者的影响等方面。
在英语学习中,我们需要了解不同场合和对象的语言使用规范,以便与人交流时更加得心应手。
二、英语语言学的主要分支除了以上基础概念外,英语语言学还有一些重要的学术分支,能够帮助我们更深入地了解和掌握英语。
1.语音学英语语音学探究的是英语中的音素、音标和发音规则等方面,以及与其他语音系统的比较和差异。
2.语法学英语语法学研究的是英语的句法结构、语法关系和句子意义等方面,以及与其他语言的比较和翻译问题。
3.词汇学英语词汇学是研究英语词汇的学科,包括单词的来源、组成和意义等方面,以及与其他语言的比较和词汇翻译问题。
4.语用学英语语用学研究的是英语在语言使用中的实际应用,包括语言交际、言语行为、语境和语言目的等方面。
5.文本语言学英语文本语言学是研究英语文本的结构、组织和语言特点等方面的学科,包括语篇分析和修辞分析等内容。
英语语言学基础知识
英语语言学基础知识一、绪论语言学的定义语言的定义语言学的研究范畴语言的甄别特征几对基本概念(2) a large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writingWhat is linguistics? 什么是语言学? (3) speech is the form in which infants acquire their native languageLanguage and parole 语言与言语 Linguistics is generally defined asthe scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, butlanguages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。
语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言,Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community. 而是人类所有语言的特性。
Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴 Competence and performance 能力与运用 Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users’ knowledge of the rules of his language\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学 Performance: The actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性 What is language? 什么是语言? Descriptive:A linguistic study describes and analyzes thelanguage people actually use. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationCharacteristics of language: 语言的特性 Prescriptive: it aims lay dow n rules for “correct” behavior.Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken data. Language is a rule-governed system Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on “high” written language. Language is basically vocalSynchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性 Language is arbitrary (the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration the description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study quotation from Shakespeare’s play “Romeo and Juliet”: “A rose by any other name wou ld smell as sweet.”)in modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. Language is used for human communication Speech and writing 口头语与书面语 Design features of language 语言的甄别特征 Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons: American linguist Charles Hackett specified 12 design features:(1) speech precedes writing in terms of evolution1) arbitrariness 武断性 4) displacement移位性 2) productivity 创造性5) cultural transmission 文化传递性3) duality 二重性二、音系学语言的声音媒介音系学和语音学什么是语音学语音、音位、音位变体发音器官音位对立、互补分部、最小对立音标……宽式和严式标音法几条音系规则英语语音的分类超切分特征构成了语言的声音媒介。
英语语言学知识
英语语言学知识English:1. What is the study of English language called?The study of English language is called English linguistics or English language studies.2. What are the main branches of English language studies?The main branches of English language studies include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics.3. What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical sounds of human speech, including the production and perception of speech sounds.4. What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound patterns of a language, including the way sounds are organized and used in the language.5. What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure and formationof words in a language, including the ways in which words are formed and the relationships between different forms ofa word.6. What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure and formation of sentences in a language, including the rules and principles that govern how words are combined to form grammatical sentences.7. What is semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences in a language, including how meaning is constructed and interpreted in communication.8. What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in context, including how language is used to convey meaning and achieve communicative goals in different social and cultural settings.9. What is sociolinguistics?Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society, including how language varies and changes in different social and cultural contexts.10. What are the major theories of language acquisition?The major theories of language acquisition include behaviorist theories, nativist theories, interactionist theories, and cognitive theories.中文:1. 英语语言学的研究叫什么?英语语言学的研究叫做英语语言学或英语语言研究。
f45英语语言文学基础知识
f45英语语言文学基础知识摘要:1.英语语言基础知识2.英语文学基础知识3.实用英语学习技巧4.提高英语语言文学能力的建议正文:一、英语语言基础知识1.语法:掌握英语的基本语法规则,如名词、动词、形容词、副词等词性的用法,以及句子的结构和解构。
2.词汇:积累常用的英语词汇,了解词义、词性以及词组的搭配,逐步扩大词汇量。
3.发音:学习并掌握英语发音规则,提高口语表达能力。
4.拼写:熟悉英语单词的拼写规律,纠正常见的拼写错误。
二、英语文学基础知识1.文学流派:了解不同历史时期的文学流派,如现实主义、浪漫主义、现代主义等。
2.文学作品:阅读经典英语文学作品,了解作品背景、作者生平以及作品的主题和风格。
3.文学术语:学习文学批评和分析的基本术语,如象征、比喻、拟人等。
4.文学奖项:了解世界著名的文学奖项,如诺贝尔文学奖、普利策奖等。
三、实用英语学习技巧1.制定学习计划:根据自己的实际情况,制定合理的学习计划,确保学习效果。
2.多媒体辅助学习:利用网络资源和手机应用,进行听、说、读、写的综合训练。
3.练习题库:做大量的练习题,巩固所学知识,提高应试能力。
4.学习小组:加入英语学习小组,与他人分享学习心得,共同进步。
四、提高英语语言文学能力的建议1.坚持每天学习:养成良好的学习习惯,保持学习的连续性和稳定性。
2.大量阅读:阅读英语文章、书籍,提高阅读速度和理解能力。
3.口语实践:积极参加英语角、语言交换等活动,提高口语实际应用能力。
4.学习与实践相结合:将所学知识运用到实际生活和工作场景中,实现学以致用。
通过以上四个方面的学习和实践,相信大家的英语语言文学能力会得到显著提高。
英语语言学-语言学知识点
定义:language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.
Cultural Transmission(文化传递性):
3. Design feature 定义特征
语言学知识点
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I 语言学导论
II 语言学主要分支学科
III 语言学的流派和理论
design feature of language (语言的定义特征) Language Families (世界语言分类) important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)
Arbitrariness(任意性)
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Duality(二层性)
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Creativity/Productivity(创造性)
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Displacement(移位性)
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Cultural Transmission(文化传递性)
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1)Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义:the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. 举例: 书, book, livre 喜欢,like,aimer
Duality(二层性):
定义:the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.
《英语语言学》复习要点
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguisticsnguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. To give the barest definition language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental social and conventional. Linguistics is usually defined as the science of language or alternatively as the scientific study of language. It concerns with the systematic study of language or a discipline that describes all aspects of language and formulates theories as to how language works.2.Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement etc.Arbitrariness refers to forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Language is arbitrary. There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds even with onomatopoeic words.Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structure. The units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.☺the lower or the basic level---- the sound units or phonemes which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.☺the higher level ----morphemes and words which are meaningfulCreativity refers to Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before.Displacement refers to the fact that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined matters in the past present or future or in far away places. It means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication3. Jakobson’s classification of functions of language.Jakobson : In his article Linguistics and Poetics (1960) defined six primary factors of any speech event: speaker, addressee, context,message, code, contact.1).Referential function 所指功能2).Poetic function诗学功能3).Emotive function感情功能4).Conative function意动功能5).Phatic function交感功能6).Metalingual元语言功能Hu Zhuanglin’ classification of functions of language and use some examples to illustrate them.1).Informative function 信息功能2).Interpersonal function 人际功能3).Performative function 施为功能4).Emotive function 感情功能5).Phatic communion 交感性谈话6).Recreational function 娱乐性功能7).Metalingual function 元语言功能4. What are the major differences between Saussure’s distinction betwe en langue and parole and Chomsky’s distinction between competence and performance?According to Saussure,(1) Langue is abstract, parole is specific to the speaking situation;(2) Langue is not actually spoken by an individual , parole is always a naturally occurring event;(3) Langue is relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation.According to N. Chomsky,Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities; A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker's performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence; Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted and received. It is concerned with the actual physical articulation, transmission and perception of speech sounds.Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds. It isconcerned with the abstract and mental aspect of the sounds in language.Phonology aimsto discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication1. Lips2. Teeth3. Teeth ridge (alveolar)齿龈4. Hard palate 硬腭5. Soft palate (velum) 软腭6. Uvula 小舌7. Tip of tongue8. Blade of tongue 舌面9. Back of tongue10. V ocal cords 声带11. Pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 12. Nasal cavity 鼻腔2.Phone (音素): the smallest perceptible discreet segment of sound in a stream of speech. (in the mouth)Phoneme (音位):A sound which is capable of distinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another in a given language is a phoneme. (in the mind)allophone (音位变体) : phonic variants of a phoneme are called allophone of the same phoneme. / / = phoneme [ ] = phone { } = set of allophonesIPA:the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet .Minimal pairs 最小对立体Three requirements for identifying minimal pairs:1) different in meaning; 2) only one phoneme different;3) the different phonemes occur in the same phonetic environment.e.g. a minimal pair: pat -fat; lit-lip; phone-toneminimal set: pat, mat, bat, fat, cat, hat, etcplementary distribution 互补分布Phonetically similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they might form a contrast; e.g. /p/and /b/ in [pit] and [bit];If they are allophones of the same phoneme, then they don’t distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e. they occur in different phonetic contextSuprasegmental features 超音段特征—features that involve more than single sound segment, such as stress (重音),length(音程), rhythm (节奏),tone(音调),intonation(语调)及juncture(音渡).Chapter 3 Lexicon/Morphology1. Word1.1 Three senses of “word”(1) A physically definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause orblank.(2) Word both as a general term and as a specific term.(3) A grammatical unit1.2 Identification of wordsSome factors can help us identify words:(1) Stability(2) Relative uninterruptibility(3) A minimum free form1.3 The classification of wordWords can be classified in terms of:(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (语法词/词汇词)(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)(4) word class(词类)(1) Variable vs. invariable words (可变词/不可变词)the former refers to words having inflective changes(屈折变化)while the latter refers to words having no such endings.Variable words: follow; follows; following; followedInvariable words: since; when; seldom; through; hello(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words (function words and content words.语法词/词汇词)The former refers to those words expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions(连词), prepositions(介词), articles(冠词), and pronouns(代词);the latter refers to words having lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action etc. such as n., v., adj., and adv..(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words (封闭词/开放词)the former refers to words whose membership is fixed or limited; e.g. pron., prep., conj., article. the latter of which the membership is infinite or unlimited. e.g.: n., v., adj., adv.(4) word class (词类)The traditionally recognized word classes are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. More word classes have been introduced into grammar: particles 小品词/语助词(go by, look for, come up);auxiliaries 助词(can, be, will);pro-form 替代词(do, so);determiners 前置词/ 限定词(all, every, few, plenty of, this).2. The formation of word2.1 Morphology 形态学Definition:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The two fields (p64)Inflectional morphology: the study of inflectionsDerivational morphology: the study of word-formation3. Lexical change3.1 Lexical change proper(词本身的变化)Invention 新造词Blending混合词Abbreviation 缩合词Acronym首字母缩略词back-formation 逆构词analogical creation 类比造词Borrowing 借词、外来词definition:1) Morphology:Morphology is a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2) Terminology 术语解释Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning, which can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves.Bound morphemes:morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form wordsInflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes, added to existing forms to create new words. There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.Chapter 4 Syntax From Word to TextSyntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Endocentric Constructions:is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.Exocentric Constructions:refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group Category: refers to the defining properties of these general units:Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countabilityCategories of the verb: tense, aspect, voicethree kinds of syntactic relations:relations of position位置关系Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.relations of substitutability 可替代性关系The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.relations of co-occurrence 同现关系It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)Immediate constituent analysis is a form of linguistic review that breaks down longer phrases or sentences into their constituent parts, usually into single words. This kind of analysis is sometimes abbreviated as IC analysis, and gets used extensively by a wide range of language experts.Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: Coordination and subordinationCoordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.Characteristics of subjectsA) Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statementB) Pro-forms(代词形式) : The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subjectC) Agreement with the verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verbD) Content questions (实意问句): If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchangedE) Tag question (反意问句): A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.Explain the difference between sense and reference from the following four aspects:1) A word having reference must have sense;2) A word having sense might not have reference;3) A certain sense can be realized by more than one reference; 4) A certain reference can beexpressed by more than one senseThe distinction between “sense” and “reference” is comparable to that between “connotation” and “denotation”. The former refers to some abstract properties, while the latter refers to some concrete entities.Firstly, to some extent, we can say that every word has a sense, i.e., some conceptual content; otherwise we would not be able to use it or understand it. Secondly, but not every word has a reference. There are linguistic expressions which can never be used to refer to anything, for example, the words so, very, maybe, if, not, and all. These words do of course contribute meaning to the sentences in which they occur and thus help sentences denote, but they themselves do not identify entities in the world. They are intrinsically non-referring terms. And words like ghost and dragon refer to imaginary things, which do not exist in reality. Thirdly, some expressions will have the same reference across a range of utterances, e.g., the Eiffel Tower or the Pacific Ocean. Such expressions are sometimes described as having constant reference. Others have their references totally dependent on context. Expressions like I, you, she, etc. are said to have variable references. Lastly, sometimes a reference may be expressed by more than one sense. For instance, both ‘evening star’ and ‘morning star’(晚星,启明星), though they differ in sense, refer to Venus.Chapter 6 Language and cognition1.What is Cognition?In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual with particular relation to a view that argues that the ming has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing.Another denefition is mental process or faculty of knowing, including awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.2.Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive linguistics is the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.It is an approach to language that is based on our experience of the world and the way we perceive and conceptualize it.3.What are the differences between metaphor & metonymy? Give some examples. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping(概念映射), not a linguistic one, from one domain to another (从一个语域到另一个语域), not from a word to another.Metonymy is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle(源域), provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target(目标域), within the same domain. The reference point activates the target.1.Metaphor is used for substitution, while metonymy is used for association.2. Metaphor can mean condensation and metonymy can mean displacement.3. A metonymy acts by combining ideas while metaphor acts by suppressing ideas.4. In a metaphor, the comparison is based on the similarities, while in metonymy thecomparison is based on contiguity.--For example, the sentence ‘he is a tiger in class’ is a metaphor. Here the word tiger is used in substitution for displaying an attribute of character of the person. The sentence ‘the tiger called his students to the meeting room’ is a metonymy. Here there is no substitution; instead the person is associated with a tiger for his nature..Metaphor is actually a cognitive tool that helps us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us..Metaphor is a conceptual mapping(概念映射), not a linguistic one, from one domain to another(从一个语域到另一个语域), not from a word to another.Metonymy(换喻,转喻).It is a cognitive process in which one conceptual entity, the vehicle(源域), provides mental access to another conceptual entity, the target(目标域), within the same domain.2.Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity with the use of language.Language acquisition (1) Holophrastic stage(单词句阶段)–Language’s sound patterns–Phonetic distinctions in parents’ language.–One-word stage: objects, actions, motions, routines.2) Two-word stage: around 18m3) Three-word-utterance stage4) Fluent grammatical conversation stageChapter 7 Language, culture and society1.the relationship between language and thought?Generally, the relation of L to C is that of part to whole, for L is part of C.The knowledge and beliefs that constitute a people’s culture are habitually encoded and transmitted in L.There exists a close relationship between language and culture. This is evidenced by the findings of anthropologists such as Malinowski, Firth, Baos, Sapir and Whorf. The study of the relation between language and the context in which it is used is the cultural study of language.2.What’s Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis? Give your comment on it.Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: a. Similarity between language is relative; b. the greater their structural differentiation is, the diverse their conceptualization of the world will be.Chapter 8 Language in usePragmatics: The study of language in use and the study of meaning in context, as well as the study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning& contextual meaning..What’s your understanding of conversational implicature? Use one or two examples to discuss the violation of its maxims.People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them. CP is meant to describe whatactually happens in conversation. People tend to be cooperative and obey CP in communication. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated. Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature.1.What are the main differences between pragmatics and semantics?Semantics and pragmatics are both linguistic studies of meaning. The essential difference lies in whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is, the study is carried out in the area of pragmatics.Semantics studies sentences as units of the abstract linguistic system while pragmatics studies utterances as instances of the system.The former stops at the sentence level; the latter looks at bigger chunks of conversation. The former regards sentences as stable products; the latter treats utterances as dynamic processes. The former analyses sentences in isolation; The latter analyses utterances in close connection with their contexts of situation.2. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答: Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and he arer must take the context into their consideration so as to affect the right meaning and intention. T he development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expan sion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major diff erence between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics st udies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does n ot. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.3. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how flouting these maxims give rise to conversational implicature?答: Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the ac cepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity① Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange) . ② Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality① Do not say what you believe to be false.② Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relation Be relevant.(4) The maxim of manner① Avoid obscurity of expression. ② Avoid ambiguity.③ Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④ Be orderly.Chapter 9 Language and literature1.What is ‘foregrounding’?In a purely linguistic sense, the term ‘foregrounding’ is used to refer to new information, in contrast to elements in the sentence which form the background against which the new elementsare to be understood by the listener / reader.In the wider sense of stylistics, text linguistics, and literary studies, it is a translation of the Czech aktualisace (actualization), a term common with the Prague Structuralists.The English term ‘foregrounding’has come to mean several things at once:-the (psycholinguistic) processes by which - during the reading act - something may be given special prominence;-specific devices (as produced by the author) located in the text itself. It is also employed to indicate the specific poetic effect on the reader;-an analytic category in order to evaluate literary texts, or to situate them historically, or to explain their importance and cultural significance, or to differentiate literature from other varieties of language use, such as everyday conversations or scientific reports.Literal language and figurative language-A language is called literal when what is meant to be conveyed is same as what the word to word meaning of what is said. In contrast the figurative language, the words are used to imply meaning which is other than their strict dictionary meaning.-Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning. Figurative language refers to words, and groups of words, that exaggerate or alter the usual meanings of the component words. Figurative language may involve analogy to similar concepts or other contexts, and may involve exaggerations. These alterations result in figures of speech.Chapter 11 LinguisticsApplied linguistics: is the study of the relation of linguistics to foreign language teaching, of the ways of applying linguistic theories to the practice of foreign language teaching. Universal Grammar:is a theory in linguistics that suggests that there are properties that all Possible natural human languages have. Usually credited to Noam Chomsky, the theory suggests that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain, and manifest themselves without being taught. There is still much argument whether there is such a thing and what it would be. Syllabus: a syllabus is a specification of what take place in the classroom,which usually contains the aims and contents of teaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology. Interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.contrastive analysis: A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will be easyto learn and what will be difficult. Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism. the Input Hypothesis: according to krashen's input hypothesis, learners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.Chapter 12 Theories & schools of modern linguisticsTransformational-Generative GrammarThe five stages of development of TG Grammar:1) The classical theory (1957)2) The standard theory (1965)3) Extended standard theory4) GB/PP theory (1981)5) The Minimalist ProgramInnateness hypothesis: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate, and that children are born with what he calls a Language Acquisition Device(LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.CHOMSKY’S TG GRAMMAR DIFFERS FROM THE STRUCTURAL GRAMMARIN A NUMBER OF WAYS1. Rationalism2. innateness 3 deductive methodology4 emphasis on interpretation 5formalization 6.emphasis on linguistic competence 7. strong generative powers 8.emphasis on linguistic universals。
(完整版)英语语言学知识点整理
★Haliday—child language. Macrofunctions: ideational, interpersonal, textual.★what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics----the study of the phonic medium of language, it’s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonology---the study of sounds systems—the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology---It’s a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-------it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language. Semantics---It’s simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words. The study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.Sociolinguistics—the study of language with reference to society.Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Chapter2 Phonology★three branches of phonetics:①Articulatory —describes the way our speech organs work to produce the speech sounds and how they differ. ②Auditory-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the important conclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal. ③Acoustic-–studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.★Organs of Speech : Pharyngeal cavity–咽腔Oral cavity–口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity–鼻腔★Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only. (leaf /l/) ★Narrow transcription: The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.(dark /l/~)★Phonetics and Phonology区别: are concerned with the same aspect of language- the speech sounds. ①Phonetics: it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; phonetic features they possess; how they can be classified, etc. ②Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.★rules in Phonology:①Sequential rules: Rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language. ②Assimilation rules: The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by’ copying ’a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.③Deletion rule: It’s a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represented.★Suprasegmental超切分特征: The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.(intonation: when pitch, stress and sound lenth are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation. //tone: Tone are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Tone is a suprasegmental feature.)Chapter3 Morphology★open class words: new words can be added to these classes regularly. Such as nouns, verbs,adjectives and adverbs. Such as Beatnik. Closed class words:conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the grammatical or functional words. The number of such words is small and stable since few new words are added.Chapter4 Syntax★determine a word’s category:①meaning. Word categories often bear some relationship with its meaning. The meaning associated with nouns and verbs can be elaborated in various ways. The property or attribute of the entities denoted by nouns can be elaborated by adjectives.(pretty lady, attribute the property “pretty”to the lady.) ②inflection. Words of different categories take different inflections. Such nouns as boy and desk take the plural affix -s. Verbs such as work and help take past tense affix -ed and progressive affix -ing. ③distribution. That is what type of elements can co-occur with a certain word. For example, the girl and a card ④小结A word's distributional facts together with information about its meaning and inflectional capabilities help identify its syntactic category.★phrase包括: head, specifier, complement. ①The word round which phrase is formed is termed head. ②The words on the left side of the heads are said to function as specifiers. Specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles: Semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of the head. Syntactically, they typically make a phrase boundary. ③The words on the right side of the heads are complements. Complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.★phrase structure rule: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule.★XP rule: In all phrases, the specifier is attached at the top level to the left of the head while the complement is attached to the right. These similarities can be summarized as an XP rule, in which X stands for the head N,V,A or P. (XP-----> (specifier) X (complement))★coordination rule:Some structures are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and or or. Such phenomenon is known as coordination. Such structure are called coordination structure. (Four important properties:①There is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. ②A category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated. ③Coordinated categories must be of the same type. ④The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.) Coordination Rule: X------ > X *Con X)★deep structure and surface structure: There are two levels of syntactic structure. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure). //The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S-structure).Chapter 5 Semantics★The naming theory: (Greek scholar Plato) According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.★The conceptualist view: It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through themediation of concepts in the mind.★Contextualism: (J.R. Firth) people should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behaviour. It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context. {A) the situational context: Every utterance occurs in a particular situation, the main components of which include, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing, the various objects and events existent in the situation.-----The seal could not be found. B) the linguistic context: co-text, is concerned with the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word, which forms part of the “meaning” of the word, and also with the part of text that precedes and follows a particular utterance.-----black coffer& black hair.}★Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it’s abstract and de-contextualized. //Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it is a matter of relationship between the form and reality. //关系: ①Linguistic forms, having the same sense, may have different reference in different situations. ②Linguistic forms with the same reference may differ in sense.-----morning star= evening star. ③Linguistic forms may have sense, but have no reference in the real world.------dragon, ghost.★Hyponymy:It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms.★X entails Y: entailment: the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one is inferred from the truth of the other. E.g. Cindy killed the dog entails the dog is dead. (X :John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.)★componential analysis: an approach to analyze the lexical meaning into a set of meaning components or semantic features. For example, boy may be shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult]. semantic features:The smallest units of meaning in a word, which may be described as a combination of semantic components. For example, woman has the semantic features [+human] [-male] [+adult]. //Advantages: by specifying the semantic features of certain word, it will be possible to show how these words are related in meaning.★Predication Analysis:①The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components, that is, the meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. E.g: The dog bit the man. & The man bit the dog.②There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning. Grammaticality: grammatical (well-formedness); Semantically meaningful: selectional restrictions. (selectional restriction: Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by the rules called selectional restrictions, i.e. constraints on what lexical items can go with what others.)……(consist of predicate and argument)Chapter 6 pragmatics★Context(John Firth): The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language, it’s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. ★Speech act theory(John Austin)★Searle’s Classification of Speech Acts: 1 representatives: Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true. 2 directives: Trying to get the hearer to do something. 3commisives: Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action. 4 expressives: Expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state. 5 declaration: Bring about immediate changes by saying something. ///Conclusion: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force.★cooperative Principle(CP): Proposed by Paul Grice, the principle that the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate in making conversation, otherwise, it would be impossible to carry on the talk.★Historical linguistics: a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.★semantic broadening: when the meaning of a word becomes broader, it may include all the meanings it used to mean, and then more. Such as holiday, which originally meant holy day, but it means any day which we don’t have to work.★semantic narrowing: semantic change has narrowed the meaning of some words. such as deer(any animal—a particular kind of animal)★semantic shif t: a lexical item may undergo a shift in meaning is the third kind of semantic change.★sociolinguistics: is the sub-field of linguistic that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.★Inter-relationship between language and society:A) language is used not only to communicate meaning, but also establish and maintain social relationships. B) Users of the same language in a sense all speak differently, due to their social backgrounds. C) Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. E.g. there is only one word in English for snow, and there are several in Eskimo.D) Language is related to the structure if the society in which it is used, therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.E.g. the use of postvocalic [r] in England and in New Y ork city.★speech community: the social group that is singled out for any special study.★speech variety: refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. i.e. regional dialects, sociolects, registers★Register: in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. {A) Field of discourse---- topic: the purpose and subject matter of the communicative behavior.---- why/ what---vocabulary, phonological, grammatical features B) Tenor of discourse---- role: participants and in what relationship they stand to each other. ---- formality/ technicality of the language we use. C) Mode of discourse ---- means of communication.-----how ( speaking or writing).}★degree of formality: intimate; casual; consultative; formal; frozen★culture: A)In a broad sense: Culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. B) In a narrow sense: Culture may refer to a local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc.★The relationship between language and culture:①language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world. It both expresses and embodies cultural reality. ②reflects and affects a culture’s way of thinking and helps perpetuate and change the culture and its influence, which also facilitates the development of this language at the same time. ③language is a part of culture.★Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A belief that the way people view the world is determined wholly or partly by their structure of their native language.------interdependence of language and thought….(there are two interpretations: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior. The weak one holds that the former influences the later.)★Greetings and terms of address:A) People in different countries choose the proper greetings to greet different people they meet on different occasions. B) The terms of address can be different in different countries. C) Chinese people will also extend kinship terms and indicate people’s influential st atus.★cultural overlap: The situation between two societies due to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human being★cultural diffusion: Through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B and become part of culture B, thus bringing about cultural diffusion.★linguistics imperialism: it is a kind of kind of linguicism which can be defined as the promulgation of global ideologies through the world-wide expansion of one language.★language acquisition: It refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. (the behaviourist, the innatist{ LAD= Language Acquisition Device}, the interactionist view{motherese, child directed speech, caretaker talk}★under-extension: Use a word with less than its usual range of denotation. E.g, baby uses animal to refer to cat, but denies the bird belongs to an animal.★over-extension:Extension of the meaning of a word beyond its usual domain of application by young children. E.g, baby uses apple for all fruit.★Atypical Development:hearing impairment, mental retardation, autism, stuttering, aphasia, dyslexia, dysgraphia.★second language acquisition: It refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.★Connection between first language acquisition and second language acquisition: ①Theoretically----The new findings and advances in fist language acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. ②Practically------The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. ③second language acquisition is different from first language acquisition and the second language learners generally fail to attain native-like competence. ★interlanguage: A type of language produced by second and foreign language learners, who are in the process of learning a language, and this type of language usually contains wrong expressions. It is also called learner language.-- its main feature is fossilization.★overgeneralization: The use of previously available strategies in new situations, in which they are unacceptable. E.g: Jane suggested me to give up smoking (×).★cross-association: some words are similar in meaning as well as spelling and pronunciation. This internal interference is called cross-association. E.g. The apricot is too sour to eat it(×). ★Individual Differences:①Language aptitude ②motivation(instrumental motivation; integrative motivation; resultative motivation; intrinsic motivation pleasure from learning.)③learning strategie (cognitive strategies; metacognitive strategies; affect/ social strategies)④Age of Acquisition. ⑤Personality★Neurolinguistics: is the study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the structure of the brain influences language learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.★Aphasia refers to a number of acquired language disorder due to the cerebral lesions caused by vascular problems, a tumor, an accident and so on.★psycholinguistics is the study of psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language. It concerns the representation of language in the mind, the planning, production, perception and comprehension of speech, and language acquisition.front central backClose (high) i:I u:uSemi-close (middle)eз:。
英语课程中的语言学基础知识
英语课程中的语言学基础知识在英语学习过程中,了解语言学的基础知识是非常重要的。
本文将介绍一些英语课程中的语言学基础知识,帮助读者更好地理解和学习英语。
一、语言的定义和特征语言是人类最基本的交流工具,它具有以下几个特征:1. 可以传递信息:语言通过语音、文字等形式传递信息,使人们能够相互理解和沟通。
2. 组成规则性:语言具有一定的语法规则,包括词汇、句子结构等,通过这些规则组织语言的表达。
3. 具有音、义两个层面:语言既有音的层面,即语音学,也有词汇、句法等层面,即语义学。
4. 社会性:语言是社会群体的共同表征,不同社群有不同的语言系统。
二、语音学基础知识语音学研究的是语言的声音部分,包括音素、音节、音变等。
在英语学习中,掌握语音学的基础知识有助于正确发音和理解他人的语音信息。
1. 音素:音素是语言中的最小语音单位,可以区分词义。
英语中有约40个音素,包括元音和辅音。
2. 音节:音节是组成词的基本单位,它包括一个或多个音素。
英语中,音节由元音或元音组合的辅音开头,辅音结尾的形式组成。
3. 重音:重音在英语中具有很重要的作用,它通常落在词的某个音节上,加强了该音节的语音强度和音高。
三、语法学基础知识语法学是语言学中的重要分支,研究的是词汇、句法等语言结构的规则和规律。
掌握基本的语法知识对于理解和使用英语语法非常有帮助。
1. 词汇:词汇是语言中的基本单位,通过词汇可以组成不同的句子和表达。
英语中的词汇分为名词、动词、形容词等不同类别,并具有单复数、时态、语态等语法特征。
2. 句法:句法研究语言中句子的结构和成分之间的关系。
了解句法规则可以帮助我们正确组织句子和理解句子的意义。
3. 语法关系:在句子中,词语之间有很多不同的关系,比如主谓关系、动宾关系、定语从句等,了解这些语法关系对于正确理解句子结构和意义非常重要。
四、语义学基础知识语义学研究语言的意义和词语之间的关系。
在英语学习中,了解语义学基础知识可以帮助学习者更准确地理解和使用英语词汇。
英语语言学知识点整理
英语语言学知识点整理一、语言与语言学1、语言是什么?语言是一种符号系统,它由语音、词汇、语法和语用规则等构成。
2、语言学是什么?语言学是研究语言及其规律的科学,是社会科学的一门重要学科。
3、语言学的分支学科有哪些?语言学可以分为语音学、音系学、句法学、语义学、语用学等分支学科。
二、语音学与音系学1、语音学是什么?语音学是研究语音的学科,主要研究语音的物理属性、发音机制和语音的变化规律。
2、音系学是什么?音系学是研究语言的音系系统的学科,它的是语言的音位、音素、音节、语素等基本单位以及它们之间的组合关系和变化规律。
3、语音和音系的关系是什么?语音是音系的具体表现形式,而音系则是语音的基础和框架。
语音受到个人的发音和语境的影响,而音系则是一种抽象的概念,它是语言社团所共同遵守的规则。
三、句法学1、句法学是什么?句法学是研究句子的结构和规律的学科。
它主要的是词类、句子成分的构成和它们之间的组合关系。
2、句法学的核心概念有哪些?句法学的核心概念包括:词类、句子成分、句法关系、句型等。
3、常见的句法结构有哪些?常见的句法结构包括:简单句、复合句、并列句、复合并列句等。
四、语义学1、语义学是什么?语义学是研究语言意义的学科,主要研究词义、短语意义、句子意义和语篇意义等。
2、语义的分类有哪些?语义可以分为词汇意义、语法意义和语用意义。
词汇意义是指词汇的基本意义,语法意义是指词汇在句子中的组合关系和变化规律,语用意义是指词汇在特定语境中的特殊意义。
3、语义关系有哪些?语义关系包括:同义关系、反义关系、上下义关系等。
同义关系是指两个或多个词义相同或相似的词语之间的关系,反义关系是指两个或多个词义相反的词语之间的关系,上下义关系是指一个词所表达的概念是另一个词所表达的概念的一部分。
语言学知识点整理语言学是一门研究人类语言的学科,涉及语言的各个方面,包括语言的结构、使用、习得和进化等。
以下是一些常见的语言学知识点:1、语言与言语:语言是指一种符号系统,是人们用来表达思想、情感和意愿的工具。
英语语言学语言学知识点
英语语言学语言学知识点语言学是一门研究语言的学科。
它涵盖了多个领域,包括语音学、语法学、语义学、语用学和语言变化等。
下面将简要介绍一些语言学的重要知识点。
一、语音学(Phonetics)语音学是研究语音的学问。
它关注语音的产生、传播和感知等方面。
在语音学中,语音被分为音素(phoneme)和音位(allophone)。
音素是语言中最小的语音单位,可以在语言中起到区分意义的作用。
而音位是相同意义的不同实现方式,即同一音素的不同发音形式。
在语音学中,还有一些重要概念,如元音(vowel)和辅音(consonant)。
元音是语音学中最基本、最重要的音类,它们的发音不受任何阻塞或摩擦的干扰。
而辅音则需要通过口腔或喉头的阻塞或摩擦才能产生。
二、语音语调学(Phonology)语音语调学是研究语音和语调现象的学问。
它研究语音和语音的组织方式和相互关系。
在语音语调学中,音位和音位组成规则是核心概念之一、音位组成规则决定了在一个语言中哪些音位可以成为合法的音节。
此外,在语音语调学中还有音变(phonological variation)的概念。
音变指的是在其中一种语言中,一个特定音位的发音方式会随着不同的语音环境而发生变化的现象。
音变是语言变化的一种重要表现。
三、语法学(Grammar)语法学是研究语言的结构和规则的学问。
在语法学中,句子是一个重要的研究对象。
句子结构可以划分为短语(phrase)和句子成分(sentence constituents),如名词短语、动词短语和介词短语等。
语法学还涉及到句子的成分顺序和组成规则。
在语法学中,句法树(syntactic tree)是一种图形表示方式,用于描述句子的结构。
句法树由句子的各个成分和它们之间的关系构成。
四、语义学(Semantics)语义学是研究词汇和句子意义的学问。
它关注词语和句子的语义性质、意义的产生机制以及词义的转换等。
在语义学中,可以通过语义角色(semantic role)和逻辑关系(logical relation)来描述词语和句子之间的关系。
英语语言学重点知识
语言教学设计Lecture 1Language and LearningUnit 1 Language and LearningMain concerns:⏹Views on language⏹Views on language learning⏹What is a good language teacher, and how can one become such?1.1 How do we learn language?Task 1 on pp. 1-2⏹How many foreign languages can you speak?⏹Did you find learning a foreign language easy?⏹What difficulties did you experience? Why?⏹Which skill did you find more difficult to learn?⏹Did you focus on knowledge or skills? Why?⏹Why did you learn the foreign language(s)?⏹Did you find it interesting to learn the foreign language(s)?⏹What were your most common learning activities?⏹Did you like the way you learned the foreign language(s)? Conclusions of the task⏹People learn a foreign language for different reasons;⏹People learn languages in different ways;⏹People have different understandings about language learning; and⏹People have different capabilities in language learning.1.2 Views on languageThe answer to the question ‘What is language?’ is the basis for: syllabus design,teaching methods,teaching procedures, and teaching techniques .A definition of language is always,implicitly or explicitly, a definition ofhuman beings in the world. Raymond WilliamsLanguage is a purely human andnon-instinctive method of communicatingideas, emotion and desires by means ofvoluntarily produced symbols. Edward Sapir⏹A set (finite or infinite) of sentences,each finite in length and constructed out ofa finite set of elements. Noam ChomskyThe institution whereby humanscommunicate and interact with each otherby means of habitually usedoral-auditory arbitrary symbols. R.A. Hall⏹David Crystal:The systematic, conventional use ofsounds, signs, or written symbolsin a human societyfor communication and self-expression.Task 2 (p. 2)What is language?Sample definitions of “language” (p. 177)Language:⏹is a system/set of symbols;⏹is (primarily) vocal;⏹is arbitrary and conventional;⏹consists of a set of rules (and is rule-governed);⏹is related to culture;⏹is used for human communication or interaction.It can be defined in three ways :⏹it is a finite system of sound units which are combined according to a certain order (a syntax) in order to form an infinite amount of information;it is an arbitrary system of symbols; a word is arbitrarily linked to an object ;it is a system that lets us express current events as well as real and imaginary ones be they in the past, present or future Three different viewsof language⏹The structural view,⏹The functional view,⏹The interactional viewThe structural viewThe structural view sees language as a linguistic system.The system of language = the system of sounds + the system of words + the system of grammar The structural viewSystemofLanguage3 sub-systemsThe structural viewThe structural viewThe functional view(The functional-notional view)The functional view sees language asa linguistic systemand asa means for doing things.Functions of languagee.g.⏹offering,⏹suggestion,⏹advising,⏹apologizing,⏹etc.To perform functions, rules and vocabulary are needed to express notions.Notionse.g.⏹present time, past time, and future time;⏹certainty and possibility;⏹agent and instrument;⏹relationship between people and objectsThe interactional viewThe interactional view sees language asa communicative tool(to build up and maintain relations between people).Two things are needed for communication:⏹Rules of language form (grammar & vocabulary)⏹Rules of language use in a context (Is it appropriate to use this language item in this context?)Views on the nature of language have an impact on the teaching/learning method of a person.1.3 Views on language learningViews on language learning involve two questions:⏹What are the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes of language learning?⏹What are the conditions for the learning processes to be activated?⏹The Process-oriented theories and⏹The Condition-oriented theoriesThe Process-oriented theoriesThe Process-oriented theories concern how the mind processes new information.e.g.⏹habit formation,⏹induction,⏹making inference,⏹hypothesis testing,⏹generalizationThe Condition-oriented theoriesThe Condition-oriented theories concern the nature of the human and physical context in which language learning takes place.e.g.⏹number of students,⏹what kind of input learners receive,⏹learning atmosphereThe Behaviourist theoryandThe Cognitive theoryThe Behaviourist theory⏹Watson an Raynor:a stimulus-response theory of psychologyThe Behaviourist theoryAccording to the theory:Forms of bebaviour such as motions, habits, etc. are seen as elements that can be observed and measured.The Behaviourist theory⏹“You can train an animal to do anything (within reason) if you follow a certain procedure which has three major stages, stimulus, response, and reinforcement.”(Harmer. 1983:30)The Behaviourist theoryThe Behaviourist theory⏹Skinner: Language is also a form of behaviour.⏹USA: The Audio-Lingual Method (the “listen-and-rep eat” drilling activities). Mistakes were immediately corrected.The Cognitive theoryChomsky’s question:If all language is a learned behaviour, how can a child produce a sentence that has never been said by others before?e.g.五岁女孩:“中国队加油!外国队漏油!”(2005.05.05晚上9:30)The impact of Chomsky’s theory on language teaching➢One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules.➢This idea is clearly in opposition to the Audio-Lingual Method.1.4 What isa good language teacher?kind, dynamic, authoritative, speaking clearly, creative, patient, well-informed, hardworking, resourceful (having the ability to find a way round the difficulty), attentive, warm-hearted well-prepared, flexible, intuitive, accurate, enthusiastic, humourous, caring, disciplined, professionally-trained (Parrot. 1993)1.5 How can one become a good language teacher? Teaching: is it a craft, or is it an applied science?⏹If we take teaching as a craft, then we would believe that a novice teacher can learn the profession by imitating the experts’ techniques, just like an apprentice.⏹If we take teaching as an applied science, then we would believe that knowledge and experimentation are necessary.A compromise between the two views by Wallace (1991)⏹Stage 1: Language training⏹Stage 2: 3 sub-stages: 1) learning; 2) practice; 3) reflection⏹Stage 3: Goal (professional competence)⏹What does the double arrow between Stage 1 and Stage 2 mean?⏹In which stage does this course take place?⏹Why are Practice and Reflection connected by a circle? Summary of Unit 1⏹Views on language⏹The structural view, the functional view, and the interactional view⏹Views on language learning⏹The Process-oriented theories and the Condition-oriented theories⏹The Behaviourist theory and the Cognitive theory⏹Qualities of a good language teacher⏹Ethic devotion, professional quality, and personal style⏹The three stages of becoming a good language teacherEnd of Unit 1Thank you!CommunicativePrinciples and ActivitiesCommunicative Language Teaching (CLT)Framework of this lecture:➢Language use in real life v.s. traditional pedagogy;➢Communicative competence;➢The implementation of language skills;➢Communicative activities.2.1 Language use in real lifevs.traditional pedagogy⏹The ultimate goal of foreign language teaching is:to enable the learners to use the foreign language in work or life⏹Therefore, we should teach: that part of the language that will be used; in the way that is used in the real world.Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy: (pp. 14-15) ⏹In real life: ?⏹The traditional pedagogy: ?⏹The consequence: ?⏹Task 1.⏹In real life: Language is used to perform certain communicative functions.⏹The traditional pedagogy: focuses on forms rather than on functions.⏹The consequence: The learners have learned a lot of sentences or patterns, but they are unable to use them appropriately in real social situations.⏹In real life: We use all skills, including the receptive skills and the productive skills.⏹The traditional pedagogy tends to focus on one or two language skills and ignore the others.⏹The consequence: The learners cannot use the language in an integrated way.⏹In real life: Language is always used in a certain context. ⏹The traditional pedagogy tends to isolate language from its context. e.g. the passive⏹The consequence:The students are puzzled about how to use the language in a particular context.2.2 Fostering communicative competenceThe goal of CLT is to develop students’communicative competence.Communicative Competence vs. Linguistic Competence⏹Linguistic Competence =grammatical knowledge orknowledge about the language form⏹Communicative Competence =Knowledge & ability for: rules of form/grammar + rules of useLanguage competence and communicative competencea. Chomsky’s theory: competence simply means knowledge of the language system: grammatical knowledge in other wordsb. Hymes’s theory: “there are “rules of use without which the rules of grammar would be useless”. Besides grammatical rules, language use is governed by rules of use, which ensure that the desired or intended functions are performed and the language used is appropriate to the context.According to Hymes (1979), communicative competence includes four aspects: (pp. 15-16)⏹knowing whether or not something is formally possible (grammaticality: grammatically acceptable); 知道形式上是否可能⏹knowing whether something is understandable to human beings (feasibility);知道是否可行⏹knowing whether something is in line with social norms (appropriateness in a social context);知道是否得体⏹knowing whether or not something is in fact done (what the language performance entails).知道实施的条件To sum up⏹communicative competence included four aspects: grammatically acceptableunderstandablesocial normsactually useCommunicative Competence includes knowledge/awareness of:⏹when to say⏹where to say⏹to whom to say⏹what to say⏹how to sayFeatures of CLT (p. 16)⏹CLT stresses the need to allow students opportunities for authentic and creative use of the language;⏹CLT focuses on meaning rather than on form;⏹CLT suggests that learning should be relevant to the needs of the students;⏹CLT advocates task-based language teaching (TBLT);⏹CLT emphasizes a functional approach to language learning and culture awareness of the target language.1. authentic and creative2. meaning rather than form3. relevant to the needs4. task-based teaching5. functional approachRichards and Rodgers’ (1986:72) three principles of CLT (p.16)⏹Communicative principle;⏹Task principle;⏹Meaningfulness principle2.3 The implementation of language skillsThe translation of communicative competence in language teaching practice is to develop the learners’ skills, namely, listening, speaking, reading and writing.In listening and speakingStudents should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and reactive if ever possible.⏹In traditional pedagogy, listening and speaking were treated as skills different from what takes place in reality.⏹Therefore, listening and speaking skills need to be redefined in terms of the real communicative use.⏹Students should have the chance to listen to and produce what is meaningful, authentic, unpredictable, and creative if ever possible.In reading⏹Since communicative courses focus on meaning rather than on form, the reading skill is redefined to focus on the purpose of reading.⏹Traditionally the purpose of reading is to learn language, namely vocabulary, grammar, etc., and reading is regarded as a process of decoding, structural analysis, etc.⏹In CLT, reading is to extract the meaning or the messages, and the students use different skills, e.g. skimming and scanning (see Unit 10), for different reading purposes.In writing⏹students should make the writing more meaningful and authentic, that is to practice writing to express their own feelings or describe their own experience.⏹In CLT, students have the chance to write to express their own feelings or describe their own experiences, thus making the practice of writing meaningful and authentic.In short, CLT has expanded the area:➢Language content (to incorporate functions);➢Learning process (cognitive style and information processing); and➢Product (language skills).2.4 Communicative activitiesLittlewood (1981):➢Functional communicative activities;➢Social interactional activities.Littlewood. 1981.Communicative Language Teaching.Cambridge University Press. Functional communicative activities (p. 18)e.g. Identifying pictureslanguage for the activity:⏹What colour …?⏹How many …?⏹Where …?Social interactional activities(pp. 18-19)e.g. Role-playing through cued dialogues⏹Reading and writing are also communicative skills which are worth no less attention than listening and speaking.Rod Ellis’ (1990) six criteria for communicative act ivities •Communicative purpose; (information gap) •Communicative desire; (real need)•(Focus on ) Content, not form; (message)•Variety of language; (not just one language form, free to improvise/create)•No teacher intervention; (done by Ss; no correcting/evaluating how Ss do it; assessment is based on the ‘product’ or on communicative purpose rather than on the language.)•No material control.For examples please refer to Wang Qiang’s book (2000) pp. 20-23Summary of CLT⏹Gaps between the use of language in real life and the traditional foreign language teaching pedagogy;⏹Goal of CTL: Communicative competence;⏹Features of CLT, and Richards and Rodgers’ three principles of CLT:◆communicative, task and meaningfulness principles⏹Communicative activities (Littlewood):◆functional communicative activities, and◆social interactional activities⏹Rod Ellis’ six criteria for communicative activitiesEnd of CLTThank you!Goal:Exchanging personal informationInput:Questionnaire on sleeping habitsActivity: 1) Reading questionnaire2) Asking and answeringquestions about sleeping habits Teacher role: Monitor and facilitatorto specify what is regarded assuccessful completion of the taskLearner role:Conversational partnerSetting:Classroom / pair workThe components of a task:目标(Goals)信息输入( Input Data) 语言信息( Verbal data )非语言信息(Non-verbal data ) 活动 (Activities ) 结果 (Outcome)语言结果( Verbal outcome )非语言结果(Non-verbal outcome )Task or exercises?• The learner will listen to an aural text of weatherforecast and answer questions afterwards on whether given statements are true or false.• The learner will listen to a weather forecast, identifythe predicted maximum temperature for the day and give suggestions as to what to wear.Good learning tasks should:1 enable learners to manipulate and practice specific features of language2 allow learners to rehearse, in class, communicative skills they will need in the real world3 activate psychological/psycholinguistic processes of learning4 be suitable for mixed ability groups5 involve learners in solving a problem, coming to a conclusion6 be based on authentic or naturalistic source material7 involve learners in sharing information8 require the use of more than one macro-skill9 allow learners to think and talk about language and learning10 promote skills in learning how to learn11 have clear objectives stating what learners will be able to do as a result of taking part in the task 12 utilize the community as a resource13 give learners a choice in what way they do and the order in which they do it.14 involve learners in risk-taking15 require learners to rehearse, rewrite and polish initial efforts 16 enable learners to share in the planning and development of the task17 have built into them a means of evaluating the success or otherwise of the task•Besides CLT, there has been another language teachingapproach which has become more and more popular from late 1980s, that is, Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT).1.1•A task is a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. In other words, ‘task’ means the what people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between.’ (Long, 1985: 89; via Nunan, 1989:5) 1.2 A task is an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language ( i.e. as a response). (Richards, Platt and Weber 1986:289) 任务=人们在学习、理解、体会语言之后所开展的活动。
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Exercises for Lecture 1 Introduction2009年09月20日15:05I. <blank filling>1. By ‘scientific’ is meant linguistics is based on the s ystematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.2. In his study of a language a linguist usually tries to collect and observe language facts,make generalizations, formulate hypotheses, and fully prove the validity of these hypotheses.3. General linguistics deals with the study of language as a whole.4. General linguistics studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methodsapplicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relatelinguistics to the research of other areas.5. The difference between general linguistics and a linguistic branch such as semantics lies inthe fact that general linguistics studies language as a whole, whereas a linguistic branch such as semantics deals with the particular area. For instance, semantics studies the particularaspect of language, or meaning.6. Linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics,sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, and applied linguistics and so on.7. There are different independent branches of linguistics because language is a complicatedentity with multiple layers and facets, so it is hardly possible for the linguists to deal with it all at once. They have to concentrate on one aspect of it at a time.8. Phonetics is the study of sounds used in linguistic communication.9. Phonology deals with how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning incommunication.10. Morphology is the study of the way in which linguistic symbols are arranged and combined to form words.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammaticallypermissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics is the study of the social aspects of language and its relation with society.15. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relation of language to psychology.16. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of such practical problemsas the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics. But in a narrow sense applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Descriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to describe and analyze the languagepeople actually use.18. Prescriptive linguistics is a linguistic study which aims to lay down rul es for “correct andstandard” behavior in using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.19. Modern linguistics is mainly descriptive.20. The aim of prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for “c orrect and standard” behavior inusing language, or to set models for language users to follow.21. The task of modern linguistic is to describe the language people actually use, whether it is“c orrect” or not.22. The difference between prescriptive and descriptive linguistics is that prescriptive linguistics is to lay down rules for language users, whereas descriptive linguistics is to describe the language phenomena as they are. Therefore, the former is subjective, while the latter is objective and more scientific.23. Modern linguistics is supposed to be objective, because it aims to describe language as it is.24. Synchronic linguistics is the description of a language at some point of time in history.25. Diachronic linguistics is the description of a language as it changes through time. It is alsotermed historical linguistics.26. The difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics is that the former deals withlanguage at some point of time in history, while the latter over a period of time.27. Modern linguistics favors synchronic approach because it is less difficult and concerned withthe current existence of language.28. The two major media of linguistic communication are speech and writing.29. Modern linguistics regards as primary speech, or the spoken language.30. F. de Saussure is regarded as the founder of modern linguistics.31. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.32. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules, or the naturally occurring language events.33. Langue is the abstract linguistic system whereas parole is concrete and is the realization oflangue in actual use. Langue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person and from situation to situation.34. According to Chomsky, competence is the ideal user’s knowl edge of the rules of hislanguage.35. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of the ideal user’s knowledgeof the rules of his language in linguistic communication.36. N. Chomsky proposed the distinction between competence and performance.37. Noam Chomsky is an American linguist, who is famous for his syntactic studies all over theworld, and who focuses on the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.38. Saussure’s langue and parole and Chomsky’s competence and p erformance differ in that theformer takes a sociological view of language, whereas the latter a psychological perspective.39. The difference between traditional grammar and modern linguistics is that traditionalgrammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive, that traditional grammartended to emphasize the importance of writing while modern linguistics gives priority tospeech, and that traditional grammar forced languages into a Latin-based framework while modern linguistics does not.40. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.41. According to Sapir, language is a purely human and non-instinctive method ofcommunicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.42. According to Hall, language is ‘the institution whereby humans communicate and i nteractwith each other by means of habitually used oral-auditory symbols.’43. According to Chomsky, language is ‘a set (finite or infinite) of s entences, each finite inl ength and constructed out of a finite set of elements.’44. Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it fromany animal system of communication.45. Productivity refers to the fact that language makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users, which is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences, including sentences they have never heard before. This feature is unique to human language.46. Displacement is the property that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. This feature provides speakers with an opportunity to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time and place.47. Double articulation refers to the duality of structure, the fact that language is a system, whichconsists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is astructure of sounds, which are meaningless by themselves. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.II. <true or false>Identify whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F).1. Linguistics is the systematic study of language.True.2. Linguistics deals with a particular language.False.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, and Latin, but it studies languages in general.3. Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.False.Linguistics is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.4. The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system.True.5. Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.False.We have general linguistics and applied linguistics. We do not have specific linguistics.6. General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.False.General linguistics deals with language as a whole, not with language application in particular.7. General linguistics does not study theories of language.False.General linguistics does study theories of language.8. Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.False.Phonetics studies the way human sounds are produced.9. Phonology studies how a sound is produced.False.Phonology studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.10. Morphology is the study of sentences.False.Morphology is the study of the rules of word formation.11. Syntax is the study of the rules of words.False.Syntax is the study of the rules of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.12. Semantics is the study of word meaning.False.Semantics is the study of meaning.13. Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.14. Sociolinguistics deals with the relation between language and society.True.15. Psycholinguistics deals with the relation of language to psychology.True.16. Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.False.It means the application of findings in linguistic studies to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability, or, in a narrow sense, the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.17. Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.False.Modern linguistics aims at describing language as it is.18. Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time.False.It deals with language phenomena over a period of time.19. Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.True.20. Langue means competence.False.They are similar, but differ in that the former is related to sociology and is a matter of social conventions, while the latter is concerned with psychology and is a property of the mind of each individual.21. Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.True.22. F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.23. N. Chomsky is an American linguist.True.24. According to Chomsky, the internalization of a set of rules about his language enables a speaker to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.True.25. Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence.False.He regards it as an internalized set of rules of the learner’s language.26. Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.False.Competence, instead.27. Details of language system are genetically transmitted.False.They are not transmitted, but have to be taught and learned instead.28. Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place.False.Displacement of language means language use not subject to time and place.29. Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely.False.Arbitrariness means language is arbitrary by nature, i.e. there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. But language is not entirely arbitrary; certain words are motivated, which make up only a small percentage of the vocabulary of a language, though.30. Duality of language means language is a two-level system.True.。