专八语言学资料2
英语专八人文-最全语言学知识点
语言学* 现代语言学理论和学派1. Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913 瑞士)：Father of modern linguistics 现代结构主义语言学创始人Course in General Linguistics《普通语言学教程》：由其学生- C. Bally & A. Sechehaye整理，现代语言学开端，19163 lines: linguistics, sociology and psychology 符号任意性理论；语言单位间的关系；语言和言语区分；共时和历时区分。
语言是符号系统。
符号是形式和意义的联合，即能指signifier和所指signified。
2. The Prague School布拉格学派：synchronic linguistics; Function1) 对语言的共时研究由于可得到全面可控的语言材料以供参考而被充分强调，同时，也没有严格理论；界限被竖立起来将之与历时语言研究相分离。
2) 强调语言的系统性这一本质属性。
3) 在某种意义上，把语言看作是一种功能，是一种有某一语言社团使用的，用来完成一系列基本职责和任务的工具。
~ Phonology and Phonological Oppositions(音位对位):Trubetzkoy–Phonetics belonged to parole whereas phonology belonged to langue. – phoneme~ Functional Sentence Perspective(FSP 句子功能前景)：语言学分析理论用信息论原理来分析话语或篇章。
其基本原则就是一句话中各部分的作用取决于它对全局意义的贡献。
捷克语言学家- The point of departure is equally present to the speaker and to the hearer, which is their rallying point, the Theme.The goal of discourse presents the very information that is to be imparted to the hearer and is called the Rheme.3.The London School伦敦学派–systemic linguistics and functional linguistics Sociological approach1) J.R. Firth(1890-1960 英国)：伦敦学派创始人; 学生-Malinowski & Halliday语言学的研究对象是实际使用中的语言。
专八人文知识--语言学
第一章概述一、什么是语言？1.Definition of language （语言的定义）Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.（语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。
）2.Design/distinctive feature of language（语言的定义/本质特征）1)2)3)4)（移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点）例如：我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。
5)Cultural transmission（文化传播/文化传递性）Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.（文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的，而不是靠父母遗传。
虽然人类的语言能力是天生的，但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递，而是靠学习掌握的。
）二、什么是语言学？Linguistics is a scientific study of language.（语言学是对语言的科学研究）语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种，而是人类所有的语言，在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。
语言学家想要回答的基本问题是：什么是语言？语言的机制是什么？人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。
三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive（描述性与规定性）描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场，注重观察分析语言中的事实，目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。
规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准，目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。
例如：规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic（共时性与历时性）synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history（共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象）例如：莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation（历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化，研究语言的历史发展规律）ngue vs. parole（语言与言语）该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。
英语专八人文知识之语言学(详细简化版)
专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。
英语专业八级语言学总结+(2)
I. Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed; it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and T he description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔）early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by a ll the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声). 4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech so unds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcripti on.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages. Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words. Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combinat ion of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages. Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the min d.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation a nd language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and c oncepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts (概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.II. Phonetics(语音学）1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学）we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vo cal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调） in the process. Auditory phonetics （听觉语音学）we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节） by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经） and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学） we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted（传送） between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of t he air-stream,(气流发生器官） the producer of voice（声音发生器官） and the resonating cavities.（声音共振器官）3. Consonants(辅音）Places of articulation(发音部位）: bilabial,(双唇） Labiodentals,（唇齿） dental,（齿） alveolar,（齿龈） retroflex,（卷舌） palate-alveolar,（上齿龈） palatal,（上颚） velar,（软腭） uvular,（小舌） glottal(声门）Manners of articulation: plosive,（暴破） nasal,（鼻音） trill,（颤音） lateral,（边音） fricative,（摩擦） approximant,（近似音） affricate（破擦）4. Vowels (元音）The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), th e position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the deg ree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology（音韵学）回目录1. phonemes(音素）：a distinctive(有区别的） sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体）：The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体）： word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异）：If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境）, they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronu nciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(互补分布）：Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位）：the study of phonological properties(性质） of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节）， stress,（重音） word stress, sentence stress. pitch （音调）and intonation（语调）.IV. Morphology（词法）回目录1. inflection(构形法）：the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀）2. Word-formation(构词）：the processes(过程） of word variations signaling lexical relationships.（表明词法关系） They are compound(合成）and derivation (派生）.3. Morpheme(词素）： the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体）： some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shap es or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根） affix（词缀） and stem（词干）.6. Lexicon(语言词汇）：in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性） and open-class words(开放性）：the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上） indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性）：It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位）：the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语，成语）：Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true for a sequence of words(词序） which is semantically（语义上） and often syntactically(句法上） restricted.（限制）11. Collocation(搭配）： the habitual(习惯的） co-occurrences （同时出现）of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法）回目录1. Positional relation or word order（词序）：the sequential(顺序） arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构）： the overall process of internal (内部）organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能）： the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the lingui stic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语） complements（补语）, etc.4. Category(范畴）：It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subjec t, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lac king the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is includ ed in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thoug ht.VI. Semantics（语义）回目录 1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义）：Following F. De Saussure(索学尔）'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier （所指）and signified（被指）, i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological（心理的） "associative" bond.（相关联系）2. Mechanism(机械主义）：Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德） for example, turned to science to counter（反）-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach （方法）. The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.（智力现象）3. Contextualism （语境主义）：It is based on the presumption(假定） that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义）：Behaviourists attempt to define (定义）the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景） in which the speaker utters（说话） it and the response（反应） it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义）：functionalists as represented (代表）by the Prague school（布拉格学派） linguists and neo-Firthian （新弗斯）linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation（方法）. They argue（争辩） that meaning could only be interpreted（解释） from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of ex perience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold betwee n the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词），antonymy(反义词）,hyponymy(下层次）Polysemy(一词多义）and Homonymy (同音异义词）7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential（成分） analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semant ic components.(意义成分）2) predication (表述）analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merely the sum of the meanin gs of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semanti c analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show rela tions between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化）回目录1. Lexical change(词汇的变化）：changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词）new entities.3. Compounding 合成词）New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词）：It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping (缩写）A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym 取首字母的缩写词）It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which hasa heavily modified (修饰） headword.7. metanalysis (再分化）It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note b efore.8. Back-formation (逆构词） It refers to an abnormal(非正常） type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉） an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词）It can account for（说明） the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合） of some English verbs.10. Borrowing（借用）：English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing wor ds from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变）：It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音） addition,（加音） assimilation,（同化）dissimilation.（异化）12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology（词法） and syntax（句法） are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化）It includes broadening,（语义扩大） narrowing,（语义缩小） meaning shift,（意义转化） class shift（词性转换） and folk etymology.（词源变化）14. Orthographic change ：(正字法）Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.。
专八语言学知识要点
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多，但是多集中于基本概念和运用，不需要深入挖掘，记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点：Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性（声音和意义）Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能：Informative 信息功能（功能语言学中称之为ideational function）Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务，来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系，例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能，例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支：Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音，这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征（音节、重音、音调、语调）Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程，即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素（有自己构成英语单词的称为此，是单词root/stem）和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素（需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此，是词缀，进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀，在现代英语中主要指单复数，时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀，这是形成新词的关键）。
专八考试知识语言学部分
语素可以分为自由语素free morpheme 和粘着语素bound morpheme. 自由语素可以单独出现或单独构成词语，比如 pleasant, cell. 粘着语素必须与其他语素一起出现，不能独立成词，比如 dis- ex- con-
上下义：例如animal-the pole bear, kangaroo, crocodile。其中animal是上义词super ordinate, 剩下的词叫下义词 hyponyms.
句子之间的语义关系semantic relations between sentences 有以下几种：1、蕴含entailment 例如：A.他去了中国。B.他去了亚洲。A蕴含于B。A entails B. 判断方法：A真B真，B假A假，A假B不一定，B真A不一定。 2.、预设 presupposition 例如：A.我的自行车需要修理。B.我有自行车。A预设于B。A presupposes B. 判断方法：其中的一个句子以另一个为前提条件。A真B真，A假B还真。
is called ______. (2008) A. hyponymy. B. synonymy. C. polysemy. D. homonymy. 考点：考察词汇之间的涵义关系sense relations.
记忆：涵义关系有5个：同义关系synonymy, 反义关系antonymy, 一词多义
①① 语用学 1. The speech act theory was first put forward by ______. (2005) 2. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of
专八语言学练习(真题汇总)2
1 The words “kid, child, offspring” are examples of _____.A dialectal synonymsB stylistic synonymsC emotive synonymsD collocational synonyms2 The phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form is _____A hyponymyB synonymyC polysemyD homonymy3 The word holiday originally meant holy day; but now the word signifies any day on which we don’t have to work. This is an example of _____.A meaning shiftB widening of meaningC narrowing of meaningD loss of meaning4 The word “tail” once referred to the “tail of a horse”, but now it is used to mean “the tail of any animal”. This is an example of ________.A widening of meaningB narrowing of meaningC meaning shiftD loss of meaning5 Speech act theory was first put forward by _____.A John SearleB John AustinC Noam ChomskyD Halliday6 What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is the notion of ____.A referenceB meaningC antonymD context7 When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing ____.A an illocutionary actB a perlocutionary actC a locutionary actD none of the aboveThe distinctive features of a speech variety may be all the following EXCEPT_____A lexcialB syntacticC phonologicalD psycholinguisticA special language variety that mixes languages and is used by speakers of different languages for purposes of trading is called ____.A dialectB idiolectC pidginD register____ refers to the learning and development of a language.A Language acquisitionB Language comprehensionC Language productionD Language instruction。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位，是单选题目的重要组成部分，掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分：语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分，这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进，考生逐一理解掌握，才能打牢语言学基础知识，下面我们开始吧！第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征（Design Features）任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能（Functions of Language）传达信息功能Informative：最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal：establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative：现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge，naming，and curses表情功能Emotive：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic：应酬话phatic language，比如“吃了没？”“天儿真好啊！” 等等元语言功能Metalingual：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive：着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态，如标准语法/语音等，为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive：着重于语言中“事实Facts”，目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3．语言Langue和言语Parole（由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出）Langue：指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system，所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和，这个整体相对比较稳定。
专业英语八级英语语言学知识分类模拟题2
专业英语八级英语语言学知识分类模拟题2单项选择题1. Which of the following is NOT correct?A.Polysemy is the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning.B.Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.C.Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.D.Antonymy is used for the sameness or close similarity of meaning.答案：DA项polysemy一词多义现象表示同一个词有多个意义；B项homonymy同形异义关系指某些词的意义不同，但是具有相同形式的现象，即不同的词在发音或拼写上一样，或发音拼写都一样；C项hyponymy(下义关系)是指一个更广义、更具有包容性的词与一个更具体的词之间的意义关系。
D项antonymy(反义关系)指意义上的对立，而不是意义上的相同或相近(synonymy)。
2. "Bow"(v.)and "bow" (n.) are ______.A.homophonesB.homographsplete homonymsD.partial homonyms答案：B“Bow”(v.)and“bow”(n.)，发音不同，是homographs(同形异义词)；比较piece和peace，拼写不同，是homophones(同音异义词)。
3. "Scale" (v.) and "scale" (n.) are ______.A.homophonesB.homographsplete homonymsD.partial homonyms答案：C“scale”(v.)表示“称重、攀登”等意，“scale”(n.)表示“天平，规模”等意，而两词的发音和拼写都相同，故为同形异义词。
专八语言学知识Linguistics
《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
专八语言学资料2
专⼋语⾔学资料2【 1 】As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. descriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. prescriptiveD. psycholinguistic【 2 】The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.A.+animate,+male,+human,-adultB.+animate,+male,+human,+adultC.+animate,-male,+human,-adultD.+animate,-male,+human,+adult【 3 】The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in and vocabulary.A. usageB. grammarC. pronunciationD. structure【 4 】According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky【 5 】The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day,eight days a week."obviously violates the maxim of ______.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner【 6 】Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Theme and RhemeC. Transformational ComponentD. Surface Structure【7 】The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___. A. semanticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics【8 】Which of the following are NOT relational antonyms?A. give: receiveB. father: sonC. clever: stupidD. teacher: student【9 】Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription?A. SemanticsB. PhonologyC. PhoneticsD. Pragmatics【10 】“I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement【11 】Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization.A. elaborationB. simplificationC. external borrowingD. internal borrowing【12 】“Don?t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. transformationalD. functional【13 】A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. subordinatorC. prepositionD. particle【14 】refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium ofA. Lingua francaB. PidginC. CreoleD. Standard language【15 】Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental stopC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental fricative【16 】According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconcious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition【17 】_________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word andthe thing it refers to.A. DenotativeB. ConnotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective【18 】Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell【19 】Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes.A. GermanicB. RomanC. ItalianD. Greek【20 】Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A. voiceB. numberC. caseD. gender【21 】In the following conversation:- Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?- And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.The second person violates the__________.A. Quantity MaximB. Quality MaximC. Manner MaximD. Relation Maxim【22 】There are__________ diesis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.A. 6B.5C. 4D. 3【23 】The sense relation between ewe and sheep is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy【24 】The introduction of ________had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. BuddhismD. Islamism【25 】In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. With the invaders, many ________words came into the English language.A. GreekB. ScandinavianC. CelticD. Roman【26 】“Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “ You have a bike.”A. presupposesB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. is synonymous with【27 】When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he isperforming__________.A. a perlocutionary actB. an illocutionary actC. a locutionary actD. none of the above【28 】The original meaning of wife is _______.A. a married womanB. a young womanC. womanD. widowed woman【29 】“We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. behaviorismC. the naming theoryD. contexutalism【30 】In Shakespearean line …rats and mice and such small deer?, deer obviously designates …_____? in general.A. animalB. a doeC. a deer-like animalD. buck【 1 】Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.【 2 】The meaning of meat changed by mode of degradation.【 3 】One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology.【 4 】In some languages, grammatical gender had little to do with the biological sex.【 5 】Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. 【 6 】Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.【7 】The naming theory is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.【8 】Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.【9 】A person?s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.【10 】A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.【 1 】C is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix.【 2 】The p relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.【 3 】Affective meaning indicates the speaker?s a towards the person or thing in question.【 4 】Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or m_________________ shape have different meanings.【 5 】Cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted p or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.【 6 】Speakers give us clues about when they are finished speaking, about when they are going to change a topic, or when they expect us to speak or not to speak. These clues are known as discourse m .【7 】The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b .【8 】 A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a m of communication among groups of people from diverse linguistic backgrounds.【9 】The t is the starting point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause is taking off.【10 】Language is a : no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.1~5：Conversion paradigmatic attitude morphological purpose6~10：markers bilabial medium theme arbitrary。
专八英美文学和语言学知识总结
一．古英语时期（Old English Literature 公元499—1066 年）古英语时期（—英国文学开山之作：头韵体诗歌（《贝奥武甫》（Beowulf）头韵体诗歌（alliteration））开德蒙（Caedmon）：《赞美诗》（Anthem）琴涅武甫（Cynewulf）：《十字架之梦》（Dream of the Rood）比德（Bede）：《英吉利人教会史》（Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum）阿尔弗雷德大帝（King Alfred）：《盎格鲁—撒克逊编年史》（Anglo-Saxon Chronicle），被誉为“英国散文之父”Father “英国散文之父”（of English Prose））世纪）二．中古英语时期（Medieval English Literature 公元1066 年—15 世纪）中古英语时期（头韵体诗歌：《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》（Sir Gawain and the Green Knight）英国名谣：《罗宾汉名谣集》（The Robin Hood Ballads）威廉·兰格伦（William Langland）：《农夫皮尔斯的幻想》（The Vision Concerning piers the Plowman）杰弗里·乔叟（Geoffrey Chaucer）：英国中世纪最伟大的诗人诗人，享有“英国诗歌之父英国诗歌之父”的美誉（Father of English Poetry）。
诗人英国诗歌之父（）代表作：八音节（octosyllabic）英雄双韵体（heroic couplet）诗歌八音节（（The 八音节）英雄双韵体（）诗歌《坎特布雷故事集》Canterbury Tales）。
托马斯·马洛礼（Sir Thomas Malory）：英国15 世纪优秀的散文家，代表作为《亚瑟王之死》散文家（Le Morte d’Arthur）散文世纪末—世纪）三．文艺复兴时期（Renaissance 15 世纪末—17 世纪）文艺复兴时期（托马斯·莫尔（Thomas More）：伟大的人文主义者人文主义者，代表作：《乌托邦》（Utopia）《国王爱德华五世悲戚的一生》，（The 人文主义者painful Life of Edward Ⅴ）. 托马斯·魏厄特（Thomas Wyatt）和亨利·霍华德（Henry Howard）的十四行诗（Sonnet）。
英语专八人文知识 语言学必背第2讲-语音学
英语专八人文知识语言学必背第2讲:语音学第二节语音学Phonetics一、语音学的分支1．发音语言学Articulatory phonetics：研究语音产生的方式，这是普通语言学主要研究的分支2. 声学语言学Acoustic phonetics3. 听觉语言学Auditory phonetics二、语音学中两个重要概念1．言语语音Speech sounds：是语音学研究的对象，亦可叫做音段Segment或者音素Phone；分为两种：辅音consonants 和元音vowels2．发音器官Speech organs：声带the V ocal Cords：位于咽喉the Larynx中，咽喉突出的部分较喉结The Adams Apple三个回声腔：咽腔the Pharynx、口腔the oral cavity和鼻腔the nasal cavity三、关于辅音Consonants1．概念：发音过程中产生了气流阻塞的那些音There is an obstruction of the air at some point of the vocal tract.2．分类：三类划分发音部位Places of articulation 、发音方式Manners of articulation和清浊特征(1)按照发音部位places：唇间音bilabial：/p/ /b/ /m/ /w/唇齿音labio-dental：/f/ /v/齿间音dental：/ 6/ /咬舌Z/牙龈音alveolar：/t/ /d/ /s/ /z/ /n/ /l/ /r/龈腭音alveo-palatal/post-alveolar：硬腭音Palatal：/师/ /3/ /ts/ /d3/ /j/喉音glottal：/h/(2)按照发音方式manners完全阻塞辅音complete obstruction/爆破音plosives/stops: /p/, /b/ /t/, /d/ /k/, /g/鼻音nasals：/m/ /n/ /n长/擦音fricatives：/f/ /v/ /s/ /z/ /师/ /3/ /6/ /咬舌z/ /h/破擦音affricates：/ts/ /d3/流音liquids : /r/ /l/滑音/半元音glides/simivowels：/w/ /j/接近辅音approximants中央流音central边流音lateral：3．特征：(1)清浊特征V oicing浊辅音voiced consonants 清辅音voiceless consonants体现形式：声带是否震动in the vibration of the vocal cordsE.g：/p/ 和/d/(2)送气特征Aspirationarticulated with a strong air stream pushing out只有爆破音和破擦音有送气与否的区别不造成词义改变，是非区别性特征E.g：/p/ 在please中送气，在speak中不送气(3)区别性特征Distinctive Features可以用来区分不同音位如清浊特征，但送气特征就不是区别性特征一般都是双元Binary的(+voicing/ -voicing)四、关于元音V owels1．概念：发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞的音 A sound pronounced with no obstruction of the air stream2．分类：舌翘位置the part of the tongue that is raised、舌高the extent to which the tongue rises和嘴唇的形状the shape of the lips 舌翘：front/i/ /e/ /a/；back/o/ /u/ 舌高：high/i/ /u/；mid/e/ /o/；low/a/ 唇形：unrounded/i/ /e/ /a/；rounded/o/ /u//a/: front, low, unrounded /e/:front, mid,un rounded /i/: front, high, unrounded /o/: back, mid, rounded /u/: back, mid, rounded3. 标准元音Cardinal vowels：由一组任意确定的元音组成，这些元音都是作为抽象的单位存在，为描述现实语音中的元音提供一个参考框架，由琼斯提出。
专八考试知识语言学部分
语言学部分一、语言与语言学1, which of the following is NOT a distinctive feature of human language ? (2005) A. arbitrariness. B. productivity. C. cultural transmission. D. finiteness.考点: 语言的区别性特征（design features）记忆：CD PAD. Cultural transmission. Displacement. Productivity (creativity). Arbitrariness. Duality.2. The distinction between parole and langue was made by _____. (2006)A. Halliday.B. Chomsky.C. BloomfieldD. Saussure.考点：语言流派的主要代表人物、四对儿概念的区分。
记忆：四对概念分别是：descriptive & prescriptive. Synchronic & diachronic. Langue & Parole. Competence & performance.代表人物：Saussure对应parole & Langue。
Chomsky对应Competence & performance3. language is a tool of communication. The symbol “high way closed” on a high way serves _____. (2010)A. an expressive function.B. an informative function.C. a performative function.D. a persuasive function.考点：语言的基本功能。
英语专业八级语言学2
社会意义情感意义 affective meaning反射意义 reflective meaning 由一个词语联想起来的另外一种意义搭配意义 collocative meaning主位意义 thematic meaning 通过调整信息的顺序和强调内容所表达的意义2指称论 referential theory指将词的意义和他所指的食物联系起来的意义理论3语义三角semantic triangle 奥格登和理查兹提出Symbol或form指语言要素（如词和语素），the linguistic elements能指thought指概念concept所指reference指经验世界中的物体the object in the word of experience涵义sense语言形式的意义4主要涵义关系○同义关系synonymy地域同义词dialectal synonymy风格同义词 stylistic synonyms感情同义词 synonymys that differ in connotation意义相同，但内涵不同，有褒有贬○反义关系antonymy等级反义关系gradable antonymy 例cool-warm ;hot-cold互补反义关系 complementary antonymy,肯定A就否定B，否定B 就肯定A，例dead-alive反向反义关系converse antonymy .reversal of a relationship between 2 entities.例 husband-wife; teacher-student○上下义关系hyponymy 意义包含关系。
例：花－水仙、玫瑰、百合补充：同音同形异义关系homonymy一词多义 polysemy七、语用学1 言语行为理论speech act theory奥斯汀提出John Langshaw Austin认为人在说话的同时也在进行一定的行为动作○施为句和叙事句performative and constative施为句：实施某种行为。
专业英语八级英语语言学知识-2
专业英语八级英语语言学知识-2(总分：100.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、单项选择题(总题数：40，分数：100.00)1.Which of the following is NOT correct?A. Polysemy is the phenomenon that the same one word may have more than one meaning.B. Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form.C. Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.D. Antonymy is used for the sameness or close similarity of meaning.（分数：2.50）A.B.C.D. √解析：A项polysemy一词多义现象表示同一个词有多个意义；B项homonymy同形异义关系指某些词的意义不同，但是具有相同形式的现象，即不同的词在发音或拼写上一样，或发音拼写都一样；C项hyponymy(下义关系)是指一个更广义、更具有包容性的词与一个更具体的词之间的意义关系。
D项antonymy(反义关系)指意义上的对立，而不是意义上的相同或相近(synonymy)。
2."Bow"(v.)and "bow" (n.) are ______.A. homophonesB. homographsC. complete homonymsD. partial homonyms（分数：2.50）A.B. √C.D.解析：“Bow”(v.)and“bow”(n.)，发音不同，是homographs(同形异义词)；比较piece和peace，拼写不同，是homophones(同音异义词)。
英语专业八级语言学辅导材料
英语专业八级语言学辅导材料Section 1 What is Linguistics?nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal sysmbols used for human _____.A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community2. Language is _______.A. instinctiveB. non-instincitveC. staticD. genetically transmitted3. A linguist regards the changes in language and languages use as ______.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. naturalD. abnormal4. Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. crashC. typewriterD. bang5. The function of the sentence “Water boils at 100 degrees Centigrade” is ____.A. interrogativeB. directiveC. informativeD. performative6. _____ is a grammatical description of a language specially designed as an aid to teaching that language to native or foreign learners.A. Descriptive grammarB. Prescriptive grammarC. Pedagogical grammarD. Universal grammar7. In Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an (every year be sage and happy) as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives. Which functions does it perform?A. Interpersonal.B. Emotive.C. Performative.D. Recreatioal.8. Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barrirs caused by time and place, due to this featue of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. Transferability.B. Duality.C. Displacement.D. Arbitrariness.9. Study the following dialogue. What function does it play accoridng to the functiona of language?—A nice day, isn’t it?—Right! I really enjoy the sunlight.A. Emotive.B. Phatic.C. Performative.D. Interpersonal.10. Which branch of lingusitcs studies the similarities and differences among languages?A. Diachronic linguistics.B. Synchronic linguistics.C. Prescriptive linguistics.D. comparative linguistics.11. _____ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of therules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole12. _____ deals with language application to other fields, particualrly educaiton.A. Linguistic geographyB. SociolinguisticsC. Applied linguisticsD. Comparative linguistics参考答案：1-6 BBCACC 7-12 CCBDACSection 2 Phonology1.Pitch variation is known as ______ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice2. Conventionally a _____ is put in slashes.A. allophoneB. phoneC. phonemeD. morpheme3. An aspirated p, an unaspirated p and an unreleased p are ______ of the p phoneme.A. analogues.B. tagmemesC. morphemesD. allophones4. The opening between the vocal cords is sometimes referred to as ____.A. glottisB. vocal cavityC. pharynxD. uvula5. The diphthongs that are made with a movement of the tongue towards the center are known as ____ diphthongs.A. wideB. closingC. narrowD. centering6. A phoneme is a group of similar sounds called ____.A. minimal pairsB. allomorphsC. phonesD. allophones7. Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phonetics.B. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phonetics.D. Neither of them.8. Which one is different from the others according to manners of articulation?A. [z]B. [w]C. [θ]D. [v]9. Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]10. Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]11. What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrationg?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant12. Which consonant represents the following description: voiceless labiodental fricative?A. [f]B. [θ]C. [z]D. [s]参考答案：ACDADD 7-12 BBABBASection 3 Morphology1.Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words2. Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called _______ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational3. There are _____ morphemes in the word denationalizaiton.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six4. In English –ise and –tion are called _________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. free morphemes5. Morphology is generally divided into two fields: the study of word-formation and _________.A. affixationB. etymologyC. inflectionD. root6. The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and ______.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation7. ______ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. AffixationB. Back-formationC. InsertionD. Addition8. The word TB is formed in the way of _______.A. acronymyB. clipppingC. initialismD. blending9. There are different types of affixes or morphemes. The affix “ed”in the word “learned” is known as a(n) ________.A. derivaitonal morphemeB. free morphemeC. inflectional morphemeD. free form10. The words like cosmat and sitcom are formed by ______.A. blendingB. clippingC. backformationD. acronymy11. The stem of disagreements is _____.A. agreementB. agreeC. disagreeD. disagreement12. All of them are meaningful except for ______.A. lexemeB. phonemeC. morphemeD. allomorph参考答案：1-6 AACBCC 7-12 BCCADBSection 4 Syntax1.The head of the phrase “the city Rome” is ______.A. the cityB. RomeC. cityD. the city Rome2. The phrse “on the shelf” belongs to _____ construction.A. endocentricB. exocentric（离心结构）C. subordinateD. coordinate3. The sentence “They were wanted to remain quiet and not to expose themselves” isa _____ sentence.A. simpleB. coordinateC. compoundD. complex4. Iin a complete sentence, the incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called a(n) _____ clause.A. finiteB. non-infiniteC. embedded （嵌入句）D. matrix5. _____ is a sub-field of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.A. MorphologyB. syntaxC. SemanticsD. Pragmatics6. ________ does not belong to major syntactic categories.A. AuxiliaryB. NPC. ND. PP7. __________ refers to construction where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another.A. ConjoiningB. EmbeddingC. CorcordD. Government8. The term __ is used in a narrow sense to conclude only reflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other.A. pronominalB. anaphorC. re-expressionD. binding9. In Halliday’s view, the _________ funciton of language is realized as the transitivity system in clauses as a representation of experience.A. ideationalB. interpersonalC. textualD. social10. The criterion used in IC analysis is ___________.A. transformationB. conjoiningC. groupingD. substitutability11. __________ is a type of control over the form of some words by other words incertain syntactic constructions and in terms of certain category.A. ConcordB. GovernmentC. BindingD. C-command12. The phrase “my small child’s cot” is an ambiguous phrase, which can be revealed by ________ tree diagrams.A. oneB. twoC. threeD. four参考答案：1-6 DBACBA 7-12 ABADBCSection 5 Semantics1._________ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum fromcasual to formal according to the type of communicative context.A. Stylistic variationB. Ideolectal variationC. Social variationD. Regional variation2. Cold and hot are a pair of _____ antonyms.A. gradableB. complementaryC. reversalD. converseness3. Idioms are _____.A. sentencesB. naming unitsC. phrasesD. communication units4. _______ describes whether a proposition is true or false.A. TruthB. Truth valueC. Truth conditionD. Falsehood5. “John hit Peter” and “Peter was hit by John” are the same _______>A. propositionB. sentenceC. utteranceD. truth6. Bull: [BOVINE] [MALE] [ADULT] is an example of ______.A. componential analysisB. predication analysisC. compositionalityD. selection restriction7. The semantic triangle holds that the meaning of a word __________.A. is interpreted through the mediation of concept.B. Is related to the thing it refers to.C. Is the idea associated with that word in the minds of speakers/D. Is the image it is represented in the mind.8.When the truth of sentence (a) guarantees the truth of sentence (b), and the falsityof sentence (b) guarantees the falsity of sentnece (a), we can say that _____.A.sentence (a) presupposes sentence (b)B. sentence (a) entails sentence (b)C. sentence (a) is inconsistent with sentence (b)D. sentence (a) contradicts sentence (b)9. “Tom likes apples.” is a case of ________.A. two-place predicationB. one-place predicationC. two-place argumentD. one-place argument10. “John killed Bill but bill didn’t die” ia a(n) _____.A. entailmentB. presuppositionC. anomalyD. contradiction11. The particular words or constructions that produce presuppotions is called _____.A. presupposition conditionB. truth conditionC. presupposition triggerD. truth value12. Lexical ambiguity arises from pplysymy or __ which can not be determined by the context.A. homonymyB. antonymyC. meronymyD. synonymy参考答案：1-6 AABBAA 7-12 ABADCASection 6 Pragmatics1._________ is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effectsuccessful communication.A. SemanticsB. PragmaticsC. SociolinguisticsD. Psycholinguistics2. ___________ found that natural language had its own logic and conclude cooperative principle.A. John AustinB. John FirthC. Paul GriceD. William Jones3. The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ______.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics4. ________ proposed that speech act can fall into five general categories.A. AustinB. SearleC. SapirD. Chomsky5. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical of the ____.A. declarationsB. directivesC. commissivesD. expressives6. The illocutionary point of the _ is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance.A. declarationB. expressivesC. commissivesD. directives7. Y’s utterance in the following conversation exchange violates the maxim of _____. X: Who was that you were with last night?Y: Did you know that you were wearing odd socks?A. qualityB. quantityC. relationD. manner8. The violation of one or more of the conversational ______ (of the CP) can, when the listener fully understands the speaker, create conversational implicature, and humor sometimes.A. standardsB. principlesC. levelsD. maxims9. Most of the vilations of the maxims of the CP give rise to ______.A. breakdown of conversationB. confusion of one’s intentionC. hostitility between speakers and the listenersD. conversational implicatures10. Speech Act Theory was proposed by _____ in 1962.A. SaussureB. AustinC. ChomskyD. Grimm11. The maxim of quantity requires: ________.A. contribute as informative as requiredB. do not contribute more than is requiredC. do not say what has little evidenceD. both A and B12. according to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.A. commissivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives参考答案：1-6 BCBBCB 7-12 CDDBDASection 7 Language and society1.________ are language varieties appropriate for use in particular speechsituations.A. SlangB. Address termsC. RegistersD. Education varieties2. In sociolinguistics, ____ refers to a group of institutionalized social situations typically constrained by a common set of behavioral rules.A. domainB. situationC. societyD. community3. _____ is defined as any regionally or socially defined human group identified by shared linguistic system.A. A speech communityB. A raceC. A societyD. A country4. _____ variation of language is th emost discernible and definable in speech variation.A. RegionalB. SocietyC. StylisticD. Idiolectal5. ___________ is not a typical example of official bilingualism.A. CanadaB. FinlandC. BelgiumD. Germany6. ________ refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straight forward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communicaiton.A. Lingua francaB. CreoleC. PidginD. Standard language7. The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in ____ and vocabulary.A. diglossiaB. bilingualismC. pidginizationD. blending8. _______ is a causal use of language that consists of expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech.A. Lanugage tabooB. SlangC. Address termsD. register variety9. _______ variety refers to speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from.A. RegionalB. SocialC. StylisticD. Idiolectal10. In a speech community people have something in common _____ language or a particular variety of language and rules and rules for using it.A. sociallyB. linguisticallyC. culturallyD. pragmatically11. Probably the most widespread and familiar ethnic variety of the English language is ____.A. British EnglishB. American EnglishC. Black EnglishD. Australian English12. ______ in a person’s speech, or writing, usually ranges on a continuum from casual to formal according to the type of communicative content.A. Regional variationB. Social variationC. Stylistic variationD. Idiolectal variation参考答案：1-6 CAAADC 7-12 CBABCDSection 8 Psycholinguistics1.______ deals with how language is acquired, understood and produced.A. SociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. PragmaticsD. Morphology2. Which of the major mental functions listed below is not under the control of the left hemisphere in most people?A. Language and speech.B. Visual and spacial skills.C. Redaing and writing.D. Analytic reasoning.3. Psychologists, neurologists and linguists have concluded that, in addition to the motor area, three areas of the left brain are vital to language, namely, ____.A. Broca’s area, Wernick e’s area and the angular gyrusB. Broca’s area, Wernick e’s area and cerebral cortexC. Broca’s area, Wernick e’s area and neuronsD. Broca’s area, Wernick e’s area and Exner’s area4. When we speak, words are sent to _______, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.A. Broca’s areaB. Wernicke’s areaC. the angualr gyrusD. motor area5. What kind of patients cannot convet a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa?A. The linguistic deprivationB. Broca’s aphasicsC. Wernicke’s aphasicsD. The damage on the angular gyrus6. When we listen, the word is heard and comprehend via ______ area.A. Broca’sB. motorC. neuronsD. wernicke’s7. ___________ is the mental functions under the control of the right hemisphere.A. Language and speechB. CalculationC. Holistic reasoningD. Associative thought8. Stimuli heard in the left ear are reported less accurately than those heard in the right ear. This phenomenon is known as the _______.A. brain lateralizaitonB. linguistic lateralizationC. right ear advantageD. cerebral plasticity9. A child acquires his/her mother tongue invariably through these phases:A. no-wordB. babblingC. talkingD. uttering10. At the age of four, children ____________.A. can master the essentials of their mother tongueB. can only babble several soundsC. can name the things around them onlyD. Can write out the grammatical rules of their language11. ________ refers to the gradual and suconscious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. LearningB. CompetenceC. PerformanceD. Acquisition12. Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experienced the world differently, that is relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of ______________.A. linguistic determinationB. linguistic relativismC. linguistic nativismD. linguistic behaviorism参考答案：1-6 BBAADD 7-12 CCBADBSection 9 Language Acquisition1.___________ modifications are not only successful, but have the added advantageof providing learnrs with continued access to the very linguistic items they have yet to acquire.A. ElaborativeB. LinguisticC. ConversationalD. Discourse2. Negative transfer in learning a second language is known as ________.A. interferenceB. interlanguageC. fossilizationD. acculturation3. Beside the genetic predisposition for language acquisition, language ______ is necessary for successful language acquisition.A. instructionB. correctionC. imitationD. input and interaction4. Intelligibility means that any human being can be both a producer and a ________ of messages.A. senderB. receiverC. mediumD. none of above5. ________ is defined as a conscious process of accumulating knowledge of a second language usually obtained in school settings.A. CompetenceB. PerformanceC. LearningD. Acquisition6. In ______, researchers take part in the activities they are studying.A. particular observationB. non-participant observationC. experimentD. introspection7. _______ are devised to reveal what a learner knows: the rules he is using and the systems and categories he is working with.A. experimentsB. quasi-experimentsC. testsD. tasks8. ________ sees errors as the result of the intrusion of L1 habits over which the learner had no control.A. error analysisB. performance analysisC. contrstive analysisD. discourse analysis9. It is a case of ________ when a speaker produced two negative utterances in close proximity to each other, in the same context, wile addressing the same person and with similar amounts of planning time:No look my card.Don’t look my card.A. free variationB. systematic variationC. linguistic variationD. context variation10. ________ is the language used when speakers are communicationg spontaneously and freely and consequently not atteding to the forms they choose.A. careful styleB. vernacular styleC. cognitive styleD. style continnum11. The characteristic of languistic environment for L2 acquisition is that linguistic adjustments and ______ have been made to non-native speakers.A. noisy utterancesB. caretaker speechesC. ill-formed structuresD. conversational adjustments12. ________ theories of learning of learning hold that an organism’s nuture, orexperience, is of more importance to development than its nature, or innate contributions.A. EnvironmentalistB. NativistC. InteractionalD. Mentalist参考答案：1-6 AADBCA 7-12 DCABDASection 10 Schools of Linguistics1.The person who is often described as “father of modern linguistics” is _____.A. FirthB. SaussureC. HallidayD. Chomsky2. The most important contribution of the Prague School to linguistics is that it sees language in terms of _____.A. functionB. meaningC. signsD. system3. The principal representative of American descriptive linguistics is ______.A. BoasB. SapirC. BloomfieldD. Harris4. The theory of _______ considers that all sentences are generated from a semantic structure.A. Case GrammarB. Stratificational GrammarC. Relational GrammarD. Generative Semantics5. Generally speaking, the _____ specifies whether a cetain tagmeme is in the position of the Nucleus or of the Margin in the structure.A. SlotB. ClassC. RoleD. Cohesion6. _________ Grammar is the most widespread and the best understood method of discussing Indo-European languages.A. TraditionalB. StrucutralC. FunctionalD. Generative7. Hjelmslev is a Danish linguist and the central figure of the ______.A. Prague SchoolB. Copenhagen SchoolC. London SchoolD. Generative Semantics8. _______ Grammar started from the American linguist Sydney M. Lamb in the late 1950s and the early 1960s.A. StratificationalB. CaseC. RelationalD. Montague9. In Halliday’s view, the _ function is the function that the child uses to know about his surroundings.A. personalB. heuristicC. imaginativeD. informative10. The rheme in the the sentence “On it stood Jane” is ________.A. On itB. stoodC. On it stoodD. Jane11. Chomsky follows _________in philosophy and mentalism in psychology.A. empiricismB. behavirourismC. rationalismD. mentalism12. TG Grammar has seen _____ stages of development.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six参考答案：1-6 BACDAA 7-12 BABDCC。
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【 1 】As modern linguistics aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, and not to lay down rules for "correct" linguistic behavior, it is said to be ___.A. descriptiveB. sociolinguisticC. prescriptiveD. psycholinguistic【 2 】The semantic components of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as __.A.+animate,+male,+human,-adultB.+animate,+male,+human,+adultC.+animate,-male,+human,-adultD.+animate,-male,+human,+adult【 3 】The most recognizable differences between American English and British English are in and vocabulary.A. usageB. grammarC. pronunciationD. structure【 4 】According to_____, the task of a linguist is to determine from the data of performance the underlying system of rules that has been mastered by the language user.A. Roman JacobsonB. Leonard BloomfieldC. Kenneth PikeD. Noam Chomsky【 5 】The utterance "We're already working 25 hours a day,eight days a week."obviously violates the maxim of ______.A.qualityB.quantityC.relationD.manner【 6 】Which of the following is NOT related to Noam Chomsky?A. Deep StructureB. Theme and RhemeC. Transformational ComponentD. Surface Structure【7 】The branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences is called ___.A. semanticsB. pragmaticsC. sociolinguisticsD. psycholinguistics【8 】Which of the following are NOT relational antonyms?A. give: receiveB. father: sonC. clever: stupidD. teacher: student【9 】Which is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics ofspeech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription?A. SemanticsB. PhonologyC. PhoneticsD. Pragmatics【10 】“I can refer to Confucius even though he was dead 2000 years ago.” This shows that language has the design feature of ________A. arbitrarinessB. creativityC. dualityD. displacement【11 】Grammatical changes may be explained, in part, as analogic changes, which are ___ or generalization.A. elaborationB. simplificationC. external borrowingD. internal borrowing【12 】“Don‟t end a sentence with a preposition.” This is an example of _____ rules.A. descriptiveB. prescriptiveC. transformationalD. functional【13 】A ___ in the embedded clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause.A. coordinatorB. subordinatorC. prepositionD. particle【14 】refers to a marginal language of few lexical items and straightforward grammatical rules, used as a medium of communication.A. Lingua francaB. PidginC. CreoleD. Standard language【15 】Which of the following is the correct description of [v]?A. voiceless labiodental fricativeB. voiced labiodental stopC. voiceless labiodental stopD. voiced labiodental fricative【16 】According to Krashen, ___ refers to the gradual and subconcious development of ability in the first language by using it naturally in daily communicative situations.A. learningB. competenceC. performanceD. acquisition【17 】_________meaning is concerned with the relationship between a word andthe thing it refers to.A. DenotativeB. ConnotativeC. AffectiveD. Reflective【18 】Which of the following are gradable antonyms?A. good---badB. male----femaleC. alive----deadD. buy-----sell【19 】Modern English is derived from the language of early ______ tribes.A. GermanicB. RomanC. ItalianD. Greek【20 】Which of the following items is not one of the grammatical categories of English pronouns?A. voiceB. numberC. caseD. gender【21 】In the following conversation:- Beirut is in Peru, isn't it?- And Rome is in Romania, I suppose.The second person violates the__________.A. Quantity MaximB. Quality MaximC. Manner MaximD. Relation Maxim【22 】There are__________ diesis in the sentence she has sold it here yesterday.A. 6B.5C. 4D. 3【23 】The sense relation between ewe and sheep is _________A. synonymB. polysemyC. hyponymyD. homonymy【24 】The introduction of ________had a great impact on the English vocabulary.A. HinduismB. ChristianityC. BuddhismD. Islamism【25 】In the 9th century the land was invaded again by Norwegian and Danish Vikings. With the invaders, many ________words came into the English language.A. GreekB. ScandinavianC. CelticD. Roman【26 】“Can I borrow your bike?” _____ “ You have a bike.”A. presupposesB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. is synonymous with【27 】When a speaker expresses his intention of speaking, such as asking someone to open the window, he is performing__________.A. a perlocutionary actB. an illocutionary actC. a locutionary actD. none of the above【28 】The original meaning of wife is _______.A. a married womanB. a young womanC. womanD. widowed woman【29 】“We shall know a word by the company it keeps.” This statement represents _______.A. the conceptualist viewB. behaviorismC. the naming theoryD. contexutalism【30 】In Shakespearean line …rats and mice and such small deer‟, deer obviously designates …_____‟ in general.A. animalB. a doeC. a deer-like animalD. buck【 1 】Arbitrariness means you can use languages in any way you like.【 2 】The meaning of meat changed by mode of degradation.【 3 】One important criterion to differentiate homonyms from polysemants is to see their etymology.【 4 】In some languages, grammatical gender had little to do with the biological sex.【 5 】Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. 【 6 】Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation.【7 】The naming theory is one of the oldest notions concerning meaning. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.【8 】Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another.【9 】A person‟s social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features.【10 】A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited by the "polite" society from general use.【 1 】C is a word-formation whereby a word of a certain word-class is shifted into a word of another without the addition of an affix.【 2 】The p relation is a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in structure, or between one element present and the others absent.【 3 】Affective meaning indicates the speaker‟s a towards the person or thing in question.【 4 】Homonymy refers to cases where lexemes with the same phonological or m_________________ shape have different meanings.【 5 】Cooperative principle: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted p or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.【 6 】Speakers give us clues about when they are finished speaking, about when they are going to change a topic, or when they expect us to speak or not to speak. These clues are known as discourse m .【7 】The four sounds /p/,/b/,/m/ and /w/have one feature in common, i.e, they are all b .【8 】 A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as a m of communication among groups of people from diverse linguistic backgrounds.【9 】The t is the starting point for the message; it is the ground from which the clause is taking off.【10 】Language is a : no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.1~5：Conversion paradigmatic attitude morphological purpose6~10：markers bilabial medium theme arbitrary。